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Development Support Communication (965)

AH-533791 Assad Mehmood Khan | M.Sc Mass Comm

ASSIGNMENT No. 2

(Unit 5 9)

QUESTION NO -1

Critically evaluate the use of different print and electronic media for

development support communications activities.

1. Introduction

Development Communication has been alternatively defined as a

type of marketing and public opinion research that is used specifically to

develop effective communication or as the use of communication to

promote social development. Defined as the former, it often includes

computerized linguistics analysis of verbatim responses to qualitative survey

interviews and may, at times also involved consumer psychological "right

brain"(emotional) research techniques.

Defined at the latter, it refers to the practice of systematically applying

the processes, strategies, and principles of communication to bring about

positive social change. As most providers of "communication development"

research use proprietary approaches that cannot be elaborated upon

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without revealing proprietary trade secrets, the remainder of this article

describes the latter definition. The practice of development communication

can be traced back to efforts undertaken in various parts of the world during

the 1940s, but the widespread application of the concept came about

because of the problems that arose in the aftermath of World War II . The rise

of the communication sciences in the 1950s saw a recognition of the field as

an academic discipline, with Daniel Lerner, Wilbur Schramm, and Everett

Rogers being the earliest influential advocates. The term "Development

Communication" was first coined in 1972 by Nora C. Quebral, who defines

the field as:

"theartand scienceofhumancommunicationlinkedtoasociety's plannedtransformationfromastateof

povertyto oneof dynamic socio-economic growththatmakes forgreaterequityandthelargerunfoldingof

individual potential."

The theory and practice of development communication continues to evolve

today, with different approaches and perspectives unique to the varied

development contexts the field has grown in.

Development communication is characterized by conceptual flexibility and

diversity of communication techniques used to address the problem. Some

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approaches in the tool kit of the field include: information dissemination and

education, behavior change, social marketing, social mobilization, media

advocacy, communication for social change, and participatory development

communication.

2. Example

One of the first examples of development communication was Farm

Radio Forums in Canada. From 1941 to 1965 farmers met in groups each week to

listen to special radio programs. There were also printed materials and prepared

questions to encourage group discussion. At first this was a response to the

Great Depression and the need for increased food production in World War II.

But the Forums also dealt with social and economic issues. This model of adult

education or distance education was later adopted in India and Ghana.

Instructional television was used in El Salvador during the 1970s to improve

primary education. One of the problems was a lack of trained teachers.

Teaching materials were also improved to make them more relevant. More

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children attended school and graduation rates increased. In this sense the

project was a success. However, there were few jobs available in El Salvador for

better-educated young people.

In the 1970s in Korea the Planned Parenthood Federation had succeed in

lowering birth rates and improving life in villages such as Oryu Li. It mainly used

interpersonal communication in women's clubs. The success in Oryu Li was not

found in all villages. It had the advantage of several factors including a

remarkable local woman leader and visits from the provincial governor.

In 1999 the U.S. Government and D.C. Comics planned to distribute 600,000

comic books to children affected by the Kosovo War. The comic books are in

Albanian and feature Superman and Wonder Woman. The aim is to teach

children what to do when they find an unexploded land mine left over from

Kosovo's civil war. The comic books instruct children not to touch the anti-

personnel mines and not to move, but instead to call an adult for help. In spite

of the 1997 Ottawa Treaty which attempts to ban land mines they continue to

kill or injure 20,000 civilians each year around the world.

Since 2002, Journalists for Human Rights, a Canadian based NGO, has operated

long term projects in Ghana, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and the DR Congo. jhr works

directly with journalists, providing monthly workshops, student sessions, on the job

training, and additional programs on a country by country basis.

3. Print Media

a. Newspaper

y The terminology of word NEWS has

comprehensive meanings in the

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journalism. A lot of journalist, journalism giants has defined the

news with the different ways.

y Webster says that news is information which is important and

interesting for people.

y Welcome Stand says that everything is news which is unusual

and different, and a good news is that which is neutral and

true.

y British father of journalism, Lord North Caliph says that if dog

bites a man that is not news, but man bites dog that is news.

y American journalist Gerald W. Johnson says that news is the

explanation of events which a journalist writes and feels

confident and easy.

y Carl Warn defines that the news is a report which is not known

to people earlier and it based on the activities of human

being which is interesting, entertaining and informative for

people.

y Dr. M. A. Hijazi says that every event is news which is true and

interesting for people which they intend to know.

y Dr. Abdus Salam Khurshid defines that news pertains to those

events and investigaytions which are unusual.

