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Evaluation of the Clinical Effects of Toothpowder on Plaque Induced Gingivitis

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INTRODUCTION

Background

Importance of Oral Hygiene Tools and Dentifrices

Contemporary prevalence of oral related diseases such as oral cysts, sabluxation,

gingivitis, periodontitis and dental traumas just to name a few remain a major concern despite the

continued emphasis on enhanced dental hygiene and health through community nursing and in

modern education (Maripandi, Kumar & Ali 2011). Despite this phenomenon, evidence-based

literature documents that efforts to curb this menace are escalating particularly with the

development of tech-savvy dental care that is precise and more adequate. Other alternatives to

curb this menace such as the adoption of good dietary habits and continuous regulation of

fluoride intake are also on course. There is thus an imperative need to encourage the use of oral

hygiene tools particularly as self-administrative oral hygiene at home for effective orthodontic

treatment, control and management.

The use of oral hygiene tools and dentifrices occurs, as the most researched method in the

maintenance of good oral hygiene owing to its common utility is a common phenomenon. Cury

et al (2004) in a study conducted in Brazil confirm that efforts to use fluoridated water as a

substitute to manage such diseases are preexistent and ongoing although the use of dentifrices

and dental hygiene tools remain the most preferred methods. Clarkson et al (2009) also

vehemently ascertains and reinforces this opinion in a clinical trial affirming that such efforts of

intervention using such tools and behavioral change showed timely cognition and prevention of

such oral ailments. The use of dentifrices such as toothpowder and toothpaste and its

underestimation is impossible owing to their role in assuring dental health. Similarly, Zero

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(2006) also confirms the efficacy of these dentifrices although he is quick to highlight that

modern day varieties are becoming questionable since they are not clinically tested but instead

only fulfill FDA monograph stipulations for preclinical and laboratory tests using murine and in-

vitro assays respectively (Zamani 2006). The use of dentifrices in fighting dental disorders

though minimally researched on appears to help in effective management of dental diseases.

Evidence using in-situ and in-vitro studies show affirmative results. This is primarily because

they abridge enamel demineralization and concurrently improve re-mineralization (Cury et al

2004). The re-mineralization potential in dentifrices is crucial in eradicating dental caries among

other dental diseases but at 5 000ppm since an overdose would lead to tooth decay and

subsequently dental caries development. A study by Anil (2007) confirms such adverse effects to

be the causatives of gingivitis in the plasma cell a benign condition particularly in three different

patients on using herbal dentifrices and concurrently receiving periodontal disease medication.

As such, the cautious use of dentifrices is imperative particularly the herbal ones whose long-

term ramifications remain unknown due to limitations in time. Karlinsey et al (2010) too also

confirm these suppositions using a sodium-fluoridated dentifrice in combination with pH cycling

representation containing tricalcium phosphate. The effect of increased acidity in the mouth for

such dentifrices antagonizes their initial goal hence other than reducing demineralization they

escalate it inducing tooth decay.

To make dentifrices essential oils that are more effective are now reinforcing their

efficacy in treatment and management of periodontal inflammation. In addition, the

incorporation of other dental hygiene tools such as mouthwash and mouth rinse makes the

outcome more promising. In a database exploration study by Fawad (2012), use of such

dentifrices show positive results in comparison with placebo groups owing to the microbiological

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potency to reduce periodontal associated pathogens. Although this is the case, clinical

confirmatory tests remain inconsistent regarding this prospect making inference making

problematic. Okpalugo et al (2009) ascertains the antimicrobial potency of toothpastes and

toothpowders in preventing dental plaque that consequently induce dental caries, periodontal

disease and gingivitis. Such dentifrices are classified as drugs instead of cosmetics owing to their

constituent components such as “Triclosan 2, 4, 4’ trichloro-2'-hydroxydiphenyl ether”, that

confers antibacterial properties reducing the affiliated dental flora (Okpalugo et al 2009, p.72).

Dentifrices are confirmed to reduce the multiplication potency in fusobacteria, diphtheriod and

porphyromonas gingivalis among other harmful mouth bacteria that induce dental diseases

(Okpalugo et al 2009). Agrawal and Ray (2012) also affirm that dentifrices are drugs although

from a negating opinion that they contain nicotine components making them injurious to long-

term users. As such, they advise for stringent pharmaceutical regulation of such products through

effective government policies and intensive health education to the community.

Highlighting the role of fluoridated dentifrices in the maintenance of oral hygiene, Cronin

et al (2000) terms it as a cleansing agent with potency to remove stained pellicle although its

effectiveness is facilitated by its abrasive’s mechanical action using oral hygiene tools such as

toothbrushes. This opinion contrasts majority of the authors’ prospects since it accentuates that

tooth brushing as more effective in plaque removal than the exclusive use of dentifrices.

Toothbrushes as dental hygiene tools are thus equally imperative particularly with their design to

remove dental plaque efficaciously without causing injuries on the mouth tissues and gingival

(Turksel et al 2004). According to Fiona (2009), ideal toothbrushes are core in delivering

dentifrices on tooth surface. In addition, such brushes that are sonic, powered or manual

eliminate dental biofilm on dentition surfaces hence impede bleeding and reduce plaque as

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evident in clinical studies. Dentifrice efficacy can only transpire if the application of ideal

brushing protocols and approaches transpire (Turksel et al 2004; Fiona 2009).

According to Jaksha (2011), tooth brushing maintains and controls an enhanced bacterial

environment intra-orally reducing the potency and survival capacity of pathogens. These results

are confirmatory after a comparative study of Luria bertani, Todd Hewitt and Trypticase soy

bacterial cultures was done prior to and after brushing indicating significant reduction in the

counts (Jaksha 2011). The practice is strongly recommendable as indispensable and a pivotal

daily regiment owing to these advantages. Zamani (1998) highlights that despite the fact that a

toothbrush is a vital oral hygiene tool, it is vulnerable to contamination acting as a health

etiology and as such, its prevention from contamination should be crucial. Although toothbrushes

remove dental plaque with their vertical bristles from accessible and flat surfaces of the teeth

they are less effective in approximal areas of the gingival margins encouraging gingivitis and

periodontal disease. This is primarily so because only about 30% of the teeth is exposed while

the remaining is within the gingival. With this outlook it is evident that dental hygiene tools are

not exclusive guarantees of oral health and as such, the induction of other alternatives that are

more efficient in dental health maintenance is core. Such ideas include frequent dental check ups

to ascertain sound health and early disease recognition for effective management and complete

clearance. Furthermore, contemporary healthcare is focusing on optimizing the design of the

toothbrush to improve its ability to remove plaque even in inaccessible areas of the teeth (Zero

2006). Modern efforts are focusing on designing toothbrushes with crisscrossed bristles, power

tips and angulated tufts to optimize tooth polishing and dental biofilm removal. Despite these

efforts tooth brushing has many inconsistencies and variations making the effectiveness of the art

vary among individuals. Contemplating that each individual has a distinct mouth, then

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formulating a standard technique of tooth brushing is impossible, although the circular technique

is strongly advisable for the best outcomes. Biesbrock, Bartizek and Walters (2008) affirm this

during a clinical study on the efficacy and safety of two divergent manual toothbrushes with

improved designs and with the overall motive to reduce dental plaque more efficiently.

