7th Term- Environment Management systems

8/7/2019 7th Term- Environment Management systems

1/55S.R.P**-7TH TERM- ENVIRONMENTAL MGMT SYSTEM Page 1

Overview of Environmental Impact AssessmentThe Basics

Everything and everyone has an impactImpacts can be evaluated and predictedEIA is the process by which impacts are reduced to an Acceptable levelThe art is to define what is Acceptable An Environmental Statement documents the process by which this has been achieved

Environmental Impact Assessment - Definition

The International Association For Impact Assessment (IAIA) definition:

The process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made.

Principles of EIA Best Practices

The Principles consist of:

Basic Principles applying to all stages of the EIA process

Operating Principles describing how the Basic Principles should be applied to the main steps andspecific activities of the EIA process

Screening

Scoping

Identification of impacts

Assessment of alternatives

Objectives of EIA

To ensure that environmental considerations are explicitly addressed and incorporated intothe development decision making process

To anticipate and avoid, minimize or offset the adverse significant biophysical, social andother relevant effects of development proposals

To protect the productivity and capacity of natural systems and the ecological processeswhich maintain their function

To promote development which is sustainable and optimize resource use and managementopportunities

Fourteen Basic Principles

The EIA process should be: 1) Purposeful

2) Rigorous

3) Practical

4) Relevant

5) Cost effective

6) Efficient

7) Focused

8) Adaptive

9) Participative

10) Interdisciplinary

11) Credible

12) Integrated

13) Transparent

14) Systematic



Who Sets the Standards?

Who Defines Acceptability?

StakeholdersRegulators (Due process of law);Host Governments (Development plans, statutory consultees);Home Governments (Especially US companies)

Communities (Community license to operate); Developer (Corporate standards);Consumers (Company Reputation)Project Finance (Shareholders, Banks etc.);

Special Interest Groups (NGOs, Trade Organisations)

Solid Waste Collection and Transport1. On-site Handling, On-site Storage : Curb Collection, Direct haul, transfer station

2. Collection services: types and methods

3. Vehicle and labor requirements

4. Types of Collection systems (hauled container system, stationary container system)

ON-SITE HANDLING:

- Activities associated with the handling of SW until they are placed in the containers used forstorage before collection

ON-SITE STORAGE:

Factors considered:

1. Types of containers used

2. Container Locations

3. Public health

4. Aesthetics

5. Methods of Collection

Factors considered:

i) Types of Containers:

o Depend on:

characteristics of SW collected

E.g. Large storage containers (Domestic SW: flats/apartment)

Containers at curbs

Large containers on a roller (Commercial/Industrial)



Collection frequency

Space available for the placement of containers( Refer to Table 11-4)

o Residential; refuse bags (7 -10 litres)o Rubbish bins - 20 -30 litreso Large mechanical containers - more commonly used to cut costs

(reduce labor, time , & collection costs)o must be standardized to suit collection equipment.

ii) Container Locations:

- side/rear of house

- alleys

- special enclosures (apartment/condos)

- Basement (apts. in foreign countries)/ newer complexes

iii) Public Health:

relates to on-time collection to avoid the spread of diseases by vectors, etc.

iv) Aesthetics:

must be pleasing to the eye (containers must be clean, shielded from publics view).

v) Collection of SW

- 60-80 percent of total SWM costs.- Malaysia (other developing nations) - labor and capital intensive.- Major problems:

Poor building layouts - e.g. squatters

Road congestion - time cost, leachate, transport costs.

Physical infrastructure

Old containers used (leaky/ damaged)

Absence of systematic methods (especially at apartments, markets with largewst. volume).

Collections were made by:

Municipal/ District Council

Private firm under contract to municipal

Private firm contract with private residents

After Privatization (1998) - A Consortium of mngt. companies were given theresponsibility.

(e.g. SWM (The Southern Waste Management - handles southern region)took over the mngt. from MBJB/MPJBT; Alam Flora (Central Region).



TYPES OF COLLECTION:

1. Municipal Collection Services:

a. Residential:

i. Curb ( Kerb-side ), alley, and backyard collection (100-120 litres)

- Quickest/ economical- Crew: 1 driver + 1 or 2 collectors- No need to enter property- Most common in Malaysia.

ii. Set-out, set back:

- Collectors have to enter property- Set out crew carries full containers from resident storage location to curb/ alley before

collection vehicle arrives.- Collection crew load their refuse into vehicle

o

Set-back crew return the container to storage area.iii. House-to-house collection where refuse bags used in 20-30 liter bins.

iv. High-rise apartment or flats, specially designed chutes or a communal storage or roll-on-roll-offs (ROROs).

v. Future trend: mechanically-equipped trucks .

b) Commercial-Industrial Collection Services ( > 12 m 3 )

i. Large movable and stationary containers

ii. Large stationary compactors (to form bales)

Collection Frequency:

- residential areas : everyday/ once in 2 days- communal/ commercial : daily- food waste - max. Period should not exceed :

the normal time for the accumulation of waste to fill a container

the time for fresh garbage to putrefy and emit fouls odor

the length of fly-breeding cycle ( < 7 days).

TYPES OF COLLECTION SYSTEMS

1. Hauled Container System (HCS)

2. Stationary Container System (SCS)



HCS:

- Container is hauled to disposal sites, emptied, and returned to original location or someother location

- Suitable for areas w/ higher wst. generation- Types:

o Hoist truck : 2 - 10 m 3

o Tilt frame container: 10 - 40 m 3 -

o Trash trailer - for heavy, bulky rubbish (construction,commercial, usually open top container);

o 2 crew per vehicle.

2. SCS:

the container used to store waste remain at the point of generation; except when moved tocurb or other location to be emptied.

Types include:

Mechanically-loaded system

Manually-loaded collection vehicle(more common).

Used for residential/commercial sites.

Vehicle w/ internal compaction mechanism or un-compacted (open top lorry -side loaded.

Refer to Figure: 11-10 (handout).

Factors Affecting SW Collection Productivity:

a. Service Level Related :

collection point, frequency, waste material

b. Route related:

Containers, Distance, constraints, topography, delays, road conditions

c. Collection Methodology Related/Climate Related :

Crew size, collection procedures, wind, rain.

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL OBJECTIVES AND LEGAL RESPONSES:

INTERFACE BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL POLICY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORKS

Climate change

The Earths surface is warming

increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snowand ice, rising global average sea level.



changes in water availability, land degradation, food security, and loss ofbiodiversity.

The projected increase in frequency and intensity of heat waves, storms, floods anddroughts would dramatically affect many millions of people

Air pollution

Air pollution keeps on causing health problemsmore than 2 million people globally die prematurely every year due to outdoor andindoor

Transboundary air pollution

Ozone layer destruction

The hole in the stratospheric ozone layer over the Antarctic is now the largest it has ever been.

However, due to decreased emissions of ozone depleting substances and assuming fullMontreal Protocol compliance, the ozone layer is expected to recover, but not until between2060 and 2075 as a result of long lag times

Chemicals and wastes

Persistent organic pollutants

Heavy metals, such as mercury

Hazardous chemicals in trade

Tran boundary movements of hazardous wastes

Solid/municipal wastes

Land degradation

Land degradation is occurring largely as a consequence of unsustainable land use andclimate change.

This includes soil erosion, nutrient depletion, water scarcity, salinity, desertification,and the disruption of biological cycles.

Poor people suffering disproportionately from the effects of this, especially in thedrylands, which support some 2 billion people, 90 per cent of whom live indeveloping countries

Freshwater

The per capita availability of freshwater is declining globally, and contaminated waterremains the greatest single environmental cause of human sickness and death

The decline of quantity and quality of surface and groundwater is impacting aquaticecosystems and their services

Management of transboundary river systems and shared water bodies

Aquatic living resources

Aquatic ecosystems continue to be heavily exploited, and as a consequence sustainabilityof food supplies and biodiversity are at risk



Global marine and freshwater fish catches show large-scale declines, caused mostly bypersistent over-fishing

Biodiversity loss

The great majority of well-studied species are declining in distribution, abundance or both.More than 16 000 species have been identified as threatened with extinction.