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b. Characteristics

y Accuracy: The facts given in the news story should be

acceptable to the readers without any question. The

accuracy means that all the statements, names, ages, dates,

quotations etc. must be accurate. The use of proper words

and sentences and expressions at proper situations is also

accuracy. The problem of accuracy arises where the proper

words, sentences are not used at the proper situation. I.e. the

words clash, smash and crash are used in the situation of

damage. Every word in the news story has own diction and

imply as a consequence that need to be considered. Space

and time is another requirement of accuracy achievement.

y Balance: The balance in a news story is that this conveys

the message of an event in meaningful and interesting way

and it gives the factual impression of the report. These facts

relate to one another like a chain.

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y Objectivity: News is the factual report of an event. What the

reporter sees is supposed to report. Objectivity is to report the

facts exactly as they occurred. If the reporter have or intend

to add something else from his own imagination that is

against the objectivity. The suggestions, comments and

proposals are not the tasks of a news reporter. There are to

be given in the column, editorial etc. Therefore the

objectivity is just a report which is actually occurred.

y Concise and Clear: Brevity and complicity are the soul of

journalism is the famous sentence about writing a news story.

Journalistic language is the special language of journalism

which is quite different then all other languages and

particularly from the literature.

y Timeless/Freshness. Time factor plays an important role in

the effectiveness of a news story. Nobody likes to read an

outdated news, even it may be very important. News is just

like a perishable commodity having a very short life. The past

time story can be accommodated in literature, drama,

feature etc. But is does not work in new. The famous slogan

of journalism is that TODAY NEWS IS TODAY.

y Proximity of Nearness. The importance of news greatly

depends on the place of its origin. Proximity in journalism

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does not only work refer to geographical nearness but

interest of nearness as well. For example; Imran Khans

marriage took place in U.K but the story is more interesting for

the people of this part of the world. An earthquake in China

killing 200 persons will be less important in our newspaper than

a story of earthquake killing 30 persons in Pakistan.

y Prominence: Readers have interest in the names of the

persons with whom they are familiar. The bigger personality

has the greater value in the news. The stories of film stars,

players, politicians, poets, philosophers etc. have greater

news values.

y Magnitude: The event relating to greater loss of life

damage or natural disaster creates the interest for the

readers. For example; A story of fire resulting in the death of

one person will has less impact than a story of fire resulting in

the death of 100 people.

y Conflict: Every body takes interest in confrontation among

people, nations and groups. The highest form of conflict is

war and not story fails to create interest for the readers.

y Oddity/Unusualness: A dog bites a common man is not a

news but if a man bites a dog it is a great news because it is

unusual. The more the event is unusual the greater its value.

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y Consequences: The news story that effect some change in

the life of people will have great value. For example; news

about budget, rise in petrol, price, electricity rates, increase in

salary etc. are read with great interest by people.

y Human Interest: Human interest stories deal with usual

events but usually these stories involve fellow feeling, emotion

of brotherhood and humanness. When a person reads about

joy or sorrow of others he mentally associated himself with

them. For example; A story of a child rescued by a fireman as

a seven story building caught fire has greater value than a

story of the complete loss of the building.

c. Wall News Papers

A wall newspaper or wall-newspaper is a printed

newspaper designed to be displayed and read in public

places, such as walls. The practice dates back to at the

least the Roman Empire. They are often produced by

governmental entities in locations where production

costs or distribution problems might otherwise make

regular newspaper distribution difficult. It is standard

practice for one individual to take the responsibility for

posting the wall newspaper. This individual may also

read the posted newspaper aloud to others who cannot

read it themselves.

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wall newspaper, newspaper produced for display on walls or in

other prominent places in cities, towns, and villages, usually in developing

countries. The practice is not new; in ancient Rome the Acta newspapers

were regularly posted. Wall newspapers may serve a single population

centre or several; they have been published by governmental agencies

where newspapers are too costly to produce and distribute or where

people are too poor to buy them.

d. Newsletter

A newsletter is a regularly distributed

publication generally about one main

topic that is of interest to its subscribers.

Newspapers and leaflets are types of

newsletters.[1] Additionally, newsletters

delivered electronically via email (e-

Newsletters) have gained rapid

acceptance for the same reasons email in

general has gained popularity over printed

correspondence. News letters are given

out at schools, to inform parents about

things that happen in that school.

Many newsletters are published by

clubs, churches, societies, associations,

and businesses, especially companies, to

provide information of interest to their

members, customers or employees. Some

newsletters are created as money-making

ventures and sold directly to subscribers.

