68356684-Ottoman-Venetian-Wars-1-1463-1573

Ottoman-Venetian Wars 1

The first Four Wars 1463-1573

from Wikipedia 2011

Ottoman-Venetian Wars From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

• The Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430), resulting in the capture of Thessalonica by the Ottomans. Although not formally counted as an Ottoman–Venetian War, it involved the Venetians against the Ottomans

• The first Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479), resulting in the capture of Negroponte, Lemnos and Albania Veneta by the Ottomans

• The second Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503), resulting in the capture of further Aegean islands, and the Venetian strongholds in the Morea (Peloponnese) by the Ottomans

• The third Ottoman–Venetian War (1537–1540), resulting in the capture of the Cyclades except Tinos, the Sporades and the last Venetian strongholds in the Morea (Peloponnese) by the Ottomans

• The fourth Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573), resulting in the capture of Cyprus by the Ottomans, and the defeat of their fleet in the Battle of Lepanto (1571)

• The fifth Ottoman–Venetian War or Cretan War (1645–1669), resulting in the capture of Crete by the Ottomans • The sixth Ottoman–Venetian War or Morean War (1684–1699), resulting in the capture of the Morea (Peloponnese),

Lefkada, Aigina and parts of Dalmatia by Venice • The seventh and last Ottoman–Venetian War (1714–1718), resulting in the recapture of the Morea (Peloponnese) and of

Tinos and Aigina, the last Venetian holdings in the Aegean, by the Ottomans.

The Venetian Empire with trade routes, showing Venetian possessions in red

The Eastern Mediterranean in 1450, just before the Fall of Constantinople. Venetian possessions are in green and red. By 1463, the

Ottoman dominions would have expanded to include the Byzantine Empire (purple), and most of the smaller Balkan states.

Ottoman–Venetian maritime treaty (1416) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Ottoman–Venetian maritime treaty of 1416 was signed between Ottoman Empire and Republic of Venice, ending a short conflict between the two powers and stipulating the rules maritime trade between them. After the collapse of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, four Anatolian beyliks in west Anatolia (namely Karasi, Aydin, Sarukhan and Mentese) had become minor sea powers in the Aegean Sea in the early 14th century. However, towards the end of that century, they were annexed by the rising Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans commandeered their fleets and enrolled their captains. With this enlarged navy, the Ottomans proved to be a serious threat to Venetian domination in the Aegean. Although the three of the beyliks regained their independence during Temur's campaign for a brief duration, they weren't able to acquire their past fleets. In 1415, shortly after Ottoman interregnum, Venice sent 10 galleys to the Sea of Marmara, under the command of Pietro Loredan, to check the Ottoman fleet. With some reinforcements from the Aegean islands (most of which were dominions of Venice) this fleet began controlling Marmara. In a clash on 14 May 1416, the Venician fleet defeated the Ottoman fleet, killing its admiral Çalı Bey. Loredan then also tried to capture the Ottoman port of Lapseki, but this time he was repelled and forced to withdraw.[1] Treaty Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Palaeologus volunteered to be the mediator, and the two sides agreed on the following: 1. Prisoners of war were released. 2. Both sides promised to combat piracy. 3. Venice was given trade concessions in the Ottoman Empire 1. ^ Prof.Dr.Yaşar Yücel-Prof.Dr.Ali Sevim: Türkiye Tarihi II, AKDTYK yayınları,Đstanbul,1990, p. 80-81

Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Date 1422–1430 Location Thessalonica

Result Ottoman victory, capture of the city

Belligerents

Byzantine Empire (1422–23) Republic of Venice(1423–30) Ottoman Empire

Casualties and losses

2000-7000 citizens enslaved. unknown

The siege of Thessalonica between 1422 and 1430 was an ultimately successful attempt by the Ottoman Empire under Murad II to take the Byzantine city of Thessalonica. Initially, the Sultan desired to capture the city in order to punish the ruling Byzantine Palaiologoi dynasty for their attempts at inciting rebellion within the Ottoman ranks. Toward this end, Murad II laid siege to the harbor of Thessalonica in 1422.[1] In 1423, the Byzantine governor Andronikos Palaiologos sold the city to the Republic of Venice, which assumed the burden of its defence.[2][3] Siege The Ottomans maintained their naval blockade until 1430, when they assaulted and took the city.[4] The Venetians had not realized how expensive the defense of the city was. Nonetheless, it held out despite severe hunger within the city. Murad II had been engaged in numerous battles with the Venetians, Karamanids and numerous pretenders; when all had been subdued, a large army was sent to Macedonia and the city was subjected to three days of pillage and destruction after its capture in 1430. At that time population numbers were modest.[5] References Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. 1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002 Notes

1. ^ John Julius Norwich, Byzantine: The Decline and Fall (Alfred A. Knopf Pub.: New York, 1998) p. 394 2. ^ John Julius Norwich, A History of Venice (Alfred A. Knopf Pub.: New York, 1982) p. 343 3. ^ Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. 1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002. pg 277 4. ^ Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, p. 85 5. ^ According to Cyril Mango, the number was as low as 2,000 people (Mango 2002, p. 277). On the other hand,

the New Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. 7 (1998), reports that 7,000 Thessalonicans were taken captive (p. 778).

Lordship of Negroponte 1204–1470


The Latin Empire with its vassals and the Greek successor states after the partition of the Byzantine Empire, c. 1204. The borders are very uncertain.

Capital Chalkis (Negroponte)

Language(s) Venetian officially, Greek popularly

Religion Roman Catholic officially, Greek Orthodox popularly

Political structure Client state

Historical era Middle Ages

- Principality established 1204

- Ottoman Conquest 1470

* The duchy was nominally a vassal state of, in order, the Kingdom of Thessalonica, the Latin Empire (from 1209), the Principality of Achaea (from 1236), but effectively, and from 1390 also de jure, under Venetian control

The Lordship of Negroponte was a crusader state established on the island of Euboea (Italian: Negroponte) after the partition of the Byzantine Empire following the Fourth Crusade. Partitioned into three baronies (terzieri) run by a few interrelated Lombard families, the island soon fell under the influence of the Republic of Venice. From ca. 1390, the island became a regular Venetian colony as the Kingdom of Negroponte (Regno di Negroponte). Establishment According to the division of Byzantine territory (the Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae), Euboea was awarded to Boniface of Montferrat, King of Thessalonica. Boniface in turn ceded the island as a fief to the Flemish noble Jacques d' Avesnes, who fortified Chalkis. After his death in mid-1205 however, the island was ceded to three Veronese barons: Ravano dalle Carceri, Giberto dalle Carceri and Pecoraro da Mercanuovo. They divided the island into three triarchies (terzieri, "thirds"): the northern, based at Oreos (Italian: terzero del Rio), the southern, ruled from Karystos (Italian: terzero di Caristo), and the central portion, ruled from Chalkis (Italian: terzero della Clissura). The city of Chalkis or Negroponte (città de' Lombardi, "city of the Lombards") however was not under the latter's control, but served as overall capital of the island and joint residence of the Lombard rulers and their families. By 1209 however, Ravano had established himself as sole master of Euboea, styling himself as dominus insulae Nigropontis. Having allied himself with an unsuccessful Lombard rebellion against the Latin Emperor, Henry of Flanders, Ravano was eager to find a powerful protector. Thus, in March 1209, he signed an alliance with Venice, which recognized Venetian overlordship and gave the Venetians significant commercial privileges. In May, however, in an act of political balancing, Ravano also acknowledged his vassalage to the Latin Empire. Succession disputes However, already after the death of Ravano in 1216, his heirs disagreed over the succession, allowing the Venetian bailli to intervene as a mediator. He partitioned the three baronies in two, creating thus six hexarchies (sestieri). The northern triarchy of Oreos was divided between Ravano's nephews, Marino I and Rizzardo; the southern triarchy of Karystos was divided between his widow, Isabella, and his daughter, Bertha; and the central triarchy was divided between Giberto's heirs, Guglielmo I and Alberto. Provisions were also made that in the case someone among the sestieri died, his inheritor would be the other sestiere of the

respective triarchy, and not his children. In actual fact, most sestieri were succeeded by their brothers, sons or nephews, keeping the baronies within the tight circle of the original Lombard families. In 1255 however, the death of Carintana dalle Carceri, hexarch of Oreos and wife to William II of Villehardouin, nominal overlord of Negroponte, led to the so-called "War of the Euboeote Succession", which involved Achaea and Venice. William claimed for himself his wife's inheritance, while the Lombard barons were unwilling to concede it. On 14 June 1256, Guglielmo of Verona and Narzotto dalle Carceri, the other two triarchs, repudiated their allegiance to William and pledged themselves to Venice. William responded by capturing Chalkis, which the Venetians retook in early 1258. The war ended in the battle of Karydi in May/June 1258, where William defeated the Duke of Athens, Guy I de la Roche, who had allied himself with the rebellious triarchs. Finally, in August 1259, Doge Reniero Zeno negotiated a peace, followed by a treaty in 1262, which recognized William's suzerainty over the island, but not his possession of the triarchy of Oreoi. Byzantine interlude By that time, however, the Empire of Nicaea had established itself as the foremost power in the area of the former Byzantine Empire, reconquering several territories from the Latins. Its successes culminated in the recapture of Constantinople in 1261 and the reestablishment of the Byzantine Empire, whose energetic ruler, Michael VIII Palaeologus, sought to reconquer the remaining Latin principalities in southern Greece. To this end, he accepted the services of Licario, an Italian renegade, who had his base near Karystos. Under Licario's command, Byzantine troops soon conquered most of Euboea, except Chalkis. After the departure of Licario sometime after 1280 however, with Venetian aid, the island gradually returned to Latin control. By 1296, Bonifazio da Verona had completely expelled the Byzantines from Euboea. Later history In 1317 however, Karystos fell to the Catalan Don Alfonso Fadrique, vicar-general of the duchy of Athens and illegitimate son of Frederick III of Sicily. In 1319, a peace treaty was signed between Venice and Don Alfonso, whereby he retained Karystos, which the Venetians acquired in 1365. When the last triarchs, Niccolo III dalle Carceri and Giorgio III Ghisi, died in 1383 and 1390 respectively, they left their territories to Venice, which thus established complete predominance over the island. Nevertheless, the triarchic system was maintained, with Venetian families appointed to the positions of terzieri, while the Venetian podestà resided at Chalkis. Venice's rule lasted until 1470, when, during the Ottoman–Venetian War of 1463–1479, Sultan Mehmed II campaigned against Chalkis. With the fall of the city on 12 July, the whole island came under Ottoman control. References

1. ^ Bury (1886), pp. 321ff. 2. ^ Bury (1886), pp. 319–321 3. ^ Bury (1886), p. 348 Sources and bibliography

• Bury, John Bagnell (1886). "The Lombards and Venetians in Euboia (1205–1303)". The Journal of Hellenic Studies 7: 309–352. • Bury, John Bagnell (1887). "The Lombards and Venetians in Euboia (1303–1340)". The Journal of Hellenic Studies 8: 194–213. • Bury, John Bagnell (1888). "The Lombards and Venetians in Euboia (1430–1470)". The Journal of Hellenic Studies 9: 91–117. • Cawley, Charles. "Latin lordships in Greece: Euboea". Medieval Lands. Foundation for Medieval Genealogy. http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/LATIN%20LORDSHIPS%20IN%20GREECE.htm#_Toc127589308. • Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994), The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 978-0472082605, http://books.google.com/books?id=Hh0Bu8C66TsC • Koder, Johannes (1973) (in German), Negroponte: Untersuchungen zur Topographie und Siedlungsgeschichte der Insel Euboia während der Zeit der Venezianerherrschaft, Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, ISBN 3-7001-0020-5 • Miller, William (1908), The Latins in the Levant, a History of Frankish Greece (1204–1566), New York: E.P. Dutton and Company • Nicol, Donald MacGillivray (1993), The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521439916, http://books.google.com/books?id=y2d6OHLqwEsC • Setton, Kenneth M. (1976), The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571: Volume I, The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries, DIANE Publishing, ISBN 978-0-87169-114-0

League of Lezhë Lidhja Shqiptare e Lezhës 1444–1479


Portrait of Skanderbeg in the Uffizi, Florence- Skanderbeg's portrait above the entrance to the palace where Skanderbeg stayed in

Rome

Capital Lezhë

Language(s) Albanian

Religion Catholic and Orthodox

Government Confederation

Head of the State

- 1444-1468 George Kastrioti Skanderbeg

- 1468-1479 Lekë Dukagjini

Legislature Assembly of Noblemen

Historical era Medieval

- Established 2 March 1444

- Disestablished 25 April 1479

Preceded by Succeeded by

Muzakaj Principality of Berat

Principality of Kastrioti

Principality of Dukagjini

Princedom of Albania

State of Arianiti

Ottoman Albania

Today part of Albania Kosovo Macedonia Serbia Montenegro

The League of Lezhë (2 March 1444 – 25 April 1479) was an alliance of Albanian Principalities forged in Lezhë on the 2nd of March 1444.[1] It was initiated and organised by Skanderbeg with the aim of uniting the Albanian principalities that had been founded in the 12th - 14th centuries, to fight the Ottoman Armies. The league whose main remembers were the Arianiti, Dukagjini, Spani, Thopia, Muzaka as well as the Albanian highlander clans was led by George Kastrioti Skanderbeg. After Skanderbeg's death the League was led by Lekë Dukagjini. The League of Lezhë had the trappings of a confederation where each principality over all maintained its sovereignty. Skanderbeg was the supreme commander of the military alliance. Background

After the collapse of Stefan Dushan empire of 1355 which had incorporated Albanian lands, Albanian noblemen established their own dominions. When Ottoman forces entered Albanian lands they were faced with small principalities, engaged in vicious fights among themselves. The first organised resistance against the Ottoman forces was that of Balsha II in the battle of Savra (18 September 1385) where Albanian forces were defeated and Balsha II himself was killed. Albanian noblemen like Đurađ II, Theodor II Muzaka, Dhimiter Jonima, Zaharia Gropa with their armies participated in the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. In the 15th century the Ottoman Empire established itself in the Balkans. No significant resistance was offered by local Christian nobles during this period. Many of them were still fighting each other and didn't see the advance of Ottoman empire as a threat to their power. Although a civil war broke out between Bayezid I sons', during 1402-1413, none of the Christian noblemen in the

Balkans at the time seized the opportunity to repel the Ottomans, in the contrary Serbs and Hungarians even helped the future sultan Mohammed I seize power, by participating as his allies in the final battle against his brother.[2] After the Ottoman civil war was over in favor of Mehmed I. His forces captured Kruja from Thopia family in 1415, Berat in 1417 from Muzaka, Vlora and Kanina in 1417 from the widow of Balsha and Gjirokastër in 1418 from Zenebishti family. At the same time the Republic of Venice captured the Albanian populated coastal cities in the Adriatic. Under the pressure from Ottoman Empire and Venetic Republic, the Albanian principalities began to vacillate.[3] Together with occupation new rulers were appointed and the registration process of the population and properties was done from the Ottoman tax officers. Local population and old nobility was not happy with that and various local rebellions took place. The most famous ones being those of Gjon Kastrioti in 1429-1430 and Gjergj Araniti in 1432-1435. In November 1443, Skanderbeg captured Kruja, which was the capital of principality of the Kastrioti, with his troops and declared its independence from the Sultan. However a more organised resistance than that of a single principality was needed.[4] Formation

Skanderbeg's example gave impetus to the liberation movements in Central and Northern Albania. Nearly all princes rejected Ottoman rule, and the large Albanian clans reestablished their principalities. George Kastrioti made efforts to unite all moral and material resources of the individual families in a successful struggle against the Ottomans. To this effect, on 2 March 1444 he called in Lezhë an assembly of the Albanian princes, where almost all of them gathered: the Arianits, Dukagjin, Thopias, Muzakas, as well as the leaders of the free Albanian tribes from the high mountains. In spite of the discord among the princes, they founded a union, which went down in history by the name of the Albanian League of Lezhë. George Kastrioti - Skanderbeg was elected its leader, and commander in chief of its armed forces numbering 8,000 warriors.[5][6] In the light of modern geopolitical science, the League of Lezhë represented an attempt to form a state union. In fact, this was a federation of independent rulers who undertook the duty to follow a common foreign policy, jointly defend their independence, and contribute their armed forces to the alliance. Naturally, it all required a collective budget for covering the military expenditures, and each family contributed their mite to the common funds of the League. At the same time, each clan kept its possessions, its autonomy in solving the internal problems of its own estate. The formation and functioning of the League, of which George Kastrioti was the supreme feudal lord or suzerain, was the most significant attempt to build up an all-Albanian resistance against the Ottoman occupation and, simultaneously, an effort to create, for the span of its short-lived functioning, some sort of a unified Albanian state. It is no accident at all that to this day Skanderbeg is a national hero of the Albanians, and the period of the Albanian League has been perceived by the Albanians as a peak in their history, especially if compared with the subsequent failed attempts, until the beginning of the 20th century, to constitute an independent statehood. Success

Under Skanderbeg's command the Albanian forces marched east capturing the cities of Dibra and Ohrid. For 25 years, from 1443–1468, Skanderbeg's 10,000 man army marched through Ottoman territory winning against the consistently larger and better supplied Ottoman forces.[7] Threatened by Ottoman advances in their homeland, Hungary, and later Naples and Venice – their former enemies – provided the financial backbone and support for Skanderbeg's army.[8] On May 14, 1450, an Ottoman army, larger than any previous force encountered by Skanderbeg or his men, stormed and overwhelmed the castle of the city of Kruja. This city was particularly symbolic to Skanderbeg because he had been appointed suba of Kruja in 1438 by the Ottomans. According to the Chronicles of Ragusa (also known as the Chronicles of Dubrovnik), the fighting lasted four months and thousands of Albanian soldiers lost their lives. Even so, the Ottoman forces were unable to capture the city and had no choice but to retreat before winter set in. In June 1466, Mehmed II, known as "the Conqueror", led an army of 150,000 soldiers back to Kruja but he still couldn't capture the city.[9] Defeat

After Skanderbeg's death in 1468, the Sultan easily subdued Albania, but Skanderbeg's death did not end the struggle for independence,[10] and fighting continued until 1479 when the Albanian lands were forced to succumb to the superior Ottoman armies.[11] Battles of the League of Lezha

The League of Lezha fought the following 26 battles against the Ottoman Empire in 35 years (1443–1478): 1. Siege of Petrela (1443/1444) 2. Siege of Stelluzi (1443/1444) 3. First Siege of Sfetigrad (1443/1444) 4. Battle of Torvioll (1444) 5. Battle of Mokra (1445) 6. Battle of Otonetë (1446) 7. Albanian–Venetian War (1447–1448) 8. Battle of the Drin (1448) 9. Battle of Oranik (1448) 10. Second Siege of Sfetigrad (1449) 11. First Siege of Krujë (1450) 12. Siege of Modrica (1452) 13. Battle of Mokra (1453) 14. Siege of Berat (1455) 15. Battle of Oranik (1456) 16. Battle of Albulena (1457) 17. Skanderbeg's Italian expedition (1461–1462) 18. Macedonian campaign (1462) 19. Macedonian campaign (1463) 20. Battle of Ochrida (1464) 21. Battle of Vajkal (1464) 22. Battle of Vajkal (1465)

23. Battle of Kashari (1465) 24. Second Siege of Krujë (1466) 25. Third Siege of Krujë (1467) 26. Fourth Siege of Krujë (1478) 27. Siege of Shkodër (1478) References

1. ^ Southeastern Europe under Ottoman rule, 1354-1804 By Peter F. Sugar page 67 ISBN 0295960337 2. ^ East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500 Volume 3 of History of East Central Europe Author Jean W. Sedlar Edition illustrated Publisher University of Washington Press, 1994 ISBN 0295972904, 9780295972909 Length 556 pages page 264 3. ^ The history of Albania: a brief survey Author Kristo Frashëri Publisher s.n., 1964 p.57 4. ^ Noli, Fan Stylian, George Castroiti Scanderbeg (1405–1468), International Universities Press, 1947 5. ^ Fox, Robert (1993), The inner sea: the Mediterranean and its people, Alfred A. Knopf, p. 195, http://books.google.com/books?cd=10&hl=pl&id=GGwTAQAAIAAJ&dq=league+of+lezhe&q=%22league+of+lezhe%22#search_anchor 6. ^ Vlora, Ekrem Bey (1956), The Ruling Families of Albania in the pre-Ottoman Period in: Contributions to the History of Turkish Rule in Albania: an Historical Sketch, http://www.albanianhistory.net/texts20_2/AH1956_1.html 7. ^ Housley, Norman (1992), The later Crusades, 1274-1580: from Lyons to Alcazar, Oxford University Press, p. 90 ff, ISBN 9780198221364, http://books.google.com/books?id=JQP2F2q9xDkC 8. ^ Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994), The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, University of Michigan Press, p. 558, ISBN 9780472082605, http://books.google.com/books?id=LvVbRrH1QBgC&pg=PA558 9. ^ Housley, Norman (1992), The later Crusades, 1274-1580: from Lyons to Alcazar, Oxford University Press, p. 109, ISBN 9780198221364, http://books.google.com/books?id=JQP2F2q9xDkC 10. ^ Lane–Poole, Stanley (1888), The story of Turkey, G.P. Putnam's sons, p. 135, OCLC 398296, http://www.archive.org/stream/storyofturkey00lanerich#page/134/mode/2up 11. ^ Lane–Poole, Stanley (1888), The story of Turkey, G.P. Putnam's sons, p. 136, OCLC 398296, http://www.archive.org/stream/storyofturkey00lanerich#page/136/mode/2up Sources

• Anamali, Skënder (2002) (in Albanian), Historia e popullit shqiptar në katër vëllime, I, Botimet Toena, OCLC 52411919

• Angelo, Paolo; Laporta, Alessandro; Giovio, Paolo; Franco (1539) (in Latin in the 1539 version and translated into Italian in 2004), La vita di Scanderbeg di Paolo Angelo, Venice: Anonymous Publisher and Demetrio ed. in 2004 for the Italian publication, ISBN 9788880865711, http://books.google.com/books?id=8H5pAAAAMAAJ&q=La+vita+di+Scanderbeg+laporta&dq=La+vita+di+Scanderbeg+laporta&hl=en&ei=NiqaTMqoLsLflgfVtL07&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&resnum=2&ved=0CDYQ6wEwAQ

• Babinger, Franz (1992), Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time, Princeton University Press, ISBN 9780691010786, http://books.google.com/books?id=PPxC6rO7vvsC

• Barletius, Marinus (1508) (in Latin), Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum Principis, Bernardinus de Vitalibus, OCLC 645065473

• Biçoku, Kasem (1967) (in Albanian), Giergi Kastrioti Skenderbeu, OCLC 255803348, http://books.google.com/books?id=YxHPPgAACAAJ

• Biçoku, Kasem (2005) (in Albanian), Për Skënderbeun, Shtëpia Botonjëse "BOTIMPEX", ISBN 9789994380107, http://books.google.com/books?id=wcrKPAAACAAJ

• Biçoku, Kasem (2005) (in Albanian), Bibliografia e Skënderbeut: përballë shpifjeve, Rilindja Demokratike, OCLC 231635639, http://books.google.com/books?id=1qYnAQAAIAAJ

• Blancum, Franciscus (1636) (in Latin) Georgius Castriotus, Epirensis vulgo Scanderbegh, Epirotarum Princeps Fortissimus, Propaganda Fide, Venice.