Protecting our common environmentWe must spare no effort to free all of humanity, and above all our children andgrandchildren, from the threat of living on a planet irredeemably spoilt by human activities,and whose resources would no longer be sufficient for their needs.

Respect for nature

Prudence must be shown in the management of all living species and natural resources, inaccordance with the precepts of sustainable development. Only in this way can theimmeasurable riches provided to us by nature be preserved and passed on to ourdescendants. The current unsustainable patterns of production and consumption must be

changed in the interest of our future welfare and that of our descendants. (UN MillenniumDeclaration, 2000)

Values, principles

We have a collective responsibility to uphold the principles of human dignity, equality andequity at the global level

Development and poverty eradication

We will spare no effort to free our fellow men, women and children from the abject anddehumanizing conditions of extreme poverty, to which more than a billion of them arecurrently subjected. We are committed to making the right to development a reality foreveryone and to freeing the entire human race from want. (UN Millennium Declaration,2000)

Sustainable development for human wellbeing

Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitledto a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature. (Rio principle 1)

Sovereignty of States

States have sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their ownenvironmental and developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activitieswithin their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other Statesor of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. (Rio principle 2)

Intra- and Inter-generational equity for sustainable development

The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental andenvironmental needs of present and future generations. (Rio principle 3)

Environment for development

In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute anintegral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it. (Rioprinciple 4)



Global partnership

States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect and restore thehealth and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem. In view of the different contributions to globalenvironmental degradation, States have common but differentiated responsibilities. (Rioprinciple 7)

Public participation,Access to justice

Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens, atthe relevant level.

At the national level, each individual shall have appropriate access to informationconcerning the environment that is held by public authorities, including information onhazardous materials and activities in their communities, and the opportunity to participate indecision-making processes.

States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by makinginformation widely available.

Effective access to judicial and administrative proceedings, including redress and remedy,shall be provided. (Rio principle 10)

Legislation

States shall enact effective environmental legislation.

States shall develop national law regarding liability and compensation for the victims ofpollution and other environmental damage.

States should effectively cooperate to discourage or prevent the relocation and transfer toother States of any activities and substances that cause severe environmental degradationor are found to be harmful to human health.

Precautionary approach

In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied byStates according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversibledamage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing costeffective measures to prevent environmental degradation. (Rio principle 15)

International policy instruments

Declarations of UN Summits and Conferences

Stockholm, Rio, Johannesburg

2000 UN Millennium Summit

2005 UN World Summit

Action plans

Agenda 21

Programme for the further implementation of Agenda 21

Johannesburg Plan of Implementation

2005 World Summit Outcome document



Environmental Management System (EMS) An EMS is a set of management processes and procedures that allows an organization toevaluate, control, and reduce the environmental impacts of its activities, products, and servicesand operate with greater efficiency and control.

17 Key Elements of an EMS

1) Environmental policy2) Environmental aspects3) Legal and other requirements4) Objectives & targets5) Env. management programs6) Structure and responsibility7) Operational control8) Training9) Communication10) Document, records, and doc control11) Emergency prep and response12) Monitoring and measurement13) Nonconformance & corrective and preventative action14) EMS audit

Basic Pieces of an EMS

Reviewing the organizations environmental goals

Analyzing environmental impacts and legal requirements

Setting environmental objectives and targets

Establishing programs to meet objectives and targets

Managing significant environmental aspects

Monitoring and measuring progress

Training; ensuring environmental awareness and competence

Reviewing progress and making improvements

Why Implement an EMS?

Compliance AssuranceCredibility with Citizens and Regulators

Positive Public Image

City/County/Organization as a Leader and Innovator

Competitiveness

Better Management of Resources

What are the Benefits that have been seen with EMS Adoption?

Improved communication

Eliminating redundancy in roles and responsibilities



Increased operational efficiency and consistency

Improved environmental management

Improved relationships with regulators

Cost savings

Improved bond ratings

Reduced insurance premiums

Environmental Clearance

Underlying basis, spirit and preamble

Protect environment and control pollutionEnvironment Protection Act 1986 (May 1986)

Environment Protection Rules 1986 (Nov 1986)

Section 5 Environment Protection Rules 1986: Prohibitions and restrictions on thelocation of industries; carrying on of processes and operations in different areas

EIA 1994

Environment Protection Act 1986

Discharge internationally agreed obligations under Rio Declaration

EIA 2006 is supersession of EIA 1994, except in respect of things done or omitted tobe done before such supersession

Which projects require EC?

Projects listed in the schedule to notification (as Category A and B projects)

All new projects or activities listed in the Schedule to this notification

Expansion and modernization of existing projects or activities listed in the Scheduleto this notificationAny change in product - mix in an existing manufacturing unit included in Schedule

EC by whom?

Category A projects: Central Government in the Ministry of Environment and Forests

Base decisions on the recommendation by Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC)

Category B projects: At state level the State Environment Impact AssessmentAuthority (SEIAA)

The SEIAA shall base its decision on the recommendations of a State orUnion territory level Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC) as to be constitutedfor in this notification



In the absence of a duly constituted SEIAA or SEAC, a Category B projectshall be treated as a Category A project

State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA)

SEIAA shall be constituted by the Central Government

comprising of three Members

Chairman and a member secretary to be nominated by the State Government or theUnion territory Administration

Rules for membership of SEIAA

All decisions of the SEIAA shall be unanimous and taken in a meeting

Expert Committees for Screening, Scoping and Appraisal (EAC and SEAC)

Expert Committees

Expert Appraisal Committees (EACs) at the Central Government

State Expert Appraisal Committees (SEAC) at the State or the Union territory

Responsible for screening, scoping and appraising projects

Procedure for selection and maintenance of EAC and SEAC is given in notification

Application for Prior Environmental Clearance

An application seeking prior environmental clearance in all cases shall be made

In the prescribed Form 1 and Supplementary Form 1A

After the identification of prospective site(s)

After identification of activities

Submit pre-feasibility report for all and conceptual plan for construction activities

Stages in EC process

Stage 1: Screening (Only for Category B projects and activities)

Stage 2: Scoping

Stage 3: Public ConsultationStage 4: Appraisal

Sequential order

all of which may not apply to particular cases as set forth in this notification

Summary of EIA process and Rough Timelines



Purpose of EMS AuditsTo ensure the organization is continually improving its EMS and environmental performance

EMS Audit:ISO 14001 Definition

A systematic and documented verification process of objectively obtaining and evaluating auditevidence to determine whether an organizations EMS conforms with the EMS audit criteria set bythe organization (i.e., ISO 14001), and communicating the results of this process to management

Key Words in Definition

Systematic: organized, methodical, planned

Documented: recorded in writing

Verification: information is confirmed, cross-checked, validated

Objective: independent, unbiased, no conflict of interest

Evaluating: assessing

Evidence: verified observations, verified verbal and written information



AUDIT CRITERIA

Assess an EMS against ISO 14001 specifications

AUDIT SCOPE

Defines which elements of ISO 14001, which parts of the organization, and how far into thepast the audit will cover

OBJECTIVES

Assess:

whether the EMS has been implemented and maintained effectively

whether the EMS meets industry norms, and the principles of due diligence

Identify opportunities for improving the EMS

Environmental audits of an EMS are usually conducted once or twice a year

Types of audits: Internal audits by personnel from the facility, other company sites, or contractors

External audits by independent certified registration body:

Registration (3-year intervals)

Surveillance (every 6 months or 1 year)

Who is Involved in an Audit?

Client: the sponsor, who requests and usually pays for the audit

Auditee: the organization or facility being audited (often also the client)

Audit team: qualified individuals, directed by a lead auditor, who conduct the audit

Facility management: responsible for receiving and initiating action on audit results

Facility supervisors and employees: responsible for co-operating in the audit and providinginformation requested by auditors

ISO 14001 EMS Audit says:

The organization shall establish and maintain (a) program(s) and procedures for periodicenvironmental management system audits to be carried out in order to:

(a) determine whether or not the EMS

(i) conforms to planned arrangements for environmental management, includingthe requirements of this International Standard; and

(ii) has been properly implemented and maintained; and

(b) provide information on the results of audits to management

The organization must schedule regular internal audits of its EMS to assess whether it: routinely meets all the specifications of ISO 14001

is kept up to date (maintained) properly



Top management must be made fully aware of the audit findings

The organization s audit programme, including any schedule, shall be based on the environmentalimportance of the activity concerned, and the results of previous audits. In order to becomprehensive, the audit procedures shall cover the audit scope, frequency, and methodologies,as well as the responsibilities and requirements for conducting audits and reporting results.