Other oral health tools also imperative in dental care include toothpicks and sponge

toothettes. These tools facilitate respiratory pathogen and dental biofilm colonization, remove

subglottic discharge and in oropharyngeal bacteria colonization. They are useful in dental care of

ICU and intubated patients. According to Grap et al (2003), clinical evidence proofs that they are

ineffective in dental plaque elimination despite their increased preference. There is thus a need

for profound selection of dental products and tools to use for such patients to prevent such

diseases and guarantee oral health. Antiseptic solutions as OTC oral products in maintenance of

dental care are also available. Smith et al (2003) highlights a number of such products available

including Listerine, plax, corsodyl, flourigrad , oral B mouth washes among others with various

anti-microbial properties. These have been proven effective in controlling Staphylococcus aureus

in in-vivo studies but the mechanisms mediating therapy are unknown.

Importance of Dental Plaque

Dental plaque as a pale yellow biofilm naturally occurring on teeth and colonizing

bacteria on the smooth surface facilitate a defense mechanism to impede microorganisms, which

are pathogenic (Ebrahim, Abdolhamid & Mahdi 2009). The plaque also helps in tooth shedding

regulation owing to its composition of thousands of bacterial ecosystems. Plaque generation also

entails important steps other than a sporadic process. These include adsorption of bacteria and

proteins for film formation, reversible adhesion through the action of electrostatic and Van Der

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Waal’s forces, irreversible adhesion, secondary and primary colonization via intermolecular

interactions finalized by cell division to generate a biofilm (Ebrahim, Abdolhamid & Mahdi

2009). The importance of the dental plaque is to confer immunity to the gingival owing to its

constituent lymphocytic cells such as macrophages, leukocytes and epithelial cells. These

originate from saliva and bacterial products all that form the extracellular matrix.

Dental plaque has an imperative role in development of gum-affiliated diseases since as

an oral microorganism haven it mineralizes to tartar commonly known as calculus through

calcification processes. According to Walsh (2008), the dental plaque facilitates carbohydrate

fermentation causing teeth demineralization and the production of organic acids that reduce the

pH in the mouth. Under these conditions, the survival of bacteria such as those of lactobacilli,

mutans and streptococci improves since more supragingival plaque from cariogenic substrates is

accommodated. The ramification of this phenomenon is the production of formate, pyruvate and

lactate among other organic acids, which facilitate enamel demineralization and ultimate

development of dental caries among other dental ailments. Walsh (2008) asserts that modern

medicine is focusing on plaque reduction through controlled acid production in the buccal on

reduced sucrose and sugar intake and their subsequent replacement with non-fermentable

materials such as trehalose, sucralose, xylitol and sorbitol among others. The dental plaque is

also imperative in the denitrification process that reduces nitrate (NO3) to nitrite (NO2) then nitric

oxide (NO) and finally nitrous oxide (N2O) (Schreiber et al 2010). Through the application of

microsensor measurements and molecular detection, in-vivo increase in nitrous is shown to be

dependent on dental plaque amounts under the control of its pH in aerobic conditions. To dental

health, these events influence nerve signaling, blood flow and gum inflammation processes

hence regulating the prevalence of periodontal disease by determining the activity of the gingival

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cells. The process of denitrification of dental plaque thus mediates nitrogen cycling, controls the

development of systemic diseases, and thus has the potency to alter the entire human physiology

hence its close monitoring is requisite.

Dental plaque as a store for pathogens of infectious diseases often aggravates dental

diseases. Although it is unavoidable, clinical trials show it can be reduced using antimicrobial

compounds, professional cleaning and good oral hygiene hence managing and eliminating dental

ailments. According to Loe (1981), supragingival plaque, which is less accessible using dental

hygiene tools, depicts bacteria accumulation and a pre-pathological characteristic in many dental

diseases since it encourages bacterial colonization. Khuller (2009) takes a divergent view on the

role of the dental plaque in controlling the exacerbation of dental ailments. This however can

transpire on its reduction by maintaining normal buccal flora and in decreasing the oral

bioburden through flossing, use of mouth-rinses that have antimicrobial property and on

effective tooth brushing. This outlook guarantees the maintenance of natural dentition throughout

an individual’s life. The dental plaque also consists of fluid channels located in a slime layer

allowing bacterial products and chemical movements (Nield-Gehrig & Willmann 2003). In

addition, the dental plaque acts as a communication system for chemical signal communication

of microcolonies and bacteria. This is crucial in symbiotic relationships that enhance their

survival.

In another pilot study by Cheung, Zid, Hunt and McIntyre (2005), the pellicle layer

commonly known as the dental plaque serves as a diffusion barrier owing to its semi permeable

nature. As such, it selectively limits the transport of phosphorous and calcium ions among other

acid ions through the hard tissue hence determining the enamel’s surface solubility

predisposition. Correspondingly, by acting as a store for these ions particularly as concentrates, it

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controls the dentine cementum and enamel from erosive demineralization hence a determinant of

the development of dental diseases. To reinforce these suppositions an “in vivo-in vitro model”,

conducted by Cheung, Zid, Hunt and McIntyre (2005) demonstrates the potency of the dental

biofilm in reducing enamel erosion owing to the intake of fermentable foods such as gastric acids

and wine. Confirmations on dental plaque as an etiological factor in many other diseases that

may not necessarily be dental also occur in evidence-based studies. Respiratory pathogens for

instance often colonize on dental pellicle particularly in patients that are home-nursed and those

in the ICU. In the buccal, aspiration to the lung can occur inducing an infection (Marsh 2005).