• Buda, Aleks; Frasheri, Kristo (1962) (in Albanian), Burime të zgjedhura për historinë e Shqipërisë, Universiteti Shtetëror i Tiranës Instituti i Historisë dhe i Gjuhësisë, OCLC 658147940, http://books.google.com/books?id=NQm2PAAACAAJ

• Buda, Aleks; Frashëri, Kristo; Pollo, Stefanaq (1965), Historia e shqipërisë...., Universiteti Shtetëror i Tiranës, OCLC 500254272, http://books.google.com/books?id=oA5LNAAACAAJ

• Cohen, Richard (2003), By the Sword: A History of Gladiators, Musketeers, Samurai, Swashbucklers, and Olympic Champions, Random House, Inc., ISBN 9780812969665

• De Lavardin, Jacques (1592) (in French), Histoire de Georges Castriot surnommé Scanderbeg, Roy d'Albanie: contenant ses illustres faicts d'armes & memorables victoires alencontre des Turcs, pour la foy de Jesus Christ. Le tout en douze livres., H. Haultin: La Rochelle, OCLC 560834149

• Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994), The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 9780472082605, http://books.google.com/books?id=LvVbRrH1QBgC&pg=PA558

• Francione, Gennaro (2003), Skenderbeu: Një hero modern, Shtëpia botuese "Naim Frashëri", ISBN 992738758 • Frashëri, Kristo (1962), George Kastrioti-Scanderbeg: the national hero of the Albanians (1405-1468), s.n., OCLC

1339175 • Frashëri, Kristo (1964), The history of Albania: a brief survey, s.n., OCLC 1738885,

http://books.google.com/books?id=hXMKAQAAIAAJ • Frashëri, Kristo (2002) (in Albanian), Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra, 1405-1468, Botimet Toena, ISBN

9992716274,

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http://books.google.com/books?id=vwR3PQAACAAJ&dq=kristo+frasheri+skenderbeu&hl=en&ei=vD6aTMPAFoPGlQeau_HZDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA

• Frashëri, Kristo (2005) (in Albanian), Skënderbeu dhe lufta shqiptaro-turke në shek. XV: vëll. 1. Burime dokumentare shqiptare (në origjinal dhe në përkthim shqip), Akademia e Shkencave e Shqiperise, ISBN 9789994310425, http://books.google.com/books?id=-1RaAAAACAAJ

• Frashëri, Kristo (2009) (in Albanian), Skënderbeu i shpërfytyruar nga një historian zviceran dhe nga disa analistë shqiptarë: vështrim kritik, Botimet "Dudaj", ISBN 9994301098, http://books.google.com/books?id=Tf4HSQAACAAJ

• Frashëri, Naim (1898) (in Albanian), Istori'e Skenderbeut, Coinetarevet, http://books.google.com/books?id=xi8jPAAACAAJ

• Frashëri, Naim; Cipo, Kostaq (1953) (in Albanian), Naim H. Frashëri. Histori e Skënderbeut, OCLC 560305338, http://books.google.com/books?id=fTihMwAACAAJ

• Gibbon, Edward (1788), The Analytical review, or History of literature, domestic and foreign, on an enlarged plan, 2, OCLC 444861890, http://books.google.com/books?id=bE4oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA143

• Gibbon, Edward (1901), The decline and fall of the Roman empire, P. F. Collier & Son, OCLC 317326240, http://books.google.com/books?id=b8ETAAAAYAAJ

• Glassé, Cyril (2008), The new encyclopedia of Islam, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 9780742562967, http://books.google.com/books?id=D7tu12gt4JYC

• Godo, Sabri (1983) (in Albanian), Skanderbeg: histor. Roman, 8 Nëntori, OCLC 252037054, http://books.google.com/books?id=b4jISgAACAAJ

• Hodgkinson, Harry; Destani, Bejtullah D.; Cooper, Westrow; Abulafia, David (1999), Scanderbeg: From Ottoman Captive to Albanian Hero, Centre for Albanian Studies, ISBN 9781873928134, http://books.google.com/books?id=X4lpAAAAMAAJ

• Hodgkinson, Harry (2005), Scanderbeg: From Ottoman Captive to Albanian Hero, I. B. Tauris, ISBN 1850439419 • Holberg, Ludwig (1739) (in Danish), Adskillige store heltes og beroemmelige maends, saer Orientalske og Indianske

sammenlignede historier og bedrifter efter Plutarchi maade/ 2., Kjøbenhavn : Höpffner, 1739., OCLC 312532589 • Holitscher, Philipp (1890), Skanderbeg, OCLC 249971134, http://books.google.com/books?id=XLDTPgAACAAJ • Housley, Norman (1992), The later Crusades, 1274-1580: from Lyons to Alcazar, Oxford University Press, ISBN

9780198221364, http://books.google.com/books?id=JQP2F2q9xDkC • Houtsma, Martijn Theodoor (1987), E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, BRILL, pp. 467–, ISBN

9789004082656, http://books.google.com/books?id=VJM3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA467 • Jacques, Edwin E. (1995), The Albanians: an ethnic history from prehistoric times to the present, McFarland, ISBN

9780899509327, http://books.google.com/books?id=IJ2s9sQ9bGkC • Kuteli, Mitrush (1987) (in Albanian), Tregime të moçme shqiptare, "Naim Frashëri", OCLC 25141722,

http://books.google.com/books?id=10rhAAAAMAAJ • Lane–Poole, Stanley (1888), The story of Turkey, G.P. Putnam's sons, OCLC 398296,

http://books.google.com/books?id=PqYCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA133 • Logoreci, Anton (1977), The Albanians: Europe's forgotten survivors, Gollancz, ISBN 9780575022294,

http://books.google.com/books?id=t38JAQAAIAAJ • Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth (1880), Tales of a wayside inn, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., pp. 286–, OCLC 562689407,

http://books.google.com/books?id=dIoRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA286 • Ludlow, James Meeker (1890), The captain of the Janizaries: a story of the times of Scanderbeg and the fall of

Constantinople, New York: Harper & brothers, http://books.google.com/books?id=x44ZAAAAYAAJ • Moore, Clement Clarke (1850), George Castriot, Surnamed Scanderbeg, King of Albania, New York: D. Appleton & Co.,

http://books.google.com/books?id=P3wKAAAAMAAJ • Myrdal, Jan (1976), Albania defiant, Monthly Review Press, ISBN 9780853453567,

http://books.google.com/books?id=S3W4AAAAIAAJ • Nicol, Donald MacGillivray (1993), The last centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453, Cambridge University Press, ISBN

9780521439916, http://books.google.com/books?id=y2d6OHLqwEsC • Noli, Fan Stilian (1947), George Castrioti Scanderbeg (1405-1468), International Universities Press, OCLC 732882 • Noli, Fan Stilian (1967), Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu, OCLC 562852404,

http://books.google.com/books?id=wwu_PgAACAAJ • Noli, Fan Stilian (1993) (in Italian), Scanderbeg, Argo, ISBN 9788886211048,

http://books.google.com/books?id=gjLZPQAACAAJ • Paganel, Camille (1855) (in French), Histoire de Scanderbeg, ou Turks et chrétiens au xve siècle, Paris: Didier, OCLC

562582673, http://books.google.com/books?id=0qEBAAAAQAAJ • Pisko, Julius (1894) (in German), Skanderbeg: Histor. Studie, W. Frick, OCLC 251643987,

http://books.google.com/books?id=mEPNQAAACAAJ • Prifti, Peter R. (2005-07-13), Unfinished portrait of a country, East European Monographs, ISBN 9780880335584,

http://books.google.com/books?id=kYhpAAAAMAAJ • Puto, Arben (2001-12-17), History of Albania, Kegan Paul International, Limited, ISBN 9780710305251,

http://books.google.com/books?id=HdTCAAAACAAJ • Rietstap, Johannes Baptist (1875) (in French), Armorial general, http://books.google.com/books?id=aqFjPwAACAAJ • Rietstap, Johannes Baptist (1965) (in French), Armorial general, precede d'un dictionnaire des termes du blason, Barnes

and Noble, ISBN 0900455187, http://books.google.com/books?id=lgc7cAAACAAJ • Rosser, John Hutchins (2001), Historical dictionary of Byzantium, Scarecrow Press, ISBN 9780810839793,

http://books.google.com/books?id=qU9lmX2xYlUC&pg=PA363

• Runciman, Steven (1990), The fall of Constantinople, 1453, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521398329, http://books.google.com/books?id=BAzntP0lg58C

• Sansovino, Francesco (1582) (in Italian), Historia universale dell'origine, et imperio de'Turchi: Raccolta, & in diversi lunghi di nuovo ampliata et riformata in molte sue parti per ordine della Santa Inquisitione : Con le figure in disegno de gli habiti & dell'armature de soldati d'esso gran Turco ; Et con la tavola di tutte le cose più notabili, et degne, Salicato, OCLC 220591138, http://books.google.com/books?id=_nJCAAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1-PT22

• Sedlar, Jean W. (1994), A history of East Central Europe: East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500, University of Washington Press, ISBN 9780295972909, http://books.google.com/books?id=ANdbpi1WAIQC

• Setton, Kenneth M. (1976), The papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571: The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, American Philosophical Society, ISBN 9780871691279

• Skendi, Stavro (1980), Balkan cultural studies, East European Monographs, ISBN 9780914710660, http://books.google.com/books?id=JWBiAAAAMAAJ

• Stavrianos, Leften Stavros (1958), The Balkans since 1453, Rinehart, OCLC 485496689, http://books.google.com/books?id=kFkeAAAAMAAJ

• Temple, William (1705), Miscellanea: The first part. Containing I. A survey of the constitutions and interests of the Empire, Sweden, ... IV An essay upon the cure of the gout by Moxa., printed for Jacob Tonson, and Awnsham and John Churchill, OCLC 83414679, http://books.google.com/books?id=w04JAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA286

• Varfi, Gjin (2000) (in Albanian), Heraldika shqiptare, Shtëpia Botuese Dituria, ISBN 9789992731857, http://books.google.com/books?id=GOUEAQAACAAJ

• Von Auffenberg, J. (1855) (in German), Skanderbeg, Friedrich, http://books.google.com/books?id=XAt2PwAACAAJ • Whincop, Thomas (1747), Scanderbeg: or, love and liberty: A tragedy, Printed for W. Reeve at Shakespear's Head,

OCLC 277675772, http://books.google.com/books?id=OscGAAAAQAAJ • Willson, Beckles (1909), The life and letters of James Wolfe, W. Heinemann, OCLC 3890956,

http://books.google.com/books?id=4uMgAAAAMAAJ • Zavalani, Tajar (1958) (in Albanian), Historia e Shqipnis, Drini Publications, OCLC 18389223,

http://books.google.com/books?id=OvKzGwAACAAJ External links

• Map of the Albanian state under Skanderbeg • Map of the Albanian state under Skanderbeg • Albanian Identities • Sustainable Economic Development Agency • History of Albania

Main Albanian towns during the 15th century, including settlements in neighboring regions

Albanian–Venetian War (1447–1448)


Date December 1447- October 4, 1448 Location Albania

Result Peace treaty signed on October 4, 1448; the Ottoman-Albanian War continued. Territorial changes

Dagnum stays under Venetian control. All lands on the Albanian side of the Drin river are relinquished to the League of Lezhë.

Belligerents

League of Lezhë

Republic of Venice Ottoman Empire

Commanders and leaders

Skanderbeg Vrana Konti Hamza Kastrioti

Daniel Iurichi Andrea Venier Mustafa Pasha (POW)

Andrea Venier was the Venetian Albania's castellan in Scutari from 1441. By July 1448, during the Albanian-Venetian War (1447-1448), he was the provveditore in Albania.

Strength

14,000 concentrated against the Venetians under Skanderbeg. 6,000 fought against the Turks, 3,000–4,000 of which were placed beforehand in Dibra under Vrana Konti to hold off a possible Ottoman incursion.

15,000 Venetian soldiers and Albanian mercenaries stationed in the area of Shkodër; small numbers of soldiers stationed in Durrës and Lezha. 15,000 Ottoman soldiers were sent to Dibra.

The Albanian-Venetian War of 1447–1448 was waged between Venetian and Ottoman forces against the Albanians under George Kastrioti Skanderbeg. The war was the result of a dispute between the Republic and the Dukagjini family over the possession of the Dagnum fortress. Skanderbeg, then ally of the Dukagjini family, moved against several Venetian held towns along the Albanian coastline, in order to pressure the Venetians into restoring Dagnum. In response, the Republic sent a local force to relieve the besieged fortress of Dagnum, and urged the Ottoman Empire to send an expeditionary force into Albania. At that time the Ottomans were already besieging the fortress of Svetigrad, stretching Skanderbeg's efforts thin. However, the League of Lezhë defeated both the Venetian forces and the Ottoman expedition. The League won over the Venetian forces on July 23, 1448 at the gates of Scutari, and over the Ottomans three weeks later, on August 14, 1448, at the Battle of Oronichea. The Republic was, thereafter, left with few soldiers to defend Venetian Albania. As a result, the League soon signed peace with the Republic of Venice, while continuing the war against the Ottoman Empire. After the Albanian-Venetian War of 1447–1448, Venice did not seriously challenge Skanderbeg or the League, allowing Skanderbeg to focus his campaigns against the Ottoman Empire. Background

In 1444, Skanderbeg had managed to unite the major Albanian princes under his leadership at the League of Lezhë, where a confederation of all the Albanian Principalities was created. The alliance between the princes continued to hold firm, but in 1447, the first of the years when Murad II took no action against the League, stresses within the alliance were felt, especially in 1447 when Lekë Dukagjini, lord of the Dukagjini and League member, ambushed and killed Lekë Zaharia Altisferi, prince of Dagnum and also League member. The two princes had been in dispute over who should marry Irene Dushmani, the only daughter of Lekë Dushmani, prince of Zadrima. In 1445, the Albanian princes had been invited to the wedding of Skanderbeg's younger sister, Mamica, who was being married to Muzaka Thopia. Irene entered the wedding and hostilities began.[1] Dukagjini asked Irene to marry him, but Zaharia, who was drunk, saw this, and assaulted Dukagjini. Some princes attempted to stop the fight, but only more people became involved. Several people died or got injured before peace was established.[2][3] Neither of the two antagonists had suffered any physical damage, but after the event Dukagjini was morally humiliated. Two years later, in 1447, in an act of revenge, Dukagjini ambushed and killed Zaharia. The death of Zaharia left his princedom with no successor. As a result his mother handed the fortress over to Venetian Albania, a stretch of possessions of the Republic of Venice.[4][5][6] Skanderbeg urged to the Venetian legates that Dagnum should be restored to the League since it guarded an important trade route, but Venice refused and, consequently, Skanderbeg prepared for war against the Republic itself.[7][8][9] The League soon sent envoys to its ally neighbors, Stefan I Crnojević and Đurađ Branković. Branković, a lord of Serbian Despotate, who was also in dispute with Venice over the Principality of Zeta, expressed his willingness to help Skanderbeg against the Republic but not against the Ottoman Empire.[4] The Venetians sent an ambassador to Skanderbeg offering him 1,000 ducats to lay aside all claims to Dagnum in return that the Albanians would protect the country and keep the roads free from violence. Skanderbeg, however, refused to accept the offer and hostilities continued.[10] Initial campaigns

In December 1447,[11] after leaving a protective force of three to four thousand men under Vrana Konti to guard the frontier in the event of an Ottoman incursion, Skanderbeg turned towards Dagnum with a force of 14,000 men. Initially offering the garrison at Dagnum the opportunity to surrender, he promptly besieged the fortress upon rejection.[4][7] In order to pressure the Venetians, Skanderbeg also turned towards Durazzo, then another possession of the Venetian Albania, and cut the city off from their local resources and trade. This move forced Venice to redirect to Durazzo two galleys, which initially were bound for Crete, in order to

watch over the events there.[10] By then Venice treated Skanderbeg as a rebellious Ottoman vassal, so on 4 March 1448 a life pension of 100 gold ducats per month was offered to anyone who would assassinate Skanderbeg.[12][13] In May, Ottoman forces besieged Svetigrad, putting great strain on Skanderbeg's campaigns.[14] On 27 June 1448 Venice sent Andrea Venier, then provveditore at the Scutari's Rozafa Castle,[15] to attempt to persuade the Ottomans to invade Albania.[4] After, Venice also sent Venier to meet with Skanderbeg in order to convince him to break off hostilities,[16] and also attempted to push the Dukagjini clan away from their alliance with Skanderbeg. Despite measures taken by the Venetians, Skanderbeg marched towards Scutari unabated. He also dared the Venetians to send out a force to defeat him.[17] The siege of Dagnum continued, however, with a force of 4,000 that Skanderbeg had left behind.[18] Battle of the River Drin and the Ottoman expedition

On 23 July 1448 Skanderbeg crossed the Drin River with 10,000 men, meeting a Venetian force of 15,000 men under the command of Daniele Iurichi, governor of Scutari. Venetian forces were composed largely of local Albanian mercenaries, forming the center of Iurichi's line. Iurichi positioned himself on the left wing with his Dalmatian forces, while the right was composed of Italian natives. Skanderbeg positioned himself and his personal bodyguard on the right wing, opposite Iurichi.[18] The center of Skanderbeg's army was commanded by Tanush Thopia, and the right by Moses of Dibra.[19] Skanderbeg instructed his troops on what to expect and opened battle by ordering a force of archers to open fire on the Venetian line.[20] Soon, the Albanian right wing advanced to engage first and managed to push the Venetian left wing back, while the center and the right engaged the Venetian center and left. The breakthrough was soon accomplished by attacking the gaps in the Venetian lines, causing disorder among their ranks. The battle continued for hours until large groups of Venetian troops began to flee. Skanderbeg, seeing his fleeing adversaries, ordered a full-scale offensive, routing the entire Venetian army.[19][21] The Republic's soldiers were chased right to the gates of Scutari, and Venetian prisoners were thereafter paraded outside the fortress.[22][19][21] The Albanians managed to inflict 2,500 casualties on the Venetian force, capturing 1,000. Skanderbeg's army suffered 400 casualties, most on the right wing.[13][19] The Venetian presence in Albania was weakened and the garrisons in the cities were stretched thin.[4] Skanderbeg retreated from the area to fight off an Ottoman invasion. Before leaving, he garrisoned the fort of Baleci (Balsha) near Dagnum, under the command of Marin Spani. Andrea Venier ordered the capture of Baleci after Skanderbeg had left, forcing Marin Spani to evacuate it. Venier then burned it to the ground. In retaliation, Hamza Kastrioti, one of Spani's colleagues, attacked a nearby Venetian fortress with what little men he had, but was defeated.[22] Despite the setbacks while he was away, Skanderbeg continued to focus on campaigning against the Venetian-requested Ottoman incursion at the Battle of Oronichea in August 1448. The Ottoman expeditionary force was crushed on 14 August, with Ottoman commander Mustafa Pasha captured. The loss of Balsha to the Venetians, however, forced Skanderbeg to continue raiding Venetian territory. Aftermath

With Durazzo, Scutari, and Dagnum on the point of surrender and seeing a victorious Albanian army after the Battle of Oronichea, the Venetians sent Andrea Venier to open peace negotiations with the Albanians.[13] The conference was held in Alessio and peace was signed between the various representatives or princes of both parties on 4 October 1448. The signatories agreed that Venice would keep Dagnum. In return, the Venetians agreed that Skanderbeg would receive an annual pension of 1,400 ducats and an annual tax exemption for 200 horse loads of salt from Durazzo. An agreement was also made to establish trading privileges between George Arianiti,Skanderbeg's ally, and Venice. Furthermore, a refuge in Venice would be offered in case Skanderbeg was driven out of Albania and two scarlet garments would be given to Skanderbeg in exchange for two altered falcons from the Albanian. However, threats were still exchanged between both sides and unofficial skirmishing continued.[13] Wary of Skanderbeg, Venice never openly challenged him again. Another treaty was signed in 1463, when Venice went to war with the Turks. However, no peace was made with the Ottomans, who retreated to Macedonia and prepared for another invasion of Albania after their defeat at Oronichea.[23] During the Albanian-Venetian war, they had taken Svetigrad after several months of siege. Thence, they could cross into Albania uninhibited.[24][25] References

1. ^ Francione 2003, p. 61 2. ^ Francione 2003, p. 62 3. ^ Hodgkinson 1999, p. 83 4. ^ a b c d e Fine 1994, p. 557 5. ^ Franco p. 84. 6. ^ Hodgkinson 1999, pp. 83–84 7. ^ a b Franco p. 85. 8. ^ Hodgkinson 1999, p. 84 9. ^ Francione 2003, p. 65 10. ^ a b Hodgkinson 1999, p. 85 11. ^ Schmitt 2009, p. 87 12. ^ Myrdal 1976, p. 48 13. ^ a b c d Noli 1947, p. 40 14. ^ Frashëri 2002, p. 156 15. ^ O'Connell 2009, p. 124 16. ^ Hodgkinson 1999, p. 86 17. ^ Hodgkinson 1999, p. 87 18. ^ a b Francione 2003, p. 67 19. ^ a b c d Francione 2003, p. 68 20. ^ Franco p. 87. 21. ^ a b Franco p. 88. 22. ^ a b Hodgkinson 1999, pp. 87–88 23. ^ Noli 1947, p. 41 24. ^ Frashëri 2002, p. 158 25. ^ Schmitt 2009, p. 93

Sources

• Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994), The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 9780472082605 • Francione, Gennaro (2003) (in Albanian), Skenderbeu: Një hero modern, Shtëpia botuese "Naim Frashëri", ISBN 992738758 • Franco, Demetrio (1539), Comentario de le cose de' Turchi, et del S. Georgio Scanderbeg, principe d' Epyr, Altobello Salkato, ISBN 9994310429 • Frashëri, Kristo (2002) (in Albanian), Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra, 1405–1468, Botimet Toena, ISBN 9992716274, http://books.google.com/books?id=vwR3PQAACAAJ&dq=kristo+frasheri+skenderbeu&hl=en&ei=vD6aTMPAFoPGlQeau_HZDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA • Hodgkinson, Harry (1999), Scanderbeg: From Ottoman Captive to Albanian Hero, Centre for Albanian Studies, ISBN 9781873928134 • Myrdal, Jan (1976), Albania defiant, Monthly Review Press, ISBN 9780853453567 • Noli, Fan Stilian (1947), George Castroiti Scanderbeg (1405–1468), International Universities Press, OCLC 732882 • O'Connell, Monique (2009), Men of empire: power and negotiation in Venice's maritime state, JHU Press, ISBN 9780801891458 • Schmitt, Oliver Jens (2009) (in Albanian), Skënderbeu, K&B Tiranë, ISBN 9789995666750

Rozafa Castle today. Durrës in 1573. The Drin and the Bojana Rivers in Shkodër as seen from Rozafa Castle, the former Venetian fortress.

First Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Date 1463–1479 Location Morea (Peloponnese), Negroponte (Euboea), Albania and the Aegean Sea Result Ottoman victory, Treaty of Constantinople (1479) Territorial

changes Morea, Negroponte and Albania conquered by the Ottoman Empire

Belligerents

Republic of Venice Papal States League of Lezhë Maniots Greek rebels

Ottoman Empire


Alvise Loredan Giacomo Loredan Sigismondo Malatesta Vettore Cappello Antonio da Canal

Pietro Mocenigo Skanderbeg

Sultan Mehmed II Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey Mahmud Pasha Angelović

The First Ottoman–Venetian War was fought between the Republic of Venice and her allies and the Ottoman Empire from 1463 to 1479. Fought shortly after the capture of Constantinople and the remnants of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottomans, it resulted in the loss of several Venetian holdings in Albania and Greece, most importantly the island of Negroponte (Euboea), which had been a Venetian protectorate for centuries. The war also saw the rapid expansion of the Ottoman navy, which became able to challenge the Venetians and the Knights Hospitaller for supremacy in the Aegean Sea. In the closing years of the war however, the Republic managed to recoup its losses by the de facto acquisition of the Crusader Kingdom of Cyprus. Background

Following the Fourth Crusade (1203–1204), the lands of the Byzantine Empire were divided among several western Catholic ("Latin") Crusader states, ushering in the period known in Greek as Latinokratia. Despite the resurgence of the Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty in the later 13th century, many of these "Latin" states survived until the rise of a new power, the Ottoman Empire. Chief among these was the Republic of Venice, which had founded an extensive maritime empire, controlling numerous coastal possessions and islands in the Adriatic, Ionian and Aegean Seas. In its first conflict with the Ottomans, Venice had already lost the city of Thessalonica in 1430, following a long siege, but the resulting peace treaty left the other Venetian possessions intact.[1] In 1453, the Ottomans captured the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, and continued to expand their territories in the Balkans, Asia Minor and the Aegean. Serbia was conquered in 1459, and the last Byzantine remnants, the Despotate of Morea and the Empire of Trebizond were subdued in 1460–1461.[2] The Venetian-controlled Duchy of Naxos and the Genoese colonies of Lesbos and Chios became tributary in 1458, only for the latter to be directly annexed four years later.[3] The Ottoman advance thus inevitably posed a threat to Venice's holdings in southern Greece, and, following the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia in 1463, in the Adriatic coast as well.[4][5] Outbreak of the war

According to the Greek historian Michael Critobulus, hostilities broke out because of the flight of an Albanian slave of the Ottoman commander of Athens to the Venetian fortress of Coron (Koroni) with 100,000 silver aspers from his master's treasure. The fugitive then converted to Christianity, and demands for his rendition by the Ottomans were therefore refused by the Venetian authorities.[6] Using this as a pretext, in November 1462, Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey, the Ottoman commander in central Greece, attacked and nearly succeeded in taking the strategically important Venetian fortress of Lepanto (Nafpaktos). On 3 April 1463 however, the governor of the Morea, Isa Beg, took the Venetian-held town of Argos by treason.[6] Although Venice, dependent on the trade with the Ottomans, had in the past been reluctant to confront them in war, the urgings of the papal legate, Cardinal Bessarion, and an impassioned speech by the distinguished Council member Vettore Cappello, tipped the balance, and on 28 July, the Senate narrowly voted for declaring war on the Porte.[7] Pope Pius II used this opportunity to form yet another Crusade against the Ottomans: on 12 September 1463, Venice and Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus signed an alliance, followed on 19 October by an alliance with the Pope and Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy.[8] According to its terms, upon victory, the Balkans would be divided among the allies. The Morea and the western Greek coast (Epirus) would fall to Venice, Hungary would acquire Bulgaria, Serbia, Bosnia and Wallachia, the Albanian principality under Skanderbeg would expand into Macedonia, and the remaining European territories of the Ottomans, including Constantinople, would form a restored Byzantine Empire under the surviving members of the Palaiologos family.[9] Negotiations were also began with other rivals of the Ottomans, such as Karamanids, Uzun Hassan and the Crimean Khanate.[9] Campaigns in the Morea and the Aegean, 1463–1466

The new alliance launched a two-pronged offensive against the Ottomans: a Venetian army, under the Captain General of the Sea Alvise Loredan, landed in the Morea, while Matthias Corvinus invaded Bosnia.[4] At the same time, Pius II began assembling an army at Ancona, hoping to lead it in person.[9] In early August, the Venetians retook Argos and refortified the Isthmus of Corinth, restoring the Hexamilion wall and equipping it with many cannons.[10] They then proceeded to besiege the fortress of the Acrocorinth, which controlled the northwestern Peloponnese. The Venetians engaged in repeated clashes with the defenders and with Ömer Bey's forces, until they suffered a major defeat on 20 October, which resulted in the wounding and subsequent death of the Marquis Bertoldo d'Este. The Venetians were then forced to lift the siege and retreat to the Hexamilion and to Nauplia (Nafplion).[10] In Bosnia, Matthias Corvinus seized over sixty fortified places and succeeded in taking its capital, Jajce after a 3-month siege , on 16 December.[11]

Ottoman reaction was swift and decisive: Sultan Mehmed II dispatched his Grand Vizier, Mahmud Pasha Angelović, with an army against the Venetians. To confront the Venetian fleet, which had taken station outside the entrance of the Dardanelles Straits, the Sultan further ordered the creation of the new shipyard of Kadirga Limani in the Golden Horn (named after the "kadirga" type of galley), and of two forts to guard the Straits, Kilidulbahr and Sultaniye.[12] The Morean campaign was swiftly victorious for the Ottomans: although messages received from Ömer Bey had warned of the strength and firepower of the Venetian position at the Hexamilion, Mahmud Pasha decided to march on, hoping to catch them at unawares.[10] In the event, the Ottomans reached the Isthmus just in time to see the Venetian army, demoralized and riddled with dysentery, leave its positions and sail to Nauplia.[8] The Ottoman army razed the Hexamilion, and advanced into the Morea. Argos fell, and several forts and localities that had recognized Venetian authority reverted to their Ottoman allegiance. Zagan Pasha was re-appointed governor of the Morea, while Ömer Bey was given Mahmud Pasha's army and tasked with taking the Republic's holdings in the southern Peloponnese, centered around the two forts of Coron and Modon (Methoni).[8] Sultan Mehmed II, who was following Mahmud Pasha with another army to reinforce him, had reached Zeitounion (Lamia) before being apprised of his Vizier's success. Immediately, he turned his men north, towards Bosnia.[12] However, the Sultan's attempt to retake Jajce in July and August 1464 failed, with the Ottomans retreating hastily in the face of Corvinus' approaching army. A new Ottoman army under Mahmud Pasha then forced Corvinus to withdraw, but Jajce was not retaken for many years after.[11] However, the death of Pope Pius II on 15 August in Ancona spelled the end of the Crusade.[9][13] In the meantime, for the upcoming campaign of 1464, the Republic had appointed Sigismondo Malatesta, the ruler of Rimini and one of the ablest Italian generals, as land commander in the Morea.[14] The forces available to him along with mercenaries and stratioti, however, were limited, and in his tenure in the Morea he was unable to achieve much. Upon his arrival in the More in mid-summer, he launched attacks against Ottoman forts, and engaged in a siege of Mistra in August–October. He failed to take the castle, however, and had to abandon the siege at the approach of a relief force under Ömer Bey.[15] Small-scale warfare continued on both sides, with raids and counter-raids, but a shortage of manpower and money meant that the Venetians remained largely confined to their fortified bases, while Ömer Bey's army roamed the countryside. The mercenaries and stratioti in Venice's employ were becoming disgruntled at the lack of pay, while increasingly, the Morea was becoming desolate, as villages were abandoned and fields left untended.[16] The bad supply situation in the Morea forced Ömer Bey to withdraw to Athens in fall 1465.[17] Malatesta himself, disenchanted by the conditions he encountered in the Morea and increasingly anxious to return to Italy and attend to his family's affairs and the ongoing feud with the Papacy, remained largely inactive throughout 1465, in spite of the relative weakness of the Ottoman garrisons following the withdrawal of Ömer Bey from the peninsula.[18] In the Aegean, the new Venetian admiral, Orsato Giustinian, tried to take Lesbos in the spring of 1464, and besieged the capital Mytilene for six weeks, until the arrival of an Ottoman fleet under Mahmud Pasha on 18 May forced him to withdraw.[19] Another attempt to capture the island shortly after also failed, and Giustinian died at Modon on 11 July. His successor, Jacopo Loredan, spent the remainder of the year in ultimately fruitless demonstrations of force before the Dardanelles.[19] In early 1465, Mehmed II sent peace feelers to the Venetian Senate in 1465. Distrusting the Sultan's motives, these were rejected.[20] Soon after, the Venetians were embroiled in a conflict with the Knights Hospitaller of Rhodes, who had attacked a Venetian convoy carrying Moorish merchants from the Mamluk Sultanate.[21] This event enraged the Mamluks, who imprisoned all Venetian subjects living in the Levant, and threatened to enter the war on the Ottoman side. The Venetian fleet, under Loredan, sailed to Rhodes under orders to release the Moors, even by force. In the event, a potentially catastrophic war between the two major Christian powers of the Aegean was avoided, and the merchants were released to Venetian custody.[21] By 1465 the Maniot Kladas brothers, Krokodelos and Epifani, were leading bands of stratioti on behalf of Venice against the Turks in Southern Peloponnese. They put Vardounia and their lands into Venetian possession, for which Epifani then acted as governor.[22] In April 1466, Vettore Cappello, the most vociferous proponent of the war, replaced Loredan as Captain General of the Sea. Under his leadership, the Venetian war effort was reinvigorated: the fleet took the northern Aegean islands of Imbros, Thasos and Samothrace, and then sailed into the Saronic Gulf.[23] On 12 July, Cappello landed at Piraeus, and marched against Athens, the Ottomans' major regional base. He failed to take the Acropolis, however, and was forced to retreat to Patras. Patras, being the capital of Peloponnese and the seat of the Ottoman Bey, was being besieged by the joint forces of Venetians and Greeks under the provveditore of the Morea, Jacomo Barbarigo and Spartan commander Michael Rallis.[24] Before Cappello could arrive there, and as the city seemed on the verge of falling, Ömer Bey suddenly appeared with 12,000 cavalry, and drove the outnumbered besiegers off. Six hundred Venetians and a hundred were taken prisoner out of a force of 2,000, while Barbarigo himself was killed, and his body impaled, while a hundred Greeks fell and Rallis was captured and impaled.[17] Cappello, who arrived some days later, attacked the Ottomans trying to avenge this disaster, but was heavily defeated. Demoralized, he returned to Negroponte with the remains of his army. There, the Captain General fell ill, and died on 13 March 1467.[25] The war in Albania, 1466–1467