(UNDP)The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is the UN's global development network,an organization advocating for change and connecting countries to knowledge, experience andresources to help people build a better life. UNDP is on the ground in 166 countries, working withpeople on their own solutions to global and national development challenges.

UNDP MANDATE

UNDP aims to make a difference in the lives of the most disadvantaged

UNDP in India has been dedicated to improve the lives of the poorest since 1951. UNDP works inthe states that have the lowest Human Development Indicators and focuses on inclusion of themost disadvantaged groups, including the poorest such as Scheduled Castes and ScheduledTribes.

UNDP supports capacity development of people and institutions

UNDP helps strengthen capacity of people and institutions in order to improve the implementationof national schemes, missions and programmes.

UNDP adopts a Human Rights Approach to development

UNDP applies core principles of Human Rights, i.e. non-discrimination, participation, andaccountability, to all aspects of its work.

UNDP is working towards joint United Nations efforts

The Resident Representative of UNDP also serves as the coordinator of all development activitiesfor the United Nations system in India as a whole. Through such coordination, UNDP seeks toensure the most effective use of the UNs and internationa l aid resources.

UNDP supports the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals UNDP works towards accelerating progress of human development within the framework of theGovernment of Indias (GoI) 11th Five Year Plan, and supports the Government to me et theMillennium Development Goals (MDGs) in India.

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA (GOI) UNDP COUNTRY PROGRAMME ACTION PLAN (CPAP)

The Government of India - UNDP India Country Programme Action Plan (CPAP) is developedevery five years.

The CPAP from 2008 to 2012 builds upon the experience gained and progress made through theimplementation of the previous UNDP supported programmes.



It outlines how UNDP plans to support the Government of India to achieve its goals for theEleventh Five Year Plan on human development and inclusive growth.

The UNDP CPAP is closely aligned with the United Nations Development Assistance Framework(UNDAF 2008-2012), the strategic framework for the UN organizations in India for its support tothe Government's national priorities.

PRIORITIES OF UNDP IN INDIA

UNDP like other UN agencies in India - works in the seven states that score the lowest on theHuman Development Indicators in India, namely Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, MadhyaPradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. In these geographic areas, UNDP has differentlevels and targets of intervention.

National Level

Knowledge sharing and advocacy leading to development of policies

State Level Strengthen implementation as well as monitoring and evaluation of the key Human DevelopmentProgrammes, schemes and missions

District Level

Integrated district planning, accountability, participation and capacity development

Panchayat or Community Level

Capacity development and participation of elected officials and communities

UNDP RESOURCES

UNDPs 200 employees in India are its main resource. In addition, UNDP contracts 200 UnitedNations Volunteers as well as consultants to work in its programmes and projects.

UNDPs core or internal funding allocation for India is US$ 70 millio n.

Non-core funds for India - which are generated from bilaterals, multilateral and privateagencies are US$ 180 million.



UNDP is looking at increasing the Governments contribution when sharing costs under GoI-UNDP programmes.

THE AREAS UNDP WORKS IN

Democratic Governance

UNDP strengthens the capacity of the Government, local elected representatives and communitiesto undertake more participatory and equitable development planning. The organization promotesequal access to justice for all

. Poverty Reduction UNDP helps national and state governments to implement inclusive poverty reductionprogrammes, with a focus on human development. UNDP supports programmes, policies andpartnerships that promote a income opportunities for poor people, and help them access financialproducts to protect these gains.

Energy and Environment UNDP supports Government and community efforts that protect biodiversity, reduce pollution, andreverse land degradation and also works on meeting the emerging challenges posed by climatechange.

Crisis Prevention and Recovery

In areas prone to disasters, UNDP furthers efforts that build the resilience of communities at risk.The organization also supports state and district institutions to prepare for and better managedisasters.

HIV and Development

UNDP supports the Government at all levels and vulnerable groups to respond to HIV byexpanding awareness, action and alliances beyond the health sector. UNDP also supports effortsby civil society and the private sector to reduce stigma and discrimination associated with HIV.

UNDP Human DevelopmentEnvironment, Poverty and Human Development: Exploring the Linkages

UNDP is the UN's global development network, advocating for change and connecting countries toknowledge, experience and resources to help people build a better life.

166 countries, supporting their own solutions to development challenges and developing nationaland local capacities that will help them achieve human development and the MillenniumDevelopment Goals .

UNDP work is concentrated on four main focus areas

Democratic Governance

Poverty Reduction

Crisis Prevention and Recovery

Environment and Energy for Sustainable Development
http://hdr.undp.org/en/humandev/http://hdr.undp.org/en/humandev/http://www.undp.org/mdg/http://www.undp.org/mdg/http://www.undp.org/mdg/http://www.undp.org/governance/http://www.undp.org/governance/http://www.undp.org/poverty/http://www.undp.org/cpr/http://www.undp.org/cpr/http://www.undp.org/energyandenvironment/index.htmlhttp://www.undp.org/energyandenvironment/index.htmlhttp://www.undp.org/energyandenvironment/index.htmlhttp://www.undp.org/cpr/http://www.undp.org/poverty/http://www.undp.org/governance/http://www.undp.org/mdg/http://www.undp.org/mdg/http://hdr.undp.org/en/humandev/



A Vicious Circle?

Responding to environmental threats

Demand for environmental quality ... is a luxury - the poor are too busy thinking about basic survival to concern

themselves with environmental issues

Ability to respond to such demands ...

is dependent on aggregate wealth - economic prosperity and technologicalsophistication allow nations to react to environmental challenges

Ergo ...

Environmentalism is the exclusive concern of the rich, in the advanced industrialnations

Understanding responses

Out of concern for nature

as a source of cultural, spiritual, social and economic value ...

To mitigate anthropogenic influences on the natural environment

pollution, resource depletion, extinction of species ...

To reduce the impacts of environmental changes on human society

health impacts, livelihoods, needs, well-being ...

Alternative perspectives

Political economy

Why are people poor? Poor as proximate causes, but (global) inequalities as the ultimatecauses

Evidence that the poor can and do care for the environment: effective environmentalstewardship

The poor as environmental activists: new social and ecological movements; grassrootspolitical action



Policy - remove inequalities

Market/institutional failure

Price signals - perverse subsidies/taxes

Tenure policies/property rights

Legal framework

Implementation capacity

Competing policy demands

Policy correct market/institutional failure

Reversing the causality

Dependence of the poor on natural resources for their livelihoods: CPR studies

Impact of internal and external pressures is to undermine the sustainability of the local

resource base Policy - improved environmental sustainability as a poverty alleviation strategy

Rural poverty - environment linkages



Ecosystem services Definition

Ecosystem services are the conditions and processes through which naturalecosystems, and the species that make them up, sustain and fulfil human life.

Daily et al 1997

* Provisioning functions

* Regulating functions

* Enriching/cultural functions

Ecosystem services: provisioning

* Magnitude/rate of goods harvested (flows), e.g.:

* Food

* Micro-organisms, plant and animal products* Genetic material, biochemicals & pharmaceuticals

* Fuels/energy

* Fodder

* Fibre

* Non-living material

*

Fresh waterEcosystem services: regulating

Life support funct ions, determined by stock of the ecosystem, e.g.:

Purification of air and water

Mitigation of floods and droughts

Detoxification and decomposition of wastes

Preservation of soil and soil fertility

Pollination of crops and vegetation

Control of pests

Dispersal of seeds

Maintenance of biodiversity

Stabilisation of climate



Ecosystem services: enriching/cultural

Beliefs and values surrounding natural forces, providing spiritual/religious/cultural support(determined by stock), e.g.:

Spiritual components

Aesthetic values

Social relations and values

Educational/scientific values

Ecosystem services: well-being issues

Provisioning: access of the poor for basic needs; distributional issues

Regulating: equitable sharing of benefits and costs associated with protection

Enriching/cultural: conflicting cognitive paradigms and value/moral systems

Potential conflict between these services, but also scope for synergy/win-win scenarios

1 .ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Ecosystem: Structure and function, role of UNDP, International labour organization (ILO), WTO,WORLD BANK, NG Os and National Governments.Global protocols, implications of development projects on the eco-system, Policies, laws andadministrative frame work for protection and promotion of environment, protection of forests,fauna, fisheries and wild life.