Fourrier et al (1998) in their clinical study assert that dental plaque reserves nosocomial

infections and colonization pathogens particularly the aerobic ones in 40% and 60% of

hospitalized and home-cared patients respectively. In several incidences dental plaque resulting

to nosocomial pneumonia, ventilator affiliated pneumonia and oropharyngeal infections result

from dental plaque accumulation (Marsh 2005). Accentuation on the practice of oral hygiene

using appropriate tools and effective dentifrices as the preventative measure for the accumulation

of dental plaque is imperative, if such disease risks will be avoided (Fourrier et al 1998).

Importance of Dental Extrinsic Stains on Tooth Surfaces

Teeth are also vulnerable to pigmented deposits that appear on the surface due to

oral flora consisting of chromogenic deposits. Such stains occur on the tooth surface due to

topical agents such as medication, metals, chromogenic bacteria, tobacco, beverages, calculus,

foods and dental plaque (Keitel & Soentgen 1995). Such stains often appear on the gingival’s

margin, at the incisal region and on the inter-proximal. Stains are also a ramification of poor

dental hygiene as well as the use of mouthwashes with chlorhexidine antibacterial that reacts

with teeth (Keitel & Soentgen 1995). As a multi-factorial etiology that is chromogen mediated,

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extrinsic stains’ main causative is a dietary derivative. The dental plaque takes up the

chromogens and their natural color is imparted on teeth surface hence extrinsic staining is

distinct based on the specific chromogen. Indirect extrinsic staining also signifies the increased

presence of metal salts and antiseptics. These are constituent components of the foods, drugs and

dentifrices in taken and their subsequent reaction with the enamel.

Extrinsic stains act as disease etiologies particularly in mediating and

propagating acquired dental defects. Such stains show physical teeth trauma often manifest as

enamel cracks and loss, gingival recession and tooth wear characteristic in majority of dental

ailments. Furthermore, such stains are evident in dental caries progression. The initial stage of

lesion development ranges from white spots to opaque color on the teeth surface. During the

protein-sugar reaction stage, teeth browning occur due to the non-enzymatic Maillard reaction

(Watts & Addy 2001). These are clinical symptoms in development and subsequent exacerbation

of dental caries. Extrinsic stains are also important indicators of reactions between the teeth and

restorative material such as amalgam and other phenolic and eugenol containing components

(Khozeimeh, Khademi & Ghalayani 2009). These are induced in the dental system during root

canal treatment and on the use of some poly-antibiotic toothpaste. Similarly, mercury reacts with

sulfide ions of tin salts causing its displacement into tubules and the induction of extrinsic stains.

With the problem of extrinsic stains being, common and persistence, its reduction is feasible

through good dental practices particularly the brushing of teeth using whitening toothpastes,

flossing and taking whitening chewing gums. Although such stains’ removal through

professional bleaching is possible, it is quite exorbitant unlike the intrinsic stains that in most

cases are permanent. Medical evidence shows that prophylaxis mainly done during dental visits

aims at polishing and scaling teeth to remove stain as stated by Geza et al (2008). Such a

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protocol is holistic and removes both subgingival and supragingival plaque preventing gingivitis

development.

Importance of Gingivitis

Gingivitis as a gingival inflammation occurs as a response to bacterial dental plaque,

which adheres on the surface of teeth. As non-destructive, it occurs as a preliminary stage to the

progression of periodontitis that is deleterious and precedes gingivitis, which is plaque-induced

(Nwhator & Ayanbadejo 2011). Other causatives of this anomaly include malnutrition,

medication and systemic factors, all which play a crucial role in aggravating the pathological

condition. Furthermore, this pathological condition is not only affiliated with poor oral hygiene

but also lower social-economic stature owing to poor diet and lack of health precedence among

such groups.

Gingivitis often indicates many clinical processes other than the exclusive sign of early

stage of periodontal disease. Gingivitis is manifest in pregnancy and often poses as a risk for

premature or undersized birth and advanced gum ailment following birth (Singh et al 2011). This

occurs when bacterial inducing the gingivitis enter the circulation to the uterus prompting

prostaglandins production and eventual induction of uterine contractions hence premature birth.

The problem is further compounded by hormonal changes evident in pregnancy thus dental

hygiene maintenance must be an indispensable practice in such incidences (Singh et al 2011).

Gingivitis manifest by gum swelling is common among individuals with this dental

anomaly. A case testimony conducted by Hou and Tsai (1998) on a pregnant Chinese female

attests to these speculations showing this kind of gingivitis to be a myelomonocytic leukemia

indicator particularly of acute nature. A one-week follow up showed increased immune response

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with the escalated production of leucocytes hence confirming the primary presence of the

disease. Swelling of such gums characterized by pale pink color also indicates adverse effects of

certain drugs such as antagonists of the calcium channel such as amlodipine, nifedipine and

felodipine, phenytoin and cyclosporine. Taylor (2003) reinforces this opinion highlighting that

25-80% and 50% cyclosporine and phenytoin users respectively are diagnosed with swollen gum

gingivitis. Gingival swelling also indicates inflammation particularly when plaque accumulation

occurs. Such gums become vulnerable to bleeding are soft and redden. Similarly, this ailment

may occur in childhood as a hereditary fibromatosis making the gum to have exuberant

overgrowth and displacing the outer teeth surface (Lee et al 1995). Furthermore, gum swelling

and subsequent enlargement is induced systemically in incidences such as pyogenic granuloma

and hormonal imbalance. According to Antonio (2010), other systemic conditions indicated by

gingivitis include lichen planus a mucocutaneous disease, pemphigoid, which is the detaching of

the epithelium from basal membrane that is antibody mediated and pemphigus an autoimmune

disease caused by the inability of keratinocytes to coalesce between tissues. In addition,

erythema multiforme a disease mediated by immune complexes and lupus erythematosus that

involves formation of anti-self antibodies against body cell components are indicated by

gingivitis (Antonio 2010).

Gingivitis manifest by bleeding, reddening and swelling of the gums often signifies the

presence of other dental complications. These include advanced periodontitis that eventually

leads to decay and loss of teeth. This condition often is recurrent and spread to the entire buccal

gradually. In other incidences, it depicts abscess, which is a deposit of dead neutrophils on the

gum owing to the defensive action against dental plaque pathogens (Zero 2006). Trench mouth

disease that manifests as ulcerations on the gingival owing to the accumulation of many buccal

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bacteria that are normal also occurs with close affiliation to gingivitis. Gingivitis is a significant

indicator of fungal infections such as histoplasmosis, erythema that is linear and candidiosis.