Sending newsletters to customers and prospects is a common marketing

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strategy, which can have benefits and drawbacks. General attributes of

newsletters include news and upcoming events of the related

organization, as well as contact information for general inquiries.

e. Folders, Leaflets and Pamphlets

A printed and usually folded sheet of paper for distribution, usually

free and containing advertising material or information about a political

party, charity, etc. The leaflet is the main promotional tool used by

organizations and projects, whether their purpose is to make the

organization known or to publicize an action or event. Among the options

for presentation tools, the leaflet is the simplest and most accessible.

1. Advantages of the Leaflet

y Regardless of the situation, the leaflet allows you to

deliver information in a brief, concise, and organized

manner.

y It provides any interested individual or group with the

basic facts about your group or project, including

information on how to contact you.

y A leaflet is useful for raising awareness about your

organization or project among different audiences. It is

a flexible tool that is extremely visual, simple, and inex-

pensive to produce. Indeed, every project should

make the effort to produce a leaflet to promote its

work.

y

The useful life of a leaflet depends on its content: aslong as the information it contains is still valid, the leaflet

will remain relevant.

y In participatory development communication, the

useful life of a leaflet is theoretically unlimited, as it

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conveys information in a logical order and in relation to

the participatory commitment made by the community

to the development process.

2. Production Process

y Design This step is described above. You may have

outside collaborators (a writer or graphic designer) who

regularly lend their support to your communication

initiatives. It is a good idea to invite these people to

attend design meetings. Their expert advice can help

you produce better information tools. During the design

meeting, a person should be designated to coordinatethe production of the leaflet.

y Documentation Before doing anything else, make

sure you have all the documentation necessary to

produce the leaflet, including written texts, illustrations,

and photographs. If you have all these things, youre

set to go. If not, then youll need to do some writing,

take some photos, etc.y Collaborators Are you producing the leaflet internally

or externally? To produce a leaflet, you need a writer

and a graphic designer (people with training in

journalism sometimes have both these skills) as well as a

photographer or an illustrator or both. If no one on your

team is capable of performing these tasks, you will

have to enlist the services of external collaborators.

y The coordinator meets with the writer, hands over the

file, and fixes the deadlines. Once the first draft of the

text has been completed, make sure it corresponds to

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what you asked for, check its length, approve

modifications, etc.

y If the graphic designer is not the person who wrote the

text as is most often the case the coordinator next

hands over all the material (text, photos, illustrations,

logo) to him or her. The graphic designer finalizes the

tool, taking into account the coordinators comments.

y Where possible, conduct pre-tests with a sample of the

target audience at this stage of the production

process. (See Sheet 2 on The Production Process.) The

idea is to validate both the message and the tool usedto convey that message. This is all the more important if

your project is using a participatory development

communication approach. Based on the pretest results,

make necessary adjustments.

y Normally, the graphic designer is the one who deals

with the printer for questions related to printing costs,

lead time, and delivery dates. Why does this job fall tothe graphic designer? Simply because he or she is the

person who is most familiar with the practices of the

printing trade. If the printing agency will also be

providing graphic design services for the leaflet, then it

is up to the production coordinator or the writer (who-

ever knows most about printing) to choose the printer.

y Generally, you should allow a few weeks for the printer

to get the job done. A lead time of 2 weeks is

reasonable.

y As with any information tool, the process of producing

a leaflet is sufficiently long to warrant drawing up a

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schedule. The best approach is to start at the end and

count backward from the delivery date.

A pamphlet is an unbound booklet (that is, without a hard cover or

binding). It may consist of a single sheet of paper that is printed on both

sides and folded in half, in thirds, or in fourths (called a leaflet), or it may

consist of a few pages that are folded in half and saddle stapled at the

crease to make a simple book. In order to count as a pamphlet, UNESCO

requires a publication (other than a periodical) to have "at least 5 but not

more than 48 pages exclusive of the cover pages";[1] a longer item is a

book.

f. Fact Sheets

A fact sheet, factsheet or (in some industries) one-sheet is a

presentation of data in a format which emphasizes key points concisely.