In spring 1466, Sultan Mehmed marched with a large army against the Albanians. Under their leader, Skenderbeg, they had long resisted the Ottomans, and had repeatedly sought assistance from Italy.[4] For the Albanians, the outbreak of the Ottoman–Venetian War offered a golden opportunity to reassert their independence; for the Venetians, they provided a useful cover to the Venetian coastal holdings of Durazzo and Scutari. The major result of this campaign was the construction of the fortress of Elbasan, allegedly within just 25 days. This strategically sited fortress, at the lowlands near the end of the old Via Egnatia, cut Albania effectively in half, isolating Skenderbeg's base in the northern highlands from the Venetian holdings in the south.[26] However, following the Sultan's withdrawal, Skanderbeg sallied from the highlands, defeated Ballaban Pasha and lifted the siege of the fortress of Croia (Krujë). Skanderbeg himself spent the winter in Italy, seeking aid. On his return in early 1467, his forces attacked Elbasan.[27][28] Mehmed II responded by marching again against Albania. He energetically pursued the attacks against the Albanian strongholds, while sending detachments to raid the Venetian possessions to keep them isolated.[27] The Ottomans failing again to take Croia, and they failed to subjugate the country. However, the winter brought an outbreak of plague, which would recur annually and sap the strength of the local resistance.[23] Skanderbeg himself died of malaria in the Venetian stronghold of Lissus (Lezhë), ending the ability of Venice to use the Albanian lords for its own advantage.[26] The Albanians were left to their own devices, and were gradually subdued over the next decade. Notes

1. ^ Finkel (2006), pp. 40–41 2. ^ Finkel (2006), pp. 60–62 3. ^ Finkel (2006), p. 60 4. ^ a b c Finkel (2006), p. 63 5. ^ Shaw (1976), pp. 64–65 6. ^ a b Setton (1978), p. 241 7. ^ Setton (1978), p. 243 8. ^ a b c Setton (1978), p. 249 9. ^ a b c d Shaw (1976), p. 65 10. ^ a b c Setton (1978), p. 248 11. ^ a b Setton (1978), p. 250 12. ^ a b Setton, Hazard & Norman (1969), p. 326 13. ^ Setton (1978), p. 270 14. ^ Setton (1978), pp. 251–252 15. ^ Setton (1978), pp. 252–253 16. ^ Setton (1978), pp. 253–255 17. ^ a b Setton (1978), p. 284 18. ^ Setton (1978), pp. 255–257 19. ^ a b Setton (1978), p. 251 20. ^ Setton (1978), p. 273 21. ^ a b Setton (1978), p. 277 22. ^ Longnon, J. 1949. Chronique de Morée: Livre de la conqueste de la princée de l’Amorée, 1204-1305. Paris. 23. ^ a b Setton (1978), p. 283 24. ^ Spyridon Trikoupis, Istoria tis Ellinikis Epanastaseos (London, 1853–1857) Vol 2, p84-85 25. ^ Setton (1978), pp. 284–285 26. ^ a b Finkel (2006), p. 64 27. ^ a b Setton, Hazard & Norman (1969), p. 327 28. ^ Setton (1978), p. 278

Bibliography • Davies, Siriol; Davis, Jack L. (2007). Between Venice and Istanbul: Colonial Landscapes in Early Modern Greece.

American School of Classical Studies at Athens. ISBN 9780876615409. http://books.google.com/books?id=YoZlbnrH2SEC. • Faroqhi, Suraiya (2004). The Ottoman Empire and the World Around It. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-715-4. • Finkel, Caroline (2006). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1923. London: John Murray. ISBN

978-0-7195-6112-2. • Lane, Frederic Chapin (1973). Venice, a Maritime Republic. JHU Press. ISBN 9780801814600.

http://books.google.com/books?id=PQpU2JGJCMwC. • Parry, Vernon J.; Cook, M. A. (1976). A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730: Chapters from the Cambridge History of

Islam and the New Cambridge Modern History. CUP Archive. ISBN 9780521099912. • Setton, Kenneth Meyer (Gen. Ed.); Hazard, Harry W.; Zacour, Norman P. (Eds.) (1969). "The Ottoman Turks and the

Crusades, 1451–1522". A History of the Crusades, Vol. VI: The Impact of the Crusades on Europe. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 311–353. ISBN 9780299107444. http://books.google.com/books?id=TKaPrQPFIAMC.

• Setton, Kenneth M. (1978), The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume II: The Fifteenth Century, DIANE Publishing, ISBN 0-87169-127-2, http://books.google.com/books?id=0Sz2VYI0l1IC

• Shaw, Stanford Jay; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Empire of the Gazis - The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280–1808. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521291637. http://books.google.com/books?id=E9-YfgVZDBkC.

• (Greek) Vakalopoulos, Apostolos E. (1968). Ιστορία του νέου ελληνισµού, Τόµος Γ′: Τουρκοκρατία 1453–1669 [History of modern Hellenism, Volume III: Turkish rule 1453–1669]. Thessaloniki: Emm. Sfakianakis & Sons.

Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The noted condottiere Sigismondo Malatesta, Lord of Rimini. His tenure in command of the land forces in the Morea (July 1464 to January 1466) failed to reverse the Republic's fortunes. Sigismondo Malatesta, fresco by Piero della Francesca. Fresco with Galeazzo Maria Sforza (right), by Benozzo Gozzoli. Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta (19 June 1417 – 7 October 1468), popularly known as the Wolf of Rimini, was an Italian condottiero and nobleman, a member of the House of Malatesta and lord of Rimini, Fano, and Cesena from 1432. He was widely considered by his contemporaries as one of the most daring military leaders in Italy and commanded the Venetian forces in the 1465 campaign against the Ottoman Empire. He was also a poet and patron of the arts. Biography

Sigismondo Pandolfo was born in Brescia, northern Italy, the elder of the two illegitimate sons of Pandolfo III Malatesta and Antonia da Barignani. His younger brother, Malatesta Novello, was born in Brescia on 5 August 1418. An elder (and also illegitimate) half-brother, Galeotto Roberto Malatesta, born in 1411, was the issue of the relationship of their father Pandolfo III with Allegra de' Mori. Following the family's tradition, Sigismondo after the death of his father debuted as man-at-arms at the age of 13 against his relative Carlo II Malatesta, lord of Pesaro and Pope Martin V's ally, who aimed to annex Rimini, Cesena and Fano to his territories. After his victory, Sigismondo obtained, together with his brothers Galeotto Roberto and Domenico, the title of Papal vicar for those cities. In 1431, albeit with inferior forces, he repelled another invasion by the Malatestas of Pesaro. When, soon afterwards, his elder brother abdicated, he became lord of Rimini, at the age of 15. In 1432 he accepted the command of a papal corps, defeating the Spanish condottiero Sante Cirillo and thwarting Antonio I Ordelaffi's attempt to capture Forlì (1435-36). However, the following year Sigismondo occupied the papal city of Cervia and was excommunicated; he was soon pardoned and created commander of the papal army. Later he fought in Romagna and the Marche alongside Francesco Sforza. In the meantime he married his niece Ginevra d'Este, Niccolò III's legitimate daughter by his second wife Parisina Malatesta, first cousin of Sigismondo. On 12 October 1440 she died, and rumours spread that she had been poisoned by Sigismondo.[1] Two years later he married Polissena Sforza, Francesco I's illegitimate daughter; they had two children: a son, Galeotto, born in 1442 and who only lived a few months, and a daughter, Giovanna, born in 1444 and later Duchess of Camerino by marriage. In this period he fought several times against the other condottiero Niccolò Piccinino: first, in 1437, as a Venetian commander, he was defeated at Calcinara sull'Oglio. Later, while defending his lands from the papal invasion army led by Piccinino, Federico III da Montefeltro and Malatesta Novello, he crushed them at Monteluro, managing to obtain some territories of Pesaro, although the latter was successfully defeated by Federico's forces[2]. In his restlessness he betrayed Sforza twice, but he also betrayed his momentary ally against him, Niccolò Piccinino. Enmity against Sforza turned into true hatred when his father-in-law bought the signory of Pesaro from Carlo Malatesta. Therefore, Sigismondo allied with Pope Eugene IV and the Sforza duke of Milan. Later, he was hired by King Alfonso V of Naples, but soon afterwards received money for a condotta to be spent in the service of Florence against Alfonso. In 1445 he forced the Neapolitans to raise the siege of Piombino in Tuscany. In 1449 his second wife Polissena died under mysterious circumstances. Francesco Sforza claimed that Sigismondo had had her drowned by one of his servants, but this has remained unconfirmed. During his two marriages, he had numerous mistresses, but only two were well known: Vannetta dei Toschi, who bore him a son, Roberto, in 1441, and Isotta degli Atti, who bore him four children: Giovanni (who died in infancy), Margherita (later wife of Carlo di Fortebraccio), Sallustio and Antonia (also called Anna) -later the first wife of Rodolfo Gonzaga, Lord of Castiglione delle Stiviere, who beheaded her in 1483 when she was discovered in adultery. After 1449 Malatesta served variously under Venice, Florence, Siena, Naples and Sforza himself. The Peace of Lodi (1454), from which he was excluded, pushed the major Italian powers against him. His territories were repeatedly invaded by Aragonese, Venetian and Papal troops. In 1456 Sigismondo married Isotta degli Atti, his long-time mistress, and legitimized their three surviving children; the only son, Sallustio, was declared his heir. On 25 December 1460, a famous trial in absentia was held in Rome against Sigismondo. Pope Pius II, who considered him guilty of treachery towards Siena arising from his long-running feud with Federico da Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino, excommunicated him, declaring him a heretic and attributing to Sigismondo a series of sins (incest, sodomy against his son Roberto and others) which smeared his reputation for centuries. Malatesta's image was publicly burnt in Rome, and a de facto crusade was then launched against him, in a league including the pope, the king of Naples, the Duke of Milan and Federico da Montefetro. He defeated the first contingent of Papal troops, led by Napoleone Orsini, on 2 July 1461 at Castelleone di Suasa. In 1462 he was able to take Senigallia, but was forced to flee to Fano after the arrival of Federico da Montefeltro. The latter followed and severely crushed him on 12 August 1462 near Senigallia at the mouth of the Cesena. The war ended in 1463, due to the intervention of Venice[2], with the loss of all Sigismondo's territories apart from Rimini and a territory of some 8 kilometers around

it: both, however, were assigned to return to the Papal States after his death. He then sought greater fortune as a general for Venice in its war against the Ottomans, as a field commander in the Peloponnesus (1464-1466). The Venetians granted him a contingent of 150 men to defend Rimini and his other lands during his absence[2]. In an attempt to reverse this situation, Sigismondo appears to have intended to murder Pius' successor, Pope Paul II (who had asked him to exchange Rimini for Spoleto and Camerino), in 1468, but he lost his nerve and returned to Rimini. He died in his residence of Castel Sismondo a few months later. He was succeeded by his legitimated son and heir Sallustio, under the regency of his mother Isotta; but one year later (1469) his illegitimate son Roberto, also a skilled condottiero, managed briefly to maintain control over Rimini. Patron of art and reputation

Sigismondo's valour and skill as general were widely recognized by his contemporaries. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia[2]: From his childhood he was a skilful and daring soldier, and throughout his life was regarded as almost the first captain in Italy He was not a religious man, and his Tempio Malatestiano, also known as San Francesco, built in Rimini, by Leon Battista Alberti and decorated by artists including Piero della Francesca and Agostino di Duccio, was essentially a lay monument to Isotta degli Atti, his lover and third wife. It was a landmark Renaissance building, being the first church to use the Roman triumphal arch as part of its structure. Sigismondo also built a notable series of fortifications in his Romagna possessions, including the Rocche ("Castles") of Rimini and Fano. Malatesta's reputation (albeit minor) was largely based on Pius II's perception of him, although numerous contemporary chronicles described him as a tyrant and a womanizer: he delved in "rape, adultery, and incest".[3] Italian Renaissance historian Francesco Guicciardini defined him "enemy of every peace and well-living".[4] His deeds and political manoeuvers were characterized by all the typical play of violence, intrigues and subtleties typical of Renaissance Italy; however, Sigismondo was well aware of his sins, and tried to justify them in a series of love sonnets dedicated to Isotta. In 1906, Edward Hutton published the historical novel Sigismondo Malatesta, mostly sympathetic to its hero. It was slightly revised and reprinted under the title The Mastiff of Rimini in 1926. Hutton's novel and Charles Emile Yriarte's Un condottiere au XV Siècle (1882) were among the main sources of American poet Ezra Pound's Malatesta Cantos (Cantos 8-11), first published in 1923. These are an admiring howbeit fragmentary account of Malatesta's career as warrior, lover and patron. Largely influenced by Pound, as well as by C. G. Jung, the critic Adrian Stokes devoted a study, The Stones of Rimini (1934), to the art created at Sigismondo's court. See also

• House of Malatesta • Rimini • Francesco Sforza • Republic of Venice • Castel Sismondo • Portrait of Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta Notes

1. ^ This accusation was probably groundless, as both the Pope and the Estes maintained good relationships with him later. 2. ^ a b c "MALATESTA (de Malatestis), Sigismondo Pandolfo". Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani. Enciclopedia Italiana. http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/sigismondo-pandolfo-malatesta_(Dizionario-Biografico)/. Retrieved 27 April 2011. 3. ^ Erotic Love through the ages[1], Sardi. P. 119 4. ^ Rendina, p. 181 Sources

• Rendina, Claudio (1994). I capitani di ventura. Rome: Newton Compton. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sigismondo Malatesta • Commune di Rimini (translated) • "House of Malatesta". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.

Siege of Krujë (1466) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Date Began in June, 1466 Location Krujë, Albania

Result Main Ottoman army withdraws from Albania; Ottoman presence remains after construction of Elbasan Fortress

Belligerents

League of Lezhë Republic of Venice Ottoman Empire


Skanderbeg Tanush Thopia Lekë Dukagjini Giosafat Barbaro Nicolo Moneta

Mehmed II Ballaban Badera †

Strength

4,400 garrisoned; 13,000 set to relieve Krujë 100,000-150,000 until August; 80,000 left under Ballaban by August

The Second Siege of Krujë by the Ottoman Empire took place in 1466 at Krujë in Albania and lasted until 1467. Ottoman forces were initially led by sultan Mehmed II and later by Ballaban. Although their crushing superiority in numbers and in armaments they couldn't capture the city and were defeated by Skanderbeg forces.[1] Background

Skanderbeg had been a renegade Ottoman captain who united several Albanian princes under the League of Lezhë. From there, he led a war against the Ottoman Empire, defeating them in battle multiple times, and had grown close with the Western Christian states, especially with Alfonso V of Aragon and the Papal States. On 14 August 1464, Pope Pius II, one of Skanderbeg's major benefactors, died and took his plans for crusade against the Ottoman Empire with him to the grave. The alliances and promises for help from the major Christian powers disappeared. The Kingdom of Hungary under Matthias Corvinus, the Republic of Venice, and the League of Lezhë were notable exceptions, however.[2] Sultan Mehmed II realized the power vacuum created after Pius died, so he tried to take advantage of the situation. He thus attempted to agree to peace with Hungary and Venice so that his attentions could be focused on Albania to gain a base for his planned campaigns in the Italian peninsula. His efforts came in vain, however, since neither Venice were Hungary were ready to open up peace. Mehmed thus kept his armies stationed in the Balkans, one force in Jajce in Bosnia, one in Ohrid, and another in the Morea.[2] Skanderbeg led an incursion into Ottoman territory near Ohrid with the aid of Venetian forces under a condottiero named Cimarosto on 6 September 1464. Together, they defeated the Ottoman forces under Şeremet bey stationed there on 14 or 15 September.[3] The Venetian Senate informed the Hungarians the joint Albanian-Venetian success on 29 September. Mehmed, sensing the weakness in his frontier, assigned Ballaban Badera as commander, replacing Şeremet. Ballaban was an Albanian by birth who had been incorporated into the Ottoman army through the devşirme system. In the meantime, Pope Paul II began planning his own crusade, but with means different from his predecessor. He planned on getting the major European states to help fund the crusade while Venice, Hungary, and Albania would do the fighting.[4] He also wanted to help the Albanians as much as possible and urged the Kingdom of Naples to supply Skanderbeg with proper forces. Venice began to consider peace with the Turks since great strain had been placed on their resources and Hungary had adopted a defensive strategy. Pressure from the pope and Skanderbeg forced them to abort their efforts.[5] The Ottoman-Albanian war continued through 1465 with Ballaban Badera meeting Skanderbeg at Vaikal, Meçad, Vaikal again, and Kashari. Mehmed meanwhile continued to negotiate peace with Hungary and Venice. Skanderbeg found himself isolated during these negotiations, even if they did not succeed, as the conflicting powers temporarily ceased conflict. In the meantime, Ferdinand I of Naples did not send his promised forces and the Venetian forces under Cimarosto left Albania.[6] During the autumn of 1465, Turkish forces moved from the Morea and Bosnia in order to speed up the negotiations for peace. Venice, however, refused peace and Skanderbeg felt confident that a new Albanian-Venetian campaign would begin. He kept Pal Engjëlli in constant correspondence with the Signoria (Venetian Senate).[6] Venice sent Engjëlli with a letter informing Skanderbeg that troops were being raised, although only 300 had been recruited at the time, with Cimarosto as the commander. Venice was also in the process of sending its provveditores in Albania Veneta 3,000 ducats to recruit men. They would also send four cannons, ten Springalds, and ten barrels of gunpowder. Throughout April, rumors spread that The Ottomans were preparing to march into Albania. By 18 April 1466, Venice received intelligence that the Turks heading to Albania.[7] Campaign

Once news of the approaching Ottomans arrived, Venice sent reinforcements to its cities along Albania; Durazzo (Durrës) already garrisoned 3,000 men.[8] The Scutari Fortress was also reinforced after Skanderbeg's urging. On 19 April 1466, rumor spread that the sultan was going to march into Avlonya (Vlorë) with an army of 100,000 men. The situation was not clear however as it was thought that Turks could march against Bosnia, Serbia, Dalmatia, Negroponte, and also Albania.[8] By the beginning of May, however, it was clear that Turkish preparations had been made for Albania. This was made clear when after ending his campaigns in Wallachia, Karaman, and the Morea, Mehmed directed his forces against Albania. None of the promised reinforcements from Naples and Venice arrived and Skanderbeg was thus left to fight Turkish forces alone.[8] Ottoman activities in Albania News arrived from eastern Albania that the Ottomans had begun massacring the inhabitants there. The pope was distressed by this and called on the Christian princes of Europe to aid Skanderbeg.[8] Soon after, Mehmed's men marched in full force into Albania. Unlike his father Murad II, Mehmed realized that the only way Albania could be conquered would be through isolating Krujë, the main Albanian fortress, by refusing Skanderbeg manpower, supplies, and political and moral backing. Afterwards, Krujë would be

put under siege. The Ottoman campaign was thus sent in two directions: one through the Shkumbin River valley and another through the Black Drin River valley. Both would field their men in the frontier regions, right and left of both valleys, and would engage in massacring the local populations, raiding inhabited areas, and burning every village which offered resistance. The populations thus decided to flee into safe areas.[9] Skanderbeg did not expect such a campaign and his army was not ready to halt the advances. According to an act released Monopoli in Apulia, an army of 300,000 soldiers (a figure considered to be exaggerated) had marched into Albania and massacred 14,000 people and had sacked many populated areas and that Skanderbeg was preparing to flee to Italy.[9] Skanderbeg had remained in Albania, however, but he had sent many inhabitants of Krujë to Italy as refugees in twelve ships. With them, he sent his wife, Donika, and his son, Gjon. They headed for Monte Sant'Angelo, a castle awarded to Skanderbeg after his campaigns to restore Ferdinand I of Naples to his throne. The arrival of the Albanians further distressed the pope and many Italians who had come to believe that Albania had been conquered and that Mehmed was now preparing to march into Italy.[10] Rome learned, however, that the Albanian resistance had not yet begun and that Krujë still stood.[11] Once it began, the Albanian resistance was fierce and spread throughout Skanderbeg's dominions.[11] Mehmed's akıncı was let loose to all sides of Albania and, according to, Mehmed Neshriu, was in revenge to Skanderbeg raids in Macedonia the previous years. Idris Bitlisi, however, says that Mehmed's campaign was a response to the breaking of the ceasefire in 1463 when Skanderbeg learned that the crusade against the Ottomans organized by Pius II was ready to set off from Ancona.[12] Nevertheless, the Albanian resistance was described by Tursun Bey. The Albanians had gained control of the mountaintops and valleys where they had their kulle (fortified towers) which were dismantled when captured. Those inside, especially the young men and women, were sold to slavery for 3,000-4,000 akçe each. Michael Critobulus, a Greek historian for the sultan, also describes the Albanian resistance and its aftermath. The Albanians in his chronicle had like wise gained the mountaintops;[13] the light Ottoman infantry climbed up the heights where they cornered the Albanians behind a cliff and fell on them. Many Ilyrians (or Albanians) jumped the cliffs to escape massacre. The soldiers then spread throughout the mountains and captured many as slaves while also taking anything of value.[14] Siege The first phase of the Ottoman campaign to isolate Krujë lasted for two months.[14] According to Marin Barleti, Skanderbeg's main biographer, Skanderbeg had placed 4,400 men under Tanush Thopia in Krujë while he placed his men outside the fortress in a manner similar to the first siege of Krujë. Mehmed had marched into Albania with Ballaban Badera under his command. They heavily bombarded the fortress but there were no results for the Turks.[15] According to documentary sources, the siege began in mid-June, one month after Mehmed began his campaign to force the eastern regions of Albania to submit to him. Mehmed's campaigns there had put Skanderbeg under massive strain while the latter had yet to receive financial aid from abroad. In the beginning of July, Skanderbeg sent Pal Engjëlli to Venice. On 7 July, Engjëlli informed the Venetians that the Albanian resistance continued and Krujë still stood, contrary to the rumors that said otherwise. He then requested the arrival of the forces which had been promised by Venice when they signed a treaty of alliance on 20 August 1463 and the promised contribution of 3,000 ducats.[16] The Venetians responded that they were already in a difficult situation due to the Turkish threat in Dalmatia and the Aegean where they possessed territories. They also responded that they had had difficulty recruiting new soldiers due to financial trouble and could only send 1,000 ducats to its provveditores in Albania.[16] Despite these incredible difficulties, Skanderbeg continued the battle. Construction of Elbasan Fortress Despite his inability to subdue Krujë, Mehmed decided that the Ottoman presence would not leave Albania. He planned to organize a timar in eastern Albania to strangle Skanderbeg's domains. The previous Sanjak of Albania was thus joined with the Sanjak of Dibra instead of a Sanjak of Krujë which further undermined Krujë's influence. He also decided to build a powerful fortress in central Albania to counterbalance Krujë's position and to form a base for further Ottoman campaigns.[16] The fortress would be called Ilbasan (Elbasan). According to the Ottoman chronicler Kemal Pashazade, the sultan would place several hundred men to keep watch over the area and to defend the fortress. The foundations were built upon a field named Jundi located in a valley (Shkumbin valley) where the climate was favorable and water was abundant. Since the resources had been prepared beforehand, Elbasan was built within a short time and Franz Babinger believes the work to have begun in July.[17] Critobulus, who accompanied Mehmed in this campaign, describes that the men stationed in Elbasan would constantly harass the Albanians, to leave them no place for refuge, and to repel any Albanian force which descended from the mountains. Due to his personal guidance, Mehmed was able to see the construction finish before summer ended. There would also be inhabitants inside to serve the 400 soldiers stationed there along with cannons and catapults; the fortress would be under the command of one of Mehmed's best commanders (Ballaban Badera).[18] The personal care and attention Mehmed paid to Elbasan's construction testifies it's importance in the sultan's plans. This is further testified by the message Mehmed gave to his son, the future Bayezid II, describing how he had devastated the country and in its center built a powerful fortress. Upon his exit from Albania, Marin Barleti says that Mehmed passed through Dibra and massacred 8,000 people, a figure close to the number given by the Ottoman chronicler Oruc ben Adil of 7,500.[19] The importance of the fortress was further underscored by its position on the ancient Via Egnatia and its central position in the Shkumbin valley from where the Turks could travel to the coast unhindered. Elbasan concerned not only the Albanians, but also the Venetians who feared for their possession in Albania as Durazzo lay only 30 miles (48 km) away.[19] On 16 August, around the time that Elbasan was finished, Venice urged its provveditores in Albania to cooperate with the Italian and native forces in their proposed siege on Elbasan. Venetian faith in Skanderbeg's resistance began to subside, however, since the sultan took a much more aggressive approach in his relations with Venice. Since the Signoria still had not delivered its promised aid, Skanderbeg sent his son Gjon to Venice.[20] Even though the Albanian resistance was at its apogee, Gjon returned to Albania empty-handed. This forced Skanderbeg to look towards Rome and Naples for help.[21] Aftermath