Pollution: Air, Water and Noise Pollution, sources of pollution, control technologies, standardsand tolerances.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Regional Environmental Quality management,Environmental clearances requirements of projects methods and procedures. EnvironmentalManagement Plan (EMP) of Projects A case study.Involuntary dislocation of people due to development project : Problems of project effectedpersons PAPs(Pollution Prevention Pays) Resettlement and Rehabilitation (R&R), Guideline s ofthe World Bank and other funding agencies, Various ministries, Authorities and Boards for (R&R)of PAPs for project purposes.

Solid Waste Management : Sources, Classification, abatment, sanitary land fill, incineration,

compositing etc.Environmental Audit: Effects of Pollution on living systems, Environmental Hazards and HumanHealth, Civil and Bio Engineering techniques.



India: An Introduction

Population: 1.13 billion (2007)Federal State with 28 States and 7 Union TerritoriesGDP(Gross Domestic Product) USD1.2 trillion (2007)External Trade USD 528 billion (2007)Forex Reserves USD 247 billion (end Nov 2008)Market capitalisation (as end Nov 2008): USD 560 billion (50% of GDP).

Indias Geography

Country Population Land mass

India 1.13 b 3.2 m sq km

USA 0.30 b 9.6 m sq km

India has one-third the land mass of the United States; and nearly four times its population.India therefore must develop strategies for sustainable growth and livelihood which suits itsrequirements, while continuing to integrate with the world economy and moving towards aknowledge-based societyEconomic efficiency in the use of scarce resources, growth and social cohesion promotinginstitutions, socio-political norms are therefore imperatives.

Indias Share in World -Gross Domestic Product (GDP): India constitutes nearly 17 percent of the worlds population, but even in PPP(Pollution

Prevention Pays ) terms its GDP share is only 5 per cent.

In all good things (eg, agricultural production, GDP, patents, tourists, Foreign DirectInvestment ,FDI) Indias share is at least one -sixth of the worlds total.



Country Total Population (millions)

Average annual rate of change of population

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

Median Age Life Expectancy at Birth Medium Variant

2007 2050 2005-

2010

2045-

2050

2005-

2010

2045-

2050

2005 2050 2005-

2010

2045-

2050 World 6671.2 9191.3 1.17 0.36 2.6 2.0 28.0 38.1 67.2 75.4 China 1328.6 1408.8 0.58 -0.32 1.7 1.8 32.5 45.0 73.0 79.3 India 1103.4 1592.7 1.55 0.30 3.0 1.8 24.3 38.7 63.1 75.9 Indonesia 231.6 296.9 1.16 0.10 2.2 1.8 26.5 41.1 70.7 78.6

Korea 48.2 42.3 0.33 -0.89 1.2 1.5 35.0 54.9 78.6 83.5 Malaysia 26.6 39.6 1.69 0.41 2.6 1.8 24.7 39.3 74.2 80.1Philippines 87.9 140.5 1.90 0.50 3.2 1.8 21.8 36.3 71.7 78.7

Singapore 4.4 5.0 1.19 -0.38 1.2 1.6 37.5 53.7 80.0 84.6

Sri Lanka 19.7 18.7 0.47 -0.55 1.9 1.8 29.5 43.4 72.4 77.6 Thailand 63.9 67.4 0.66 -0.27 1.8 1.8 32.6 44.3 70.6 78.1Vietnam 87.4 120.0 1.32 0.21 2.1 1.8 24.9 41.6 74.2 80.3

Key Demographic Indicators in Asia ( up table)

Country Life Expectancy at age 60, 2000- 2005

Percentage of total population aged 60 and above Medium Variant

Population aged 60 and above (millions) Medium Variant

Men Women 2005 2050 2005 2050

World N.A. N.A. 10.3 21.8 672.8 2005.7

China 20 17 11.0 31.1 144.0 437.9

India 16 18 8.0 21.0 89.9 329.6

Indonesia 18 16 8.3 24.8 18.9 73.6

Korea 23 18 13.7 42.2 6.6 17.8

Malaysia 19 17 6.7 22.2 1.7 8.8

Philippines 19 17 6.0 18.2 5.1 25.5

Singapore 23 20 12.3 39.8 0.5 2.0

Sri Lanka 17 21 9.7 29.0 1.9 5.4

Thailand 20 17 11.3 29.8 7.1 20.1

Vietnam 20 18 7.6 26.1 6.5 31.3

Evolution of Global and Per Capita GDP in the Last 2,000 Years



Demographic Trends:Asia is set to experience rapid ageing in the 21st century. China, Indonesia, Korea,Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand will have nearly as many elderly by 2050 asin the world in 2005.Asia in 2050 will account for nearly three- fifths of the worlds population. The rapid ageing of Asia is a result of reduction in fertility rates and increased lifeexpectancy at birth and at age 65. By 2045-50, the above countries will have Total FertilityRate (TFR) below the replacement rate as compared to only four in 2005-10.As is well known, increased longevity raises social security costs disproportionately.Uncertainty about longevity trends (example, due to uncertain impact of medicaltechnology) is increasing the complexity of designing pension programs.

Population Aged 15-59 for Asia-Pacific Economies 1950-2050 :

Source: United Nations, 2002, World Population Ageing 1950 -2050 Sales No E02XIII.3,Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, New York: United NationsPublications.

New Jobs in the World Economy 2005-2020New jobs in the developingworld

In millions % of world increase

Developing Asia 315.5 67

China 65 13.8

India 142.4 30.2

Latin America 45 9.5

United States 12.5 2.6

EU 25 8.4 1.8

Total 471.3 100



The Four Phases:four dis tinct phases in Indias growth and economic reforms since independence.

1. Phase I (1951-65): Takeoff under a liberal regime2. Phase II (1965-81): Socialism Strikes with a Vengeance3. Phase III (1981-88): Liberalization by Stealth4. Phase IV (1988-06): Triumph of Liberalization

The Four Phases

Phase TimePeriod

GrowthRate

Phase I 1951-65 4.1 %

Phase II 1965-81 3.2 %

Phase III

1981-88 4.8%

Phase IV

1988-06 6.3%

Indias real GDP grew at 6.9% pa during 2000 -2007 (RBI Handbook 2008)

India: Changing Composition of GDP:

Year Agriculture & Allied Industry Manufacturing Service

1950-51 57 15 9 28

1964-65 49 21 14 31

1980-81 40 24 14 36

1987-88 33 26 16 41

2004-05 21 27 17 52

Composition of GDP:

Merchandise Exports and Imports as Proportion of GDP:

Four Phases of Growth (percent)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1951-65 1965-81 1981-88 1988-06

A n n u a l G D P G r o w t h R a t e ( % )

1950-51

Agriculture

and AlliedIndustry

Manufacturing

Service

2004-05

Agriculture

and AlliedIndustry

Manufacturing

Service

Year Exports/GDP Imports/GDP

1965-66 2.9 5.11975-76 4.8 6.3

1985-86 3.9 7.1

2005-06 20.5 22.6

Merchandise Exports and Imports as Proportions ofGDP

0

5

10

15

20

25

1965-66 1975-76 1985-86 2005-06

% o

f G D P

Exports/GDPImports/GDP



External Sector Data: In 2007, Indias total external trade in goods and services was USD 528 billion (47.9% of

GDP) This is one of the important indicators of Indias rapidly integration with the world economy.