The layout is simple and often standardized, e.g. using a table, bullet

points and/or headings, and is usually on a single printed page. Fact

sheets often contain product information, technical data, lists, statistics,answers to common questions (e.g. FAQs), educational material, or how-

to, "do-it-yourself" advice. They are sometimes a summary of a longer

document.

g. Preparing the Material

4. Electronic Media

Electronic media are media that use electronics or electromechanical

energy for the end-user (audience) to access the content. This is in contrast to

static media (mainly print media), which today are most often created

electronically, but don't require electronics to be accessed by the end-user in

the printed form. The primary electronic media sources familiar to the general

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public are better known as video recordings, audio recordings, multimedia

presentations, slide presentations, CD-ROM and online content. Most new

media are in the form of digital media. However, electronic media may be in

either analog or digital format. Although the term is usually associated with

content recorded on a storage medium, recordings are not required for live

broadcasting and online networking. Any equipment used in the electronic

communication process (e.g. television, radio, telephone, desktop computer,

game console, handheld device) may also be considered electronic media.

a. Radio

Radio is the transmission of signals by modulation of

electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible light.[1]

Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of oscillating electromagnetic

fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space. Information is

carried by systematically changing (modulating) some property of the

radiated waves, such as amplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width.

When radio waves pass an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields

induce an alternating current in the conductor. This can be detected and

transformed into sound or other signals that carry information.

Radio systems used for communications will have the following

elements. With more than 100 years of development, each process is

implemented by a wide range of methods, specialized for different

communications purposes.

Each system contains a transmitter. This consists of a source ofelectrical energy, producing alternating current of a desired frequency of

oscillation. The transmitter contains a system to modulate (change) some

property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This modulation

might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more

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subtle properties such as amplitude, frequency, phase, or combinations of

these properties. The transmitter sends the modulated electrical energy to

a tuned resonant antenna; this structure converts the rapidly changing

alternating current into an electromagnetic wave that can move through

free space (sometimes with a particular polarization).

Electromagnetic waves travel through space either directly, or have

their path altered by reflection, refraction or diffraction. The intensity of

the waves diminishes due to geometric dispersion (the inverse-square

law); some energy may also be absorbed by the intervening medium in

some cases. Noise will generally alter the desired signal; this

electromagnetic interference comes from natural sources, as well as from

artificial sources such as other transmitters and accidental radiators. Noise

is also produced at every step due to the inherent properties of the

devices used. If the magnitude of the noise is large enough, the desired

signal will no longer be discernible; this is the fundamental limit to the

range of radio communications.

The electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving

antenna; this structure captures some of the energy of the wave and

returns it to the form of oscillating electrical currents. At the receiver, these

currents are demodulated, which is conversion to a usable signal form by

a detector sub-system. The receiver is "tuned" to respond preferentially to

the desired signals, and reject undesired signals.

Early radio systems relied entirely on the energy collected by anantenna to produce signals for the operator. Radio became more useful

after the invention of electronic devices such as the vacuum tube and

later the transistor, which made it possible to amplify weak signals. Today

radio systems are used for applications from walkie-talkie children's toys to

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the control of space vehicles, as well as for broadcasting, and many other

applications.

b. TV

Television (TV) is a telecommunication medium for transmitting and

receiving moving images that can be monochromatic (shades of grey) or

multicolored. Images are usually accompanied by sound. "Television" may

also refer specifically to a television set, television programming, and

television transmission.

The etymology of the word is derived from mixed Latin and Greekorigin, meaning "far sight": Greek tele, far, and Latin visio, sight (from

video, vis- to see, or to view in the first person.

Commercially available since the late 1920s, the television set has

become commonplace in homes, businesses and institutions, particularly

as a source of entertainment and news. Since the 1970s the availability of

video cassettes, laserdiscs, DVDs and now Blu-ray Discs, have resulted in

the television set frequently being used for viewing recorded as well as

broadcast material. In recent years Internet television has seen the rise of

television available via the Internet, e.g. iPlayer and Hulu.

Although other forms such as closed-circuit television (CCTV) are in

use, the most common usage of the medium is for broadcast television,

which was modeled on the existing radio broadcasting systems

developed in the 1920s, and uses high-powered radio-frequency

transmitters to broadcast the television signal to individual TV receivers.

Broadcast TV is typically disseminated via radio transmissions on

designated channels in the 54890 MHz frequency band.[1] Signals are

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now often transmitted with stereo and/or surround sound in many

countries. Until the 2000s broadcast TV programs were generally

transmitted as an analogue television signal, but in recent years public

and commercial broadcasters have been progressively introducing digital

television broadcasting technology.

A standard television set comprises multiple internal electronic

circuits, including those for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A

visual display device which lacks a tuner is properly called a monitor,

rather than a television. A television system may use different technical

standards such as digital television (DTV) and high-definition television

(HDTV). Television systems are also used for surveillance, industrial process

control, and guiding of weapons, in places where direct observation is

difficult or dangerous.

Amateur television (ham TVorATV) is also used for experimentation,

pleasure and public service events by amateur radio operators. Ham TV

stations were on the air in many cities before commercial TV stations came

on the air.