By the end of October, Skanderbeg began his voyage to Italy to speak with Ferdinand of Naples and Pope Paul II over the provisions which they would be willing to give him. Italy, however, was fragmented into several states which were in continuous conflict with each other, forcing them to allot their finances to their own efforts. Since Paul was Venetian, Ferdinand was worried that his interests might be inhibited by the pope and he could spare any aid for Skanderbeg.[22] Skanderbeg thus left Naples with nothing but a promise from Ferdinand to request aid for Skanderbeg. Venice urged for the same thing and Skanderbeg went to Paul after the latter had declared that the Christian League had raised 100,000 ducats for the planned crusade. Skanderbeg reached Rome

on 12 December 1466 where he was greeted by the cardinals and their families. Here they received the impression of Skanderbeg as a poor old man.[23] He was given residence in Palazzo di San Marco, now called Palazzo Venezia. He was greeted by Italian ambassadors from the various states where he was offered "aid and favors."[24] Paul, however, was still wary of giving Skanderbeg aid since the Neapolitan threat was more powerful than the Turkish one.[25] Notes

1. ^ Noli, Fan Stylian, George Castrioti Scanderbeg (1405–1468), International Universities Press, 1947. 2. ^ a b Frashëri p. 417. 3. ^ Frashëri p. 418. 4. ^ Frashëri p. 419. 5. ^ Frashëri p. 420. 6. ^ a b Frashëri 421. 7. ^ Frashëri p. 422. 8. ^ a b c d Frashëri p. 423. 9. ^ a b Frashëri p. 424. 10. ^ Frashëri p. 425. 11. ^ a b Frashëri p. 426. 12. ^ Frashëri p. 427. 13. ^ Frashëri p. 428. 14. ^ a b Frashëri p. 429. 15. ^ Frashëri p. 430. 16. ^ a b c Frashëri p. 431. 17. ^ Frashëri p. 433. 18. ^ Frashëri pp. 433-434. 19. ^ a b Frashëri p. 437. 20. ^ Frashëri p. 438. 21. ^ Frashëri pp. 438-439. 22. ^ Frashëri p. 440. 23. ^ Frashëri p. 441. 24. ^ Frashëri p. 442. 25. ^ Frashëri p. 445. References

• Franco, Demetrio (1539), Comentario de le cose de' Turchi, et del S. Georgio Scanderbeg, principe d' Epyr, Venice: Altobello Salkato, ISBN 9994310429 • Frashëri, Kristo (2002) (in Albanian), Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra, 1405–1468, Tiranë: Botimet Toena, ISBN 9992716274, http://books.google.com/books?id=vwR3PQAACAAJ&dq=kristo+frasheri+skenderbeu&hl=en&ei=vD6aTMPAFoPGlQeau_HZDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA • Freely, John (2009), The grand Turk: Sultan Mehmet II, conqueror of Constantinople and master of an empire, New York: The Overlook Press, ISBN 1590202481 • Hodgkinson, Harry (1999), Scanderbeg: From Ottoman Captive to Albanian Hero, London: Centre for Albanian Studies, ISBN 9781873928134 • Karaiskaj, Gjerak (1981), "Rrethimi i dytë dhe i tretë i Krujës (1466-1467)", Pesë mijë vjet fortifikime në Shqipëri, Tirana: Shtëpia Botuese "8 Nëntori", http://letersi.com/karaiskaj_gjerak/kapitulli_xi_vii.htm • Noli, Fan Stilian (1947), George Castroiti Scanderbeg (1405–1468), International Universities Press, OCLC 732882 • Tajani, Francesco (1886), Le istorie albanesi, Salerno: Fratelli Jovane, http://books.google.com/books?id=9kJBAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false The Third Siege of Krujë by the Ottoman Empire occurred in 1467 at Krujë in Albania. A few months after the failure of the second siege, Mehmed II led an army into Albania in 1467. Skanderbeg for the first time attacked Mehmed frontally at Shkumbin valley in order to gain time for the civilian population retreating to the mountains. Then he retreated and Krujë was besieged for a third time, but on a much larger and more organized scale. While a contingent of troops kept the city and its forces pinned down, Ottoman armies came pouring in from Bosnia, Serbia, Macedonia, Kosovo, and Greece with the aim of keeping the whole country surrounded, thereby strangling Skanderbeg’s supply routes and limiting his mobility. Krujë held, and the staunch resistance forced Mehmed to break off the siege.

Skanderbeg's Italian expedition


Date 1460–1462 Location Southern Italy Result Ferdinand regains most of his lost territories

Belligerents

League of Lezhë Papal States Kingdom of Naples

Duchy of Milan

House of Anjou Principality of Taranto Pro-Angevin Italian nobles


Skanderbeg Constantine Kastrioti Pius II

Ferdinand I of Naples Alessandro Sforza

René d'Anjou Jean d'Anjou Jacopo

Piccinino Giovanni Orsini

Skanderbeg's Italian expedition (1460–1462) was undertaken to aid his ally Ferdinand I of Naples, whose rulership was threatened by the Angevin Dynasty. George Kastrioti Skanderbeg was the ruler of Albania (Latin: dominus Albaniae) who had been leading a rebellion against the Ottoman Empire since 1443 and allied himself with several Western European monarchs in order to consolidate his domains. In 1458, Alfonso V of Aragon, ruler of Sicily and Naples and Skanderbeg's most important ally, died, leaving his illegitimate son, Ferdinand, on the Neapolitan throne; René d'Anjou, the French Duke of Anjou, laid claim to the throne. The conflict between René's and Ferdinand's supporters soon erupted into a civil war. Pope Calixtus III, of Spanish background himself, could do little to secure Ferdinand, so he turned to Skanderbeg for aid. In 1457, Skanderbeg had achieved his most famous victory over the Ottoman Empire at Albulena (Ujëbardha), which was received with great enthusiasm throughout Italy. In order to repay Alfonso for the financial and military assistance given to him years before, Skanderbeg took up the pope's pleas to help out Alfonso's son by sending a military expedition to Italy. Before leaving, Skanderbeg tried to negotiate a ceasefire with Sultan Mehmed II, the conqueror of Constantinople, to ensure his domain's safety. Mehmed had not declared a truce and he was still sending his armies against Bosnia and the Morea. It was not until 1459, after Mehmed's conquest of Serbia, that Mehmed not only declared a truce, but also a three-year ceasefire with Skanderbeg. This gave Skanderbeg his opportunity to send his men to Italy. Due to fears of an approaching Ottoman army, Skanderbeg first sent his nephew, Constantine, with 500 cavalry to Barletta. They were incorporated into Ferdinand's forces to combat his Angevin rivals. They held back their enemy for a year, but did not gain much ground until Skanderbeg arrived in September 1461. Before reaching Italy, Skanderbeg visited Ragusa (Dubrovnik) to convince its rectors to help fund his campaign. Meanwhile, his men landed in Italy and Angevin forces lifted their siege on Barletta. Upon arriving, Skanderbeg continued to pursue his ally's enemies with great success. Ferdinand's adversaries thus began to retreat from his territories and Skanderbeg went back to Albania; a troop of his men stayed until Ferdinand managed to finally defeat the pretenders to his throne at the Battle of Orsara, although it is not known if Skanderbeg's men participated. Background

In 1456, Skanderbeg's ally, Janos Hunyadi, died, and his son, Mathias Corvinus, was crowned King of Hungary. Hunyadi had been an advocate for an offensive war against the Ottoman Empire, whereas the Hungarian nobility and his son promoted a defensive war.[1] The next year, however, George Kastrioti Skanderbeg defeated a sizable Ottoman force at the Battle of Albulena (Ujëbardha). Rome had been desperately waiting for such a victory after the Siege of Belgrade, as Pope Calixtus III had wanted to assure himself of the feasibility of a crusade before declaring one.[2] Calixtus thus named Skanderbeg the Captain-General of the Curia; to secure the pope's interests, Skanderbeg sent twelve Turkish prisoners of war that had been captured at Albulena to Rome.

Despite seeing his forces defeated the year before, Sultan Mehmed II prepared another force to be sent into Albania. The country had been obstructing his ambitions for empire in the West and he grew restless to defeat Skanderbeg.[2] Skanderbeg sent delegations to several Western European states to convince them to stop fighting each other and unite for Calixtus' crusade.[3] Italian situation On 27 September 1458, Alfonso V of Aragon, Skanderbeg's most important and helpful ally after the stipulation of the Treaty of Gaeta, died.[1] In 1448, as gesture of friendship with Alfonso, Skanderbeg sent a detachment of Albanian troops commanded by General Demetrios Reres to Crotone to quell a rebellion against Alfonso.[4] The next year, many of these men were allowed to settle four villages in Sicily which Alfonso controlled.[5] Upon hearing of his ally's death, Skanderbeg sent emissaries to the new King of Naples, Ferdinand I, to give condolence for his father's death, but also to congratulate him on his accession to the throne of Naples.[1] The succession was not without turbulence, however: René d'Anjou laid claim to the throne since his family had controlled Naples before Aragon had taken control of it, and also because Ferdinand was Alfonso's illegitimate son.[1] The Southern Italian nobility, many of Angevin background, supported René d'Anjou over the Aragonese Ferdinand.[1][6] Among them was Giovanni Antonio del Balzo Orsini, the Prince of Taranto, and Jacopo Piccinino, a famed condottieri who had been invited by the Angevins. Francisco Sforza, the Duke of Milan, who was wary of a French presence in Italy, sided with Ferdinand and sent his nephew, Alessandro Sforza, to command his army in southern Italy.[7] Pope Calixtus, a Spaniard who wished to see his compatriot in control of Naples, was in no position to help the weak Ferdinand, so he turned to Skanderbeg for help.[1] However, by that time, Piccinino and his men had conquered all of southern Italy except Naples, Capua, Aversa, Gaeta, Troia, and Barletta, where Ferdinand was besieged.[8] Skanderbeg had received much aid from Ferdinand's father, Alfonso, and was still a vassal of the Crown of Aragon, so he felt the need to repay the Crown.[9] He accepted the pope's pleas to go to Italy and aid Ferdinand. Skanderbeg's stated reasoning was twofold: he wanted to remain loyal to his ally and he wanted to prevent an Angevin takeover of Naples since they had maintained friendly relations with the Turks.[9] Skanderbeg also feared that if the Angevins took Naples, they would turn to Albania where they had previously maintained a kingdom. On the other hand, before undertaking any action against the Angevins, he took measures to soften relations with Venice. Seeing that Southern Italy was locked in conflict, Venice no longer feared an Aragonese-Albanian alliance and the Senate decided to take a friendlier approach in Albanian-Venetian relations.[9] Meanwhile, Pope Calixtus III had died and was succeeded by Pope Pius II. Sensing that war would soon begin, Pius tried to convince Giovanni Orsini, Ferdinand's main rival, to settle his differences with the King.[6] The French King, Louis XI, took up the Angevin stance and, in the hopes of convincing Pius to allow the French takeover of Naples, proposed the repeal of the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges which undermined the pope's power and he even declared that he would be willing to lend 70,000 men for the planned papal crusade. Pius, however, was wary of insincerity and disregarded these proposals.[10] A further effort to deter Skanderbeg's landing was made by Sigismondo Malatesta, the Lord of Rimini and Italy's most feared petty tyrant, who had tried to invite Mehmed to Italy with a detailed map of the Adriatic if Ferdinand sent for the Albanian.[11] The manuscript, however, never reached the sultan and fell into Pius' hands.[12] Albanian situation Constant news of Ottoman campaigns against Bosnia and Morea but not against Albania seemed to suggest to Skanderbeg that Mehmed II had been considering an armistice with Skanderbeg. The latter took advantage of this lull in the fighting by preparing for his voyage to Italy and by securing his northern frontiers from a possible attack by Skanderbeg's elusive ally in northern Albania, Lekë Dukagjini, who had been trying to expand his realm by reaching an agreement with the Turks.[9] In order to curb his ambitions, Skanderbeg seized Shat Fortress and presented it as a gift to Venice.[13] Skanderbeg then established an alliance with Venice against Dukagjini, while Dukagjni was strengthening his Turkish alliance.[14] The new pope issued a bull against Dukagjini, giving him fifteen days to break his alliance with the Ottomans and to reconcile with Skanderbeg, or be subject to interdiction; Dukagjini conceded and chose the former option. He then reestablished his alliance with Skanderbeg and Venice and accepted all of its losses.[15] Pius II continued to support Skanderbeg, but did not provide him as much financial aid as Calixtus had since he believed that Skanderbeg's military skill and his soldiers' aptitude for battle were enough to hold back the Turkish armies. However, the pope still considered Skanderbeg's assistance essential for his plans for an anti-Ottoman crusade.[16] In 1459, after Mehmed II completed his conquest of Serbia, Ottoman envoys appealed for a three-year armistice between Skanderbeg's Albania and the Ottoman Empire. The sultan's purpose was to distance Skanderbeg from the pope's crusade as he believed the crusade's only hope for success was Skanderbeg. In order to give Albania a break from fifteen years of continuous Ottoman invasion, Skanderbeg considered accepting the proposal but he had to get the pope's approval.[16] Pius did not allow such an agreement and began to doubt Skanderbeg's loyalty.[17] As the Ottomans were operating in the Western Balkans, Pius feared that the Ottoman soldiers would break the truce and pour into Albania.[18] In order to regain the pope's trust, Skanderbeg did not agree to the peace.[17] Skanderbeg, nevertheless, was disappointed by Rome's response and he responded by not participating in the Council of Mantua which was held to plan the future crusade.[19] The Council ended in failure, signifying that Skanderbeg would receive no help from the West. He thus sent ambassadors to the pope saying that he would only be willing to land in Italy if a ceasefire with the Turks were arranged, something which Rome soon allowed.[20] Before sending his men to Italy, Ragusa (Dubrovnik) was to receive Skanderbeg's envoy on 9 June 1460. He requested the city's support for the transport of his warriors to southern Italy over the Adriatic. Venice was not consulted since they pursued their own interests in Italy, whereas Ragusa held close economic relations with the Crown of Aragon. Meanwhile, Skanderbeg sent Martin Muzaka to Rome where he presented Pius with Skanderbeg's plans, and Pius in turn notified Ferdinand. Pius then ordered Venice to guard the Albanian coastline.[21] Skanderbeg then decided to send a troop of his men while he remained in Albania.[18] In mid-June 1461, Skanderbeg agreed to a ceasefire with Mehmed who used this time to finally conquer Trebizond (Trabzon) in the northeastern part of modern Turkey.[22] The truce was agreed to last for three years.[23] First landings

On 17 September 1460, Skanderbeg sent 500 cavalry to Barletta in Apulia under the command of his nephew, Constantine, who at the time was 22 or 23 years old. The battles for the Crown of Naples up to that point had been minor with not much more than one-thousand troops per belligerent. Ferdinand's Neapolitan army as a whole stood at 7,000 men. The addition of 500 Albanian cavalry, even though they were not cuirassed like their Italian counterparts, increased his force's effectiveness.[18] By this time, Ferdinand

had lost most of his territory, and was left with some fortresses in Apulia and the area surrounding Naples. The Angevins were swiftly approaching Naples and Ferdinand prepared a counteroffensive. He first secured what he had by putting Roberto del Balzo Orsini in command, but Orsini's incompetence held up the Neapolitan army. By this time, Skanderbeg's men had already arrived, and Ferdinand commenced his offensive. Albanian light-cavalry warfare was first noted here for its swiftness and effectiveness where they were reported to travel 30–40 miles (48–64 km) per day as opposed to the Italian cavalry which could only travel 10–12 miles (16–19 km).[24] The Albanians were encouraged by Ferdinand to fight in their traditional manner and to raid the territory; Ferdinand informed Francisco Sforza that the Albanians had been devastating Apulia and taking whatever loot they could.[25] These events worried the Angevins and prompted Giovanni Orsini to try and stop Skanderbeg from pouring his men into Italy.[18] René d'Anjou had been particularly surprised by Skanderbeg's action since he believed that he had never offended the Albanian.[26][27] Orsini–Skanderbeg correspondence "The Prince of Taranto wrote me a letter, a copy of which, and the reply I made him, I am sending to Your Majesty. I am very surprised that His Lordship should think to turn me from my intention by his brusque words, and I should like to say one thing: may God guard Your Majesty from ill and harm and danger, but however things may turn out I am the friend of virtue and not fortune." Skanderbeg's letter to Ferdinand I of Naples.[28] Giovanni Orsini was the Prince of Taranto and Ferdinand's fiercest rival. He had been, however, Alfonso's faithful ally and had developed an admiration for Skanderbeg and his campaigns in Albania.[29] After Skanderbeg had sided with his rival, Orsini allied with the Angevins and refused to recognize Ferdinand as King of Naples.[26] He then sent a letter to convince Skanderbeg to pull his men out of Italy arguing that Ferdinand's fortunes were hopeless, that Skanderbeg's fame would die out after his supposed debacle, and that an alliance with René would be much more rewarding than an alliance with Ferdinand. Skanderbeg's letter in response, dated to 10 October 1460, stated that he was not a condottieri looking for fortune, but a mature man looking to help his ally.[29] Furthermore, he sent another letter to Ferdinand assuring him his loyalty.[30][31] Another letter was sent to Pius assuring him that the Albanians were fit for battle in Italy, something the Italian rulers did not believe.[32] The letters elucidate Skanderbeg's political motives behind his Italian expedition, presenting himself as a noble ally, and also illustrate the influence of the Renaissance in Skanderbeg's court.[33][34] They also served a psychological purpose to intimidate Ferdinand's rivals: Skanderbeg compared himself to Pyrrhus of Epirus of antiquity who marched into Italy to defend the Greek city-states from Roman expansion.[33] Neapolitan counteroffensive By October 1460, Ferdinand was able to recapture his western territories from Capua to Beneventum. In his eastern frontier, however, his enemies remained at large. The most dangerous among them was Piccinino.[24] Piccinino had undertaken the task of blocking papal and Neapolitan troops en route to Apulia. Since Roberto Orsini, the man left in charge of the east and Giovanni Orsini's brother who had remained loyal to Ferdinand, was deemed incompetent, Ferdinand invited Constantine to Naples, offering him a leading role in an operation against Piccinino.[35] Along with Constantine's cavalry, Francesco del Balzo, the Duke of Andria who had remained loyal to Ferdinand, managed to defeat Ercole d'Este in Gargano. They then had control over the custom-duties gathered there which brought 30,000 ducats annually from which most of Piccinino's pay came.[22] The fighting continued for three months after which Constantine and Ferdinand were able to regain some lost territory. Piccinino prepared his own counteroffensive, along with Giovanni Orsini's men, laying siege to the main castles. A fierce battle soon erupted over Venosa on 28 May 1461 where the Albanian cavalry took part. Ferdinand abandoned the city and fled back to Apulia. Near Troia, he met Skanderbeg's ambassador, Gjokë Stres Balsha, who informed him that Skanderbeg was ready to land in Italy as soon as the proper galleys were provided.[35] Skanderbeg's expedition

Preparations and Ragusan voyage Before leaving for Italy, Skanderbeg needed to accumulate the appropriate finances. Pius ordered the Diocese of Dalmatia to give a third of what it had raised for the forthcoming crusade to Skanderbeg. The pope also ordered 1,000 florins to be given to Skanderbeg from the Vatican's funds. The Ragusan banks held this amount, but due to the threat of an Ottoman invasion, they refused to continue funding the crusade;[36] Stefan Vukčić of Zeta warned that the Ottomans would soon move into Dalmatia and Albania.[25] They were thus reluctant to fund Skanderbeg's expedition to Italy.[36] Due to issues of finance and the lack of large ships (he had, however, received several smaller ships to transport his troops), Skanderbeg's arrival was delayed while Ferdinand was under siege in Barletta. Before the siege began, however, Ferndinand sent four galleys to the Albanian shores where Skanderbeg and his men were waiting.[36] Skanderbeg had meanwhile sent an unnamed captain to his eastern frontiers to guard against an Ottoman attack and left his wife, Donika, in charge of his affairs.[37] A Venetian ambassador on his way from Constantinople reported that Skanderbeg had assembled 1,000 cavalry and 2,000 infantry along with several papal and Neapolitan ships at Capo-di-Lachi (Albanian: Kepi i Lagjit) near modern-day Kavajë.[38][39] He was still awaiting a supply of grain and two Neapolitan ships, however, so he continued to wait. On 21–22 August 1461, the four galleys sent by Ferdinand arrived. He boarded soon thereafter but he did not send his entire force directly to Apulia. He sent Gjokë Balsha (who had returned from Italy) with 500 cavalry and 1,000 infantry to the besieged Ferdinand, whereas Skanderbeg himself went to Ragusa to convince its rectors there to give him his needed funds. Balsha's men landed in Barletta on 24 August 1461. The Angevin forces, among whom was Giovanni Orsini, feared that Skanderbeg himself was the leader of this force, so they lifted the siege of Barletta immediately. Balsha then informed Ferdinand that Skanderbeg would arrive after his voyage to Ragusa.[40] Ferdinand felt that Skanderbeg's personal involvement was essential and began to worry when he did not come in two days, as Balsha had promised.[41] Skanderbeg reached Ragusa on 24 August 1461 along with the Pal Engjëlli, the Archbishop of Durrës. His men stayed on the ships anchored in the harbor while he went into the city. Due to papal pressure, the Ragusans had reconsidered Skanderbeg's requests.[41] His fame was visible when he walked through the city-gates and the population poured into the streets to see him. He had been greeted with a ceremony and a tour of the city inspecting its walls and weaponry. He then received the financial sum he had come for.[42] His men were also supplied with food for their coming campaign.[43] His popularity allowed him to be well-kept by the Ragusans where the largest Albanian community outside of Albania was present. On 29 August 1461,

Skanderbeg set off for Apulia, but a storm forced him to anchor off a Dalmatian island. On 3 September 1461, Skanderbeg finally reached Barletta.[44] Skanderbeg in Italy Even though they lifted the siege of Barletta upon seeing Skanderbeg's approaching men the week before, Angevin forces remained active.[37] Once Skanderbeg arrived, Ferdinand put him in command of the fortress of Barletta whereas the King himself went to Ariano Irpino. Once left in command of the fortress, Skanderbeg moved against Ferdinand's rivals. Among them were Giovanni Orsini, Jean d'Anjou (the Duke of Calabria), Piccinino, and Francesco del Balzo.[44] They had stationed themselves in Andria, where the Albanian assaults continued. The Albanian cavalry's light armament, swift horses and loose ranks allowed them to quickly overcome the more heavily-armed Italian cavalry, which fought in tight formations. In one of their operations, an Albanian warrior captured Alois Minutulo, the lord of the Castle of Monte Sant'Angelo who was imprisoned in the Fortress of Barletta.[44] Three years later, Ferdinand would present Skanderbeg with the castle as a token of his gratitude.[45] Ferdinand's opponents, under Piccinino's main command, tried to open battle with Skanderbeg, but due to the combined strength of Albanian and Neapolitan forces, they withdrew from the Andrian fields to Acquaviva delle Fonti. News of Piccinino's retreat reached Venice who sent a message to Francisco Sforza.[44] Skanderbeg then marched to Taranto, where Giovanni Orsini was prince. Orsini tried again to dissuade Skanderbeg from marching against him, but Ferdinand was wary of Orsini's faithfulness, so Skanderbeg continued raiding Orsini's territory.[46] He split his army into three parts, one under Moisi Arianit Golemi, the other under Vladan Gjurica, and the last under his command. He led attacks against Ferdinand's enemies in three directions without halt, thoroughly exhausting them.[47] During the month of October, Skanderbeg continued to pillage Orisini's territory from his bases at Barletta and Andria since the Angevins were not present; Ferdinand meanwhile mopped up in Calabria, where he recaptured Cosenza and Castrovillari.[48] At this point, Orsini asked Skanderbeg for a truce which the Albanian rejected. On 27 October, Skanderbeg reported that he had captured the town of Gisualdo.[49] Piccinino then asked Skanderbeg to discontinue his campaign which Skanderbeg exuberantly accepted, believing that peace was near.[47] Piccinino, however, did not seek to maintain the agreement as one of his deserters reported.[47] Upon learning this, Skanderbeg decided to open battle with Piccinino's men. After feeding his men and preparing his horses, Skanderbeg set off by moonlight for the Angevin camp. He found the place empty, however, since one of Piccinino's men had already informed Piccinino on the Albanians' intentions.[50] Skanderbeg then returned to Barletta where he was reinforced by Ferdinand and his men. He then split his army into two, one under Alessandro Sforza's command, the other under his, and he approached Troia. Jean d'Anjou and Piccinino were stationed in Lucera, however, eight miles from Troia. Knowing that battle would come between Troia and Lucera, Skanderbeg set out by night to capture Seggiano, a mountain lying between the two cities, where he stationed some of his men to protect it. Thence, his men could find refuge in case of defeat.[50] Piccinino had the same objective in mind and set out to capture the mountain, but instead met Skanderbeg's men. He thus kept his men in order for the coming battle. The next day, the two armies met. The battle lasted until dusk, but Jean's men suffered a serious defeat and he was forced to flee. Piccinino then retreated from his campaigns.[50] He went northwards where he joined Sigismondo Malatesta and 200 of his men to launch assaults on the papal state.[51] Skanderbeg's next task was to recapture Trani, the second most important point in Apulia, aside from Barletta. He succeeded in capturing the commander of the garrison, Fuscia de Foxa, who had rebelled against Ferdinand. Fuscia was outside the walls of Trani with sixteen men when Skanderbeg saw him and surrounded him and then tried to convince him to abandon Orsini, whereby Fuscia refused for pecuniary reasons.[52][53] On the morning of 28 December 1461, with Fuscia's pleas, Gracciani, the vice-commander of the garrison, surrendered Trani. Both Fuscia and Gracciani, however, refused to hand over the garrison's munitions. Skanderbeg threatened to imprison them if they did not surrender what they were asked to, forcing the two to hand over Trani's stores.[52] After weeks of marauding, Skanderbeg and his Aragonese colleagues joined Alessandro Sforza's men.[51] They then yielded all of the fortresses that they had recaptured to Ferdinand.[54] Aftermath