Conversely, the disease also manifests in viral infections particularly those of herpes simplex,

varicella zoster and in some incidences HIV. Gingival inflammation also indicates anaphylactic

reactions, diabetes mellitus as well as the presence of trauma (Antonio 2010). An evidence based

research shows that gingivitis is an indicator of a variety of diseases and disorders hence its

prevention is imperative. This is however feasible with the maintenance of sound oral hygiene

and the use of such dental hygiene tools appropriately. This research seeks to assess the efficacy

of toothpowder as an important oral dentifrice in reducing and managing gingivitis that is plaque

induced. Aggravation of gingivitis is often an indicator of systemic diseases since it triggers the

production of cytokines such as interleukins, prostaglandins and cancer necrosis factors. The

ramification of this event is the interference of several pathways causing premature parturition,

mucosal inflammation, atherosclerosis due to derangements in metabolism as Panagakos and

Scannapieco (2003) observe.

Statement of the Problem

Previous researches seeking to assess the efficacy of dentifrice on plaque-induced

gingivitis are existent in literature. Despite their limitations in numbers and less specific focus on

toothpowders other than focusing on dentifrices holistically, they show affirmative results

regarding the issue in question. In essence, published articles on the efficacy of toothpowder in

reducing plaque-induced gingivitis are not identifiable despite the problems being predominant

in contemporary societies. According to Shamikh and Dweiri (2011) gingivitis incident occur in

9%-85% of Jordanian children aged 5-7. In addition, 23% and 75% of Icelandic and global

children showed positive but mild gingivitis between the age of 5-9 years (Shamikh & Dweiri

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2011). In one study by Botelho et al (2007), plaque-induced gingivitis is rated at epidemic levels

with a majority 80% Brazilian geriatrics being affected with less consideration in adults being

underscored. Despite the inconsistent reporting, it is evident that the situation is dire and

demands urgent mitigation to reduce these escalating incident rates.

An evaluation of literature also shows knowledge gaps regarding the efficacy of

dentifrices as a whole including toothpowder on gingivitis. This is primarily so since they

elucidate less on the mechanisms of actions that confer plaque reduction despite existent studies

showing positive results on their use. Agrawal and Ray (2012) accentuate to these sentiments

highlighting a need for intensive research if the present scenario is bound to change for the

better. The existent studies also seem less representative of the entire population since they use

small sample sizes and manifest the blatant problem of Hawthorne effect making the inferences

made dubious and questionable. Another evident problem on literature analysis is inconsistent

and contradictory reporting particularly on the efficacy of herbal dentifrices in reducing plaque-

induced gingivitis confounding the readers. Cullinan et al (1997) attest to these studies with their

declaration that Sanguinaria does not have antigingival properties. This is in contrast with a

study by Hannah and Johnson (1989) and another by Harper et al (1990) vehemently attesting to

the herb’s safety and efficacy in reducing gingival inflammation and inhibiting dental plaque

accumulation. Similarly, preexistent literature focuses more on toothpaste and mouth rinse and

derelicts toothpowder despite its difference owing to the absence of humectants. Documented

studies also appear less considerate of extrinsic variables such as the consistency of tooth

brushing, its technique and frequency all of which are crucial factors in the determination of

efficacy towards plaque-induced gingivitis. Subjectivity in gender, age and environmental factors

are also evident despite their imperativeness in the prevalence of the disease hence the need for

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intensive research. With the intention to advance the knowledge on this issue as well as close the

highlighted gaps, this study seeks to evaluate the efficacy to toothpowder in alleviating

gingivitis, controlling dental plaque, inhibiting extrinsic stains and periodontal pocket and

concurrently putting the crucial factors that interfere with inference making in consideration.

Aims of the Study

a) Determine the efficacy of toothpowder in gingivitis management and control following

its use.

b) Determine the efficacy of toothpowder in reducing and eliminating dental plaque

following its use.

c) Determine the efficacy of toothpowder in removing extrinsic stains following its use.

Objectives of the Study

1. To find out how the outcome of toothpowder incorporated with essential oils and calcium

carbonate use in reducing plaque induced gingivitis

2. To approximate the discrepancies between gingivitis patients who are toothpowder users

and non-users following periodontal therapy that is non-surgical.

3. To find out how the outcome of toothpowder incorporated with essential oils and calcium

carbonate use in reducing extrinsic stains on gingivitis patients.

Significance of the Study

The scope of this study regarding the efficacy of toothpowders on plaque-induced

gingivitis seeks to add knowledge to the medical field hence recommend on its encouraged

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use or otherwise. Similarly, it seeks to decipher, elucidate and make explicit the gaps in

existing literature particular on inconsistent reporting and subjectivity in studies of dentifrice

efficacy in reducing plaque-induced gingivitis. This achievement will diversify, equip and

intensify future research efforts when dealing with issues pertaining dental illnesses.

Furthermore, for the patients a new recommendation for effective therapy or otherwise will

transpire based on the results obtained. The study will also act as an eye opener for scientists

to indulge in similar studies intensively hence add more knowledge on the issues in question

for better comprehension.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Limited researches on the efficacy of toothpowders in plaque-induced gingivitis

treatment have been researched on hence limited inference on its imperativeness. Conversely,

toothpaste a closely related dentifrice whose clinical efficacy is widely researched on despite the

inconsistencies in the inferences made. A randomized single-blind research using a 24-subject

sample size conducted by Claydon et al (2004) accentuates this opinion using whitening

toothpaste. In this case, affirmative results on reduced extrinsic dental staining transpired.

Furthermore, the reinforcement of these results occurred through comparative testing in the

presence of a placebo water-control group and another group with commercial toothpaste. The

study however fails to elucidate the mechanism which stain inhibition occurred and in an

antagonizing case concludes that existent whitening toothpastes accelerate extrinsic stains

(Claydon et al 2004). In addition, the study fails to establish a definitive timing when the effects

of inhibited staining occurred. In another related randomized clinical trial triclosan (Colgate) and

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stannous (Crest Gum-care) dentifrices, manifest similar results in reducing extrinsic stains (He et

al 2010). This study used a sample size of 96 subjects in a 5-week follow up where stain

inhibition was monitored. The study infers no significant difference between the uses of the two

types of toothpastes although it reports that they reduced tooth staining significantly particularly

after a dental prophylaxis (He et al2010). Despite highlighting tolerance on using these

dentifrices, little regarding the degree of efficacy is clarified.