India plans to achieve a target of USD 1000 billion before 2015 in its external trade. Thiswill be a huge challenge in view of the current global crisis.The others are inward Foreign Direct Investment ( $32.3 billion in 2007-08), andremittances (~$ 30 billion in 2007)

Indias outwa rd investment is also growing.Official Poverty Estimates:

Poverty Decline under Liberalization Reforms:

Growth in Per-Capita Net State Domestic Product

Wide variation among states



Major Challenges:Ensuring that good economics is good politics (this will require a shift from ruling togoverning mindset, and administrative and civil service reforms).Environmental challenges.Energy and Food Security.Managing Urbanization.Accelerating physical and social infrastructure investments.Developing human capital for sustainable livelihoods through application of knowledgeeconomy .Coping with demographic challenges.

The Green Economy [GE] and International EnvironmentalGovernance [IEG]

On a business as usual path By 2030

Global energy demand up by 45%Oil price up to USD 180 per barrel(IEA)GHG emissions up 45%Global average temperature trajectory+6 C

Economic losses equivalent to 5-10%of global GDP as compared to the 3%of GDP loss from the current financialcrisis;Poor countries will suffer costs inexcess of 10% of their GDP (Stern)

The global context Multiple crises :

Financial - 18 to 51 million unemployed over 2007 levels & the number of extremely poorhas increased by at least 100 million people worldwide;

Fuel - rising prices cost developing economies USD 400 bn in higher energy bills in 2007; Food - rising prices cost developing countries USD 324 bn in 2007; Ecosystem EUR 50 bn worth of biodiversity is being lost each year; and Climate - current global GHG(green house gas) emissions at 42 Gt per annum - 5 times

higher than the threshold. Emerging opportunities :

Opportunities from stimulus packages to jump start a transition towards a green economy:out of the USD 3.1 trillion stimulus packages, USD 512 (16%) bn have been identified asgreen stimulus.

Opportunity from the global collective rethinking of the development and businessmodels of the last century an overwhelming acceptance of the need to move towards agreen economy.



Support for transition to a green economy from UNGA, World Leaders, G8, G20, UNEP,CSD, OECD, CEB, EMG etc.

What is a Green Economy? Increase in green investment Increase in quantity & quality of jobs in green sectors Increase in share of green sectors in GDP Decrease in Energy/resource use per unit of production Decrease in CO2 and pollution level/GDP Decrease in wasteful consumption

An intelligent invisible hand... Domestic policy initiatives:

Perverse subsidies Incentives & taxes Land use and urban policy

Integrated management of freshwater Environmental legislation Monitoring and accountability

International policy architecture: International trade International aid Global carbon market Global markets for ecosystems

services Development and transfer of

technology International coordination of the Global

Green New Deal

Some Green economy conceptsA low carbon economy: part of a GE measured by the carbon level of economic activitiesGreen growth: GDP growth subject to green conditions as well as focusing on green

sectors as new growth engines - growth in a GE is green growthGreen jobs: jobs in green sectors, also known as green collar jobsCircular economy: an economy in which the waste from one production/consumptionprocess is circulated as a new input into the same or a difference process one of theapproaches to a GEEcological economy: an economy subject to ecological principles (eg biodiversity & carrycapacity) as well as utilizing ecological functions to contribute to both the economy andecosystems (eg organic farming) one of the approaches to a GE



United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Green Economy Initiative(GEI)

What is the UNEP-led GEI? Launched in October 2008, a package of products/services in collaboration with a widerange of partners - to motivate and enable governments to invest in green economies forthe benefit of people, especially the poor and vulnerable, the economy, and theenvironment.UNEP GC/GMEF Ministerial Consultations in February, 2009 Creating a green economy goes hand-in-hand with sustainable development and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals .Financially supported by the Governments of Norway, Switzerland, the United Kingdom,and the United Nations Foundation.

What are the key messages from the GEI? Place green investment at the core of the stimulus packagesInclude green investment in regular government budgetCreate public-private green investment funding mechanismsProvide domestic enabling conditions (fiscal/pricing policy, standards, education & training)

Provide global enabling conditions (trade, IPRs, ODA, technology transfer, environmentalagreements)What is good about the GEI?

It focuses on the positive links between being green and economic growth/decent jobcreation/poverty reductionIt promotes green sectors as new growth engines and enables developing countries toleapfrog into modern economiesIt has the potential to address multiple challenges facing the humankind

Evidence of green economies 2.3 million jobs in renewable energy now to grow to 20 million by 2030USD 253 bn market for water supply, sanitation,& water efficiency now to grow to USD 658bn by 2020EU & US: green buildings to create 2-3.5 million jobs



Organic agriculture provides more than 30% more jobs/hectareChina: 10 million jobs in recycling; and renewable energy output at USD 17 bn/yearemploying 1 million

A global Green Economy Report An in-depth analysis and guidance on macroeconomic contribution from investing in 10

green sectors: - Renewables - Waste- Industries - Forests- Transport - Fisheries- Buildings - Agriculture- Cities - Tourism

Supported by innovative financing mechanisms as well as policy reforms: - Taxes - IPRs- Subsidies - Standards- Pricing - R&D

- Trade - Training- Market access - Education- Green technologies

IEG and the Green Economy How can IEG support countries transition towards a green economy?

Well-functioning markets depend on well functioning institutionsThe economy working for sustainable developmentEnvironment as the foundation of sustainable development

IEG Reform and the Green Economy UNEP GC decision 25/4: The Belgrade Process

Form follows function approachIEG reform in the context of environmental sustainability and sustainabledevelopmentConsideration of incremental changes alongside broader institutional reformRecognised need for political buy-in and leadership

Discussed six key objectives of an IEG system:1) Creating a strong, credible and coherent science base2) Developing a global authoritative and responsive voice for environmental

sustainability3) Achieving coherence within the UN system4) Securing sufficient, predictable and coherent funding

5) Ensuring a responsive and cohesive approach to meeting country needs6) Facilitating the transition towards a global green economy



11 th Special Session of the UNEP GC/GMEF Bali 2010 International Environmental Governance and sustainable development:

Inputs from the Consultative Group of Ministers or their high-level representatives onIEG reform.

Outcomes from the first meetings of the Extraordinary COPs of the Basel, Rotterdamand Stockholm Conventions (ExCOP) and the lessons learned for the biodiversityrelated conventions.

Reports on the JIU report on environmental governance in the UN system.The green economy:

Recent green economy developments within the UNGA, G8, G20, OECD, CSD, andUNEP through its Green Economy Initiative.

How the concept of the green economy has been implemented at the country level.Biodiversity and Ecosystems:

The 2010 International Year of Biodiversity - the economic, governance and sciencechallenges to be met.

The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) progress report. Progress made in implementing the decision on the policy/science interface

IPBES.

2. Environment & Ecology AssessmentLargest assessment of the health of the planets ecosystems :

Experts and Review Process

Prepared by 1360 experts from 95 countries 80-person independent board of review editors Review comments from 850 experts and governments In addition to global assessment, includes information from 33 sub-global

assessments Governance

Called for by UN Secretary General in 2000 Authorized by governments through 4 conventions Partnership of UN agencies, conventions, business, non-governmental organizations

with a multi-stakeholder board of directors Focus: Ecosystem Services :



The benefits people obtain from ecosystems Focus: Consequences of Ecosystem Change for Human Well-being(aabove dig.)

MA (Millennium Assessment) Findings Outline: 1. Ecosystem Changes in Last 50 Years 2. Gains and Losses from Ecosystem Change

Three major problems will decrease long-term benefits Degradation of Ecosystem Services Increased Likelihood of Nonlinear Changes

Exacerbation of Poverty for Some People 3. Ecosystem Prospects for Next 50 Years 4. Reversing Ecosystem Degradation

Finding #1: Over the past 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively

than in any comparable period of time in human history This has resulted in a substantial and largely irreversible loss in the diversity of life on Earth

Unprecedented change: Ecosystems: More land was converted to cropland since 1945 than in the 18th and 19th centuries

combined 25% of the worlds coral reefs we re badly degraded or destroyed in the last several

decades 35% of mangrove area has been lost in this time Amount of water in reservoirs quadrupled since 1960 Withdrawals from rivers and lakes doubled since 1960

Unprecedented change: Biogeochemical Cycles: Since 1960:

Flows of biologically available nitrogen in terrestrial ecosystems doubled Flows of phosphorus tripled

> 50% of all the synthetic nitrogen fertilizer ever used has been used since 1985



60% of the increase in the atmospheric concentration of CO 2 since 1750 has taken placesince 1959

Significant and largely irreversible changes to species diversity: The distribution of species on Earth is becoming more homogenous Humans have increased the species extinction rate by between 50 and 1,000 times over

background rates typical over the planets history ( medium certainty) 10 30% of mammal, bird, and amphibian species are currently threatened with extinction

(medium to high certainty)

MA Findings - Outline 1. Ecosystem Changes in Last 50 Years 2. Gains and Losses from Ecosystem Change Three major problems will decrease long-term benefits

Degradation of Ecosystem Services Increased Likelihood of Nonlinear Changes Exacerbation of Poverty for Some People

3. Ecosystem Prospects for Next 50 Years 4. Reversing Ecosystem Degradation

Finding #2:

The changes that have been made to ecosystems have contributed to substantial net gainsin human well-being and economic development, but these gains have been achieved atgrowing costs

These problems will substantially diminish the benefits that future generations obtain fromecosystems.

