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Principles and ProceduresFourth Edition

R A Y M O N D G . M I L T E N B E R G E RUniversity of South Florida

B E H AV I O R M O D I F I C AT I O N

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Behavior Modification: Principles and Procedures, Fourth Edition

Raymond G. Miltenberger

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To my wife, Nasrin,

and my kids, Ryan, Roxanne, and Steven

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iv

aymond G. Miltenberger received hisPh.D. in Clinical Psychology in 1985

from Western Michigan University. He is currentlya professor and director of the Applied BehaviorAnalysis Masters Program at the University ofSouth Florida. Dr. Miltenberger conducts ap-plied behavior analysis research with his studentsand publishes widely in the areas of habit disor-ders, functional assessment and treatment of be-havioral disorders, and self-protection skills train-ing. He utilizes behavior modification in clinicalwork with children and individuals with mentalretardation. In addition to spending time with hisfamily, he enjoys running, golf, baseball, andtravel.

R

A B O U T T H E A U T H O R

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v

One / Introduction to Behavior Modification 1

P A R T MEASUREMENT OF BEHAVIOR AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE

Two / Observing and Recording Behavior 21Three / Graphing Behavior and Measuring Change 47

P A R T BASIC PRINCIPLES

Four / Reinforcement 73Five / Extinction 101Six / Punishment 119Seven / Stimulus Control: Discrimination and Generalization 143Eight / Respondent Conditioning 165

P A R T PROCEDURES TO ESTABLISH NEW BEHAVIOR

Nine / Shaping 185Ten / Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control 205Eleven / Chaining 227Twelve / Behavioral Skills Training Procedures 251

P A R T PROCEDURES TO INCREASE DESIRABLE BEHAVIOR AND DECREASEUNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOR

Thirteen / Understanding Problem Behaviors through Functional Assessment 273Fourteen / Applying Extinction 303Fifteen / Differential Reinforcement 327Sixteen / Antecedent Control Procedures 359Seventeen / Using Punishment: Time-Out and Response Cost 389Eighteen / Positive Punishment Procedures and the Ethics of Punishment 411Nineteen / Promoting Generalization 433

P A R T OTHER BEHAVIOR CHANGE PROCEDURES

Twenty / Self-Management 457Twenty-One / Habit Reversal Procedures 479Twenty-Two / The Token Economy 497Twenty-Three / Behavioral Contracts 521Twenty-Four / Fear and Anxiety Reduction Procedures 541Twenty-Five / Cognitive Behavior Modification 565

5

4

3

2

1

C O N T E N T SB R I E F

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vi

C O N T E N T S

Child Management 13Prevention 13Sports Psychology 13Health-Related Behaviors 13Gerontology 14

THE STRUCTURE OF THIS TEXTBOOK 14Measurement of Behavior and Behavior

Change 14Basic Principles of Behavior 14Procedures to Establish New Behaviors 14Procedures to Increase Desirable Behaviors

and Decrease Undesirable Behaviors 15Other Behavior Change Procedures 15

CHAPTER SUMMARY 15

KEY TERMS 16

PRACTICE TEST 16

CHAPTER QUIZZES 17

Introduction to Behavior Modification 1

T W O Observing and Recording Behavior 21

P A R T MEASUREMENT OF BEHAVIOR AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE1

DIRECT AND INDIRECT ASSESSMENT 22DEFINING THE TARGET BEHAVIOR 23THE LOGISTICS OF RECORDING 24

The Observer 24When and Where to Record 25

DEFINING HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2EXAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR 4DEFINING BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 5CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 5HISTORICAL ROOTS OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 7

Major Figures 7Early Behavior Modification Researchers 9Major Publications and Events 9

AREAS OF APPLICATION 10Developmental Disabilities 10Mental Illness 11Education and Special Education 11Rehabilitation 12Community Psychology 12Clinical Psychology 12Business, Industry, and Human Services 12Self-Management 13

O N E

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Contents vii

CHOOSING A RECORDING METHOD 27Continuous Recording 27Percentage of Opportunities 30Product Recording 30Interval Recording 31Time Sample Recording 31

CHOOSING A RECORDING INSTRUMENT 32REACTIVITY 36

INTEROBSERVER RELIABILITY 37CHAPTER SUMMARY 38KEY TERMS 38PRACTICE TEST 39APPLICATIONS 39MISAPPLICATIONS 40CHAPTER QUIZZES 43