Seeing that their fortunes were dwindling, Ferdinand's rivals tried to settle for peace with Francisco Sforza. Ferdinand sent Skanderbeg as an intermediary where Giovanni Orsini and Piccinino offered peace if paid 150,000 and 110,000 ducats respectively, something that Ferdinand refused.[52] This was one of Skanderbeg's last personal actions in Italy. He stayed in Apulia for another month until January 1462 when he returned to Albania, leaving his soldiers in Italy. His reason for leaving Italy is not clear, but it is believed that at that time Mehmed was preparing his campaign against Hungary, something which could be turned against Albania. On his return route, he again visited Ragusa, where he was likewise welcomed as a hero.[52] He wanted to set off for Albania immediately, but bad weather forced him to stay.[55] He was offered supplies by the Ragusan Rectors, suggesting that he wished to continue to Albania via land, but instead, after ten days in Ragusa, he sailed by ship to Albania. Before leaving, he purchased grain from Sicily for his soldiers in Apulia.[56] The war over the Crown of Naples continued for several more months after Skanderbeg left. It is not known if Albanian warriors fought in the ensuing battles. In August 1462, Ferdinand achieved a decisive victory at Orsara.[56] Skanderbeg's expedition made him famous throughout Italy. In his book, De Bello Neapolitano (English: The Neapolitan War), Iovianus Pontanus sees the Albanian landing as essential to Ferdinand's victory: their quick maneuvering and swift assaults virtually immobilized the Italian warriors.[57] Skanderbeg's expedition succeeded in lifting the Siege of Barletta, capturing Trani through a ruse, forcing the Angevins to turn from an offensive to a defensive strategy, and devastating the land to the point where its inhabitants and Giovanni Orsini were forced to submit to Ferdinand, even allowing Ferdinand to safely attend the wedding of Antonio Piccolomini, Pius II's nephew.[58] Moreover, the campaign was instrumental in securing the Neapolitan kingdom for Ferdinand.[59] For his services, Ferdinand awarded Monte Sant'Angelo to Skanderbeg where many of his men soon settled.[60] They settled fifteen villages in the rolling landscapes to the east of Taranto.[5] His return to Albania was greeted as a triumph by his followers.[61] Despite the jubilation, however, Skanderbeg began to prepare for war. On 7 July 1462, the Turkish army resumed its campaigns in Albania. The first major engagement was at Mokra on 7 July 1462.[62] In the following Macedonian campaign in August of the same year, Skanderbeg defeated three Ottoman armies in one month.[63] On 27 April 1463, Skanderbeg and Mehmed signed a new peace treaty,[64] but later, on 9 September 1463, Skanderbeg signed an alliance with Venice which had been preparing for war against the Ottomans.[65] On 12 October 1463, Pius grew confident enough to declare his crusade against the Ottoman Turks which Skanderbeg joined.[66]

See also

• Mehmed II's first Albanian campaign • Wars in Lombardy • Ottoman-Venetian War (1463-1479) • Italian Wars Notes

1. ^ a b c d e f Frashëri 2002, p. 359 2. ^ a b Frashëri 2002, p. 357 3. ^ Frashëri 2002, p. 358 4. ^ Nasse 1964, p. 24 5. ^ a b Nasse 1964, p. 25 6. ^ a b Setton 1978, p. 231 7. ^ Schmitt 2009, p. 307 8. ^ Franco 1539, p. 321 9. ^ a b c d Frashëri 2002, p. 360 10. ^ Setton 1978, p. 232 11. ^ Babinger 1978, p. 201 12. ^ Babinger 1978, p. 202 13. ^ Frashëri 2002, p. 361 14. ^ Frashëri 2002, p. 362 15. ^ Frashëri 2002, p. 363 16. ^ a b Frashëri 2002, p. 364 17. ^ a b Frashëri 2002, p. 365 18. ^ a b c d Schmitt 2009, p. 309 19. ^ Frashëri 2002, p. 366 20. ^ Frashëri 2002, p. 368 21. ^ Schmitt 2009, p. 308 22. ^ a b Schmitt 2009, p. 316 23. ^ Frashëri 2002, p. 369 24. ^ a b Frashëri 2002, p. 376 25. ^ a b Schmitt 2009, p. 315 26. ^ a b Schmitt 2009, p. 310 27. ^ Noli 1947, p. 124 28. ^ Translated version provided by Hodgkinson 1999, pp. 163–164 29. ^ a b Frashëri 2002, p. 373 30. ^ Frashëri 2002, p. 375 31. ^ Hodgkinson 1999, pp. 163–164 32. ^ Schmitt 2009, p. 312 33. ^ a b Schmitt 2009, p. 313 34. ^ Frashëri 2002, pp. 372–373 35. ^ a b Frashëri 2002, p. 377 36. ^ a b c Frashëri 2002, p. 379 37. ^ a b Franco 1539, p. 322 38. ^ Frashëri 2002, pp. 379–380 39. ^ Noli 1947, p. 127 40. ^ Frashëri 2002, p. 380 41. ^ a b Frashëri 2002, p. 381 42. ^ Frashëri 2002, p. 382 43. ^ Schmitt 2009, p. 317 44. ^ a b c d Frashëri 2002, p. 383 45. ^ Schmitt 2009, p. 318 46. ^ Frashëri 2002, p. 384 47. ^ a b c Franco 1539, p. 324 48. ^ Schmitt 2009, p. 319 49. ^ Schmitt 2009, p. 320 50. ^ a b c Franco 1539, p. 325 51. ^ a b Schmitt 2009, p. 322 52. ^ a b c d Frashëri 2002, p. 386 53. ^ Schmitt 2009, p. 321 54. ^ Franco 1539, p. 326 55. ^ Schmitt 2009, p. 323 56. ^ a b Frashëri 2002, p. 387 57. ^ Frashëri 2002, p. 388 58. ^ Frashëri 2002, pp. 389–390 59. ^ Setton 1978, pp. 231–232 60. ^ Schmitt 2009, p. 324 61. ^ Noli 1947, p. 131

62. ^ Francione 2003, p. 158 63. ^ Francione 2003, p. 159 64. ^ Hodgkinson 1999, p. 188 65. ^ Hodgkinson 1999, p. 190 66. ^ Francione 2003, p. 165 References

• Babinger, Franz (1978), Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0691010781 • Francione, Gennaro (2003), Skenderbeu: Një hero modern, Tiranë: Shtëpia botuese "Naim Frashëri", ISBN 992738758 • Franco, Demetrio (1539), Comentario de le cose de' Turchi, et del S. Georgio Scanderbeg, principe d' Epyr, Venice: Altobello Salkato, ISBN 9994310429 • Frashëri, Kristo (2002) (in Albanian), Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra, 1405–1468, Tiranë: Botimet Toena, ISBN 9992716274, http://books.google.com/books?id=vwR3PQAACAAJ&dq=kristo+frasheri+skenderbeu&hl=en&ei=vD6aTMPAFoPGlQeau_HZDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA • Hodgkinson, Harry (1999), Scanderbeg: From Ottoman Captive to Albanian Hero, London: Centre for Albanian Studies, ISBN 9781873928134 • Nasse, George Nicholas (1964), The Italo-Albanian Villages of Southern Italy, Washington D.C.: National Academies, OCLC 476226177, http://books.google.com/books?id=VjArAAAAYAAJ • Noli, Fan Stilian (1947), George Castroiti Scanderbeg (1405–1468), New York: International Universities Press, OCLC 732882 • Schmitt, Oliver Jens (2009), Skënderbeu, Tiranë: K&B, ISBN 9789995666750 • Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1978), The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571, Philadelphia: DIANE Publishing, ISBN 9780871691279 External links

• George Castriot, Surnamed Scanderbeg, King of Albania by Clement Clark Moore - See Book X (pp. 298-315) for a description of Skanderbeg's Italian expedition • Skanderbeg's Expedition in Italy - Excerpt from Appunti Di Storia Cronologica Di Greci by Sacerdote Gerado Conforti (1922)

Map of the Republic of Ragusa The Castle of Monte Sant'Angelo in an early 20th century photograph

Pius II: fresco located in the 'Piccolomini library' in the Duomo of Siena

Giosafat Barbaro 1413-1494

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Giosafat Barbaro (also Giosaphat or Josaphat) (1413–1494) was a member of the Venetian Barbaro family. He was a diplomat, merchant, explorer and travel writer.[1] He was unusually well-travelled for someone of his times.[2] Giosafat Barbaro was born to Antonio and Franceschina Barbaro in a palazzo on the Campo di Santa Maria Formosa.[3] He became a member of the Venetian Senate in 1431.[3][4] In 1434, he married Nona Duodo, daughter of Arsenio Duodo.[3] Giosafat and Nona had three daughters and a son, Giovanni Antonio.[3] Travels to Tana

From 1436 to 1452 Barbaro traveled as a merchant to the Genoese colony Tana on the Sea of Azov.[5][4] During this time the Golden Horde was disintegrating due to political rivalries.[2] In November of 1437, Barbaro heard of the burial mound of the last King of the Alans, about 20 miles up the Don River from Tana.[6] [7] Barbaro and six other men, a mix of Venetian and Jewish merchants, hired 120 men to excavate the kurgan, which they hoped would contain treasure.[6][7] When the weather proved too severe, they returned in March of 1438, but found no treasure.[7][6] Barbaro analytically and precisely recorded information about the layers of earth, coal, ashes, millet, and fish scales that composed the mound.[8][6] Modern scholarship concludes that it was not a burial mound, but a kitchen midden that had accumulated over centuries of use.[9] The remains of Barbaro’s excavation was found in the 1920s by Russian archeologist Alexander Alexandrovich Miller.[9] In 1438, the Great Horde under Küchük Muhammad advanced on Tana.[10] Barbaro went as an emissary to the Tatars to persuade them not to attack Tana.[4][11] Later, Barbaro was part of a group that drove off a hundred Circassian raiders.[12] Barbaro visited many cities in the Crimea, including Solcati, Soldaia, Cembalo, and Caffa.[4] Barbaro also traveled to Russia, where he visited Casan and Novogorod.[13] Giosafat Barbaro did not spend all of the years from 1436 to 1452 in Tartary[14] In 1446, he was elected to the Council of Forty.[15] In 1448, he was appointed Councilor of the trading colonies Modon and Corone in the Peloponnese and served until his resignation the following year.[15] Since there was regular trade between Venice and Tana at this time, it seems likely Barbaro went to Tana to trade and returned to Venice for the winter over this time.[15] Barbaro stopped these travels when the Crimean Khanate became a client state of the Ottoman Turks.[5] Barbaro returned to Venice in 1452, traveling by way of Russia, Poland, and Germany.[16][17] In 1455, Barbaro freed a pair of Tartar men he had found in Venice, housed them for two months, and sent them home to Tana.[18] Political career

In 1460, Giosafat Barbaro was elected Council to Tana, but he declined the position.[19] In 1463, he was appointed Provveditore of Albania.[19] While there, Barbaro he fought with Lekë Dukagjini and Skanderbeg against the Turks.[20][21][22][23][11] Provveditore Barbaro linked his forces with those of Dukagjini and Nicolo Moneta to form an auxiliary corps of 13,000 men which was sent to relieve the Second Siege of Krujë.[24] After Skanderbeg’s death, Barbaro returned to Venice again.[19] In 1469, Giosafat Barbaro was made Provveditore of Scutari, in Albania.[4][25] He was in command of 1200 cavalry, which he used to support Lekë Dukagjini.[16] In 1472, Barbaro was back in Venice, where he was one of the 41 senators chosen to act as electors, who selected Nicolo Tron as Doge.[13] Venetian conflict with the Ottoman Turks

In 1463, the Venetian Senate, seeking allies against the Turks, had sent Lazzaro Querini as its first ambassador to Persia,[26] but he was unable to persuade Persia to attack the Turks.[27][28] The ruler of Persia, Uzun Hassan ,sent his own envoys to Venice in return.[26] After Negroponte fell to the Turks, Venice, Naples, the Papal States, the Kingdom of Cyprus and the Knights of Rhodes signed an agreement to ally against the Turks.[16] In 1471, ambassador Querini returned to Venice with Uzun Hassan’s ambassador Murad.[26] The Venetian Senate voted to send another ambassador to Persia, choosing Caterino Zeno after two other men declined.[29] Zeno, whose wife was the niece of Uzun Hassan’s wife, was able to persuade Hassan to attack the Turks. Hassan was successful at first, but there were no simultaneous attacks by any of the western powers and the war turned against Persia.[27] Ambassador to Persia

In 1472, Giosafat Barbaro was also selected as an ambassador to Persia, due to his experience in the Crimean, Muscoy, and Tartary.[30] He also spoke Turkish and a little Persian.[31][19] Barbaro was provided with an escort of ten men and an annual salary of 1800 ducats.[11] His instructions included urging admiral Pietro Mocenigo to attack the Ottomans and attempting to arrange naval cooperation from the Kingdom of Cyprus and the Knights of Rhodes.[11] He was also in charge of three galleys full of artillery, ammunition, and military personnel who were to assist Uzun Hassan.[32] In February of 1473, Barbaro and the Persian envoy Haci Muhammad left Venice and traveled to Zadar, where they met with representatives of Naples and the Papal court.[11] From there, Barbaro and the others traveled by way of Corfu, Modon, Corone reaching Rhodes and then Cyprus, where Barbaro was delayed for a year.[11] The Kingdom of Cyprus's position off the coast of Anatolia was in a key position for supplying, not just Uzun Hassan in Persia, but the Venetian allies of Caramania and Scandelore and the Venetian fleet under Pietro Mocenigo was used to defend communication lines to them.[32] King James II of Cyprus had attempted to ally with Caramania and Scandelore, as well as the Sultan of Egypt, against the Turks.[33] King James had also written to the Venetian Senate, stressing the need to support Persia against the Turks and his navy had cooperated with Admiral Mocenigo in recapturing the coastal towns of Gorhigos and Selefke.[34] The Emir of Scandelore fell to the Turks in 1473 in spite of military aid from the Kingdom of Cyprus.[33] The power of Caramania was broken.[34] James II of Cyprus privately told Giosafat Barbaro he felt like he was trapped between two wolves, the Ottoman Sultan and the Egyptian Sultan.[33] The latter was James' liege lord, and not on friendly terms with Venice.[35] James II entered into negotiations with the Turks.[34] At first he refused to let the Venetian galleys with their munitions land in the port of Famagusta.[35] When Barbaro and the Venetian ambassador, Nicolo Pasqualigo, attempted to persuade James II to change his mind, the King threatened to destroy the galleys and kill every man on board.[35] King James II of Cyprus died in July of 1473, leaving Queen Catherine a pregnant widow.[36] James had appointed a seven member council, which contained Venetian Andrea Cornaro, a relative of the Queen, as well as Marin Rizzo and Giovanni Fabrice, agents of the Kingdom of Naples who opposed Venetian influence.[37] Queen Catherine gave birth to a son, James II in August of 1473., with Admiral Pietro Mocenigo and other Venetian officials acting as godfathers.[38] Once the Venetian fleet left, there was a revolt by pro-Neapolitan forces, which resulted in the

deaths of the Queen's uncle and cousin.[39][40] The Archbishop of Nicosia, Juan Tafures, the Count of Tripoli, the Count of Jaffa, and Marin Rizzo seized Famagusta, capturing the Queen and the newborn King.[40] Barbaro and Bailo Pasqualigo were protected by the Venetian soldiers that had accompanied Barbaro. The conspirators made several attempts to persuade Barbaro to hand over the soldiers' arms. The Constable of Cyprus sent an agent, while the Count of Tripoli, the Archbishop of Nicosia, and the Constable of Jerusalem made personal visits. After consulting with Bailo Pasqualigo, they decided to disarm the men, but keep the weapons. Barbaro alerted the captains of the Venetian galleys in the harbor.[41] Barbaro also sent dispatches the Senate of Venice, warning them of events.[39][42] Later, Barbaro and the Venetian troops withdrew to one of the galleys.[43] By the time Admiral Mocenigo returned to Cyprus, the rebels were quarreling among themselves and the people of Nicosia and Famagusta had risen against them.[42] The uprising was suppressed, those ringleaders who did not flee were executed, and Cyprus became a Venetian client state.[32] The Venetian Senate authorized the troops and military that had accompanied Giosafat Barbaro to stay in Cyprus.[44]

Giosafat Barbaro was still in Cyprus in December of 1473, and the Venetian Senate sent a letter, telling Barbaro to complete his journey, as well as sending another ambassador, Ambrogio Contarini to Persia.[45] Barbaro and the Persian envoy left Cyprus in February of 1474 disguised as Muslim pilgrims.[45][46] The Papal and Neapolitan envoys did not accompany them.[47] Barbaro landed in Caramania, where the King warned them that the Turks held the territory they would need to travel through.[48][30] After landing in Cilicia, Barbaro's party traveled through Tarsus, Adana, Orfa, Merdin, Hasankeyf, and Tigranocerta[30][47] In the Taurus Mountains of Kurdistan, Barbaro’s party was attacked by bandits.[47] He escaped on horseback, but he was wounded and several members of the group, including his secretary and the Persian ambassador were killed, and their goods were plundered.[49][50] As they neared Tabriz, Barbaro and his interpreter were assaulted by Turcomans after refusing to hand over a letter to Uzun Hassan[49] Barbaro and his surviving companions finally reached Hassan’s court in April of 1474.[51] Although Barbaro got on well with Uzun Hassan, he was unable to persuade the ruler to attack the Ottomans again.[27] Shortly afterwards, Hassan’s son Ogurlu Mohamed, rose in rebellion, seizing the city of Schiras.[52] Barbaro visited the ruins of Persepolis, which he incorrectly thought were of Jewish origin.[52][53] He also visited Tauris, Soldania, Isph, Cassan (Kascian), Como (Kom), Yezd, Shiraz and Baghdad.[54] Giosafat Barbaro was the first European to visit the ruins of Pasargadae, where he believed the local tradition that misidentified the tomb of Cyrus the Great as belonging to King Solomon’s mother.[55][53] Barbaro visited the ruins of Persepolis, The other Venetian ambassador, Ambrosio Contarini, arrived in Persia in August of 1474.[51][27] Uzun Hassan decided that Contarini would return to Venice with a report, while Giosafat Barbaro would stay in Persia.[56] Return to Venice

Barbaro was the last Venetian ambassador to leave Persia, after Uzun Hassan died in 1478.[5][57] By this point only one of Barbaro's entourage was left.[58] While Hassan’s sons fought each other for the throne, Barbaro hired an Armenian guide and escaped by way of Erzerum, Aleppo, and Beirut.[59][60][5][57] Barbaro reached Venice in 1479, where he defended himself against complaints that he had spent too much time in Cyprus before going to Persia.[19] Barbaro's report included not just political and military matters, but discussed Persian agriculture, commerce, and customs.[60] Giosafat Barbaro served as Captain of Rovigo and Provveditore of all Polesine from 1482 to 1485.[61][62] He was also one of the Councilors of Doge Agostino Barbarigo[62] He died in 1494 and was buried in the Church of San Francesco della Vigna.[63] Writing

In 1487, Barbaro wrote an account of his travels.[63][22][23] In it, he mentions being familiar with the accounts of Niccolò de' Conti and John de Mandeville. Barbaro's account of his travels, entitled "Fiaggi falti da Fenezia alla Tana in Persi" was first published from 1543 to 1545 by the sons of Aldus Manutius.[5] It is included Giovanne Baptista Ramusio's 1559 "Collection of Travels" as "Journey to the Tanais, Persia, India, and Constantinople"[64][23] The scholar and courtier William Thomas translated this work into English for the young King Edward VI under the title ‘’Travels to Tana and Persia’’ and also includes the account of Barbaro’s fellow ambassador to Persia, Ambrogio Contarini.[26][6] This work was republished in London in 1873 by the Hakluyt Society[65] and a Russian language edition was published in 1971.[66] In 1583, Barbaro’s account was published by Filippo Giunti in ‘’Volume Delle Navigationi Et Viaggi’’ along with those of Marco Polo and Kirakos Gandzaketsi’s account of the travels of Hethum I, King of Armenia.[67] In 1601, Barbaro’s and Contarini’s accounts were included in Pietro Bizzarri’s ‘’ Rerum Persicarum Historia’’ along with accounts by Bonacursius, Jacob Geuder von Heroldsberg, Giovanni Tommaso Minadoi, and Henricus Porsius; which was published in Frankfurt.[68] in 2005, Barbaro’s account was also published in Turkish as ‘’ Anadolu'ya ve Đran'a seyahat’’.[69]

Barbaro’s account provided more information on Persia and its resources than that of Contarini.[31] He showed skill in observing unfamiliar places and reporting on them.[53] Much of Barbaro's information about the Kipchak Khanate, Persia, and Georgia is not found in any other sources.[5] Giosafat Barbaro’s dispatches to the Venetian Senate were complied by Enrico Cornet and published as ‘’ Lettere al Senato Veneto’’ in 1852 in Vienna.[70] Barbaro also discussed his travels in a letter written in 1491 to the Bishop of Padua, Pietro Barocci.[54] References

1. ^ “A new general biographical dictionary, Volume 3”, Hugh James Rose, Henry John Rose, 1857, pg. 137 [1] ISBN 978-0-333-76094-9 2. ^ a b “Una famiglia veneziana nella storia: i Barbaro”, Michela Marangoni, Manlio Pastore Stocchi, Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, 1996, pg. 120 [2], ISBN 978-88-86166-34-8 3. ^ a b c d ”Die persische Karte : venezianisch-persische Beziehungen um 1500 ; Reiseberichte venezianischer Persienreisender”, Otto H. Storz, Berlin, 2009, p.39 [3] ISBN 978-3-643-10073-3 4. ^ a b c d e “Studi biografici e bibliografici sulla storia della geografia in Italia”, Roma, Società geografica italiana; 1882, pg. 140 [4] 5. ^ a b c d e f “Biographie universelle, ancienne et moderne”, J Fr Michaud; Louis Gabriel Michaud, Paris, Michaud, 1811-28., pg. 327 [5] 6. ^ a b c d e “Black Sea”, Neal Ascherson, New York, Hill and Wang, 1996, pg. 128 [6], ISBN 978-0-8090-3043-9 7. ^ a b c “Venice & antiquity: the Venetian sense of the past”, Patricia Fortini Brown, New Haven, Conn. ; London : Yale University Press, 1996, pg. 152 [7], ISBN 978-0-300-06700-2 8. ^ “Venice & antiquity: the Venetian sense of the past”, Patricia Fortini Brown, New Haven, Conn. ; London : Yale University Press, 1996, pg. 153 [8], ISBN 978-0-300-06700-2 9. ^ a b “Black Sea”, Neal Ascherson, New York, Hill and Wang, 1996, pg. 129 [9], ISBN 978-0-8090-3043-9

10. ^ “History of the Mongols: from the 9th to the 19th century”, Sir Henry Hoyle Howorth, Boston, Mass. : Elibron Classics, 2003, pg. 295 [10] 11. ^ a b c d e f Mehmed the Conqueror & His Time, Franz Babinger, Trans. Ralph Manheim, Princeton University Press; 1992, p.319 [11] ISBN 978-0-691-01078-6 12. ^ “History of the Mongols: from the 9th to the 19th century”, Sir Henry Hoyle Howorth, Boston, Mass. : Elibron Classics, 2003, pg. 298 [12] 13. ^ a b “Studi biografici e bibliografici sulla storia della geografia in Italia”, Roma, Società geografica italiana; 1882, pg. 110 [13] 14. ^ ”Die persische Karte : venezianisch-persische Beziehungen um 1500 ; Reiseberichte venezianischer Persienreisender”, Otto H. Storz, Berlin, 2009, p.40 [14] ISBN 978-3-643-10073-3 15. ^ a b c ”Die persische Karte : venezianisch-persische Beziehungen um 1500 ; Reiseberichte venezianischer Persienreisender”, Otto H. Storz, Berlin, 2009, p.41 [15] ISBN 978-3-643-10073-3 16. ^ a b c “Studi biografici e bibliografici sulla storia della geografia in Italia”, Roma, Società geografica italiana; 1882, pg. 141 [16] 17. ^ “A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels”, Robert Kerr, 2007, pg. 624 [17] 18. ^ “History of the Mongols: from the 9th to the 19th century”, Sir Henry Hoyle Howorth, Boston, Mass. : Elibron Classics, 2003, pg. 300 [18] 19. ^ a b c d e ”Die persische Karte : venezianisch-persische Beziehungen um 1500 ; Reiseberichte venezianischer Persienreisender”, Otto H. Storz, Berlin, 2009, p.44 [19] ISBN 978-3-643-10073-3 20. ^ “Turcica, Volume 31”, Université de Strasbourg, 1999, pg. 268 21. ^ “Studi biografici e bibliografici sulla storia della geografia in Italia”, Roma, Società geografica italiana; 1882, pg.144 [20] 22. ^ a b “Enciclopedia storico-nobiliare italiana, Volume 7”, Vittorio Spreti, Arnaldo Forni, 1981, pg. 276 [21] 23. ^ a b c “A new general biographical dictionary, Volume 3”, Hugh James Rose, Henry John Rose, 1857, pg. 137 [22] ISBN 978-0-333-76094-9 24. ^ ”Le istorie albanesi, Volume 1”, Francesco Tajani, Salerno, Fratelli Jovane, 1886., pg. 120 [23] 25. ^ Mehmed the Conqueror & His Time, Franz Babinger, Trans. Ralph Manheim, Princeton University Press; 1992, p.261 [24] ISBN 978-0-691-01078-6 26. ^ a b c d Mehmed the Conqueror & His Time, Franz Babinger, Trans. Ralph Manheim, Princeton University Press; 1992, p.305 [25] ISBN 978-0-691-01078-6 27. ^ a b c d “The Cambridge history of Iran, William Bayne Fisher, Peter Jackson, Laurence Lockhart, New York : Cambridge University Press, 1986, p.377 [26] ISBN 978-0-521-20094-3 28. ^ “Una famiglia veneziana nella storia: i Barbaro”, Michela Marangoni, Manlio Pastore Stocchi, Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, 1996, pg. 124 [27], ISBN 978-88-86166-34-8 29. ^ Mehmed the Conqueror & His Time, Franz Babinger, Trans. Ralph Manheim, Princeton University Press; 1992, p.306 [28] ISBN 978-0-691-01078-6 30. ^ a b c Historical account of discoveries and travels in Asia, Hugh Murray, Edinburgh, A. Constable and Co; 1820., p.10 [29] 31. ^ a b “The Cambridge history of Iran, William Bayne Fisher, Peter Jackson, Laurence Lockhart, New York : Cambridge University Press, 1986, p.378 [30] ISBN 978-0-521-20094-3 32. ^ a b c “He Kypros kai hoi Staurophories:”, Nikos Kureas; International Conference Cyprus and the Crusades (1994, Leukosia), pg. 161 [31] 33. ^ a b c “A history of Cyprus, Volume 3”, Sir George Francis Hill, Cambridge University Press, 1952, pg. 623 [32] 34. ^ a b c “A history of Cyprus, Volume 3”, Sir George Francis Hill, Cambridge University Press, 1952, pg. 624 [33] 35. ^ a b c “A history of Cyprus, Volume 3”, Sir George Francis Hill, Cambridge University Press, 1952, pg. 626 [34] 36. ^ ”Venetian studies”, Horatio Forbes Brown, London, K. Paul, Trench & Co, 1887, p.310 [35] 37. ^ ”Venetian studies”, Horatio Forbes Brown, London, K. Paul, Trench & Co, 1887, p.311 [36] 38. ^ ”Venetian studies”, Horatio Forbes Brown, London, K. Paul, Trench & Co, 1887, p.312 [37] 39. ^ a b ”Venetian studies”, Horatio Forbes Brown, London, K. Paul, Trench & Co, 1887, p.377 [38] 40. ^ a b ”Venetian studies”, Horatio Forbes Brown, London, K. Paul, Trench & Co, 1887, p.312 [39] 41. ^ “A history of Cyprus, Volume 3”, Sir George Francis Hill, Cambridge University Press, 1952, pg. 674 [40] 42. ^ a b ”Venetian studies”, Horatio Forbes Brown, London, K. Paul, Trench & Co, 1887, p.313 [41] 43. ^ “A history of Cyprus, Volume 3”, Sir George Francis Hill, Cambridge University Press, 1952, pg. 682 [42] 44. ^ “A history of Cyprus, Volume 3”, Sir George Francis Hill, Cambridge University Press, 1952, pg. 662 [43] 45. ^ a b Mehmed the Conqueror & His Time, Franz Babinger, Trans. Ralph Manheim, Princeton University Press; 1992, p.321 [44] ISBN 978-0-691-01078-6 46. ^ “Studi biografici e bibliografici sulla storia della geografia in Italia”, Roma, Società geografica italiana; 1882, pg.142 [45] 47. ^ a b c Mehmed the Conqueror & His Time, Franz Babinger, Trans. Ralph Manheim, Princeton University Press; 1992, p.326 [46] ISBN 978-0-691-01078-6 48. ^ “Studi biografici e bibliografici sulla storia della geografia in Italia”, Roma, Società geografica italiana; 1882, pg. 120 [47] 49. ^ a b Historical account of discoveries and travels in Asia, Hugh Murray, Edinburgh, A. Constable and Co; 1820., p.12 [48] 50. ^ “Studi biografici e bibliografici sulla storia della geografia in Italia”, Roma, Società geografica italiana; 1882, pg. 142 [49] 51. ^ a b “ E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam”, M. Th. Houtsma, New York, 1993., pg. 1067 [50] ISBN 978-90-04-09796-4