Comparative assessment of perlite (calcium carbonate) and silica containing toothpastes

on extrinsic stain elimination efficacy occurs in a study by Collins et al (2005). Using stratified

sampling with 152 subjects and applying the double blind and parallel group study in a

fortnight’s time, affirmative results transpired (Collin et al 2005). Using Macpherson

modification technique to change the Lobene stain indicator, confirmation of this supposition

was evident. Despite the ability to produce consistent results, the study only evaluates on the

ability of dentifrices to remove stains without taking a holistic look by evaluating on prevention

of stain induction and the build up of natural stain hence is subjective. Joiner et al (2002) have

demonstrated a similar study evaluating the efficacy of white systems on extrinsic stains.

Furthermore, comparative assessment using silica containing toothpastes that have similar

potency to effect enamel abrasion also occur. A four-week study using an in situ model shows

that whitening paste has higher potency to remove in-vitro stain unlike the silica one. Although

highlighting these discrepancies, Joiner et al (2002) show equal potency to reduce enamel wear

in the two. Although conclusive, the study exclusively applies laboratory experiments to make

inferences despite the fact that they are models hence less representative of the real case

scenario. In addition, it only qualifies the efficacy of toothpastes in extrinsic stain removal

without quantifying it. In a related study, Daiva et al (2011) also comparatively evaluates the

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efficacy of whitening toothpaste with conventional fluoridated dentifrice using the Loben stain

indicator, as was the case with Collins’ et al (2005). In a 2 to 4 week, study with 33 subjects’

deductions regarding the potency of the three divergent toothpastes showed that whitening pastes

(Colgate and Elgydium) produced better results than conventional paste. Despite these

deductions, the study is quick to highlight subjectivity owing to the Hawthorne effect where a

sample makes great effort to produce the best results since they know they are participating in a

study. The study is also subjective since it accentuates on the pastes’ producing the best results

other than the quality of its efficacy.

Despite the escalating prevalence in dental diseases, mass prevention remains a

challenge. Moran (1997) attests to this opinion highlighting the need to use chemicals to control

dental plaque that propagates these diseases. With this outlook, novel alternatives to current

formulations that are more effective will emerge. One such proposition is the incorporation of

mouth rinse in dentifrices. However, observational studies show the infeasibility of this idea with

the strong held perception that mouth rinse is a toothpaste and toothbrush substitute. Despite the

practicability in Moran’s (1997) suggestions, their effect requires warranting. The study also fails

to establish the long-term ramifications of its opinions towards enhancing dental health despite

recommending them for use. In a randomized control study, Paraskevas (2005) seeks to find an

alternative to the weaknesses affiliated with self dental hygiene through the incorporation of

chemical agents in mouth rinse and dentifrices. Such chemicals include those that are organic

cations, metal salts, phenolics that are non-charged, agents that are surface modifying and

oxygenating agents. Although revelations show that several of them induce anti-gingivitis

properties their efficacy remain questionable since long-term effects are yet to be established

(Paraskevas 2005). Similarly, clinical trials reveal that patients using them end up having dental

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diseases hence their significance is limited. The study also seems less conclusive owing to

limited information regarding the phenomenon in question.

Evidence-based research continues to accentuate to the importance of toothpaste among

other dental tools in preventing dental diseases. Santos (2003) comparatively evaluates the

efficacy of essential oils, Peridex and Listerine in eliminating plaque and gingivitis. Results

indicate a 16-45% and 27-80% potency for the products to reduce dental plaque and gingivitis

respectively. Although this is the case, such dentifrices also induce extrinsic stains and increase

supragingival calculus making their use less preferable an aspect that the study ignores explicitly

(Santos 2003). The study also fails to establish a definitive time when affirmative results on

using such pastes can transpire with inconsistencies being evident on observation of patients at

divergent timeframes. West and King (1983) comparatively evaluate the efficiency of tooth

brushing with water, toothpowder and H2O2-sodium bicarbonate in reducing periodontitis

suppuration and in dental plaque staining inhibition. Using a sample size of 15 subjects,

inconsistent results were obtained with some cases showing positive results while other showed

negating results hence inference making was difficult (West & King 1983). Although non-

effectiveness in the H2O2-sodium bicarbonate, wrong deductions are likely owing to the

incongruities in the study. This highlights the need for comprehensive and intensive studies to

make conclusions regarding this prospect.

In another evidence-based study, sodium fluoride and chlorhexidine containing mouth

rinses were assessed in gingivitis that is plaque induced among teenagers control (13 to15 years)

in Bangalore town (Jayaprakash, Veeresha & Hiremath 2007). Within a differential time range of

a month, 3 and 6 months, significant reduction in the disease was realized at an increasing trend.

However, the study experienced discrepancies since the placebo group also decreased its

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prevalence rate in gingivitis manifesting errors in the study. The study was also partial since its

emphasizes was on competitive therapeutic outcomes inducing the perception of better efficacy

in one dentifrice compared to the other (Jayaprakash, Veeresha & Hiremath 2007). Gunsolley

(2006) conducts a theoretical survey regarding the efficacy of dentifrices in alleviating gingivitis.

Using electronic databases to source published articles and from manufacturers for unpublished

articles inference making was feasible. Although inconsistent, the studies showed the preference

of mouth rinse with stannous fluoride, essential oils and chlorhexidine as anti-gingival. Despite

the reliance on unpublished data, which at times is subjective, the systemic review accentuates

that dental hygiene is wide and cannot be effective with the application of one approach but

rather a holistic approach. The meta-analysis also highlights the need to increasingly research on

the efficacy of dentifrices on dental diseases to prevent the blatant variations in deductions of

different researches.