T H R E E Graphing Behavior and Measuring Change 47

COMPONENTS OF A GRAPH 48

GRAPHING BEHAVIORAL DATA 51

GRAPHING DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS

OF BEHAVIOR 52

RESEARCH DESIGNS 54A-B Design 55A-B-A-B Reversal Design 56Multiple-Baseline Design 57

Alternating-Treatments Design 59Changing-Criterion Design 62

CHAPTER SUMMARY 64KEY TERMS 65PRACTICE TEST 65APPLICATIONS 66MISAPPLICATIONS 67CHAPTER QUIZZES 69

F O U R Reinforcement 73

P A R T BASIC PRINCIPLESR2

DEFINING REINFORCEMENT 75POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT 78

Social versus Automatic Reinforcement 80ESCAPE AND AVOIDANCE BEHAVIORS 80CONDITIONED AND UNCONDITIONED REINFORCERS 82FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF

REINFORCEMENT 83Immediacy 83Contingency 84

Establishing Operations 84Individual Differences 85Magnitude 86

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT 86Fixed Ratio 88Variable Ratio 88Fixed Interval 89Variable Interval 90

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REINFORCING DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS OF BEHAVIOR 91CONCURRENT SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT 91CHAPTER SUMMARY 92KEY TERMS 93

PRACTICE TEST 93APPENDIX A 94APPENDIX B 95CHAPTER QUIZZES 97

viii Contents

F I V E Extinction 101

DEFINING EXTINCTION 102

EXTINCTION BURST 104

SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY 106

PROCEDURAL VARIATIONS OF EXTINCTION 107

A COMMON MISCONCEPTION ABOUT

EXTINCTION 109

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE EXTINCTION 110CHAPTER SUMMARY 112KEY TERMS 112PRACTICE TEST 112APPENDIX A 112CHAPTER QUIZZES 115

S I X Punishment 119

DEFINING PUNISHMENT 119A COMMON MISCONCEPTION ABOUT PUNISHMENT 122POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT 122UNCONDITIONED AND CONDITIONED PUNISHERS 127CONTRASTING REINFORCEMENT

AND PUNISHMENT 128FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF

PUNISHMENT 130Immediacy 131Contingency 131Establishing Operations 131Individual Differences and Magnitude

of the Punisher 132

PROBLEMS WITH PUNISHMENT 133Emotional Reactions to Punishment 133Escape and Avoidance 134Negative Reinforcement for the Use

of Punishment 134Punishment and Modeling 134Ethical Issues 135

CHAPTER SUMMARY 135

KEY TERMS 136

PRACTICE TEST 136

APPENDIX A 137

CHAPTER QUIZZES 139

S E V E N Stimulus Control: Discrimination and Generalization 143

EXAMPLES OF STIMULUS CONTROL 144DEFINING STIMULUS CONTROL 144

DEVELOPING STIMULUS CONTROL: STIMULUS

DISCRIMINATION TRAINING 146

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Discrimination Training in the Laboratory 147

Developing Reading and Spelling withDiscrimination Training 148

Stimulus Discrimination Training andPunishment 149

THE THREE-TERM CONTINGENCY 149STIMULUS CONTROL RESEARCH 150

GENERALIZATION 151Examples of Generalization 152

CHAPTER SUMMARY 157

KEY TERMS 157

PRACTICE TEST 157

APPENDIX A 158

CHAPTER QUIZZES 161

E I G H T Respondent Conditioning 165

EXAMPLES OF RESPONDENT CONDITIONING 165DEFINING RESPONDENT CONDITIONING 166TIMING OF THE NEUTRAL STIMULUS AND UNCONDITIONED

STIMULUS 169HIGHER-ORDER CONDITIONING 170CONDITIONED EMOTIONAL RESPONSES 171EXTINCTION OF CONDITIONED RESPONSES 173

Spontaneous Recovery 173DISCRIMINATION AND GENERALIZATION OF RESPONDENT

BEHAVIOR 174FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE RESPONDENT

CONDITIONING 174The Nature of the Unconditioned Stimulus

and Conditioned Stimulus 175The Temporal Relationship between the

Conditioned Stimulus and UnconditionedStimulus 175

Contingency between the ConditionedStimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus 175

The Number of Pairings 175Previous Exposure to the Conditioned

Stimulus 176DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN OPERANT AND RESPONDENT