Changes to ecosystems have provided substantial benefits: Since 1960, while population doubled and economic activity increased 6-fold:

food production increased 2 times; food production per capita has grown and foodprice has fallen

water use doubled wood harvests for pulp and paper production tripled timber production increased by more than half installed hydropower capacity doubled



benefits:Degradation and unsustainable use of ecosystem services:

Approximately 60% (15 out of 24) of the ecosystem services evaluated in this assessmentare being degraded or used unsustainably

The degradation of ecosystem services often causes significant harm to human well-beingand represents a loss of a natural asset or wealth of a country

Status of Provisioning Services:

Service Status

Food crops

livestock

capture fisheries

aquaculture wild foods

Fiber timber +/

cotton, silk +/

wood fuel

Genetic resources

Biochemicals, medicines

Water fresh water

Status of Regulating and Cultural Services : Regulating Services Status

Air quality regulation

Service Status

Food crops

livestock

capture fisheries

aquaculture

wild foods

Fiber timber +/

cotton, silk +/

wood fuel

Genetic resources

Biochemicals, medicines

Water fresh water

Recreation and ecotourism

+/



Degradation of ecosystem services often causes significant harm to human well-being: The total economic value associated with managing ecosystems more sustainably is often

higher than the value associated with conversion Conversion often still takes place because private economic benefits are often greater for

the converted systemThe degradation of ecosystem services represents loss of a capital asset :

Loss of wealth due to ecosystem degradation is not reflected in economic accounts Ecosystem services, as well as resources such as mineral deposits, soil nutrients,

and fossil fuels are capital assets Traditional national accounts do not include measures of resource depletion or of the

degradation of these resources A country could cut its forests and deplete its fisheries, and this would show only as

a positive gain in GDP without registering the corresponding decline in assets(wealth)

A number of countries that appeared to have positive growth in net savings (wealth)in 2001 actually experienced a loss in wealth when degradation of natural resources

were factored into the accounts

Degradation of Ecosystem Services:Increased likelihood of nonlinear changes:

There is established but incomplete evidence that changes being made in ecosystems areincreasing the likelihood of nonlinear and potentially abrupt changes in ecosystems, withimportant consequences for human well-being

Examples of nonlinear change: Fisheries collapse

Eutrophication and hypoxia Disease emergence Species introductions and losses Regional climate change

Increased Likelihood of Nonlinear Changes:Level of poverty remains high and inequities are growing:

Economics and Human Development 1.1 billion people surviving on less than $1 per day of income. During the 1990s, 21 countries experienced declines in their rankings in the Human

Development Index Access to Ecosystem Services

An estimated 856 million people were undernourished in 2000 2002, up 32 millionfrom 1995 97

Per capita food production has declined in sub-Saharan Africa



Some 1.1 billion people still lack access to improved water supply, and more than2.6 billion lack access to improved sanitation

Water scarcity affects roughly 1 2 billion people worldwide

Ecosystem services and poverty reduction: Degradation of ecosystem services harms poor people

Half the urban population in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean suffersfrom one or more diseases associated with inadequate water and sanitation

The declining state of capture fisheries is reducing an inexpensive source of proteinin developing countries. Per capita fish consumption in developing countries,excluding China, declined between 1985 and 1997

Critical concern: Dryland systems Lowest levels of human well-being Only 8% of the worlds renewable water supply Per capita water availability is two thirds of the level required for minimum levels of

human well-being

Approximately 10 20% of drylands are degraded Experienced the highest population growth rate in the 1990s Cover 41% of Earths land surface and more than 2 billion people inhabit them

Exacerbation of Poverty for Some People:Finding #3:

The degradation of ecosystem services could grow significantly worse during the first half ofthis century and is a barrier to achieving the Millennium Development Goals

Direct drivers growing in intensity

Most direct drivers of degradation in ecosystem services remain constant or are growing inintensity in most ecosystemsMA Scenarios:Not predictions scenarios are plausible futuresBoth quantitative models and qualitative analysis used in scenario development

Changes in direct drivers:

Habitat transformation: Further 10 20% of grassland and forestland is projected to beconverted by 2050

Overexploitation, overfishing: Pressures continue to grow in all scenarios



Invasive alien species: Spread continues to increaseChanges in direct drivers:Nutrient loading Humans have already doubled the flow of reactive nitrogen on the continents, and some

projections suggest that this may increase by roughly a further two thirds by 2050. The MA scenarios project that the global flux of nitrogen to coastal ecosystems will increase

by a further 10 20% by 2030, with almost all of this increase occurring in developingcountries.

Changes in direct drivers:Climate Change Potential future impacts

By the end of the century, climate change and its impacts may be the dominantdirect driver of biodiversity loss and changes in ecosystem services globally

Net harmful impact on ecosystem services The balance of scientific evidence suggests that there will be a significant net

harmful impact on ecosystem services worldwide if global mean surface temperature

increases more than 2o

C above preindustrial levels ( medium certainty)

Degradation of ecosystem services is a significant barrier to achievement of MDGs: Regional concerns

Regions facing the greatest challenges in achieving the 2015 targets coincide withregions facing the greatest problems of ecosystem degradation: sub-Saharan Africa,Central Asia, parts of South and Southeast Asia, and some regions in Latin America

Strong linkages with ecosystem condition Although socioeconomic factors will play a primary role in achieving many of the

MDGs, targets are unlikely to be met without improvement in ecosystemmanagement for goals such as: Poverty Reduction Hunger Disease Environmental Sustainability including access to water

3. Ecosystem Prospects for Next 50 Years:Finding #4:

The challenge of reversing the degradation of ecosystems while meeting increasingdemands for their services can be met under some scenarios involving significant policyand institutional changes, but these changes are large and not currently under way

Many options exist to conserve or enhance specific ecosystem services in ways that reducenegative trade-offs or that provide positive synergies with other ecosystem services

Improvements in services can be achieved by 2050:



Three of the four scenarios show that significant changes in policy can mitigate many of thenegative consequences of growing pressures on ecosystems, although the changesrequired are large and not currently under way

Responses Importance of Indirect Drivers: Ecosystem degradation can rarely be reversed without actions that address one or more

indirect drivers of change: population change (including growth and migration) change in economic activity (including economic growth, disparities in wealth, and

trade patterns) sociopolitical factors (including factors ranging from the presence of conflict to public

participation in decision-making) cultural factors

technological change Collectively these factors influence the level of production and consumption of ecosystem

services and the sustainability of the production.

Promising Responses: Institutions

Increased transparency and accountability of government and private-sectorperformance

Economics Elimination of subsidies that promote excessive use of ecosystem services (and,

where possible, transfer these subsidies to payments for non-marketed ecosystemservices)

Greater use of economic instruments and market-based approaches in themanagement of ecosystem services (where enabling conditions exist):

Technology Promotion of technologies that enable increased crop yields without harmful

impacts Restoration of ecosystem services

Social and Behavioral Changes in consumption Communication and education Empowerment of groups dependent on ecosystem services

Knowledge



Incorporation of nonmarket values of ecosystems in resource managementdecisions

Enhancement of human and institutional capacity

Summary: Over the past 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively

than in any comparable period of time in human history. The changes that have been made to ecosystems have contributed to substantial net gains

in human well-being and economic development, but these gains have been achieved atgrowing costs in the form of the degradation of many ecosystem services, increased risksof nonlinear changes, and the exacerbation of poverty for some groups of people.