The efficacy of either toothpaste or toothpowder in removing dental plaque depends on

its characteristic abrasivity. Baxter, Davis and Jackson (1981) evaluate on this phenomenon and

its effective execution to avoid tissue damage. Abrasion as the cleaning power is then co-related

with in-vitro dentine to express the efficacy of the dentifrice in metrics. The optimal choice in

this case should be cosmetically acceptable and able to remove extrinsic stains on a daily routine

adoption. This contradicts sentiments by Okpalugo et al (2009) who perceive dentifrice as drugs

other than cosmetically acceptable products. Although the study highlights that dentifrices are

effective in dental pellicle removal, it focuses on abrasion power without considering other

factors such as the quality of toothpaste and the technique of brushing all that are considerable

factors. Hosein et al evaluates a similar concept on pellicle removal efficacy but comparatively

using toothpowder and toothpaste and not applying brushes using an “examiner-blind crossover

21

study” (2009, p.147). By randomly dividing a 36 volunteer sample twice, using the Loe and

Silness plaque index and using the finger and the split mouth procedure for each group collating

of results occurred. The findings show that toothpowder is a significantly stronger dentifrice

compared to toothpaste in pellicle removal (Hosein et al 2009). Although this deduction is made,

little elucidation regarding the increased potency in absence of liquid humectants in the powder

is provided hence questioning a need for explicit substantiating.

With much accentuation on dentifrice use other than tooth brushing, Shrama et al (2004)

also assess the adjunctive benefit and efficacy of using mouth rinses with essential oils in

reducing gingivitis that is plaque induced. By comparing brushing and flossing subjects in a

study with a 237-sample size followed by a baseline prophylaxis, results are obtained after a 6-

month follow-up. Using the plaque index and modified gingival indicator as the metrics

incorporation of essential oils in mouth rinse shows significant alleviation of gingivitis but

without any significant difference in brushing and flossing subjects (Shrama et al 2004). The

study however remains inexplicit on the mechanism of action that essential oils confer to effect

better efficacy. Kozak and White (2000) also explain the effect of dentifrice in eliminating dental

staining, a characteristic in plaque-induced gingivitis. This was possible by applying an apatite

substrate on cycled saliva tea and chlorhexidine in comparison to a commercial dentifrice and

polypyrophosphate (Kozak & White 2000). The results show abridged stain adsorption due to the

polyphosphate action with dental plaque. Although the protocol is a model (in-vitro) it explains

the mechanism under which staining reduction occurs although its application in in-vivo assays

remains questionable.

With the motive to evaluate the whitening power of toothpastes, a pilot study by Ozcan,

Pinar and Bulent (2009) to ascertain this supposition clinically occurs. Using non-smokers and

22

smokers in a 4-week follow up and several whitening toothpastes, collection of data transpired.

80% of all subjects reported affirmative results while higher numbers in smokers than non-

smokers were observed (Ozcan, Pinar & Bulent (2009). The discrepancies in this study are

attributes of subjectivity since different toothpastes were used in the two groups. Quantification

of results was also a problem since the study used observations instead of standard measures.

This made inferences such as a 100% stain reduction for smokers impractical. In another study

by Swaminathan, Moran and Addy (1996), a variety of oral products including toothpowders,

toothpastes and mouth rinses containing chlorhexidine antiseptic were applied in extrinsic stain

elimination. Although in in-vitro assays using spectrometric (optical density) readings

affirmative results were obtained in all cases though less quantified. Despite this, the study

remains unclear on the chemical components in the oral products and their subsequent

mechanism of action with the stains that confer increased efficacy in stain removal when

compared with a control group using water (Swaminathan, Moran & Addy 1996). Despite

highlighting a significant difference in the chlorhexidine used in mouth rinse and dentifrices the

study concludes of no significant difference between the users hence subjective reporting.

A double blind and onetime use clinical assessment seeks to compare the efficacy of

commercial Colgate toothpaste with one that contains silica in reducing bad odor a

characteristics in gingivitis patients. Using a hedonic scale that was nine pointed, the 83 subjects

were subjected to brushing using soft-bristled brushes (Naresh et al 2000). Following this,

evaluation for bad breath transpired after 12 hours. Results positively showed reduced bad breath

although no significant difference in the two toothpastes. The study’s inferences are however

limited by the method of evaluating bad breath, which could be subjective owing to the use of

examiners and the lack of a standard method of brushing an aspect that is unique to every

23

individual. Sheen, Pontefract and Moran (2001) reinforce the opinion that toothpastes have great

efficacy in controlling a variety of dental ailments including oral malodour, calculus, plaque,

gingivitis and periodontitis owing to their chemical composition. They highlight the presence of

abrasives, detergents and active ingredients such as silica, sodium lauryl-sulfate and fluoride

respectively, all which aid in dental health maintenance (Sheen, Pontefract & Moran 2001). The

study however fails to decipher the mechanisms of action and reactions that such components

mediate to enhance dental health. They also highlight inconsistent and contrasting reporting on

the long-term ramifications of some of the components.

An in-vivo assay by White, Barker and Klukowska (2008) also accentuates of the

efficacy dentifrices and mouth rinse that have antimicrobial property in managing dental plaque.

The study takes place in three phases entailing holistic use of dentifrice, randomized used of an

antimicrobial containing dentifrice and finally randomized use of a mouth rinse. Results indicate

reduced pellicle on using the three oral products exclusively but a synergistic outcome on

combining the three with plaque reduction being beyond 50% (White, Barker and Klukowska

2008). The study however points outs limitations of uncontrollable factors such as disease

susceptibility and consistent hygiene observation that are distinct for individuals. In another

study, the presence of alcohol as an additive in mouth rinse is also evaluated as an agonist to its

efficacy. Using a crossover clinical trial that is randomized and double-masked Marchetti et al,

(2011) evaluate on this aspect in a plaque accumulation representation of 3 days. Using 30

volunteers grouped in to two, the subjects undergo a fortnight washout prior to data collation.

Results indicate increased efficacy in presence of alcohol contrary to its absence. The results of

this study spark new controversies since alcohol is considered a potential co-carcinogen hence

24

prompting development of carcinomas such as oral cancer among others hence the need for

intensified research on the purported suppositions (Marchetti et al 2011).