CONDITIONING 176RESPONDENT CONDITIONING AND BEHAVIOR

MODIFICATION 179CHAPTER SUMMARY 179KEY TERMS 180PRACTICE TEST 180CHAPTER QUIZZES 181

N I N E Shaping 185

P A R T PROCEDURES TO ESTABLISH NEW BEHAVIOR3

AN EXAMPLE OF SHAPING: TEACHING A CHILD

TO TALK 185DEFINING SHAPING 186APPLICATIONS OF SHAPING 188

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Getting Mrs. F to Walk Again 188Getting Mrs. S to Increase the Time between

Bathroom Visits 189

RESEARCH ON SHAPING 189

HOW TO USE SHAPING 194

SHAPING OF PROBLEM BEHAVIORS 196

CHAPTER SUMMARY 198KEY TERMS 199PRACTICE TEST 199APPLICATIONS 199MISAPPLICATIONS 200CHAPTER QUIZZES 201

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T E N Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control 205

AN EXAMPLE OF PROMPTING AND FADING: TEACHING

LITTLE LEAGUERS TO HIT THE BALL 205WHAT IS PROMPTING? 207WHAT IS FADING? 208TYPES OF PROMPTS 210

Response Prompts 210Stimulus Prompts 211

TRANSFER OF STIMULUS CONTROL 213Prompt Fading 213Prompt Delay 215Stimulus Fading 216

HOW TO USE PROMPTING AND TRANSFER OF STIMULUS

CONTROL 218CHAPTER SUMMARY 220KEY TERMS 221PRACTICE TEST 221APPLICATIONS 222MISAPPLICATIONS 222CHAPTER QUIZZES 223

E L E V E N Chaining 227

EXAMPLES OF BEHAVIORAL CHAINS 227ANALYZING STIMULUS-RESPONSE CHAINS 228TASK ANALYSIS 229BACKWARD CHAINING 232FORWARD CHAINING 234TOTAL TASK PRESENTATION 236OTHER STRATEGIES OF TEACHING BEHAVIORAL

CHAINS 238Written Task Analysis 240Picture Prompts 240Self-Instructions 241

HOW TO USE CHAINING PROCEDURES 243CHAPTER SUMMARY 244KEY TERMS 244PRACTICE TEST 244APPLICATIONS 245MISAPPLICATIONS 245CHAPTER QUIZZES 247

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EXAMPLES OF BEHAVIORAL SKILLS TRAINING

PROCEDURES 251Teaching Marcia to Say “No” to the

Professors 251Teaching Children to Protect Themselves from

Abduction 252

COMPONENTS OF THE BEHAVIORAL SKILLS TRAINING

PROCEDURE 252Modeling 252Instructions 255Rehearsal 256Feedback 256

ENHANCING GENERALIZATION AFTER BEHAVIORAL SKILLS

TRAINING 257

IN SITU TRAINING 258BEHAVIORAL SKILLS TRAINING AND THE THREE-TERM

CONTINGENCY 259BEHAVIORAL SKILLS TRAINING IN GROUPS 259APPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIORAL SKILLS TRAINING

PROCEDURES 260HOW TO USE BEHAVIORAL SKILLS TRAINING

PROCEDURES 264CHAPTER SUMMARY 265KEY TERMS 266PRACTICE TEST 266APPLICATIONS 267MISAPPLICATIONS 267CHAPTER QUIZZES 269

T W E L V E Behavioral Skills Training Procedures 251

T H I R T E E N Understanding Problem Behaviors through FunctionalAssessment 273

P A R T PROCEDURES TO INCREASE DESIRABLE BEHAVIOR AND DECREASEUNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOR

4

EXAMPLES OF FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT 273Jacob 273Anna 275

DEFINING FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT 276FUNCTIONS OF PROBLEM BEHAVIORS 277

Social Positive Reinforcement 277Social Negative Reinforcement 277Automatic Positive Reinforcement 278Automatic Negative Reinforcement 278

FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT METHODS 278Indirect Methods 278

Direct Observation Methods 280Experimental Methods (Functional

Analysis) 286FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS RESEARCH 289