52. ^ a b Historical account of discoveries and travels in Asia, Hugh Murray, Edinburgh, A. Constable and Co; 1820., p.15 [51] 53. ^ a b c “Venice & antiquity: the Venetian sense of the past”, Patricia Fortini Brown, New Haven, Conn. ; London : Yale University Press, 1996, pg. 156 [52], ISBN 978-0-300-06700-2 54. ^ a b “Studi biografici e bibliografici sulla storia della geografia in Italia”, Roma, Societá geografica italiana; 1882, pg.142 [53] 55. ^ “Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 21”, New York, Americana Corp; 1965, pg.321 [54] 56. ^ Historical account of discoveries and travels in Asia, Hugh Murray, Edinburgh, A. Constable and Co; 1820., p.19 [55] 57. ^ a b Mehmed the Conqueror & His Time, Franz Babinger, Trans. Ralph Manheim, Princeton University Press; 1992, p.322 [56] ISBN 978-0-691-01078-6 58. ^ “Una famiglia veneziana nella storia: i Barbaro”, Michela Marangoni, Manlio Pastore Stocchi, Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, 1996, pg. 128 [57], ISBN 978-88-86166-34-8 59. ^ Historical account of discoveries and travels in Asia, Hugh Murray, Edinburgh, A. Constable and Co; 1820., p.16 [58] 60. ^ a b “Studi biografici e bibliografici sulla storia della geografia in Italia”, Roma, Societá geografica italiana; 1882, pg.143 [59] 61. ^ “Dei rettori veneziani in Rovigo: illustrazione storica con documenti”, Giovanni Durazzo, Venezia, Tip. del Commercio, 1865, pg. 16 [60] 62. ^ a b ”Die persische Karte : venezianisch-persische Beziehungen um 1500 ; Reiseberichte venezianischer Persienreisender”, Otto H. Storz, Berlin, 2009, p.45 [61] ISBN 978-3-643-10073-3 63. ^ a b “Studi biografici e bibliografici sulla storia della geografia in Italia”, Roma, Societá geografica italiana; 1882, pg.144 [62] 64. ^ Universal Pronouncing Dictionary of Biography and Mythology. Vol. I., pg.262, Thomas Joseph, Philadelphia, PA, USA: J. B. Lippincott and Co., 1870 65. ^ "Worldcat". http://www.worldcat.org/title/travels-to-tana-and-persia/oclc/217119736. Retrieved 2010-04-14. 66. ^ "Worldcat". http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/236220401. Retrieved 2010-04-14. 67. ^ "Worldcat". http://www.worldcat.org/title/-volume-delle-navigationi-et-viaggi-2-lhistoria-delle-cose-de-tartari-diuersi-fatti-deloro-imperatori-descritta-da-m-marco-polo-gentilhuomo-venetiano-da-hayton-armeno-varie-descrittioni-di-diversi-avttori-dellindie-orientali-della-tartaria-della-persia-armenia-et-il-viaggio-della-tana-di-messer-iosafa-barbaro/oclc/312110049. Retrieved 2010-04-14. 68. ^ "Worldcat". http://www.worldcat.org/title/rerum-persicarum-historia-initia-gentis-mores-instituta-resque-gestas-ad-haec-usque-tempora-complectens/oclc/255858576. Retrieved 2010-04-14. 69. ^ "Worldcat". http://www.worldcat.org/title/anadoluya-ve-irana-seyahat/oclc/62732381. Retrieved 2010-04-14. 70. ^ "Worldcat". http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=Lettere%20al%20senato%20veneto%20annotate%20per%20E.%20Cornet%20giosafat%20barbaro. Retrieved 2010-04-14. External links Travels of Josaphat Barbaro Ambassador from Venice to Tanna in 1436

The Persian empire by the end of Uzun Hassan's reign in 1478

Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey


Years of service ca. 1444–1480s

Wars and campaigns Byzantine-Ottoman Wars, Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479)

Relations Turahan Bey (father) Turahanoğlu Ahmed Bey (brother)

Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey (Greek: Ὀµάρης or Ἀµάρης;[1] fl. 1435–1484) was an Ottoman general and governor. The son of the famed Turahan Bey, he was active chiefly in southern Greece: he fought in the Morea against both the Byzantines in the 1440s and 1450s and against the Venetians in the 1460s, while in 1456, he conquered the Latin Duchy of Athens. He also fought in Albania, north-east Italy, Wallachia and Anatolia. Ömer was the son of the prominent akıncı leader and governor of Thessaly, Turahan Bey, and grandson of Pasha Yiğit Bey, the conqueror of Skopje. He had a brother, Ahmed Bey, and two sons, Hasan and Idris, the latter of whom was a notable poet and translator of Persian poetry.[1][2] Wars against the Byzantines

The exact date of Ömer's birth is unknown; as a young man, he was presented to the Byzantine envoy George Sphrantzes in 1435,[1] and by 1444 he was old enough to assume his father's duties as uç beyi ("marcher-lord") of Thessaly during Turahan's temporary disgrace. In the same year, Ömer led a raid against the Duchy of Athens, which was falling under the influence of the energetic Constantine Palaiologos, the ruler of the Despotate of the Morea. This display of force, coupled with the decisive Ottoman victory in the Battle of Varna, convinced the Duke of Athens, Nerio II Acciaioli, to revert to his Ottoman allegiance.[3] Ömer also participated in the retaliatory campaign of Sultan Murad II in late 1446. The Ottomans breached the Hexamilion wall and devastated the Morea, forcing the despots to become Ottoman vassals.[4][5] In 1449, as Constantine Palaiologos became the new Byzantine emperor and left the Morea, his brothers Demetrios Palaiologos and Thomas Palaiologos began to quarrel about their share of the rule of the Despotate. Eventually the dispute was settled through the mediation of Constantine and Ömer, who used the opportunity to completely demolish the Hexamilion.[6] In October 1452, Ömer and his brother accompanied Turahan in another expedition against the Morea, which was designed to prevent the Despotate from assisting in the forthcoming Ottoman attack on the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. After the Turks breached the rebuilt Hexamilion, the Byzantines put up little resistance, and Turahan's troops plundered their way from Corinthia to Messenia. Ahmed however was captured in an ambush at Dervenakia and imprisoned in Mistra.[7][8][9] The Fall of Constantinople on 29 May 1453 had great repercussions in the Morea. The two despots continued their rivalry and were unpopular among their own subjects. A rebellion broke out against them in autumn, supported both by the local Albanian immigrants and the native Greeks, and spread quickly. As the Sultan's vassals, the despots called upon Turahan for aid, and he dispatched Ömer in December. Ömer achieved a few successes, but departed after securing the release of his brother from captivity. The revolt did not subside, and in 1454 Turahan himself, again accompanied by his sons, was forced to intervene and quell the revolt.[1][10] In 1456, Ömer succeeded his father as governor of Thessaly, and in the same year his troops occupied the city of Athens. The duke, Francesco II Acciaioli, and the inhabitants fled to the Acropolis, where they held out for two years until they surrendered in June 1458.[11] In the same year, the Sultan Mehmed II campaigned in person against the Morea, where the two despots had returned to their quarrels and were negotiating with Western powers for aid against the Ottomans. Mehmed overcame the Byzantine resistance at Hexamilion and stormed the strategically important Acrocorinth. Thereupon the despots hastened to reconfirm their allegiance, but the northeastern quarter of the Morea was annexed as a full Ottoman province and Ömer became its first governor.[1][12][13] Ömer accompanied Mehmed on the Sultan's visit to Athens in August 1458, and took up residence in the ducal palace in the Propylaea.[14] In 1459 the despot Thomas rebelled against the Sultan with assistance from Italy, and Ömer was for a time removed from his offices for failing to prevent it, although some contemporary sources suggest that he was himself encouraging the rebellion. The Sultan sent Hamza Pasha to depose and arrest him and replaced him as governor the Morea with Zagan Pasha.[15][16] Ömer nevertheless participated in the subsequent campaign against the Morea,[1] which saw the final extirpation of the despotate.[17] In 1461/1462 Ömer served with distinction in the wars against Vlad III Dracula, Prince of Wallachia: he wiped out a force of 6,000 Wallachians and deposited 2,000 of their heads at the feet of Mehmed II. As a reward, he was reinstated in his old gubernatorial post in Thessaly.[18] Wars against the Venetians

At this time, tensions became heightened with the Venetians as a slave of the Ottoman commander of Athens fled to the Venetian fortress of Coron (Koroni) with 100,000 aspers from his master's treasury. The Venetians refused to hand him back, and in retaliation, Ömer attacked the port town of Lepanto (Nafpaktos) in November 1462 but failed to capture it. A few months later, Isa Bey, governor of the Morea, took the Venetian fortress of Argos through treason. These events precipitated the outbreak of a long war between the Venetian Republic and the Ottoman Empire.[19][20] In the summer of 1463, Ömer led the eastern wing of the Ottoman army that conquered Bosnia.[21] In the weeks after their declaration of war on 28 July 1463, the Venetians made good progress in the Morea, occupying most of the peninsula, and laid siege to the Acrocorinth in early autumn. Ömer Bey marched returned from Bosnia and marched to relieve the siege, but did not attempt to breach the Hexamilion wall due to the presence of numerous Venetian cannons and the small size of his own army.[22][23] Ömer was disheartened enough to oppose any action to be undertaken even after the arrival of substantial reinforcements under the Grand Vizier Mahmud Pasha Angelović, and preferred to await the arrival of the Sultan himself. Nevertheless, Mahmud Pasha decided to move, and the Venetians, whose army had been depleted by dysentery, abandoned the Hexamilion without a fight. The Ottomans razed the wall yet again and advanced into the Morea. Argos surrendered and was razed, and several forts and localities that had recognized Venetian authority reverted to their Ottoman allegiance. Zagan Pasha was re-appointed governor of the Morea, while Ömer Bey was given Mahmud Pasha's army and tasked with taking the Republic's holdings in the southern Peloponnese, centred around the two forts of Coron and Modon (Methoni). Ömer raided the districts around the two fortresses and captured numerous prisoners, but the onset of winter precluded

any serious operations from being undertaken against them.[24][25][26] In August 1464, the new Venetian commander-in-chief in the Morea, Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta, besieged the fortress of Mistra, the one-time capital of the Byzantine despotate. Ömer with his army marched against him, forcing him to raise the siege.[1][27] Over the next year, the war in the Morea was dominated by raids and sieges of isolated forts. Ömer held the initiative and moved at will against the Venetians and their supporters, for the mostly mercenary Venetian troops, starved of supplies, pay and reinforcements, were largely confined to their coastal forts and unable or unwilling to venture into the interior.[28] In late July/early August 1466, Ömer achieved two major victories against the Venetians. With 12,000 men he destroyed an army of 2,000 that was besieging Patras and killed its commander, Jacomo Barbarigo, and 600 of his men. A few days later he defeated another Venetian expeditionary force under Vettore Cappello, which lost 1,200 men. Cappello himself barely escaped and died a few months later of grief.[29][30] Ömer reappears in the historical sources in 1470. Following the Ottoman conquest of Negroponte (Chalkis) in July after a long and bloody siege, Ömer led an army of 25,000 in the Morea, where he quickly conquered Vostitza (Aigion).[31] In 1473, he participated in the campaign against Uzun Hasan, Venice's ally in the East; and was one of the many senior commanders captured in an ambush on 1 August 1473. His captivity however did not last long, for Uzun Hasan's army suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Otluk Beli on 11 August.[32] In autumn 1477 he was sent to Slovenia to fight against the Venetians. There he ambushed and routed the army of the Venetian Captain-General, Girolamo Novella, and with his cavalry raided Venetian territory in the region of the Isonzo, Piave and Tagliamento rivers.[1][33] Finally, in 1478 he captured the fortress of Scutari (Shkodër) in Albania,[34] which along with the conquest of Krujë by Mehmed II ended the League of Lezhë and Albanian independence. Death The date of his death is unknown, but he was still alive in 1484, when his will was written.[1][34]

References

1. ^ a b c d e f g h i PLP 21056 2. ^ Babinger (1987), pp. 877–878 3. ^ Babinger (1992), p. 48 4. ^ Babinger (1992), pp. 49–50 5. ^ Setton (1978), pp. 96–97 6. ^ Babinger (1992), p. 56 7. ^ Babinger (1987), p. 877 8. ^ Babinger (1992), p. 80 9. ^ Setton (1978), p. 146 10. ^ Setton (1978), pp. 148–149 11. ^ Babinger (1992), pp. 159–160 12. ^ Babinger (1992), pp. 157–159 13. ^ Setton (1978), pp. 196–198 14. ^ Babinger (1992), pp. 159–161 15. ^ Babinger (1992), p. 165 16. ^ Setton (1978), pp. 219–220 17. ^ Setton (1978), pp. 221ff. 18. ^ Babinger (1992), p. 207 19. ^ Setton (1978), pp. 241–243 20. ^ Stavrides (2001), p. 150 21. ^ Babinger (1992), p. 223 22. ^ Babinger (1992), p. 227 23. ^ Setton (1978), p. 248 24. ^ Babinger (1992), pp. 227–228 25. ^ Setton (1978), pp. 248–249 26. ^ Stavrides (2001), pp. 151–153 27. ^ Setton (1978), p. 252 28. ^ Setton (1978), pp. 253–255 29. ^ Babinger (1992), p. 258 30. ^ Setton (1978), p. 284 31. ^ Setton (1978), p. 303 32. ^ Stavrides (2001), pp. 176–179 33. ^ Babinger (1992), p. 358 34. ^ a b Babinger (1987), p. 878 Sources

• Babinger, Franz (1987) [1936]. "Turakhān Beg". In Houtsma, Martijn Theodoor. E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Volume VIII. Leiden: BRILL. pp. 876–878. ISBN 978-90-04-09794-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=ro--tXw_hxMC&lpg=PA615&pg=PA876#v=onepage&q&f=false. • Babinger, Franz (1992) [1978]. Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. Edited by William C. Hickman, translated from the German by Ralph Manheim. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691010786. http://books.google.com/books?id=PPxC6rO7vvsC. • Setton, Kenneth M. (1978), The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume II: The Fifteenth Century, DIANE Publishing, ISBN 0-87169-127-2, http://books.google.com/books?id=0Sz2VYI0l1IC • Stavrides, Théoharis (2001). The Sultan of vezirs: the life and times of the Ottoman Grand Vezir Mahmud Pasha Angelovic (1453–1474). Brill. ISBN 90-04-12106-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=ptXG0uA70lAC. • (German) Trapp, Erich; Beyer, Hans-Veit; Kaplaneres, Sokrates; Leontiadis, Ioannis (1989). "21056. Ὀµάρης". Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit. 9. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.

Preceded by Ottoman governor of Thessaly Succeeded by

Turahan Bey 1456–1459 Hamza Pasha

Preceded by none

Ottoman governor of the Morea 1458–1459

Succeeded by Zagan Pasha

Preceded by Hamza Pasha (?)

Ottoman governor of Thessaly 1462–?

Succeeded by unknown

Map of the Ottoman Empire and its neighbouring states in 1464

Treaty of Constantinople (1479)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Treaty of Constantinople was signed on January 25, 1479, which officially ended the fifteen-year war between the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire. The agreement was established as a result of the Ottomans having reached the outskirts of Venice. Based on the terms of the treaty, the Venetians were allowed to keep Ulcinj, Antivan, and Durrës. However, they ceded Shkodër and other territories on the Dalmatian coastline, as well as relinquished control of the Greek islands of Negroponte (Euboea) and Lemnos. Moreover, the Venetians were forced to pay a tribute of around 10,000 ducats per year in order to acquire trading privileges in the Black Sea. As a result of this treaty, Venice acquired a weakened position in the Levant.[1] The Encyclopedia of World History (2001) - Venice The great war against the Turks (See 1463–79). Negroponte was lost (1470). The Turks throughout maintained the upper hand and at times raided to the very outskirts of Venice. In the Treaty of Constantinople (1479), the Venetians gave up Scutari and other Albanian stations, as well as Negroponte and Lemnos. Thenceforth the Venetians paid an annual tribute for permission to trade in the Black Sea.

Second Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503)


Date 1499–1503 Location Adriatic, Ionian and Aegean Seas Result Ottoman victory

Territorial changes Venetian strongholds of Modon and Coron fall to the Ottomans; Cephalonia and Ithaca to Venice

Belligerents

Republic of Venice Spain Ottoman Empire


Antonio Grimani Gonzalo de Córdoba Kemal Reis

The Ottoman–Venetian War of 1499–1503 refers to the naval battles between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice for the control of lands that were contested between the two parties in the Aegean Sea, Ionian Sea and the Adriatic Sea. The Turks, under the command of Admiral Kemal Reis, were victorious in these conflicts and forced the Venetians to finally recognize the Ottoman gains in 1503, after Turkish cavalry raids reached Venetian territory in Northern Italy. The war

1499 In January 1499, Kemal Reis set sail from Istanbul with a force of 10 galleys and 4 other types of ships, and in July 1499 met with the huge Ottoman fleet which was sent to him by Davud Pasha and took over its command in order to wage a large-scale war against the Republic of Venice. The Ottoman fleet consisted of 67 galleys, 20 galliots and circa 200 smaller vessels. In August 1499, Kemal Reis defeated the Venetian fleet under the command of Antonio Grimani at the Battle of Zonchio (also known as the Battle of Sapienza or the First Battle of Lepanto). It was the first naval battle in history with cannons used on ships, and took place on four separate days: on August 12, 20, 22 and 25, 1499. After reaching the Ionian Sea with the large Ottoman fleet, Kemal Reis encountered the Venetian fleet of 47 galleys, 17 galliots and circa 100 smaller vessels under the command of Antonio Grimani near Cape Zonchio and won an important victory. During the battle, Kemal Reis sank the galley of Andrea Loredan, a member of the influential Loredan family of Venice. Antonio Grimani was arrested on 29 September but was eventually released. Grimani later became the Doge of Venice in 1521. The Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II gifted 10 of the captured Venetian galleys to Kemal Reis, who stationed his fleet at the island of Cefalonia between October and December 1499. 1500 In December 1499, the Venetians attacked Lepanto with the hope of regaining their lost territories in the Ionian Sea. Kemal Reis set sail from Cefalonia and re-took Lepanto from the Venetians. He stayed in Lepanto between April and May 1500, where his ships were repaired by an army of 15,000 Ottoman craftsmen brought from the area. From there, Kemal Reis set sail and bombarded the Venetian ports on the island of Corfu, and in August 1500 he once again defeated the Venetian fleet at the Battle of Modon (also known as the Second Battle of Lepanto). Kemal Reis bombarded the fortress of Modon from the sea and captured the town. He later engaged with the Venetian fleet off the coast of Coron and captured the town along with a Venetian brigantine. From there Kemal Reis sailed towards the Island of Sapientza (Sapienza) and sank the Venetian galley Lezza. In September 1500, Kemal Reis assaulted Voiussa and in October he appeared at Cape Santa Maria on the Island of Lefkada, before ending the campaign and returning to Istanbul in November. With the Battle of Modon, the Turkish fleet and army quickly overwhelmed most of the Venetian possessions in Greece. Modon and Coron, the "two eyes of the Republic", were lost. Doge Agostino Barbarigo asked the Pope and the Catholic Monarchs for help, and on 24 December a Spanish–Venetian army commanded by Gonzalo de Córdoba took Cephalonia, temporarily stopping the Ottoman offensive on eastern Venetian territories.

See also Military history of the Ottoman Empire portal

• Ottoman Navy External links

• Sydney N. Fisher: The Foreign Relation of Turkey, 1481-1512, Chapter VI: War with Venice, 1499-1503 • John E. Dotson: Foundations of Venetian Naval Strategy from Pietro II Orseolo to the Battle of Zonchio

Battle of Zonchio 1499


Date 25 August 1499

Location Zonchio, Ionian Sea

Result Ottoman victory

Antonio Grimani Kemal Reis

47 galleys, 17 galliots, circa 100 small vessels 67 galleys, 20 galliots, circa 200 small vessels

The naval Battle of Zonchio (also known as the Battle of Sapienza or the First Battle of Lepanto) took place on four separate days: August 12, 20, 22 and 25, 1499. It was a part of the Ottoman–Venetian War of 1499–1503. It was the first naval battle in history where cannons were used on ships. In January 1499 Kemal Reis set sail from Constantinople with a force of 10 galleys and 4 other types of ships, and in July 1499 met with the huge Ottoman fleet which was sent to him by Davud Pasha and took over its command in order to wage a large scale war against the Republic of Venice. The Ottoman fleet consisted of 67 galleys, 20 galliots and circa 200 smaller vessels. After reaching Cape Zonchio in the Ionian Sea with the large Ottoman fleet in August 1499, Kemal Reis defeated the Venetian fleet of 47 galleys, 17 galliots and circa 100 smaller vessels under the command of Antonio Grimani. He was 65 and had only got the command because of a donation of 16,000 ducats to the state. He was not told whether to fight an offensive or defensive campaign. Many captains ignored his orders to attack the Ottomans and he did not take part in the battle. On the second day, Grimani ordered the crews to kill any captains who refused to fight. Despite this, and the arrival of 4 French Galleys he sent just 2 galleys out of 170 against the Ottomans. Both somehow returned unharmed. On the 25th August the Venetians captured some Ottoman galleys, then discipline broke down and the Ottomans recaptured the vessels while they were being looted, the French reinforcements abandoned the Venetians in disgust and fled to Rhodes. During the most critical stage of the battle, two Venetian carracks, captained by Andrea Loredan (a member of the influential Loredan family of Venice) and by Alban d'Armer, boarded one of the command ships of the Ottoman fleet. The commander of the vessel, Burak Reis, was unable to disentangle his ship from the boarders and chose to set her aflame. The sight of the three great ships burning together dealt a severe blow to the Venetian morale.[1] Antonio Grimani was arrested on September 29 and banished to the island of Cherso. Grimani later became the Doge of Venice in 1521. The Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II gave 10 of the captured Venetian galleys to Kemal Reis, who later stationed his fleet at the island of Cefalonia between October and December, 1499. The Ottomans and Venetians soon confronted each other for a second time at the Second Battle of Lepanto, which is also known as the Battle of Modon, and the Ottomans were once again victorious under Admiral Kemal Reis. See also

• Ottoman Navy • History of the Republic of Venice • History of the Ottoman Empire References

1. ^ Fisher, Sydney N.. The Foreign Relation of Turkey, 1481-1512. Chapter 6.. External links

• Sydney N. Fisher: The Foreign Relation of Turkey, 1481-1512, Chapter VI: War with Venice, 1499-1503 • John E. Dotson: Foundations of Venetian Naval Strategy from Pietro II Orseolo to the Battle of Zonchio

The Battle of Zonchio unknown Venetian artist, British Museum

Göke (1495) was the flagship of Kemal Reis at the Battle of Zonchio

Kemal Reis 1451-1511

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Kemal Reis (c. 1451 – 1511) was a Turkish privateer and admiral of the Ottoman Empire. He was also the paternal uncle of the famous Ottoman admiral and cartographer Piri Reis who accompanied him in most of his important naval expeditions. Kemal Reis was born in Gallipoli on the Aegean coast of the Ottoman Empire in circa 1451.[1] His full name was Ahmed Kemaleddin and his father was a Turk named Ali from the city of Karaman in central Anatolia.[1] He became known in Europe, particularly in Italy and Spain, with names like Camali and Camalicchio.[1] Naval mission to Spain Further information: Nasrid-Ottoman relations Kemal Reis started his career as the commander of the naval fleet belonging to the Sanjak Bey (Provincial Governor) of Eğriboz (present-day Euboea) which was under Ottoman control. In 1487 the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II appointed Kemal Reis with the task of defending the lands of Emir Abu Abdullah, the ruler of Granada, which was then one of the final Muslim strongholds in Spain. Kemal Reis sailed to Spain and landed an expeditionary force of Ottoman troops at Malaga, capturing the city and the surrounding villages and taking many prisoners. From there he sailed to the Balearic Islands and Corsica, where he raided the coastal settlements, before landing his troops near Pisa in Italy. From Pisa he once again went to Andalucia and in several occasions between 1490 and 1492 transported the Muslims and Jews who wished to escape Spain to the provinces of the Ottoman Empire which welcomed them. The Muslims and Jews of Spain contributed much to the rising power of the Ottoman Empire by introducing new ideas, methods and craftsmanship. Kemal Reis continued to land his troops in Andalucia and tried to stop the Spanish advance by bombarding the ports of Elche, Almeria and Malaga. Admiral of the Ottoman Navy