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QUESTION NO -2

What is the effectiveness of audio-visual media in DSC with special

reference to Pakistani setting

2.3 AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA

Communication methods that rely on the audio or visual dense, either alone or in

combination, help overcome the barrier of illiteracy or offer special advantage. They

also have disadvantage, which will be discussed latter.

2.3.1 Radio:

Radio can be one of the most useful mass communication tools for

support communications, for several reasons. It offers immediacy, as radio

programming can be changed quickly to meet new conditions. It reaches

large numbers of people, especially as transistor radio are being used

more widely. They permit listeners to lake their radio wherever they go,

even where electrical power is not available. Radio provides the warmth of

the human voice. It can tie into the strong oral traditions of communities

and overcome the literacy barriers that face print media.

Support communicators find that radio works most successfully at the

local level, to communicate local problems, solutions and activities. Theyuse local names, voices and activities in programming. Farmer success

stories and other kinds of neighbour-teach-neighbour approaches have

been found to work well. Radio is most effective at the awareness and

interest stages of the adoption process.

2.3.2 Types of Use for Broadcast Radio:

Two types of broadcast radio are commonly used for extension

programming.

1. Open Broadcast : The support communicator provides

programming for the stations broadcast, such as spot announcements to

be taped and repeated at intervals during the ay, or longer programmes,

presented in person or taped for use on schedules programmes. Stations

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also invite printed news releases that can be read in newscasts and other

programmes.

2. Group Listening to open broadcasts. Extension services in many

countries use approaches commonly called listening clubs., radio schools

or farm forums. Local participants gather at a certain time, listen to a

programme broadcast by a certain station, then discuss the programme in

terms of their own situations.

3. Audio Cassettes: Low-cost, battery-powered cassette recorders are

permitting extensions workers to use recorders in some effective new

ways.

i. A radio listening group can record its reactions, conclusions,

questions and suggestions about a given progremme or topic, then

sent the cassette to the station or sponsoring organization for

information and follw up.

ii. A regional or central extension office can produce and record

instructional programming on audio cassettes for use at local

levels.

iii. A local extension Worker can makes field recording for use in group

meetings. The recorded material can add interest to meeting vet is

simple and cheap to produce.

iv. Cassettes can permit multiple use of information aired on open

broadcasts, by simple recording the progrmme as it is aired.

4. Producing and Presenting Radio Broadcasts: Here are some tips for

preparing and presenting radio programmes for broadcast.

i. Try to localize the content and match it to the interests of listeners.

Emphasize local matters and involve local people.

ii. Take advantage of the timelines of radio by emphasizing current activities,

trends, issues, developments and so on.

iii. Use sounds in creative ways. The voice is one kind of sound, but you can

use many other kinds effectively.

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iv. Attract the listeners attention quickly, through a compelling remark, catchy

introductory sound, or other techniques. The first 10 seconds of a

programme are especially important.

v. Give information a flowing quality that makes it personal and easy to

follow. Good radio copy is written for the ear and uses simple,

understandable words. Test your radio copy by reading it aloud and

revising it until it reads easily and flows smoothly.

vi. Speak in a normal conversational voice, at a natural speed. Speak as if

you were conversing with one person.

vii. Use changes of pace in your presentation, to hold interest. You can do so

by varying your reading speed, for example, or varying the kinds and

volumes of sound.

viii. Repeat important facts, such as dates times and places of meetings.

Listeners cannot refer back, as they can with printed material, so they

must rely on you to repeat important information.

ix. Invite listeners to take part. You can involve them mentally by asking

questions, posing problems, and otherwise encouraging interaction as if

you were in conversation. You can even involve them physically,

sometimes, by inviting them to carry out certain actions as you speak.

2.3.3. Television

Two types of television media are available for teaching purposes. The first and

most familiar is broadcast television, in which programmes are aired over a large

geographical area. The second type is sometimes referred to as closed-circuit

television. This usage to one or more monitors. The monitors may be in several

locations or next to the video player.

Broadcast television offers exciting possibilities for extension workers. The

agricultural officer can demonstrate as well as talk. The home economist can

demonstrate how to make a dress. The agricultural extension worker can present

useful method demonstrations as well as show a whole series of result demonstrations

thorugh pictures which show change over time. All types of visual aids such as charts,

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graphs, live objects and blackboards can be used to increase teaching effectiveness on

television.

2.3.4. Instructional Television

Instructional television can be an excellent tool for extension workers.