CONDUCTING A FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT 292

CHAPTER SUMMARY 294

KEY TERMS 295

PRACTICE TEST 295

APPLICATIONS 295

MISAPPLICATIONS 298

CHAPTER QUIZZES 299

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THE CASE OF WILLY 303

USING EXTINCTION TO DECREASE A PROBLEM

BEHAVIOR 306Collecting Data to Assess Treatment

Effects 306Identifying the Reinforcer for the Problem

Behavior through Functional Assessment 307

Eliminating the Reinforcer after EachInstance of the Problem Behavior 307

TAKING ACCOUNT OF THE SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT

BEFORE EXTINCTION 313

REINFORCING ALTERNATIVE BEHAVIORS 315PROMOTING GENERALIZATION AND MAINTENANCE 315RESEARCH EVALUATING THE USE OF EXTINCTION 316CHAPTER SUMMARY 319KEY TERMS 320PRACTICE TEST 320APPLICATIONS 320MISAPPLICATIONS 321APPENDIX A 322APPENDIX B 322CHAPTER QUIZZES 323

xii Contents

F O U R T E E N Applying Extinction 303

Differential Reinforcement 327F I F T E E NDIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT OF ALTERNATIVE

BEHAVIOR 327Getting Mrs. Williams to Be Positive 327When to Use DRA 329How to Use DRA 330Using Differential Negative Reinforcement

of Alternative Behaviors 332Variations of DRA 334Research on DRA 335

DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT OF OTHER

BEHAVIOR 338Defining DRO 339Research Evaluating DRO Procedures 341

DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT OF LOW RATES

OF RESPONDING 344Defining DRL 345Variations of DRL 345Implementing DRL Procedures 346Research Evaluating DRL Procedures 348

CHAPTER SUMMARY 350

KEY TERMS 351

PRACTICE TEST 351

APPLICATIONS 352

MISAPPLICATIONS 352

CHAPTER QUIZZES 355

Antecedent Control Procedures 359S I X T E E NEXAMPLES OF ANTECEDENT CONTROL 359

Getting Marianne to Study More 359Getting Cal to Eat Right 360

DEFINING ANTECEDENT CONTROL PROCEDURES 361Presenting the Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

or Cues for the Desired Behavior 361

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Arranging Establishing Operations for theDesirable Behavior 363

Decreasing Response Effort for the DesirableBehavior 364

Removing the Discriminative Stimulus orCues for Undesirable Behaviors 366

Removing Establishing Operations forUndesirable Behaviors 367

Increasing the Response Effort for UndesirableBehaviors 368

RESEARCH ON ANTECEDENT CONTROL STRATEGIES 369Manipulating Discriminative Stimuli 370Manipulating Response Effort 372Manipulating Establishing Operations 374

USING ANTECEDENT CONTROL STRATEGIES 377Analysis of the Three-Term Contingency for

the Desirable Behavior 378Analysis of the Three-Term Contingency for

the Undesirable Behavior 379Functional, Nonaversive Interventions

for Problem Behaviors 379

CHAPTER SUMMARY 380

KEY TERMS 380

PRACTICE TEST 380

APPLICATIONS 381

MISAPPLICATIONS 382

CHAPTER QUIZZES 385

Using Punishment: Time-out and Response Cost 389S E V E N T E E NTIME-OUT 390

Types of Time-out 392Using Reinforcement with Time-out 392Considerations in Using Time-out 393Research Evaluating Time-out Procedures 396

RESPONSE COST 399Defining Response Cost 399Using Differential Reinforcement with

Response Cost 400Comparing Response Cost, Time-out, and

Extinction 400

Considerations in Using Response Cost 401

Research Evaluating Response CostProcedures 402

CHAPTER SUMMARY 404

KEY TERMS 404

PRACTICE TEST 405

APPLICATIONS 405

MISAPPLICATIONS 406

CHAPTER QUIZZES 407

Positive Punishment Procedures and the Ethicsof Punishment 411E I G H T E E N

APPLICATION OF AVERSIVE ACTIVITIES 411Overcorrection 413Contingent Exercise 414Guided Compliance 415

Physical Restraint 417Cautions in the Application of Aversive

Activities 418

APPLICATION OF AVERSIVE STIMULATION 418

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POSITIVE PUNISHMENT: TREATMENT OF LAST RESORT 421CONSIDERATIONS IN USING POSITIVE PUNISHMENT 422THE ETHICS OF PUNISHMENT 423

Informed Consent 423Alternative Treatments 423Recipient Safety 424Problem Severity 424Implementation Guidelines 424Training and Supervision 424

Peer Review 424Accountability: Preventing Misuse

and Overuse 424CHAPTER SUMMARY 425

KEY TERMS 425

PRACTICE TEST 426

APPLICATIONS 426

MISAPPLICATIONS 427

CHAPTER QUIZZES 429

xiv Contents

Promoting Generalization 433N I N E T E E NEXAMPLES OF GENERALIZATION PROGRAMMING 433DEFINING GENERALIZATION 434STRATEGIES FOR PROMOTING GENERALIZATION OF BEHAVIOR