In 1495 Kemal Reis was made an admiral of the Ottoman Navy by Sultan Bayezid II who ordered the construction of his large flagship, Göke, which could carry 700 soldiers and was armed with the strongest cannons of that period. Two large galleys of this type were built, one for Kemal Reis and the other for Burak Reis. In October 1496, with a force of 5 galleys, 5 fustas, a barque and a smaller ship, Kemal Reis set sail from Constantinople and raided the Gulf of Taranto. In January 1497 he landed at Modon and later captured several Venetian ships at the Ionian Sea and transported them, along with their cargo, to Euboea. In March 1497 Sultan Bayezid II appointed him with the task of protecting the ships which carried valuable goods belonging to the religious foundations of Mecca and Medina from the frequent raids of the Knights of St. John who were based in the island of Rhodes at that time (in 1522 the Ottomans captured Rhodes and allowed the Knights of St. John to peacefully leave the island, who first relocated their base to Sicily and later to Malta in 1530.) Kemal Reis set sail towards Rhodes with a force of 2 barques and 3 fustas, and captured a barque of the knights near Montestrato. He later landed at Stalimene (Lemnos) and from there sailed towards Tenedos (Bozcaada) and returned to Constantinople. In June 1497 he was given two more large galleys and in July 1497 he made the island of Chios his base for operations in the Aegean Sea against the Venetians and the Knights of St. John. In April 1498, commanding a fleet of 6 galleys, 12 fustas with large cannons, 4 barques and 4 smaller types of ships, he set sail from the Dardanelles and headed south towards the Aegean islands that were controlled by the Republic of Venice. In June 1498 he appeared in the island of Paros and later sailed towards Crete where he landed his troops at Sitia and captured the town along with the nearby villages before sending his scout forces to examine the characteristics of the nearby Venetian castle. In July 1498 he sailed to Rosetta (Rashid) in Egypt with a force of 5 galleys, 6 fustas and 2 barques for transporting 300 Muslim pilgrims heading for Mecca, who also had with them 400,000 gold ducats which were sent to the Mamluk sultan by Bayezid II. Near the port of Abu Kabir he captured 2 Portuguese ships (one galleon and one barque) after fierce fighting which lasted 2 days. From there Kemal Reis sailed towards Santorini and captured a Venetian barque, before capturing another Portuguese ship in the Aegean Sea. Ottoman-Venetian Wars

In January 1499 Kemal Reis set sail from Constantinople with a force of 10 galleys and 4 other types of ships, and in July 1499 met with the huge Ottoman fleet which was sent to him by Davud Pasha and took over its command in order to wage a large scale war against the Republic of Venice. The Ottoman fleet consisted of 67 galleys, 20 galliots and circa 200 smaller vessels. In August 1499 Kemal Reis defeated the Venetian fleet under the command of Antonio Grimani at the Battle of Zonchio which is also known as the Battle of Sapienza of 1499 or the First Battle of Lepanto and was a part of the Ottoman-Venetian Wars of 1499-1503. It was the first naval battle in history with cannons used on ships, and took place on four separate days: on August 12, 20, 22 and 25, 1499. After reaching the Ionian Sea with the large Ottoman fleet, Kemal Reis encountered the Venetian fleet of 47 galleys, 17 galliots and circa 100 smaller vessels under the command of Antonio Grimani near Cape Zonchio and won an important victory. During the battle Kemal Reis sank the galley of Andrea Loredan, a member of the influential Loredan family of Venice. Antonio Grimani was arrested on September 29 but was eventually released. Grimani later became the Doge of Venice in 1521. The Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II gifted 10 of the captured Venetian galleys to Kemal Reis, who stationed his fleet at the island of Cefalonia between October and December, 1499. In December 1499 the Venetians attacked Lepanto with the hope of regaining their lost territories in the Ionian Sea. Kemal Reis set sail from Cefalonia and retook Lepanto from the Venetians. He stayed in Lepanto between April and May 1500, where his ships were repaired by an army of 15,000 Ottoman craftsmen brought from the area. From there Kemal Reis set sail and bombarded the Venetian ports on the island of Corfu, and in August 1500 he once again defeated the Venetian fleet at the Battle of Modon which is also known as the Second Battle of Lepanto. Kemal Reis bombarded the fortress of Modon from the sea and captured the town. He later engaged with the Venetian fleet off the coast of Coron and captured the town along with a Venetian brigantine. From there Kemal Reis sailed towards the Island of Sapientza (Sapienza) and sank the Venetian galley "Lezza". In September 1500 Kemal Reis assaulted Voiussa and in October he appeared at Cape Santa Maria on the Island of Lefkada before ending the campaign and returning to Istanbul in November. With the Battle of Modon, the Ottoman fleet and army quickly overwhelmed most of the Venetian possessions in Greece. Modon and Coron, the "two eyes of the Republic", were lost. Ottoman cavalry raids reached Venetian territory in northern Italy, and, in 1503, Venice again had to seek peace, recognizing the Ottoman's gains. In January 1501 Kemal Reis set sail from Constantinople with a fleet of 36 galleys and fustas. In February 1501 he landed at the Island of Euboea and at Nafplion before heading towards Corfu in March and from there

to the Tyrrhenian Sea where he captured the Island of Pianosa along with many prisoners. In April 1501 with a fleet of 60 ships he landed at Nafplion and Monemvasia, causing the Venetian regional commander based at Corfu to call back the Venetian ships heading towards Lebanon and the Levant in order to strengthen the defenses of the Repubblica Serenissima's remaining strongholds on Morea. In May 1501, with a force of 8 galliots and 13 fustas, he escorted the cargo ships carrying construction material for strengthening the Ottoman fortresses on the islands of Chios and Tinos, where he captured the galley of Girolamo Pisani, the local Venetian commander, including the official standard of San Marco (St. Mark, the patron saint of Venice) along with another Venetian galley named "Basadonna". From there he sailed to the port of Zonchio, near Navarino, with a force of 5 galliots and 14 fustas. The Ottoman forces landed there and captured the Venetian castle and the nearby settlements after a siege which lasted less than 10 hours. Kemal Reis also captured 3 Venetian galleys, a Venetian caravelle and several other local ships which were docked at the port of Zonchio. He took these ships first to Modon and later to the Island of Aegina, before sailing towards Euboea. He later captured Navarino from the Venetians, adding another important port to the Ottoman Empire. In June 1501 Kemal Reis sailed to the Adriatic Sea and strengthened the Ottoman defenses at Voiussa and Vlorë. Operations in the West Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean

In July 1501 Kemal Reis, accompanied by his nephew Piri Reis, set sail from the port of Modon with a force of 3 galleys and 16 fustas and went to the Tyrrhenian Sea, where he took advantage of the war between Jacopo d'Appiano, ruler of Piombino, and the Papal forces under the command of Cesare Borgia. The Ottoman troops landed at the Island of Pianosa and quickly captured it, taking many prisoners. From there Kemal Reis sailed to the Channel of Piombino and the Ottomans raided the coastal settlements in that area. In August 1501 Kemal Reis and his troops landed at Sardinia and captured several coastal settlements while taking around 1,050 prisoners during fights against the local forces. He engaged several Genoese warships off the coast of Sardinia, which later escaped northwards after being damaged by cannon fire. Still in August 1501 Kemal Reis sailed to the Balearic Islands and the Ottomans landed at Majorca, where bitter fighting against the local Spanish forces took place. From there Kemal Reis sailed to Spain and captured 7 Spanish ships off the coast of Valencia. Aboard these ships he found a strange feather headdress and an unfamiliar black stone. He was told by one of his prisoners that both came from newly discovered lands to the west, beyond the Atlantic Ocean. The prisoner claimed to have visited these lands three times, under the command of a man named Colombo, and that he had in his possession a chart, drawn by this Colombo himself, which showed the newly discovered lands beyond the Sea of Darkness. This map was to become one of the main source charts of the famous Piri Reis map of 1513 which was drawn by the Ottoman admiral and cartographer Piri Reis who was the nephew of Kemal Reis. After leaving Valencia, still in August 1501, Kemal Reis headed south and bombarded the coastal defenses of Andalucia before landing his troops, where the Ottomans raided several ports and towns. Kemal Reis later sailed westwards and passed the Strait of Gibraltar and entered the Atlantic Ocean, where he and his men raided the Atlantic coasts of the Iberian peninsula. From there Kemal Reis sailed southwest and landed on several of the Canary Islands, where the Ottomans faced moderate opposition from the Spanish forces. Piri Reis used the occasion, as in other voyages with his uncle, to draw his famous portolan charts which were later to become a part of the renowned Kitab-ı Bahriye (Book of Navigation). Kemal Reis later turned eastwards, where he followed the Atlantic coastline of Morocco and re-entered the Mediterranean Sea through the Strait of Gibraltar, landing on several ports of Morocco and Algeria on the way. From there Kemal Reis headed further east and captured several Genoese ships off the coast of Tripoli in Libya. He also intercepted several Venetian galleys in the area before sailing back to Constantinople. Return to the East Mediterranean

In May 1502 Kemal Reis set sail from Istanbul with a fleet of 50 ships and headed towards Euboea. In June 1502 he captured the Island of Kos along with the Castle of San Pietro which belonged to the Knights of St. John. From there he sailed to Nafplion and bombarded its port until being called for assisting the defense of Mytilene which was sieged by a joint Venetian-French fleet. In July 1502 he landed his forces on Lesbos and fought against the French soldiers in Mytilene which the Ottomans had earlier taken from the Genoese in 1462. In August 1502 Kemal Reis made the Island of Lefkada his new base for operations in the Ionian and Adriatic Seas, where he raided the coastal settlements belonging to the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Ragusa, capturing several of them on behalf of the Ottoman Empire. However, the strategic importance of the Island of Santa Maura (as the Venetians called Lefkada) prompted the Repubblica Serenissima to organize a huge fleet under the command of Benedetto Pesaro, which consisted of 50 galleys and numerous other smaller ships. The Venetians were joined by 13 Papal galleys under the command of Giacomo Pesaro, the brother of Benedetto who was the Bishop of Paphos, as well as 3 galleys belonging to the Knights of St. John in Rhodes and 4 French galleys under the command of the Prégent de Bidoux. Overwhelmed by the size of the enemy fleet, Kemal Reis was forced to abandon Lefkada and sailed back first to Gallipoli and later to Constantinople, where, in October 1502, he ordered the construction of new ships at the Imperial Naval Arsenal of the Golden Horn. In March 1503 Kemal Reis set sail from Constantinople with his new ships and reached Gallipoli where he took over the command of the Ottoman fleet that was based there. However, he was caught by a severe illness and had to return to Constantinople for treatment, which lasted a long time and caused him to remain inactive between November 1503 and March 1505. In March 1505 Kemal Reis was appointed with the task of intercepting the Knights of St. John in Rhodes who caused serious damage on Ottoman shipping routes off the coasts of Anatolia, and he set sail from Gallipoli with a force of 3 galleys and 17 fustas, heading first towards the Island of Kos, which he had earlier captured from the Knights, with the aim of organizing an assault on their base in nearby Rhodes. In May 1505 Kemal Reis assaulted the coasts of Rhodes and landed a large number of Ottoman troops on the island, where they bombarded the castle of the Knights from land and took control of several settlements. From there Kemal Reis sailed to the islands of Tilos and Nisyros where he bombarded the fortresses of the Knights from the sea. Still in May 1505 Kemal Reis captured the Island of Lemnos and assaulted the Island of Chios, before returning to Modon in July 1505. Return to the West Mediterranean and Spain

In September 1505 Kemal Reis assaulted Sicily and captured 3 ships (one from the Republic of Ragusa, the other two from Sicily) off the Sicilian coast. In January 1506 he made the Island of Djerba his new base and sailed to Spain, where he once again landed at the coasts of Andalucia and bombarded the ports of Almeria and Malaga. He also transported the final remnants of the surviving Muslims and Jews who had to suffer inhuman treatments since the Spanish Inquisition of 1492 and brought them to Constantinople. In May 1506 Kemal Reis, commanding a force of 8 galliots and fustas, returned to the Aegean Sea, and in June 1506 landed at the Island of Leros with a force of 500 janissaries. There he assaulted the Venetian castle under the command of Paolo Simeoni. Throughout June 1506 he raided the Dodecanese Islands before sailing back to the West Mediterranean with a fleet

of 22 ships (including 3 large galleys and 11 fustas) where he landed on Sicily and assaulted the coastal settlements. There he was confronted by the forces of the Viceroy of Sicily who was an ally of Spain. In September 1506 Kemal Reis confronted a Spanish fleet for defending Djerba and captured a Spanish galley during combat. In October 1506 he landed at Trapani in Sicily and burned the Genoese ships at the port, whose crewmen were however released because they had no experience of naval warfare and were not deemed useful. He later bombarded the Venetian galley under the command of Benedetto Priuli. He responded to the cannon fire from the fortress of Trapani with the cannons on his ships. He later sailed to the Island of Cerigo in the Ionian Sea with a force of 3 galleys and 2 fustas, and exchanged fire with the Venetian fleet under the command of Girolamo Contarini. He later sailed back to Constantinople. Later operations in the East Mediterranean In January 1507 Kemal Reis was appointed by Bayezid II with the task of hunting the Knights of St. John and set sail from Gallipoli with a large fleet of 15 galleys and 25 fustas that were heavily armed with cannons. He engaged with the Knights in several occasions until August 1507, when he returned to Constantinople. In August 1507 he sailed to Alexandria with a cargo of 8,000 sets of oars and 50 cannons that were donated to the Mamluk sultan by Bayezid II for helping him in his fight against the Portuguese fleet which often ventured into the Red Sea and damaged Mameluke interests. Kemal Reis stayed in Egypt until February 1508, and was back in Constantinople in May 1508, where he personally coordinated the reparation and modification of his ships at the Imperial Naval Arsenal of the Golden Horn before setting sail once again towards the Aegean Sea for confronting the Venetians and the Knights of St. John. In August 1508 he arrived at Euboea with 2 galleys, 3 barques and numerous fustas. From there he sailed to Tenedos where he repulsed an attack of the Knights and sank a ship near the port of Sizia. In November 1508 he captured a Genoese galleass from Savona off the island of Tenedos. In January 1509, commanding a force of 13 ships, he assaulted the Castle of Coo near Rhodes which belonged to the Knights of St. John. In February 1509, accompanied by the Ottoman privateer Kurtoğlu Muslihiddin Reis (known as Curtogoli in the West) and commanding a larger fleet of 20 ships (4 galleys, 1 galleass, 2 galliots, 3 barques and 10 fustas) he assaulted the City of Rhodes and landed a large number of janissaries at the port. In only a few days 4 large assaults are made on the Castle of Rhodes as well as the walls of the citadel that surrounds the city. Towards mid February, in command of 3 galleys and 3 fustas, he chased the ships belonging to Knights that were escaping Rhodes for the safety of nearby islands, and captured 3 galleons and 9 other types of ships. Final missions and death Still in 1509 Kemal Reis sailed to the Tyrrhenian Sea and landed at the coasts of Liguria. He continued operating in the West Mediterranean for some time, until returning to Gallipoli. In September 1510 he set sail from Gallipoli with 2 galleys, 1 galliot and several fustas, and joined the Ottoman fleet of cargo ships in Constantinople which were heading to Alexandria and carried wood for building ships, sets of oars and cannons that were sent to the Mamluks for their fight against the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean. The cargo fleet that Kemal Reis was to escort amounted to a total of 40 ships, 8 of which were galleys. In early 1511, after passing the lands of the Duchy of Naxos and being sighted for the last time in December 1510, 27 ships of the Ottoman cargo fleet were wrecked by a severe storm in the Mediterranean Sea, including the ship of Kemal Reis, who died with his men. Legacy Several warships of the Turkish Navy have been named after Kemal Reis. Piri Reis wrote this poem for his uncle, from whom he learned so much, in the opening section of his famous Kitab-ı Bahriye (Book of Navigation): Good friend, I want you To remember us in your prayers, And remember Kemal Reis, our master, May his soul be content! He had perfect knowledge of the seas And knew the science of navigation. He knew innumerable seas; No one could stop him... We sailed the Mediterranean together And saw all its great cities. We went to Frankish lands And defeated the infidel. One day an order from Sultan Bayezid arrived. "Tell Kemal Reis to come to me," It said, "and advise me on affairs of the sea." So in 1495, the year of this command, We returned to our country. By the sultan's command we set out And won many victories... Kemal Reis sailed hoping to come back, But was lost at sea. Everyone once spoke of him; Now even his name is forgotten... The angel of death caught him While he was serving Sultan Bayezid. May God give peace to those Who remember Kemal Reis with a prayer. Kemal died and went to the next world And we found ourselves alone in this. References and sources

1. ^ a b c Bono, Salvatore: Corsari nel Mediterraneo (Corsairs in the Mediterranean), Oscar Storia Mondadori. Perugia, 1993.

• Frederic C. Lane, Venice, A Maritime Republic (Baltimore, 1973) • Paul Lunde, Piri Reis and the Columbus Map (1992) • E. Hamilton Currey, Sea-Wolves of the Mediterranean, London, 1910 • Bono, Salvatore: Corsari nel Mediterraneo (Corsairs in the Mediterranean), Oscar Storia Mondadori. Perugia, 1993. • Corsari nel Mediterraneo: Condottieri di ventura. Online database in Italian, based on Salvatore Bono's book. • Bradford, Ernle, The Sultan's Admiral: The life of Barbarossa, London, 1968. • Wolf, John B., The Barbary Coast: Algeria under the Turks, New York, 1979; ISBN 0-393-01205-0 • The Ottomans: Comprehensive and detailed online chronology of Ottoman history in English. • Comprehensive and detailed online chronology of Ottoman history in Turkish. • Turkish Navy official website: Historic heritage of the Turkish Navy (in Turkish) Representations in Popular Culture Kemal Reis and the building of the flagship Goke are described in The Sultan's Helmsman, a historical novel about the Ottoman Navy and Renaissance Italy

F-247 TCG Kemal Reis is a Salih Reis (MEKO 200TN II-B) class frigate of the Turkish Navy

Map of Granada by the Ottoman cartographer Piri Reis, nephew of Kemal Reis, 15th century.

Antonio Grimani 1434-1523 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Portrait of Antonio Grimani by Domenico Tintoretto. Coat of arms of Antonio Grimani.

Antonio Grimani (December 28, 1434 – May 7, 1523) was the Doge of Venice from 1521 to 1523. He was born in Venice into a relatively poor family and in his early years he worked as a tradesman, soon becoming one of the most important ones in the city. In 1494 he was created capitano da mar (sea commander-in-chief), a relatively easy task as he had to lead the Venetians operations along the Adriatic coast in a peaceful period. But when in 1499 a new war between Venice and the Ottoman Empire broke out, his lack of experience led to two crushing defeats (Sapienza, August 19, and Zonchio, six days later). Grimani risked the death penalty, but this was turned into a mild exile on the island of Cherso. Soon, however, he fled taking refuge in Rome in 1509. Thanks to the intercession of his sons, he could return in Venice in 1509. His political ties soon gained him important administrative charges and created the basis for his future election as doge (July 6, 1521). Aged by the time he assumed the throne, he led the Republic into the Italian War of 1521, the only ally of Francis I of France that did not abandon him. Following the French defeat at the Battle of Bicocca, however, he grew concerned about the course of the war; but he died in 1523, and it was left to his successor, Andrea Gritti, to achieve a settlement with Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. The doge's son, Domenico Grimani, became a cardinal in 1493. • Norwich, John Julius (1989). A History of Venice. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-72197-5..

Political offices

Preceded by Leonardo Loredan Doge of Venice 1521–1523 Succeeded by Andrea Gritti

Third Ottoman–Venetian War (1537–1540)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Ottoman–Venetian War of 1537–1540 was one of the numerous Ottoman–Venetian Wars of the period. The Ottoman Emperor Suleiman the Magnificent had been angered by a treaty signed between the Republic of Venice and the Habsburg Empire of Charles V. One of the main events of the war was the Siege of Corfu (1537), and the decisive Battle of Preveza on 28 September 1538. It was followed by the Siege of Castelnuovo in 1539.[1] A treaty or "Capitulation" was signed between Venice and the Ottoman Empire to end the war on 2 October 1540. References Garnier, Edith L'Alliance Impie Editions du Felin, 2008, Paris ISBN 9782866456788 Interview The French and Ottoman fleets joined at the Siege of Corfu in early September 1537. Capitulation reopenning trade between Venice and the Ottoman Empire signed 2 October 1540, following the Ottoman–Venetian War.

Siege of Corfu (1537) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The French and Ottoman fleets joined at the Siege of Corfu in early September 1537.

Date August-September 1537

Result Ottomans fail to capture Corfu

Suleiman the Magnificent Bertrand d'Ornesan

320 ships 25,000 soldiers 13 ships

The Siege of Corfu in 1537 was led by the Ottoman Emperor Suleiman the Magnificent, against the Republic of Venice-held island of Corfu. It is part of the Ottoman–Venetian War (1537–1540), one of the numerous Ottoman–Venetian Wars of the period. Avlona expedition For 1537 important combined operations had been agreed upon between France and the Ottoman Empire as part of the Franco-Ottoman alliance, in which the Ottomans would attack southern Italy and Naples under Barbarossa, and Francis I would attack northern Italy with 50,000 men. Suleiman led an army of 300,000 from Constantinople to Albania, with the objective of transporting them to Italy with the fleet.[1] The Ottoman fleet gathered in Avlona with 100 galleys, accompanied by the French ambassador Jean de La Forêt.[2] They landed in Castro, Apulia by the end of July 1537, and departed two weeks later with many prisoners.[2] Barbarossa had laid waste to the region around Otranto, carrying about 10,000 people into slavery. Francis however failed to meet his commitment, and instead attacked the Netherlands. Siege The Ottomans departed from Southern Italy, and instead diverted their forces to mount the Siege of Corfu, a possession of the Republic of Venice, in August 1537.[3] Suleiman decided to leave Avlona for Corfu on 19 August 1537.[4] The fleet, composed of about 320 ships,[5] started bombarding Corfu on 26 August.[4] Ottoman troops amounting to 25,000 men were landed on the island of Corfu.[4] At the siege, the Ottomans were met by the French Admiral Baron de Saint-Blancard, who had left Marseille on 15 August with 12 galleys, and arrived at Corfu in early September 1537.[2][6] Saint-Blancard in vain attempted to convince the Ottomans to again raid the coasts of Apulia, Sicily and the March of Ancona. Eventually Suleiman, worried by a plague among his

troops,[7] decided to return with his fleet to Istambul by mid-September without having captured Corfu.[2] French ambassador Jean de La Forêt became seriously ill and died around that time.[2] Francis I finally penetrated into Italy, and reached Rivoli on 31 October 1537.[8] The fleet of Saint-Blancard wintered in Chios until 17 February 1538.[9] It was decided that three ships would go to Constantinople, while the rest of the fleet returned to France. In Constantinople, they were received by the French ambassador Charles de Marillac.[10] Hayreddin Barbarossa provided for the expenses, and the French galleys finally left on 11 April 1538 to return to Nice through Monastir.[11] A consequence of the siege was that the Venetians decided to form an alliance with the Pope and the Habsburg against the Ottomans.[12] On 18 June 1538, Francis I signed the Truce of Nice with Charles V, thereby temporarily abandoning the Franco-Ottoman alliance.[13] Notes

1. ^ History of the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey Ezel Kural Shaw p.97ff [1] 2. ^ a b c d e The Papacy and the Levant (1204-1571) by Kenneth M. Setton [2] 3. ^ The Cambridge History of Islam, p.327 4. ^ a b c Garnier, p.135 5. ^ Garnier, p.128 6. ^ Garnier, p.134 7. ^ Garnier, p.138 8. ^ The history of modern Europe by Thomas Henry Dyer, p.573-574 9. ^ Garnier, p.149 10. ^ Garnier, p.150 11. ^ Garnier, p.151-153 12. ^ Garnier, p.140 13. ^ Garnier, p.154

Le Voyage du Baron de Saint Blancard en Turquie, by Jean de la Vega, after 1538.