The degradation of ecosystem services could grow significantly worse during the first half ofthis century and is a barrier to achieving the Millennium Development Goals.

The challenge of reversing the degradation of ecosystems while meeting increasingdemands for their services can be met under some scenarios involving significant policyand institutional changes, but these changes are large and not currently under way.

3 ECOLOGY : STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Ecology is the study of plants and animals in their natural environment . Ecology can only take place in the earths biosphere Def: the biosphere is the part of the earths land, air and water where life can survive and

reproduce.

Ecosystems : Def: an ecosystem is a community of organisms interacting with each other and their

environment. Structure of ecosystems:

It is made up of 2 parts: 1: ABIOTIC (non-living) part called the habitat 2: BIOTIC (living) part called the community



ABIOTIC FACTORS :This is broken down into 4 different areas.1: CLIMATIC FACTORS:

Light, temperature, water availability, wind2: EDAPHIC FACTORS: (soil)

Aeration, drainage, humus content, mineral content, soil pH3: GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS:

Aspect (direction), slope, altitude, shelter.4: CHEMICAL FACTORS:

Oxygen, pH, mineral availability, salinity

BIOTIC FACTORS : Connected with presence and activities of living organisms.

Producers Consumers Decomposers

Competition with other animals for food Relationship between predator and prey. Effects of parasitesProducers and consumers

Producers Organisms that carry out photosynthesis are called producers

Consumers Consumers are organisms that take in food from another organism. All animals are

consumers

- Primary consumers feed on producers- Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers- Tertiary consumers feed on secondary consumers. If no other organism feeds on them

they are called top consumers

FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM: Energy Flow Food Chain Food Web Ecological Pyramids Nutrient Cycle

Carbon, Nitrogen etcEnergy Flow :

Ecosystems cannot function without a constant input of energy Where do we get this energy? Primary source for all energy is the SUN. Light energy is trapped by green plants and converted into chemical energy and stored in

food (PHOTOSYNTHESIS) Plants produce food for themselves and for all other organisms on Earth This gives us a pathway of energy flow from one organism to another. A food chain is the pathway which energy is transferred in an ecosystem. Each species in the chain obtains its energy by eating the species before it. Plants at the beginning get their energy form the sun.



At best 6% of energy will be passed on in a food chain.

2 types of food chain: Grazing food chain: this is where the chain begins with a living plant Detritus food chain: this is where the chain begins with organic dead matter or animal waste

Points to note: Food chains begin with a plant (except detritus) The second part of the chain is always omnivore or herbivore. Other members will be omnivores or carnivores Arrows in the chain represent energy flow Each step in chain is determined by a trophic level ( plants are first trophic level, herbivores

are second) The number of organisms occupying each trophic level decreases from left to right. Reasons for this are: Food chains loose large amounts of energy and restrict the length of the chain. Predators are larger than prey so eat more of them. Small animals reproduce faster than

large ones.

Food Webs: Def: a food web is a set of interconnected food chains. They give a more complete picture

of what is eating what in an ecosystem. A trophic level shows us where an animal is positioned in any given food chain. The 1 st trophic level is always a producer, 2 nd trophic level is a primary consumer

(herbivore). 3 rd trophic level is secondary consumer (carnivore), 4 th level is the tertiaryconsumer (last)

Different animals can be a different trophic level depending on what they are feeding. (seepg 32/33)



Pyramid of numbers: As numbers tend to decrease in food chains, the chain is often presented by a pyramid.

The blocks of the pyramid represent how many organisms are present. To construct: Count all producers and place them at bottom. Count all consumers and place them according to their feeding status. Complete by counting tertiary carnivores at the apex

Pyramid of numbers is generally a representation of the decrease in numbers in a foodchain. However unusual shapes can come about.

This is because these pyramids Do not take into account the Size of the organism just How many are there. We then rearrange and show A pyramid of biomass (weight)

Nutrient Recycling: Def: nutrient recycling involves the molecules of a nutrient being transferred from the

environment to organisms, then back to the environment, which acts as a huge reservoir for

them. Everything is made up of 6 main elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,

phosphorous and sulfur



Some of these nutrients need to be recycled back into the envi ronment to be re used byplants again.

2 main types: Carbon Cycle and Nitrogen Cycle.

Carbon Cycle : All organisms need carbon, to make carbs, proteins, DNA etc. Plants use carbon to photosynthesise and we (animals) get it by eating plants. The supply of carbon does not run out as it is constantly being recycled. Plants, animals and decomposers burn some food for energy and release carbon dioxide

as a byproduct. Fossil fuels- which are formed from dead remains of plants and animals over millions of

years. E.g. oil, gas These give off CO2 when they are burned. Today however there is more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere than can be recycled

because of our actions. Like: cutting away forests, intensive farming and burning fossil

fuels.

Nitrogen Cycle 80% of the earths atmosphere is made up of nitrogen. it is vital for proteins and DNA. It is no use to living things as a gas (N2) but instead it must be changed into the compound

nitrate. Bacteria, volcanic action and lightning can convert N2 gas into nitrate. Nearly all nitrogen in the soil has been put there by nitrogen fixing bacteria.



Nitrate Formation Certain bacteria convert N2 gas to ammonia and then to nitrates NO3. These bacteria are found in the soil or in the roots of legumes. This is a symbiotic relationship between the bacteria and the plant Because the plant absorbs some of the nitrates made by the bacteria and in return the

bacteria absorb some sugars made by the plant during photosynthesis. When organisms excrete waste or die bacteria and fungi feed on their remains. During this they produce nitrates. This is called nitrification. These nitrifying bacteria then release the nitrates into the soil where they can be absorbed

by plants

Nitrogen Loss Nitrogen can be lost in three ways Nitrogen can be leached out of the soil in dissolved rain water. It can be lost through de-nitrification (metabolism of certain bacteria convert NO3 back into

a gas N2) Lastly some is removed as protein in plants that are eaten or collected as crops.

4. UNDP Human Development:Environment, Poverty and Human Development: Exploring the Linkages

UNDP is the UN's global development network, advocating for change and connectingcountries to knowledge, experience and resources to help people build a better life.

166 countries, supporting their own solutions to development challenges and developingnational and local capacities that will help them achieve human development and theMillennium Development Goals .

UNDP work is concentrated on four main focus areas : Democratic Governance Poverty Reduction Crisis Prevention and Recovery Environment and Energy for Sustainable Development A Vicious Circle?
http://hdr.undp.org/en/humandev/http://hdr.undp.org/en/humandev/http://www.undp.org/mdg/http://www.undp.org/mdg/http://www.undp.org/governance/http://www.undp.org/governance/http://www.undp.org/poverty/http://www.undp.org/cpr/http://www.undp.org/cpr/http://www.undp.org/energyandenvironment/index.htmlhttp://www.undp.org/energyandenvironment/index.htmlhttp://www.undp.org/energyandenvironment/index.htmlhttp://www.undp.org/cpr/http://www.undp.org/poverty/http://www.undp.org/governance/http://www.undp.org/mdg/http://hdr.undp.org/en/humandev/



ILO :

International Labour Organization 1919 ILO was formed

in order to press for social reform in employment practices. 1944 - adoption of the Declaration of Philadelphia

the ILO Conference re-stated and expanded its goals 1969 - ILO was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize 1998 - ILO adopted the Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and its

Follow-up

The Declaration of PhiladelphiaDeclaration of Philadelphia include the following principles:

Labour is not a commodityFreedom of expression and association are essential for sustained progressPoverty threatens prosperity everywhere

All human beings, irrespective of race, creed,or sex have the right to pursue both theirmaterial well-being and their spiritual development in conditions of freedom and dignity, ofeconomic security, and of equal opportunity.How the ILO WorksThe ILO promotes social dialogue between the partners on social and economic issues

International Labour Conference meets annually to set minimum international labour standards and the Organizations

policies Each member country - 4 delegates:

2 government 1 employer 1worker

Governing Body (= Executive Body) Meets between annual sessions of the Conference 28 government members 14 employer representatives 14 worker representatives

The International Labour Office Headquartes is based in GenevaILO regional and field offices in more than 40 countries

International Training Centre in TurinILO Strategic Objectives:Four principal strategic objectives:

Standards and fundamental principles and rights at workDecent employmentSocial protection for allStrengthen tripartism and social dialogue

Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and its Follow-up

Adopted by the 1998 ILO Conference to take up the challenges of globalizationThe aim of the Declaration is to ensure that social progress goes hand in hand witheconomic progress



The Bureau for Workers Activities :The mandate of the Bureau is to

strengthen representative, independent and democratic trade unions in all countriesenable union to play their role effectively in protecting workers' rights and interests and inproviding effective services to their members at national and international levelspromote the ratification and implementation of ILO Conventions.