CHANGE 435Reinforcing Occurrences of Generalization 435Training Skills That Contact Natural

Contingencies of Reinforcement 436Modifying Natural Contingencies of

Reinforcement and Punishment 437Incorporating a Variety of Relevant Stimulus

Situations in Training 439Incorporating Common Stimuli 442Teaching a Range of Functionally Equivalent

Responses 442

Incorporating Self-Generated Mediatorsof Generalization 443

IMPLEMENTING STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE

GENERALIZATION 445

PROMOTING GENERALIZED REDUCTIONS IN PROBLEM

BEHAVIORS 446

CHAPTER SUMMARY 448

KEY TERMS 448

PRACTICE TEST 448

APPLICATIONS 449

MISAPPLICATIONS 450

CHAPTER QUIZZES 453

T W E N T Y Self-Management 457

P A R T OTHER BEHAVIOR CHANGE PROCEDURES5

EXAMPLES OF SELF-MANAGEMENT 457Getting Murray to Run Regularly 457

Getting Annette to Clean up Her Mess 459DEFINING SELF-MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS 459

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DEFINING SELF-MANAGEMENT 461TYPES OF SELF-MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 462

Goal-Setting and Self-Monitoring 462Antecedent Manipulations 463Behavioral Contracting 464Arranging Reinforcers and Punishers 464Social Support 465Self-Instructions and Self-Praise 466

STEPS IN A SELF-MANAGEMENT PLAN 467

CHAPTER SUMMARY 470

KEY TERMS 471

PRACTICE TEST 471

APPLICATIONS 472

MISAPPLICATIONS 472

CHAPTER QUIZZES 475

Habit Reversal Procedures 479T W E N T Y- O N E

The Token Economy 497T W E N T Y- T W O

EXAMPLES OF HABIT BEHAVIORS 479DEFINING HABIT BEHAVIORS 480

Nervous Habits 480Motor and Vocal Tics 481Stuttering 482

HABIT REVERSAL PROCEDURES 482APPLICATIONS OF HABIT REVERSAL 483

Nervous Habits 483Motor and Vocal Tics 484Stuttering 486

WHY DO HABIT REVERSAL PROCEDURES WORK? 486

OTHER TREATMENT PROCEDURES FOR HABIT

DISORDERS 488

CHAPTER SUMMARY 490

KEY TERMS 491

PRACTICE TEST 491

APPLICATIONS 491

MISAPPLICATIONS 492

CHAPTER QUIZZES 493

REHABILITATING SAMMY 497

DEFINING A TOKEN ECONOMY 498

IMPLEMENTING A TOKEN ECONOMY 500Defining the Target Behaviors 500Identifying the Items to Use as Tokens 500Identifying Backup Reinforcers 501Deciding on the Appropriate Schedule of

Reinforcement 502Establishing the Token Exchange

Rate 503Establishing the Time and Place for

Exchanging Tokens 503

Deciding Whether to Use Response Cost 504Staff Training and Management 505

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 505APPLICATIONS OF A TOKEN ECONOMY 507ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF A TOKEN

ECONOMY 510CHAPTER SUMMARY 513KEY TERMS 514PRACTICE TEST 514APPLICATIONS 514MISAPPLICATIONS 515CHAPTER QUIZZES 517

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EXAMPLES OF BEHAVIORAL CONTRACTING 521Getting Steve to Complete His

Dissertation 521Helping Dan and His Parents Get Along

Better 523

DEFINING THE BEHAVIORAL CONTRACT 523

COMPONENTS OF A BEHAVIORAL CONTRACT 524

TYPES OF BEHAVIORAL CONTRACTS 526One-Party Contracts 527Two-Party Contracts 527

NEGOTIATING A BEHAVIORAL CONTRACT 529WHY DO BEHAVIORAL CONTRACTS INFLUENCE

BEHAVIOR? 529APPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIORAL CONTRACTS 531CHAPTER SUMMARY 534KEY TERMS 534PRACTICE TEST 534APPLICATIONS 535MISAPPLICATIONS 535CHAPTER QUIZZES 537

xvi Contents

Behavioral Contracts 521T W E N T Y- T H R E E

Fear and Anxiety Reduction Procedures 541T W E N T Y- F O U REXAMPLES OF FEAR AND ANXIETY REDUCTION 541