Instructional television is distinguished from broadcast television in that materials are

not designed for distribution by the mass approach of broadcasting. Productions need

not be lied to the specific time constraints of broadcast requirements and can b e as

specific in length as needed. The medium of instructional television has its beginning in

cable television, with programming distributed from a central source to outlets in various

centres, such as classrooms or conference rooms.

2.3.5 Projected Visuals

Motion pictures, slides, filmstrips and overhead transparencies have much

appeal and are among the most effective of the visual teaching aids. It is as well to

remember that they have important limitations as well as advantages.

2.3.6 Pictures

Motion pictures are really not motion pictures at all They are a series of still

pictures on a long strip of film. Each picture is flashed momentarily on the screen and

rapid succession of still pictures each showing the subject in a slightly different position,

gives an illusion of movement.

Films have the potential to create powerful emotions and urges, and thus can be

a tremendously effective tool in teaching. This means audience in the subject. Films are

also excellent for showing the steps necessary in doing a task or for showing a

continuous action.

They can reproduce events long since past. They can record a demonstration

that can be shown over and over again to many different people in many different

places. They can magnify on a screen action that normally would be too small to be

seen easily or clearly by an individual or group. They can condense or stretch time.

Many other strong points for using motion pictures could be mentioned, but the

reasons already given are among the most important and help explain why films are a

potent teaching tool. For motivating an audience for appealing to the emotions, for a

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clear concise portrayal of action, few media approach the motion picture. It portrays

reality.

The size of film most commonly used for educational motion pictures is 16 mm.

All 16 mm. films are not alike however. Those made for viewing silently or with comment

by a leader are made with sprocket holes on both sides of the film.

Films made by professional laboratories to which sound is added have sprocket

holes on only one side of the film. You should not attempt to project sound film on a

silent projector because the teeth of the drive mechanism will punch holes in the sound

track. Another difference is that silent films are made to operate at 16 frames per

second or somewhat slower than sound film, that runs at 24 frames pers second. If a

silent film is run at the speed for sound, an increase in the speed of action will take

place.

In selecting a film to use in a given teaching situation, the same judgment must

be exercised as in selecting other teaching aids and materials. In addition to the

objective, any previous experience of the audience must be considered, with such

factors as age, education interests and customs.

2.3.7 Slide and Filmstrips:

The slide is one of the most popular and versatile visuals that can be used in exten-

education. There are two types of slides. The first is referred to as a lantern slide.

These were used in very early days and are almost never used today. The lantern slide

measured 3 x 4&1/2 and is mounted in glass. The second, almost universal slide is the

35 mm or 2 (50 mmx 50 mm) alide. When 35 mm colour film is used, a sirect colour

positive transparency is the result. Some types of this film can be home-processes,

others require commercial processing. When processed, the film is can into individual

pictures and mi=ounted in cardboard or glass ready for projecting.

Film strips are visuals that have been photographed on a continuous length or strip of

film and are projected in a special projector, one image at a time. Filmstrips require

specialized production techniques which usually offset the production economies for

use by extension group when small numbers of the material are needed. Filmstrips

have the same advantages and disadvantages as slides with the exception that image

sequences cannot be changed.

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Slides and filmstrips have the following advantages:

1. they can be made by the individual worker at low cost:

2. they can be made either in natural colour or in black and whit:

3. both the slides and the projections equipment are relatively light and can

be easily transported:

4. slides sequences can be readily changed to keep them and localized ; and

5. slides sequences can be changed in length to fit local needs.

Slides and filmstrips have these limitations:

1. They do not show action:

2. They normally rewire live narration, unless synchronized with a tape

recorder:

3. They require close co-operation with a projectionist throughout the

presentation if the speaker desires to be in front of an audience, unless

remote control equipment is available:

4. Most important, they require a dependable source of power or generation

equipment, and maintenance. A supply of spare projection lamps is a

must for the effective utilization of protected visuals.

2.3.8 Overhead Transparencies;

The overhead projcteor is the most recent development in projected visual

techniques. It derives its name from the technique, whereby pictures or

illustrations are projected over the head of the presenter. This medium

also has advantage and disadvantages. The most important advantage is

that the projector may be used in normal day light conditions and

presentation rooms do not require darkening. A second factor is that

presentation transparencies are easy to prepare.

The presenter or an artist/illustrator can draw or write directly on clear or

coloured acetate sheets using a variety of writing implements.

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QUESTION NO -3

Explain the concept of campaign and describe in detail three stages

of formulating a campaign.