ENVIRONMENT AND W.T.O.: Introduction

The planet is passing thro ugh a period of dramatic growth and fundamental change. Ourhuman world of 5 billion must make room in a finite environment for another human world. Thepopulation could stabilize at between 8 billion and 14 billion sometime in the next century.According to UN projections economic activity has multiplied to create a US$413trillion worldeconomy, and this could grow five or tenfold in the coming century

Trade: Trade provides access to economic resources in other countries Trade helps some countries to add to its domestic production level of certain goods,

bridging the gap between its production levels and needs. Through trade, the economic base of a country can be altered or enlarged. According to economic theories of international trade trade is central to economic growth, increased world production and an efficient distribution of

resources.

Trade and Environment: An increasing population requires an increase in the supply or production of materials for

housing, clothing and feeding. In most cases, the use or extraction of these materials eitherresults in the depletion of environmental resources or a reduction in environmental quality.

Pressure on various resources:- Land- Water- Energy consumption ,economic growth and welfare

Environmental Concerns Increase use of fertilizers and pesticides Import of obsolete technology Land Degradation A greater increase in dirty industries relative to cleaner ones Increase Pollution Deforestation Environment as a sink : the economy uses environment as a waste sink. These wastes may

originate form either production processes or from consumption activities. Externalities Lack of proper property rights.



Trade in Environmental Goods and Services: EGs are not well defined. Lists byOverseas Economic Cooperation and Development

(OECD)and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). These lists do not include many products.

Pros and Cons of Trade Magnitude of environmental degradation has worsened. According to Herman Daly ,

further growth be yond the present the scale is overwhelmingly likely to increase cost more rapidly than it increases benefits, thus ushering in a new era of uneconomic growth that impoverishes rather than enriches. Market Failure Race to Bottom

Trade promotes the technology needed to protect the environment

TRADE AND CLIMATE CHANGE Trade and Climate Change Linkage

Trade policy impacts on climate change Legal linkages Physical impacts of climate change on trade and investment Competitiveness impacts

Trade policy impacts on climate change: Scale effects

Scale effects are simply an increase or decrease in the scale of the economy, holdingconstant the mix of goods and services produced, and the techniques used to produce them.An increase in scale is a predicted result of trade liberalization, which increases standards ofliving by achieving more efficient production of goods and services.Scale effect has negative impact on climate.

Technique effects:

Trade liberalization, and investment agreements in particular, may bring new techniques ofproduction that are more energy efficient, and therefore emit fewer GHGs per unit of output.This may be due to foreign investors bringing new technologies, or domestic firms having toincrease efficiencies in the face of foreign competition. This has positive impact on climate.



Direct effects: The very fact of increased trade, in and of itself, will lead directly to more global GHG

emissions from increased transport of goods: The GHG intensity of transport variesenormously from marine transport to trucks to air freight This has negative impact on climate.

Subsidy as a trade policy measure : Agreement to restrict domestic subsidies, for example, will have a positive composition

impact if the subsidies in question encourage the production or use of particularlyGHG(green house gas) intensive goods. On the flip side, agreement to allow domesticsubsidies to support climate friendly goods and technologies might have positive climatechange impacts, though the wider long term impacts of any increased subsidies woulddemand careful consideration.

IPR (intellectual property rights) and climate change impact: It is also conceivable that changes in intellectual property rights law could have climate

change impacts.Specifically, it is possible that weakening patent protection on climate friendly technologies

could have immediate climate benefits, if it led to more widespread dissemination of thosetechnologies.The longer term impacts, however, might be negative if weakened protection discouragedinvestment and innovation in sectors of promise from a climate change perspective.

Legal linkages The various WTO Agreements and Climate change law are embodied in the UNFCCC

(United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) and its Kyoto Protocol, as well asin the various policies and measures implemented. To understand the interaction betweentrade law obligations and environmental measures some of the key issues that typically figurein the analyses are Tariffs (Most Favoured Nation basis)

members may apply tariffs at lower levels than what they are bound by, but if they do theymust extend the same benefits to all members equally. Tariff preference cannot be granted tocertain countries on the basis of their efforts to address climate change. The exception to thisrule might be lowering tariffs in accordance with the so called Enabling Clause , which exemptspreferential tariffs from MFN obligations as long as the purpose is to foster development indeveloping countries.

Standards . (Mandatory energy related standards)The WTO Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement allows these kinds of standards, but places

certain process disciplines on their elaboration and application, demanding transparency anddue process. Some uncertainties about WTO compatibility remain, however, with respect tostandards based on the way a product is produced (e.g., GHG intensity of production), ratherthan on the characteristics of the end product (e.g., energy efficiency).

Government procurement Governments might want to, in the process of their often sizable purchases, give favour to low

GHG emitting goods, and punish high GHG emitters. There seems to be scope in theAgreement on Government Procurement for this sort of discrimination, even perhaps on thebasis of how a good is produced.



Subsidies Subsidies are used frequently to support energy projects, including those related to

renewable energy that can help meet Kyoto Protocol targets.

International investment measures .International investment to achieve UNFCCC objectives will in part be under the Kyoto

Protocols Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), but most of it will be subject to more

general agreements on international investment. For example, the WTO Agreement on TradeRelated Investment Measures (TRIMS) prohibits discrimination between domestic and foreigninvestors.

Border tax adjustments Border tax adjustment is a measure that seeks to level the playing field by taxing imports at

some level that equates to cost s theyd face under a domestic scheme, and rebates that samelevel of charges to domestic goods destined for export.

Physical impacts of climate change on trade and investment

Climate change will have significant impacts on trade flows, given its expected impacts onagriculture, forestry and a number of other highly traded sectors. For example, in somecountries climate change will likely have an adverse impact on tourism a service that isthe world's largest export earner through impacts such as less desirable weatherconditions, bleaching of coral reefs, forest die off and other fundamental ecologicalchanges.

Competitiveness Impacts The basic concerns are of two types.

First , there is the prospect that a country that takes strong climate change measures may

put its firms or sectors at a disadvantage relative to their foreign competitors in countriesthat do not take such strong measures. This may lead to the leakage problem, wherestrong regulations simply cause offending firms to relocate to other jurisdictions.

Second , there is the concern that even among those countries taking strong action, Partiesmay create unfair competitive advantages for domestic industry by the manner in whichthey implement their climate change policies.

The factors that matter in determining the extent of competitiveness impacts need to beconsidered at three levels: at the level of the firm, the sector and the nation.

At the firm level ability to innovate is key. At the sectoral level energy intensity, opportunities for abatement and ability to pass along

cost increases are important. At the national level where there may be the greatest potential for government policy to

address impacts the scope and distribution of burdens is determinative, as is the finalform of the regulation.



Environmental Impacts of some export sector Chemical industries Fish and Fish preparations Leather Cotton Textile Tea and coffee Non-metallic minerals

Contribution of Export in CO2 emissions in India:

Sector Contribution(%)

Leather 58.7

Chemical 15.6

Fish 13.6

Textile 12.2

Tea-Coffee 37.5

Mining 19.8

All Sector 9.8

India and WTO : Nature of Linkage between Trade and Environmental Measures Trade in Environmental Goods and Services Environmental Measures of WTO:

- Precautionary and protectionist ETBs.(environment-rela

7th Term- Environment Management systems

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