Overcoming Trisha’s Fear of Public Speaking 541

Overcoming Allision’s Fear of Spiders 542

DEFINING FEAR AND ANXIETY PROBLEMS 543PROCEDURES TO REDUCE FEAR AND ANXIETY 546

Relaxation Training 546Systemic Desensitization 551In Vivo Desensitization 554

Advantages and Disadvantages of Systematicand In Vivo Desensitization 555

Other Treatments for Fears 557CLINICAL PROBLEMS 558CHAPTER SUMMARY 558KEY TERMS 558PRACTICE TEST 559APPLICATIONS 559MISAPPLICATIONS 560CHAPTER QUIZZES 561

Cognitive Behavior Modification 565T W E N T Y- F I V EEXAMPLES OF COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 565

Helping Deon Control His Anger 565Helping Claire Pay Attention in Class 567

DEFINING COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 568Defining Cognitive Behavior 568Functions of Cognitive Behavior 569

COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

PROCEDURES 570Cognitive Restructuring 570Cognitive Coping Skills Training 574Acceptance-Based Therapies 577

CLINICAL PROBLEMS 578

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CHAPTER SUMMARY 578KEY TERMS 578PRACTICE TEST 578

APPLICATIONS 579MISAPPLICATIONS 579CHAPTER QUIZZES 581

GLOSSARY 585REFERENCES 597CREDITS 623NAME INDEX 625SUBJECT INDEX 631

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xviii

P R E FA C Ee are gratified that the first three editions

of Behavior Modification: Principles andProcedures received positive reviews from stu-dents and professors. The fourth edition has keptthe positive features of the first three editions, andhas been revised to address the suggestions of re-viewers and updated to reflect the latest researchin behavior modification.

The goal of this fourth edition (as with theearlier editions) is to describe basic principles ofbehavior, so that the student learns how environ-mental events influence human behavior, and to describe behavior modification procedures, sothat the student learns the strategies by whichhuman behavior may be changed. The text isdivided into 25 relatively short chapters, each ofwhich covers a manageable amount of informa-tion (for example, one principle or procedure).

This text can be used in a standard one-semestercourse in behavior modification, applied behav-ior analysis, behavior management, or behaviorchange.

The material in the text is discussed at anintroductory level, so that it may be understoodby students with no prior knowledge of the sub-ject. This text is intended for undergraduate stu-dents or beginning graduate students. It wouldalso be valuable for individuals working inhuman services, education, or rehabilitationwho must use behavior modification proceduresto manage the behavior of the individuals intheir care.

I have made a concerted effort in this text tobe gender neutral. When discussing case exam-ples, I include males and females about equallyas often.

W

F E A T U R E S O F T H E T E X T C O N T I N U E D F R O MT H E F I R S T T H R E E E D I T I O N S

The following features of the text are intended tohelp the reader learn easily.

Organization of the Text Following a general introduction to the field inChapter 1, Chapters 2 and 3 present informationon behavior recording, graphing, and measuringchange. This information will be utilized in eachsubsequent chapter. Next, Chapters 4–8 focus onthe basic principles of operant and respondentbehavior. The application of these principlesforms the subject of the remaining 17 chapters.Procedures to establish new behaviors are de-scribed in Chapters 9–12, and procedures to in-crease desirable behaviors and decrease undesir-

able behaviors are considered in Chapters 13–19.Finally, Chapters 20–25 present a survey of otherimportant behavior modification procedures.

Principles and Procedures The various procedures for changing behaviorare based on fundamental principles of behaviorestablished in experimental research over the last70 years. In the belief that the student will betterunderstand the procedures after first learning thefundamental principles, the principles underly-ing operant and respondent behavior are re-viewed in Chapters 4–8; the application of theprinciples in the behavior modification proce-dures is described in Chapters 9–25.

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Preface xix

Examples from Everyday LifeEach chapter uses a variety of real-life examples—some relevant to college students, some chosenfrom the author’s clinical experience—to bringthe principles and procedures to life.

Examples from Research In addition, both classic studies and the most up-to-date research on behavior modification princi-ples and procedures are integrated into the text.

Quizzes Accompany Each ChapterAt the end of each chapter are three fill-in-the-blank quizzes with 10 questions each. Thequizzes provide students with further exercises forself-assessment of their knowledge of the chap-ter’s content. The quizzes are on perforatedpages, which can be easily torn out so that the in-structor can have students hand the quizzes in ashomework assignments or have students take thequizzes in class.

Practice Tests Practice tests at the end of each chapter haveshort-answer essay questions, complete with pagenumbers where the answers can be found.