2.1 WHAT IS A CAMPAIGN:

Campaign involves coordinated use of different methods of communication and

education, aimed at focusing attention on a particular problem and its solution over a

period of time. There are different kinds of campaign such as charity campaign, sale

campaign, political campaign. The kind of campaign used in DSC is the self help

campaign. It is intended to provide information and education which people can use to

improve their lives.

2.2 ADVANTAGES OF THE CAMPAIGN APPROACH

Several features make the campaign approach valuable in DSC. Some of

them are given as under:

1. A campaign approach is the only way to handle large and complex

programmes of public information and education. Haphazard

communications cannot be effective when working with large and diverse

audience, through variety of messages, and by using various

communication methods.

2. The campaign approach permits the use of resources (time, founds,

personnel)

More effectively and help you to coordinate them.

3. The campaign approach is unique in the way it permits the use of

combinations of methods, directed to wards the same programme

objectives.

4. This approach produces planned schedule of coordinated activities, so it

helps to adjust the efforts of personnel over a period of time.

5. It can help to reach more members of the intended audience, by using a

combination of communication methods.

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6. It can provide a wider change of understanding as it helps to reach

audience members through multiple channels and in a repetitive pattern

which enlarge the scope of learning.

2.3 WHEN TO USE A CAMPAIGN

The campaign approach is most useful when the topic under consideration

is important to the audience and the organization; when a variety of

communication methods will be needed and when the education effort is

complete and perhaps large scale.

2.4 CREATING THE PLAN:

The planning process for an educational campaign might be approached in

three stage: identification of objectives, analysis and formulation of the plan.

2.5 Stage 1: Identification of objective:

A useful atatment of objectives must so three things:

1. Special the kind of change desired or introduce the new idea;

2. Pin point the intended audience and

3. State the period of time involved

DSC campaign may aim at new pattern of action or increased

levels of knowledge. But even a campaign that reaffirms ones

current beliefs seeks change, in the sense of increasing the

strength with which the person hold them

2.6 Stage 2: Analysis:

Careful analysis of topic, situation, intended audience and the local

organization that intends DSC, can help keep a campaign simple

and on target. The following are some questions that might be asked

about each of the four areas for analysis.

1. How familiar is the topic to the intended audience?

2. How easy is it to see and describe?

3. How readily can it be demonstrated?

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4. How strong or weak is the scientific base for it?

5. To what extent does it agree or conflict with the current values

and experiences of the audience?

2.7 STAGE -3 FORMULATION OF THE PLANThis stage has several dimensions:-2.7.1 Methods to Use:

At this point the planner chooses from available communication channels,identifies messages to be communicated decides on the amount andformat of material to be used, selects a schedule and chooses ways toarrange feedback from audience members during the campaign.

2.7.2 Timing the Campaign:In deciding when to begin and a campaign be guided of the patterns inwhich your audience members make decisions and carry out actionsconcerning the topic. For instance, a campaign that involves how muchfertilizer to apply for rice production might logically be timed to match theperiods when growers make their fertilizing decisions and order fertilizers.

2.7.3 Using Slogans and Symbols:In development support communication slogans and symbols are usedand they usually add to the impact of a DSC campaign. Effective sloganshelp attract attention to the topic and message, help audiences learn andremember information more easily, add unity and sustain interest in thecampaign among audience members and within the sponsoringorganization. Slogans should emphasis a single idea tied to the campaignobjective. They should be memorable, easy to understand, versatile andgeared to the interests and needed of the intended audience.

2.7.4 Pre-testing Messages:

Before using slogans and symbols and other campaign material the sameshould be used among audience members to evaluate its effectiveness.

2.7.5 Selecting Media and Methods:More than one communication channel should be used in a DSCcampaign. Combination of media offers several advantages. They helpovercome the tendency of people to use certain information channels thanothers. Messages may have more impact when they come from a varietyof media. A multiple media campaign may also be preferred whendifferent messages are be delivered to different sub-groups in your

audiences. Multi-media campaign also have greater chances of access toa majority of the audience members.

2.7.6 Providing Channels forInformation-Seeking:Planners should also think methods by which interested audiencemembers can seek information. For example radio listening groups ortelevision viewing groups might be provided with recording equipment and

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audio cassettes, which they can use to record their questions, concernsand ideas for return to the radio station or sponsoring organization. Printand broadcast message can give detailed instructions about how readersListeners and viewers can get further information.

2.7.7 Involving People:

In planning, list all of the different people and organization that should beinformed and involved in the campaign, including community leaderspublic officials and media representatives. People concerned with thecampaign must be involved at all stages, in the planning, in the activitiesof the campaign, in evaluating results and in publishing the results.