Increased assessment on the efficacy of mouth rinse in antigingivitis and antiplaque

occurs in Amini et al’s (2009) study. This is evident in a randomized clinical study within a

fortnight using 3 mouth rinses each containing essential oils (EO), cetylpyridinium chloride

(CPC) and alcohol. Using a sample size of 103 and 56 females and males respectively grouped

subjects with EO, CPC that is alcohol free, CPC with alcohol and a control group data collection

occurred and measurements were taken with the modification gingival and Quigley Hein-plaque

indicators as metrics. The results indicate that essential oil incorporation in enhanced

antigingival and anitplaque properties by 16% of mouth rinse despite being unclear on the

mechanism. This is in contrast with other groups that reported 13.3%, 6.3% and 6.6% reduction

respectively. Al-Talib, Abdullah and Al-Khatib (2004) also evaluate the efficacy of different

mouth rinses containing phenolic compounds, chlorhexidine digluconate and salt comparatively

in reducing plaque-induced gingivitis. In a randomized clinical trial using 45 subjects divided

equally in three groups and assessed using the Loe and Silness measures data collation occurred

following a 2-month monitoring. Results indicate a significant decrease in disease on

incorporating phenol and chlorhexidine in mouth rinse but with chlorhexidine having greater

superiority contrary to the use of salts that show no significant difference. Despite underscoring

the potency in chlorhexidine mouth rinse no explanation regarding the mechanism in which it is

conferred is given.

Weijden and Slot (2011) also affirm the efficacy of oral hygiene dentifrices and tools in

guaranteeing reduced periodontal diseases and ultimately eliminating gingivitis incidents.

Accentuating of their mechanical power to remove food debris among other biofilms particularly

25

in occlusal pits and interproximal spaces, toothbrushes are highlighted as crucial. Similarly the

emphasis on the incorporation of dentifrice such as toothpowder also occurs. Quantitative

analysis show excusive use of dentifrice reduces plaque by 59% although incorporation of a

toothbrush reinforces the outcome to 67%. Although deriving its deductions from a

comprehensive literature analysis, the study does not use empirical and experimental data that is

more pragmatic. Watanabe et al (2006) in another study, evaluates the cariostatic efficacy of

whitening toothpaste in reducing the dental pellicle. Using a 5-toothpaste comparison and 95

tooth fragments the study embarks on a micro-hardness evaluation for 2 weeks in a daily 10-

minute toothpaste application. The results manifest potential cariostatic power in all the pastes

with no significant difference. This was due to reduced demineralization owing to reduced acid

decalcification. The study’s inferences could weaken due to the evident pH cycling that controls

re-mineralization and demineralization patterns (Watanabe et al 2006). The study also

qualitatively analyses the efficacy making it less factual.

The effect of toothpaste in reducing sensitivity of the dentinal cervix particularly in

disease presence is also evident in Walsh’s (2009) study. In this case, he comparatively assesses

the efficacy of a mouth crème with conventional Colgate paste in a 10-week randomized clinical

survey with 89 subjects. The results are affirmative indicators of reduced hypersensitivity with

less significant difference in terms of superior efficacy. Despite highlighting that the two oral

products have different mechanisms of action, less elucidation regarding this prospect occurs to

substantiate the inferences further. A literature review evaluation by Hasson, Ismail and Neiva

(2008) also compares the efficacy of an OTC toothpaste with a placebo group in reducing dental

plaque and gingivitis. The study utilized the EMBASE, MEDLINE and CENTRAL libraries to

acquire its data dated between 1966 and 2005. The focus was on quasi and randomized

26

controlled studies and screened the titles, data extracted and abstracts of independent and

replicable articles. Of the 416 available articles, positive results regarding the use of whitening

toothpaste contrary to a placebo transpired. The study however accrued the weaknesses of the

evaluated studies particularly regarding wrong inference making.

In a pilot clinical, study by Tai et al (2006), assessment on the effect of a dentifrice with

particulate bioactive glass as a constituent component in reducing dental plaque and gingivitis

occurs. In a 6-week study, four factors including age, gender, gingival bleeding and plaque

indices were assessed. A 16.4% and 58.8% reduction in plaque accumulation and gingival

bleeding respectively was evident among toothpaste users without discrepancies in gender and

age compared to a control group that brushed with water (Tai et al 2006). Despite these

deductions, the study admits of discrepancies particularly in the group not using toothpaste

despite brushing attributing them to the Hawthorne effect. Using a whitening dentifrice with

sodium hexametaphosphate (polypyrophosphate) the efficacy to reduce extrinsic tooth

discoloration and gingivitis assessment occurred (Baig et al 2005). This is a systematic review of

laboratory and clinically published data regarding similar studies. The results indicate positive

results despite the use of sodium polypyrophosphate in divergent delivery systems and

formulations. Although the study focuses more on stain inhibition potency of such dentifrices, it

neglects gingivitis prospects. Furthermore, it has a qualitative other than quantitative focus hence

is less pragmatic and factual. A similar study by Sensabaugh and Sagel (2009) focuses on the

efficacy of a stannous fluoride toothpaste with the same polypyrophosphate using practice-based,

clinical and laboratory data in enhancing tooth whitening. Results accentuate that clinical

evidence regarding such dental formula in reducing extrinsic stains, calculus, plaque gingival

bleeding and gingivitis using information from 1000 and 1200 dental patients and professionals

27

respectively. Despite highlighting the holistic benefit of such dental formulas by conferring

cosmetic and therapeutic effects, its components’ mechanisms of action, remain inexplicit. In

addition, quantification of the efficacy lacks.

A clinical study by Archilla et al (2000) examines the comparative efficacy of abrasive

and ordinary toothpaste in calculus removal in vivo. Using 52 healthy subjects from Guatemala

grouped in to two and subjected to ordinary and vigorous brushing respectively for a minute

daily a four week follow up transpired. Assessment of calculus occurred with VMI and Lobene

metrics with grading occurring each week (Archilla et al 2000). The results indicate no

significant relationship between the use of the two toothpastes and on the brushing technique

used to calculus reduction superiority despite recording positive results in each case. Ayad et al

(2002) also compares the efficacy of two toothpastes in reducing dental staining using a parallel,

randomized and double blinded set clinical survey in 8 weeks time. An oral prophylaxis and a

recording of baseline scores of stains preceded this using a trained examiner. Lobene index

further ascertained the results from the 126 volunteers. The findings of the study show that

addition of silica, an abrasive and a pyrophosphate helps in improving the efficacy of toothpaste

to remove extrinsic stains as contrasted to a conventional one (Ayad et al 2002). The inferences

are however limited since they do not focus on the method of application of toothpaste and

consistency of brushing factors that are core in enhanced efficacy.