Application ExercisesAt the end of each chapter where procedures aretaught (Chapters 2, 3, and 9–25), several applica-tion exercises are provided. In each exercise, areal-life case is described and then the student isasked to apply the procedure described in thechapter. These exercises give students an oppor-tunity to think about how the procedures are ap-plied in real life.

Misapplication ExercisesThe application exercises are followed by misap-plication exercises. In each one, a case example isprovided, and the procedure from the chapter isapplied to the case in an incorrect or inappropri-ate manner. The student is asked to analyze thecase example and to describe what is wrong with

the application of the procedure in that case.These misapplication exercises require the stu-dent to think critically about the application ofthe procedure. Answers to Applications and Mis-applications are in the Instructors Manual, mak-ing them valuable tools for instructors as theyassess their students’ abilities to apply the infor-mation provided in the chapter.

Step-by-Step Approach In each chapter in which a particular behaviormodification procedure is taught, the implemen-tation of the procedure is outlined in a step-by-step fashion, for ease of comprehension.

Summary Boxes Periodically throughout the text, informationfrom a chapter is summarized in a box that hasbeen set off from the text. These boxes are in-tended to help the student organize the materialin the chapter.

Chapter Summaries Chapter summaries provide information that isconsistent with the opening questions in eachchapter.

Examples for Self-Assessment In the early chapters on basic principles (Chap-ters 4–7) there are tables with examples of theprinciple discussed within that chapter. Later inthe chapter (or in a subsequent chapter), the stu-dent is directed to return to a specific table and,using the new information being presented in thechapter, to analyze specific aspects of the exam-ples provided in that table.

Self-Assessment Questions At intervals throughout the text, students are pre-sented with self-assessment questions. To answerthese questions, students will need to utilize theinformation already presented in the chapter.These questions will help students assess theirunderstanding of the material. In most cases,

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answers are presented in the text immediately fol-lowing the question.

Figures Most of the chapters include figures from the re-search literature to illustrate important principlesor procedures. Students must use informationfrom earlier chapters on behavior recording,graphing, and measuring change to analyze thegraphs.

Glossary At the end of the text is a glossary of the importantbehavior modification terms used in the text.Each term is followed by a succinct and precisedefinition.

Improved Test Bank The test bank includes multiple-choice ques-tions, fill-in-the-blank questions, true-false ques-tions, and short-answer essay questions.

xx Preface

In addition to the features continued from thefirst three editions, three major features havebeen added to the fourth edition.

For Further Reading In each of the chapters on behavioral principles(Chapters 4–8) and procedures (Chapters 9–25)a For Further Reading box has been added. Inthis feature, interesting articles that are relevantto the content of the chapter are identified andbriefly described. Citations for these articles havealso been provided. These articles are from JABA(or JEAB), so they can be easily accessed onlineby students. (The JABA website is http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jaba/.) Instructors can as-sign these articles for extra credit or as readingassignments for when more advanced studentsuse the textbook.

List of Key Terms After each Chapter Summary section, there isnow a list of the new terms that were used in thechapter. The list of key terms shows the pagenumber on which each term was introduced. Al-though these terms are all found in the Glossaryat the end of the text, having the new terms listedat the end of each chapter with page numberswill allow the student to make easy reference to

the terms when reading the chapter or whenstudying for a test or quiz.

Updated and Expanded References The fourth edition includes 125 additionalreferences—many of which are from the mostrecent volumes of JABA—to present studentswith the most recent scholarship in the field.

Other New Features Chapter 1 has a brief discussion of the relation-ship between applied behavior analysis and be-havior modification. Chapter 2 has new informa-tion on structured versus unstructured assessmentand on recording percentage of opportunities.Chapter 4 has an added discussion of social versusautomatic reinforcement. Chapter 7 has a newfigure from Lalli et al. (1998), showing another ex-ample of a generalization gradient relevant to anapplied problem. Chapter 12 has a new sectionon in situ training, a method used to increase gen-eralization following the use of behavioral skillstraining. New chapter headings are provided tohelp the reader better organize the research onantecedent control in Chapter 16. In Chapter 19,one figure was eliminated (Figure 19.2 fromAyllon, Kuhlman, & Warzak, 1982), and anotherfigure and text was added (Durand, 1999) to high-light a study on programming generalization.