QUESTION NO -4

What is evaluation? Explain the need of evaluation in DSC. Also

describe various steps involved in evaluating DSC Programmes.

2.1 WHAT IS EVALUATION?

Evaluation is the process directed to formulate judgment about the overall

operation of a project. Evaluation process involves gathering of data on whether

the components of a system are functioning according to the desires goals.

Evaluation some times refers to Quality control mechanism to ensure the

standards of quality in relation to intended goals, the scope, structure of the plan

and results of the operation are achieved on the right directions.

2.2 EVALUATION IN DSCEvaluation in Development Support Communication is a continuous and

systematic process of assessing the value or potentials of the developmental project.The process of evaluation in DSC includes developing criteria (to judge value of theprogramme from audience point of vie), collection of data relating to the criteria and theprovision of information given to the concerned publics.2.3 ELEMENTS OF EVALUATION:1. Evaluation is usually prompted by the need to make a decision about thedirection of activity.2. Evaluation is always based on certain criteria: For example, what is the criterion

that constitutes an entertaining radio programme for us.

3. Evaluation is made on observation or collection of evidence relating to thecriteria.

4. Evaluation involves judgement relating to the value or potential of value of theactivity.

2.4 REASONS FOR EVALUATION:

Evaluation can serve important public relations functions. The informationobtained from evaluation can be presented to other DSC practitioners and organizations

who are concerned about the effectiveness of the programme Evaluation

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provides feedback information to the people involved in the programme. Usuallygood feedback boosts up the morale of the staff.

2.5 TYPES OF EVALUATION:There are basically two types of evaluations. These are discussed below:

2.5.1 Informal Evaluation:

It is the one we always make without involving the rules of evaluation.It is unsystematic and evidences used in making judgements are implicit.Usually this type of evaluation is considered biased and misleading.

2.5.2 Formal Evaluation:Formal evaluation is made strictly on the set rules and regulations.Since it is more systematic, it could serve better in making usefuldecisions about the programme. Evaluation in DSC should always beformal. Formal evaluation has further two kinds, (A) formative and (B),summative evaluation. Taylor (1976, p. 355) provided the followingdefinitions of these two kinds of evaluations.

2.7 STEPS IN EVALUATION:

The following steps are usually involved in evaluation process.2.7.1 Evaluation Plan:

A detailed plan of activities to be undertaken in the process of evaluationis prepared before embarking on the journey. The plan identifies what,

why things have and how to be done. This will make things clear that : how toconduct the evaluation within the stipulated budget the plan will help getting inputof every one in the evaluation team and the existence of plan will also help tofocus the evaluation on questions of the target audiences.

2.7.2 Reasons For Evaluation:These reasons have already been mentioned in the forgoing pages. However,the evaluator should determine his priorities which reasons are most importantand focus the evaluation accordingly.

2.7.3 Audiences of Evaluation:The audiences for evaluation, may be the change agents, advisory councils,programme sponsors programme participants and the general public. Thesegroups of audiences are so varied because different audiences have differentconcerns about the programme.

2.7.4 The Criteria For Evaluation The Programme:Criteria are the yardsticks used to measure the merit or worth of a programme.For example, a ariterion for an extension programme may be the number ofwomen farmers who asopt a particular practice. If an evaluation indicated that thespecified number did, and adopt the practice, the programme can be considereda success as far as this criterion is concerned. For ex. Where programmeemphasis is on increasing the output of cash crops, an unintended outcomemaybe that land formerly used to grow food corps change to cash cropping land.

2.7.5 The Evaluation that will be available for Evaluation:Evidence consists of information related to a particular criterion.

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While deciding as to the type of evidence to be used, adjustment s will almostalways have to be

made between what is the best or ideal type and what it is possible to obtain.2.7.6 designs for Evaluation studies:

A variety of designs can be used in collecting evidence for evaluation studies.

Bennett (1977)provides a list of these in order of their potential ability to provide strong Scientificevidence of the degree to which observed change is produced through extensionprogrammes.A modified list of these designs is as follows:1. The Filed Experiment2. Matched Set Design3. Before-After Study4. The Survey5. The Case Study

The field experiment provides the strongest scientific evidence and the casestudy the weakest, for the purposes of evaluation. Some evaluation studies mayincorporate elements of several of the designs listed above. Generally, the firsttwo designs are hardly used in the regular conduct of evaluations, because theyare expensive and difficult to handle. The last three designs listed above will bedescribed briefly below:

QUESTION NO -5

Describe in detail the various problems being faced by Development

Support Communication in Pakistan.

965-II

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