In a randomized clinical study, the efficacy of three toothpastes with special additives

(sodium fluoride, PVM copolymer and triclosan) in controlling supragingival plaque and

gingivitis evaluation also occurs in Surendra et al’s (2010) study. On random assignment of the

available toothpastes, subjects issuing of soft-bristled brushes and subjection to brushing twice a

day occurred. After a six week follow up gingival examination occurred in the 171 subjects with

28

results indicating a 0.243%, 2.0% and 0.3% efficacy against gingivitis in the groups using PVM

copolymer, triclosan and sodium fluoride respectively. Despite these observations and

inferences, elucidation on the mechanism is inexplicit. Standardization of tooth brushing is less

contemplated. The results of the study concur with similar findings in a study by Nordbo et al

(1988) that reinforce alleviation of tooth discoloration is feasible using dentifrices despite having

less quantification regarding this supposition. Conversely, Oliveira et al (2008) focuses on the

additive Aloe Vera in controlling gingivitis and dental plaque accumulation in a clinical study,

which was double blind. Using gingival bleeding and plaque index comparison with

conventional toothpaste occurred in a month’s period on subjecting the sample to a three-time

brushing daily. The findings depict no significant difference between the two groups in terms of

efficacy accentuating that Aloe Vera has no additional value in dental health. The study however

highlights the Hawthorne effect that could induce subjective inference making (Oliveira et al

2008). In addition, the inferences contest previous perception that herbal products have

additional value in efficacy of dentifrices.

The antimicrobial efficacy of dentifrices containing 5.25% sodium hypochlorite and 2.0%

chlorhexidine gluconate in inhibiting a myriad of dental disorders such as discolorations, odor

and toxicicty is ascertained in Jeansonne and White’s (1994). This is particularly core in root

canal therapy. In in-vitro settings, treatment of human teeth using the two dentifrices occurred

and exposed in anaerobic conditions for a day prior collection of microbiological samples.

Results on culturing the collated samples show reduced bacterial counts contrary to control

samples with chlorhexidine showing much superiority but with less significant difference to

sodium hypochlorite. The mechanism conferring the antimicrobial properties is vague. Jarrar

(2006) comparatively evaluates the efficacy of two mouth rinses with chlorhexidine and essential

29

oil (Listerine) additives in preventing plaque re-growth in the inter-proximal. Following a 4 day,

pellicle re-growth random treatment with the dentifrice to 60 subjects followed by a 2-week

observation. Results showed a 13%, 25% and 54% efficacy in plaque removal for sterile water,

Listerine and chlorhexidine dentifrices respectively. Despite these deductions, the mechanism in

which antimicrobial properties are conferred is incomprehensible. Furthermore, consideration on

the method of brushing that determines the amount of plaque removed did not occur.

In a pilot study by Freitas, Fernandes and Attstrom (1992), efficient removal of dental

plaque, proximally accumulated using chlorhexidine gel incorporated in toothpicks was assessed.

In a design, that was double blind and using the Loe and Silness plaque index, a 7-subject follow

up occurred. In addition, their normal oral hygiene practices continued with the toothpick use

occurring daily for a week. When compared to a placebo group no significant difference

occurred hence limited efficacy in eliminating dental plaque. Despite making conclusions

concerning its aim, the study’s incorporation of normal brushing habits among the subjects could

cause errors since such habits were distinct in each of them. The efficacy of dentifrices with

amine fluoride additives in their organic and inorganic forms are also tested for their efficacy

towards reduced oral sucrose accumulation and in inhibiting Streptococcus sanguis (Embleton,

Newman & Wilson 1998). In an in-vitro setting, samples collected from dental plaque were

cultured following their incubation with amine fluorides. The results indicate reduced biofilm

growth in the presence of amine fluoride but more superior in the presence of sucrose. As in

other studies, the mechanism, which this process occurs, remains unsubstantiated.

Barnett (2006) evaluates the lucid in daily mouth-rinse use against bacterial accumulation

owing to its efficacy. Using a systematic analysis of literature review Bernett (2006) evaluates

studies regarding the risk of pellicle accumulation to gingivitis, mechanical control of plaque

30

accumulation through tooth brushing and the ecology of microorganisms in the mouth as

conferred by the use of various dentifrices in a 6-month evaluation. The findings reveal a solid

rationale of using mouth rinse using evidence-based scientific research. This is due to its potency

to deliver antimicrobial agents to inaccessible oral areas and the inadequacy affiliated with

exclusive mechanical control of plaque through brushing. Although such strong conclusions are

made, adequate support lacks since only six published articles confirmed this supposition

affirmatively. Among Egyptians, Hassan, Mobarak and Fawzi (2008) assess chlorhexidine

regimens as efficient in reducing plaque-induced gingivitis owing to their antimicrobial

properties in a clinical study. Using 21 females, monitoring of daily intakes, use of mouth rinse

with chlorhexidine, a 1-3 month follow up finalized with Mutans streptococci evaluation

transpired. The findings show significant reduction of bacterial count on using chlorhexidine

mouth rinse ranging from 82.3%-85.4% compared to a control group hence the recommendation

on its continued and consistent use for better efficacy. The deductions made in the study could be

subjective since standardization of dietary intake did not occur hence accumulation of dental

plaque and subsequent removal was not uniform.

In vivo tests regarding the efficacy of dentifrices with special additives for optimal

outcomes against gingivitis and other dental ailments is also of focus. Fine et al (2006) assess the

efficacy of triclosan dentifrice comparatively with a control group administered conventional

dentifrice in reducing Fusobacteria and Veillonella species using 15 subjects in a randomized

study. Superior efficacy of 88-96% compared to 74-85% was realized on inculcating triclosan

contrary to the controls after a 12-hour follow up. Despite highlighting that microorganism levels

vary in individuals, the study declines to use the crossover design to standardize the obtained

results hence erroneous deducing. Cullinan et al (1997) undertake a similar study but incorporate

31

Sanguinaria herbal extract to enhance the potency against periodontitis. Using a parallel,

randomized and double-blinded study involving 34 subjects the pocket depths, plague and

gingival indices are taken after a fortnight and 6-week follow up respectively. Contrary to

expectations, the two groups do not show any significant difference in efficacy despite recording

affirmative results. Despite making these deductions, the study highlights inconsistencies with

previous clinical studies that have ascertained affirmative anti-gingival activities in Sanguinaria

hence the need for further research. It is evident on literature analysis that gaps regarding the

efficacy of toothpowder in eliminating plaque induce gingivitis exist and this study seeks to close

these gaps and add more knowledge in this field.

32

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