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I want to thank the anonymous reviewers for theirconstructive comments on this manuscript andthe first three editions: Robert W. Allan, LafayetteCollege; Viviette Allen, Fayetteville State Univer-sity; Cynthia Anderson, West Virginia University;Jennifer Austin, Florida State University; CharlesBlose, MacMurry College; Kristine Brady,California School of Professional Psychology;James Carr, Western Michigan University; CarlCheney, Utah State University; Darlene Crone-Todd, Delta State University; Paula Davis,Southern Illinois University; Richard N. Feil,Mansfield University; Deirdre Beebe Fitzgerald,Eastern Connecticut State University; StephanFlanagan, The University of North Carolina atChapel Hill; Roger Harnish, Rochester Instituteof Technology; Gerald Harris, The University ofHouston; Robert Heffer, Texas A&M University;Stephen W. Holborn, University of Manitoba;Dorothea Lerman, Louisiana State University;Tom Lombardo, University of Mississippi; JohnMalouff, Nova Southern Eastern University;Guenn Martin, Cumberland University; Kay

McIntyre, University of Missouri–St. Louis;Ronald Miller, Brigham Young University—Hawaii; Robert W. Montgomery, Georgia StateUniversity; Charles S. Peyser, University of theSouth; Brady Phelps, South Dakota State Univer-sity; Joseph J. Plaud, University of North Dakota;Robyn Rogers, Southwest Texas State University;Johannes Rojahn, George Mason University;Paul Romanowich, Mesa College; AlisonThomas-Cottingham, Rider University; J. KevinThompson, University of Southern Florida;Bruce Thyer, University of Georgia; James T.Todd, Eastern Michigan University; Sharon VanLeer, Delaware State University; Timothy Vollmer,University of Florida; Robert W. Wildblood,Northern Virginia Community College; KennethN. Wildman, Ohio Northern University; DouglasWoods, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee; andTodd Zakrajsek, Southern Oregon State College.I especially want to thank Marianne Taflinger,senior editor at Wadsworth, for her guidance andsupport throughout the development of the thirdedition.

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

To get the most out of this text and out of your be-havior modification course, you are encouragedto consider the following recommendations.

1. Read the assigned chapters before the classmeeting at which the chapter is to be dis-cussed. You will benefit more from the classif you have first read the material.

2. Answer each of the self-assessment questionsin the chapter to see if you understand thematerial just covered.

3. Answer the practice test questions at the endof each chapter. If you can answer eachquestion, you know that you understand thematerial in the chapter.

4. Complete the end-of-chapter quizzes to as-sess your knowledge of the chapter content(unless your professor plans to use thequizzes in class).

5. Complete the application and misapplica-tion exercises at the end of the procedurechapters. In that way, you will understand thematerial in the chapter well enough to applyit or to identify how it is applied incorrectly.

6. The best way to study for a test is to testyourself. After reading and rereading thechapter and your class notes, test yourself inthe following ways.

■ Look at key terms in the chapter and see ifyou can define them without looking atthe definitions in the text.

■ Look at each practice test question at theend of the chapter and see if you can givethe correct answer without looking up theanswer in the text or in your notes.

■ Come up with novel examples of eachprinciple or procedure in the chapter.

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■ Make flash cards with a term or questionon one side and the definition of the termor the answer to the question on the otherside. While studying, look at the term (orquestion) on one side of the card and then read the definition (or answer) on theother. As you study, you will find that youneed to turn the cards over less and lessoften. Once you can supply the answer or

definition on the back of the card withoutlooking, you’ll know that you understandthe material.

■ Always study in a location that is reason-ably free from distractions or interruptions.

■ Always begin studying for a test at least afew days in advance. Give yourself moredays to study as more chapters are in-cluded on the test.

The following websites provide a range of valuable information about different aspects of behaviormodification or applied behavior analysis.

http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jaba/ Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis*http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jeab/ Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviorhttp://www.abainternational.org The Association for Behavior Analysishttp://www.auburn.edu/~newlamc/apa_div25/ APA Division 25 (Behavior Analysis)http://www.abct.org Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapyhttp://fabaworld.org Florida Association for Behavior Analysishttp://www.calaba.org/ California Association for Behavior Analysishttp://www.unt.edu/behv/txaba/ Texas Association for Behavior Analysishttp://www.babat.org/ Berkshire Association for Behavior Analysis and Therapyhttp://www.behavior-analyst-online.org/index.html The Behavior Analyst Onlinehttp://www.behavior.org Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studieshttp://www.bfskinner.org/ B.F. Skinner Foundationhttp://www.bacb.com/ Behavior Analysis Certification Board

Raymond G. Miltenberger

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