Battle of Preveza 1538


Date 28 September 1538 Location Preveza, Ionian Sea

Result Decisive Ottoman victory

Belligerents

Holy League: Republic of Venice Spain Papal States Republic of Genoa Knights of Malta

Ottoman Empire


Andrea Doria Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha

Strength

112 galleys, 50 galleons 140 barques, 60,000 soldiers[1][2]

122 galleys and galliots, 12.000 soldiers[1][2]


13 ships lost, 36 ships captured, 3,000 prisoners[1][2]

~No loss of ship ~400 dead, ~800 wounded[1][2]

The naval Battle of Preveza took place on 28 September 1538 near Preveza in northwestern Greece between an Ottoman fleet and that of a Christian alliance assembled by Pope Paul III. Background In 1537, commanding a large Ottoman fleet, Hayreddin Barbarossa captured a number of Aegean and Ionian islands belonging to the Republic of Venice, namely Syros, Aegina, Ios, Paros, Tinos, Karpathos, Kasos and Naxos, thus annexing the Duchy of Naxos to the Ottoman Empire. He then besieged the Venetian stronghold of Corfu and ravaged the Spanish-held Calabrian coast in southern Italy. In the face of this threat, Pope Paul III succeeded in February 1538 in assembling a ’’Holy League’’, comprising the Papacy, Spain, the Republic of Genoa, the Republic of Venice and the Knights of Malta, to confront Barbarossa. Forces Barbarossa's fleet that summer numbered 122 galleys and galliots. That of the Holy League comprised 157 galleys (36 papal galleys, 61 Genoese, 50 Portuguese and 10 sent by the Knights Hospitaller). Andrea Doria, the Genoese admiral in the service of Emperor Charles V was in overall command. Deployment

The Holy League assembled its fleet near the island of Corfu. The Papal fleet under Admiral Marco Grimani (Patriarch of Aquileia) and the Venetian fleet under Vincenzo Capello arrived first. Andrea Doria joined them with the Spanish-Genoese fleet on 22 September 1538. Prior to Doria’s arrival, Grimani attempted to land troops near the Fortress of Preveza, but he retreated to Corfu after suffering a number of casualties in the ensuing encounter with Ottoman forces. Barbarossa was still at the island of Kos in the Aegean Sea at that time, but he soon arrived at Preveza with the rest of the Ottoman fleet, after capturing the island of Kefalonia on the way. Sinan Reis, one of his lieutenants, suggested to land troops at Actium on the Gulf of Arta near Preveza, an idea which Barbarossa initially opposed, but which later proved to be important for securing the Ottoman victory. With the Turks holding the fortress at Actium, they could support Barbarossa's fleet with artillery fire from there, while Doria had to keep his ships away from the coast. A Christian landing to take Actium probably would have been needed to ensure success, but Doria was fearful of a defeat on land after the initial sortie by Grimani had been repelled. Two more attempts by the Holy League to land their forces, this time near the fortress of Preveza at the opposite shore facing Actium, were repulsed by the forces of Murat Reis on 25 and 26 September. As Doria's ships kept their distance from the coast, much concerned about adverse winds driving them onto a hostile shore, Barbarossa had the advantageous interior position. During the night of 27/28 September, Doria therefore sailed 30 miles south and, when the wind died down, anchored at Sessola near the island of Lefkada. During the night, he and his commanders decided that their best option was to stage an attack towards Lepanto and force Barbarossa to fight. The battle At dawn, however, Doria was surprised to see that the Turks were coming towards his ships. Barbarossa had taken his fleet out of the anchorage and headed south as well. Turgut Reis was in the van with six large fustas, and the left wing closely hugged the shore. Not expecting such a daring offensive from the numerically inferior Ottoman fleet, it took Doria three hours to give the order to weigh anchor and ready for battle—pressed by Grimani and Capello. The two fleets finally engaged on 28 September 1538 in the Gulf of Arta, near Preveza. The lack of wind was not in Doria's favor. The huge Venetian flagship Galeone di Venezia with her massive guns was becalmed four miles from land and ten miles from Sessola. While the Christian ships struggled to come to her assistance, she was soon surrounded by enemy galleys and engaged in a furious battle that lasted hours and did much damage to the Ottoman galleys. When the wind rose, the Christian fleet finally approached the action, although Doria first executed a number of maneuvres designed to draw the Turks out to sea. Ferrante Gonzaga, the Viceroy of Sicily, was at the left wing of the combined fleet, while the Maltese Knights were at the right wing. Doria placed four of his fastest galleys under the command of his nephew Giovanni Andrea Doria who was positioned in the center front, between Gonzaga and the Maltese Knights. Doria's galleys formed a long line behind them, in front of the Papal and Venetian galleys of Grimani and Capello. In the rear were the Venetian galleons under the command of Alessandro Condalmiero (Bondumier) and the Spanish-Portuguese-Genoese galleons under the command of Francesco Doria, together with the barques and support ships. The Ottoman fleet had a Y shaped configuration: Barbarossa, together with his son Hasan Reis (later Hasan Pasha), Sinan Reis, Cafer Reis and Şaban Reis, was at the

center; Seydi Ali Reis commanded the left wing; Salih Reis commanded the right wing; while Turgut Reis, accompanied by Murat Reis, Güzelce Mehmet Reis and Sadık Reis, commanded the rear wing. The Turks swiftly engaged the Venetian, Papal and Maltese ships, but Doria hesitated to bring his center into action against Barbarossa, which led to much tactical maneuvering but little fighting. Barbarossa wanted to take advantage of the lack of wind which immobilized the Christian barques that accounted for most of the numerical difference between the two sides. These barques fell as easy prey to the Turks who boarded them from their relatively more mobile galleys and galliots. Doria’s efforts to trap the Ottoman ships between the cannon fire of his barques and galleys failed. At the end of the day, the Turks had sunk 10 ships, burned 3 others, captured 36, and had taken about 3000 prisoners. The Turks did not lose any ships but suffered 400 dead and 800 wounded. A number of Ottoman ships had been seriously damaged, however, by the cannon fire of the massive Galeone di Venezia, the Venetian flagship under the command of Alessandro Condalmiero. The next morning, with favorable wind, and unwilling to risk the Spanish-Genoese ships, Doria set sail and left the battlefield for Corfu, deaf to the pleas of the Venetian, Papal and Maltese commanders to continue the fight. Aftermath It is widely speculated that Doria’s prevarication and lack of zeal were due to his unwillingness to risk his own ships (he personally owned a substantial number of the "Spanish-Genoese" fleet) and his long-standing enmity towards Venice, his home city’s fierce rival and the primary target of Ottoman aggression at that time. In 1539 Barbarossa returned and captured almost all the remaining Christian outposts in the Ionian and Aegean Seas. A peace treaty was signed between Venice and the Ottoman Empire in October 1540, under which the Turks took control of the Venetian possessions in the Morea and in Dalmatia and of the formerly Venetian islands in the Aegean, Ionian and eastern Adriatic Seas. Venice also had to pay a war indemnification of 300,000 ducats of gold to the Ottoman Empire. With the victory at Preveza and the subsequent victory in the Battle of Djerba in 1560, the Ottoman Empire successfully repulsed the efforts of Venice and Spain, the two principal Mediterranean powers, to stop the Ottoman drive to control the Mediterranean. This only changed with the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Literature

• Cronaca dei Tocco di Cefalonia; prolegomeni, testo critico e traduzione, by Giuseppe Schirò, Corpus fontium historiae Byzantinae 10. (Rome: Accademia nazionale dei Lincei, 1975). in Italian. • http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/LATIN%20LORDSHIPS%20IN%20GREECE.htm#_Toc219779625 • John van Antwerp Fine, The Late Medieval Balkans: A critical survey from the late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman conquest, University of Michigan Press, 704 pages, (1994), ISBN 978-0472082605 • Wolf, John B., The Barbary Coast: Algeria under the Turks, W. W. Norton, 1979. ISBN 0-393-01205-0 • Cook, M.A. (ed.), A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730, Cambridge University Press, 1976. ISBN 0-521-20891-2 • Currey, E. Hamilton, Sea-Wolves of the Mediterranean, John Murrey, 1910. Reproduced and manipulated electronically editions prior to 1923, many ISBN types to be found in Internet, for collectors, see for instance: http://www.holisticpage.com.au/_Hamilton_E_Currey.php References and notes

1. ^ a b c d Türk Tarihi: Battle of Preveza 2. ^ a b c d Corsari nel Mediterraneo: Hayreddin Barbarossa Capitulation reopening trade between Venice and the Ottoman Empire signed 2 October 1540, following the Battle of Preveza.

The Battle of Preveza 1538 (Ohannes Umed Behzad), recreated in 1866Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeats the Holy League of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria at the Battle of Preveza (1538). Painting from 1866 by Ohannes Umed Behzad.

A satellite view of Lefkada and the Gulf of Arta. Preveza is located at the entrance of the Gulf.

Deployment of the opposing fleets

Siege of Castelnuovo 1539


Date July 1539 Location Herceg Novi, present day Montenegro

Result Ottoman Pyrrhic victory

Spanish Empire Ottoman Empire

Francisco de Sarmiento † Hayreddin Barbarossa

3,500[1] to 4,000 men[2] 50,000 men; 200 ships[1][3]

All killed or executed except 100 men[3][4] 20,000 killed[4][5]

The Siege of Castelnuovo was an engagement during the Ottoman-Habsburg struggle for control of the Mediterranean, which took place in July 1539 in the walled town of Castelnuovo, present day Herceg Novi, Montenegro. Castelnuovo had been conquered by elements of various Spanish tercios the year before during the failed campaign of the Holy League against the Ottoman Empire in Eastern Mediterranean waters. The walled town was besieged by land and sea by a powerful Ottoman army under Admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa, who offered an honorable surrender to the defenders. These terms were rejected by the Spanish commanding officer Francisco de Sarmiento and his captains even though they knew that the Holy League's fleet, defeated at the Battle of Preveza, could not relieve them.[1] During the siege the Barbarossa's army suffered heavy losses due to the stubborn resistance of Sarmiento's men. However, Castelnuovo eventually fell into Ottoman hands and almost all the Spanish defenders, including Sarmiento, were killed. The loss of the town ended the Christian attempt to gain control of the Eastern Mediterranean. The courage displayed by the Old Tercio of Naples, however, was praised and admired throughout Europe and was the subject of numerous poems and songs.[3][4] Background In 1538 the main danger to the Christianity in Europe was the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. The armies of the Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent had been stopped at Vienna in 1529, and by the year 1532 the Ottomans had been expelled from their territories in Hungary.[6] In the Mediterranean, a Christian offensive attempted to eliminate the danger of the great Turkish fleet in 1535, when a strong armada under Don Álvaro de Bazán and Andrea Doria captured the port of Tunis, expelling Admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa from the waters of the Western Mediterranean.[6] The Ottoman Admiral was then required to return to Istanbul, where he was appointed commander of a great fleet to conduct a campaign against the Republic of Venice's possessions in the Ionian Sea. Barbarossa captured the islands of Syros, Aegina, Ios, Paros, Tinos, Karpathos, Kasos, Naxos, and Corfu.[6] The Italian cities of Otranto and Ugento and the fortress of Castro, in the province of Lecce, were also looted.[6] The Republic of Venice, frightened by the loss of their possessions and the ruin of their trade, conducted a vigorous campaign for the creation of a "Holy League" to recover the lost territories and expel the Ottomans from the sea.[6] In February 1538, Pope Paul III succeeded in creating a league which united the Papacy itself, the Republic of Venice, the Empire of Charles V, the Archduchy of Austria and the Knights of Malta.[2] The Allied fleet for the campaign was supposed to consist of 200 galleys and another 100 auxiliary ships, and the army of about 50,000 infantry and 4,500 cavalry. But only 130 galleys and an army of around 15,000 infantry, mostly Spaniards, were all that could be gathered.[2][7] The command of the fleet was given nominally to the Genoese Andrea Doria, but Vicenzo Capello and Marco Grimaldi, commanding officers of the Papal and Venetian fleets respectively, had almost twice as many ships as Doria.[2] The commander of the army was unquestionably Hernando Gonzaga, Viceroy of Sicily.[2] Differences among the commanders of the fleet diminished its effectiveness against an experienced opponent like Barbarossa. This was seen in the Battle of Preveza, fought in the Gulf of Arta. But the Holy League fleet provided support to the land forces that landed on the Dalmatian coast and captured the town of Castelnuovo.[8] This small town was a strategic fortress between the Venetian possessions of Cattaro and Ragusa in the area known as Venetian Albania. Venice therefore claimed ownership of the city, but Charles V refused to cede it. This was the beginning of the end of the Holy League.[8][9] The town of Castelnuovo was garrisoned with approximately 4,000 men.[8] The main force was a Tercio of Spanish veteran soldiers numbering about 3,500 men under the experienced Maestro de Campo Francisco Sarmiento de Mendoza y Manuel. This Tercio, named Tercio of Castelnuovo, was formed by 15 flags (companies) belonging to other tercios, amongst them the Old Tercio of Lombardy, dissolved the year before after a mutiny for lack of pay.[10] The 15 captains in charge of this flags were Machín de Munguía, Álvaro de Mendoza, Pedro de Sotomayor, Juan Vizcaíno, Luis Cerón, Jaime de Masquefá, Luis de Haro, Sancho de Frías, Olivera, Silva, Cambrana, Alcocer, Cusán, Borgoñón and Lázaro de Coron.[11] Among the garrison there were also 150 light cavalry soldiers, a small contingent of Greek soldiers and Knights under Ándres Escrápula, and some artillery pieces managed by 15 gunners under captain Juan de Urrés.[11] The chaplain of Andrea Doria, named Jeremías, also remained in Castelnuovo along with 40 clerics and traders and was appointed bishop of the town.[11] The reason for the garrison's large numbers was that Castelnuovo was projected to be the beachhead for a great offensive against the heart of the Ottoman Empire.[8][12] But the fate of the troops who were in the fortress depended entirely on the support of the fleet, and this had been defeated by Barbarossa at Preveza before the capture of Castelnuovo. Moreover, in a short time Venice withdrew from the Holy League after accepting a disadvantageous agreement with the Ottomans.[13][14] Without Venetian ships, the Allied fleet had no chance to defeat the Ottoman fleet commanded by Barbarossa, who was by this time supported by another experienced officer, Turgut Reis.[14] Siege

First maneuvers Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent ordered Barbarossa to reorganize and rearm his fleet during the winter months to have it ready for the battle in the spring of 1539. 10,000 infantry soldiers and 4,000 Janissaries were embarked aboard the warships to reinforce the troops of the galleys.[14] According to the orders received, Barbarossa's army, numbering about 200 ships with 20,000 fighting men aboard, would blockade Castelnuevo by sea while the forces of the Ottoman governor of Bosnia, a

Persian named Ulamen, would besiege the fortress by land in command of 30,000 soldiers.[14] Sarmiento, meanwhile, used the peaceful months prior to the siege to improve the defenses of the town repairing walls and bastions and building new fortifications. But he could not do much due to a lack of means, as there was no plan to fortify the town since it was supposed to function as a beachhead.[14] Captain Alcocer was sent to Spain with instructions to call for help; Pedro de Sotomayor was sent to Sicily and Captain Zambrana to Brindisi, all in vain.[15] Andrea Doria, who was in Otranto with 47 Imperial and 4 Maltese galleys, received news of Castelnuovo's situation, but given the inferiority of his fleet he sent a message to Sarmiento recommending him to surrender.[16] In June Barbarossa sent 30 galleys to block the entrance of the Gulf of Cattaro.[15] The vessels reached Castelnuovo on 12 June and disembarked a thousand soldiers with the aim of finding water and capturing Spanish soldiers or local civilians to gain information.[15] Once the Spanish were warned of their enemy's presence, Sarmiento dispatched three companies under Captain Machín de Munguía and the cavalry under Lázaro de Corón to attack them before lunchtime.[15] After a fierce fight the Ottoman landing party was forced to re-embark, although it returned in the afternoon. Then it was beaten by Francisco de Sarmiento in person, who was waiting for a new attempt together with Captains Álvaro de Mendoza, Olivera and Juan Vizcaíno, and 600 soldiers. Three hundred Ottomans were killed during the battle, and another 30 captured.[17] The remainder escaped to their ships.[17] On 18 July Barbarossa arrived with the main force and immediately began to land troops and artillery while waiting for the arrival of Ulamen, who came along with his army a few days later.[18] The Ottoman pioneers spent five days digging trenches and building ramparts for 44 heavy siege guns carried aboard Barbarossa's fleet or by Ulamen's troops, and even smoothed the fields around Castelnuovo to facilitate maneuvers.[18] Castelnuovo was also bombarded by sea, as ten pieces had been previously embarked aboard the galleys.[18] The Spanish, meanwhile, undertook several sorties to obstruct the siege works. These raids inflicted many casualties, among them Agi, one of Barbarossa's favorite captains.[18] Another sortie by a Spanish force of 800 men surprised several units of Janissaries who were attempting to storm the walls of Castlenuovo, killing most of them and leaving the field strewn with corpses. When Barbarossa was informed about the setback, he severely reprimanded his officers, as the losses of the Ottoman elite corps were difficult to replace. He gave orders forbidding skirmishes to avoid a repeat of the defeat.[17] The great assault By 23 July, Barbarossa's army was ready to begin a general assault and his artillery prepared to break down the walls of Castelnuovo. Enjoying a vast numerical superiority over the Spanish garrison, which was completely isolated and unable to receive support or supplies, Barbarossa offered an honorable surrender to the Spanish.[15] Sarmiento and his men would be granted a safe passage to Italy, the soldiers retaining their weapons and flags. Barbarossa added to his offer the incentive of giving each soldier 20 ducats.[15] His only demand to Sarmiento was the abandonment of his artillery and gunpowder. Two squad corporals of Captain Vizcaino's company, Juan Alcaraz and Francisco de Tapia, managed to return to Naples and write their view of events many years later.[15] They recorded the answer given to Barbarossa that "the Maestro de Campo consulted with all the captains, and the captains with his officers, and they decided that they preferred to die in service of God and His Majesty."[15] The great assault on the city was launched shortly after, and lasted all day.[19] It was costly in lives, as the Ottomans employed both infantry and artillery at the same time to assault and bombard Castelnuovo, resulting in heavy casualties among the Ottomans themselves due to both friendly fire and Spanish defending.[19] During the night the Spanish improved their defenses and plugged the gaps opened in the walls. When the attack was resumed the next morning, Saint James Day, Bishop Jeremías remained with the soldiers, encouraging them and confessing those who were mortally wounded along the attacked perimeter. About 6,000 Ottoman soldiers were killed in the bloody assault, while the Spanish suffered only 50 killed; although the number of men who died from their wounds was probably large.[11] Encouraged by the successful defense, several Spanish soldiers decided to conduct a surprise raid on the Ottoman camp with the approval of Sarmiento.[20] Thus, one morning, 600 men took the unprepared besiegers by surprise. In some places the assault could not be stopped, and panic spread among the Ottomans. Many troops broke and ran, including some Janissaries who fled throughout their own camp breaking down the tents, including that of Barbarossa.[20] The Admiral's personal guard feared for the safety of its lord, and, ignoring his protests, took him to the galleys along with the standard of the Sultan.[20] During the following days most of the artillery concentrated its fire on a fort in the upper town. Barbarossa thought that it was the key point of Castelnuovo's fortifications and proposed to capture it.[20] The remaining cannons, meantime, continued firing at the fragile walls of the town. On 4 August, Barbarossa ordered an assault against the ruins of the fort, which was now completely shattered, with its casemates ruined. As a major point of the defense, Sarmiento had reinforced the garrison and removed the wounded in the preceding days. The assault began at dawn and the battle lasted all day. Captain Machín of Munguía distinguished himself in the fight, leading the defenders with great courage.[20] By nightfall the remnants of the Spanish garrison retreated to the walls of the town with their wounded, leaving the ruined castle in Barbarossa's hands. The day was very costly in lives. Of the Spanish officers defending the castle only Captains Masquefá, Munguía, Haro and a corporal surnamed Galaz survived.[20] The remainder had been killed in the battle. Among the very few survivors that the Ottomans captured, they found three deserters. These were immediately brought to Barbarossa and encouraged the Admiral to continue with the assaults, reporting that the Spanish had suffered heavy casualties, lacked gunpowder and shot, and were mostly injured and exhausted.[20] Ottoman capture On 5 August a new attack was launched against the walls. Barbarossa, after the report of the Spanish deserters, was sure that he could soon capture Castelnuevo. All the Janissaries took part in the action, and the cavalry was ordered to dismount to join the general assault.[21] Despite the overwhelming numerical superiority of the Ottoman troops, the Spanish defense was successful, as no more than a tower of the wall fell to the besiegers that day.[21] Sarmiento ordered his sappers to prepare a mine to destroy the tower, but the attempt failed when an unexpected burst of the gunpowder killed the soldiers who were working in the mine.[21] At dawn on the following day a heavy downpour ruined the matchlocks of the harquebuses, the few remaining pieces of artillery, and the last gunpowder. The fight was therefore sustained only with swords, pikes and knives, and the wounded Spanish soldiers were forced to take up arms and help defend the walls.[21] Only the dying men remained in the hospital. Surprisingly, the few surviving Spanish managed to repel the assault.[22] The last and definitive attack took place the next morning. Francisco de Sarmiento, on horseback, was wounded in the face by three arrows, but he continued to encourage his men.[23] Demolished by heavy gunfire, the ruins of the walls became indefensible. Sarmiento then ordered the 600 Spanish survivors to retreat. His idea consisted of defending a castle in the lower city where the civilian population of Castelnuovo had taken refuge.[23] Although the withdrawal was made in perfect order and discipline, Sarmiento and his men found that the doors of the castle were walled at their arrival.[23] Sarmiento was offered a rope to raise him to the walls,[23] but refused and responded "Never God wants that I was saved and my companions were lost without me".[5][23] After that he joined Machín de Munguía, Juan Vizcaíno and

Sancho Frias to lead the last stand. Surrounded by the Ottoman army, the last Spanish soldiers fought back to back until none were able to fight. At the end of day, Castelnuovo was in Ottoman hands.[24] Aftermath

Héroes gloriosos, pues el cielo os dio más parte que os negó la tierra, bien es que por trofeo de tanta guerra se muestren vuestros huesos por el suelo. Si justo es desear, si honesto celo en valeroso corazón se encierra, ya me parece ver, o que sea tierra por vos la Hesperia nuestra, o se alce a vuelo. No por vengaros, no, que no dejastes A los vivos gozar de tanta gloria, Que envuelta en vuestra sangre la llevastes; Sino para probar que la memoria De la dichosa muerte que alcanzastes, Se debe envidiar más que la victoria

— Sonnet 217 of Gutierre de Cetina (1520–57) entitled: “A los huesos de los españoles muertos en Castelnuovo”.[24]

Almost all of the Janissaries and 16,000 of other Ottoman units were killed in the assault. According to rumor, Turkish losses amounted to 37,000 dead.[4][5] Of the Spanish troops only 200 survived, most of them wounded. One of the prisoners was the Biscayan Captain Machín de Munguía. Barbarossa, upon learning this, offered Munguía freedom and a place in his army. The admiral greatly admired him for his actions in the battle of Preveza, where the Spaniard had successfully defended a sinking Venetian carrack against several Ottoman warships.[25] Munguía refused to accept and was therefore beheaded on the spur of the admiral's galley.[4] Half of the prisoners and all the clerics were also slaughtered to satisfy the Ottoman soldiers, who were angry at the great losses which they had suffered in capturing the city.[4] The few survivors were taken as slaves to Istanbul. Twenty-five of them managed to escape from prison six years later and sailed to the port of Messina.[4] Despite the failure of Sarmiento to retain the fortress, Castelnuovo's defense was sung by numerous contemporaneous poets and praised all over Christian Europe.[4] The Spanish soldiers who participated in the unequal engagement were compared with mythological and classical history heroes, being considered immortal due the magnitude of their feat.[4] Only the enemies of Charles V, such as the Paduan humanist Sperone Speroni, rejoiced at the annihilation of the Tercio of Castelnuovo.[26] The siege of Castelnuovo ended the failed campaign of the Holy League against the power of the Ottoman Empire in the Eastern Mediterranean. Charles V began negotiations with Barbarossa to attract him to the imperial ranks but got nothing and turned all its efforts in a great expedition against Algiers to destroy the Ottoman sea power.[27] This expedition, known as the Journey of Algiers, ended in a disaster as a storm scattered the fleet and the army had to be reembarked having suffered heavy losses.[28] A truce between Charles V and Suleiman the Magnificent was signed in 1543. Castelnuovo remained in Ottoman hands for almost 150 years. It was recovered in 1687, during the Morean War, by the Venetian Captain-General at sea Girolamo Cornaro, who in allegiance with Montenegrans under Vuceta Bogdanovic, won a great victory over the Turks near the town and put the fortress under Venetian rule.[29] See also

• Conquest of Tunis (1574) Notes

1. ^ a b c Fernández Álvarez, p. 229 2. ^ a b c d e Arsenal/Prado, p. 23 3. ^ a b c Martínez Laínez, p. 116 4. ^ a b c d e f g h i Arsenal/Prado, p. 33 5. ^ a b c De Sandoval, p. 377 6. ^ a b c d e Arsenal/Prado, p. 22 7. ^ Fernández Duro, p. 234 8. ^ a b c d Arsenal/Prado, p. 24 9. ^ Fernández Duro, p. 269 10. ^ 6 flags of the Tercio of Florence, 3 of the Tercio of Lombardy, 2 of the Tercio of Naples, one of the Tercio of

Nice and three new flags. Fernández Álvarez, Carlos V, el César y el hombre, p. 579 11. ^ a b c d De Sandoval, p. 375 12. ^ Fernández Duro, p. 228 13. ^ Levin, p. 159 14. ^ a b c d e Arsenal/Prado, p. 25 15. ^ a b c d e f g h Arsenal/Prado, p. 27 16. ^ Fernández Duro, p. 247 17. ^ a b c De Sandoval, p. 374 18. ^ a b c d Arsenal/Prado, p. 26 19. ^ a b Arsenal/Prado, p. 28 20. ^ a b c d e f g Arsenal/Prado, p. 29 21. ^ a b c d Arsenal/Prado, p. 30 22. ^ Arsenal/Prado, p. 31 23. ^ a b c d e Arsenal/Prado, p. 32 24. ^ a b Arsenal/Prado, p. 34

25. ^ Fernández Duro, p. 244 26. ^ Croce, p. 317 27. ^ Martínez Ruiz/Giménez, pp. 145-146 28. ^ Martínez Ruiz/Giménez, p. 146 29. ^ Jaques, p. 210

References

• (Spanish) Arsenal, León; Prado, Fernando (2008). Rincones de historia española. EDAF. ISBN 9788441420502. • (Spanish) Croce, Benedetto (2007). España en la vida italiana del Renacimiento. Editorial Renacimiento. ISBN

9788484722687. • (Spanish) Fernández Álvarez, Manuel (2001). El Imperio de Carlos V. Taravilla: Real Academia de la Historia. ISBN

9788489512900. • (Spanish) Fernández Álvarez, Manuel (1999). Carlos V, el César y el hombre. Espasa-Calpe. ISBN 8423997529. • (Spanish) Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1895). Armada Española desde la unión de los reinos de Castilla y Aragón. I.

Madrid, Spain: Est. tipográfico "Sucesores de Rivadeneyra". • Jacob Levin, Michael (2005). Agents of empire: Spanish ambassadors in sixteenth-century Italy. New York: Cornell

University Press. ISBN 9780801443527. • Jaques, Tony (2007). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity Through the Twenty-first

Century. 2. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313335389. • (Spanish) Martínez Laínez, Fernando; Sánchez de Toca Catalá, José María (2006). Tercios de España: la infantería

legendaria. Madrid: EDAF. ISBN 9788441418479. • (Spanish) Martínez Ruiz, Enrique; Giménez, Enrique (1994). Introducción a la historia moderna. Ediciones AKAL.

ISBN 9788470902932. • (Spanish) De Sandoval, Prudencio (1634). Historia de la vida y hechos del emperador Carlos V. Bartolomé París

(Pamplona), Pedro Escuer (Zaragoza).

Barbaros Hayreddin Pasha, 16th century contemporary painting, Louvre Museum, Paris. Portrait of Suleiman the Magnificent

attributed to Titian. c.1530. Portrait of Andrea Doria, c. 1520, by Sebastiano del Piombo.

View of Castelnuovo in the 16th century. Engraving of an unknown 17th century artist.

Cannon_battery_at_the_Siege_of_Esztergom_1543 painted by Sebastian Vrancks 17th century

This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Portrait of Charles V with a Baton. Copy by Rubens of a portrait by Titian.. Chamberlain of Sultan Murad IV with janissaries (G.

Jansoone own photo)

Afife Nûr-Banû Vâlide Sultân 1525-1583


Born Cecilia / Olivia Venier-Baffo or Rachel or Kale Kartanou 1525 Páros, Cyclades Islands, The Most Serene Republic of Venice

Died 7 December 1583 Istanbul

Resting place The tomb of Sultan Selim II located in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul

Known for Valide Sultan

Religion Judaism or Catholicism at birth, subsequently converted to Islam after her capture

Spouse Ottoman Sultan Selim II

Children Ottoman Sultan Murad III

Parents Nicolò Venier and Violanta Baffo or another Jewish or Kerkyraen family

Afife Nûr-Banû Sultâna or Devletlu Đsmetlu Afife Nûr-Banû Vâlide Sultân Aliyyetü'ş-Şân Hazretleri (Daulatlu Ismatlu Afife Nûr-Banû Validā Sultâna 'Aliyāt ûsh-Shân Hazrātlāri) (née Olivia / Cecilia Venier-Baffo[1] or Rachel[2]) or Kale Kartanou (ca. 1525 – 7 December 1583) was either a Venetian of noble birth or a Spanish Jew[3]. She was the mother of Sultan Murad III of the Ottoman Empire and his de facto co-regent as the Valide Sultan for nine years from 1574 until 1583. Biographical theories Currently, there exist three living theories about the ethnic roots of "Sultanâ Nûr-Banû". Cecilia or Olivia According to Venetian records, Cecilia or Olivia was presumably the natural daughter of Nicolò Venier, a Lord of Páros, by Violante Baffo. She was the niece of the Doge of Venice, Sebastiano Venier. She was captured when the Turks conquered the Cyclades island of Páros, where she was born, during the 1537 war, abducted from there and taken to the royal harem of Ottoman Prince Selim II in Istanbul, where she was renamed "Afife Nûr-Banû". Rachel According to the Ottoman records, her birth name was Rachel, her mother was Violante Baffo, and her father was a Jew who used to live in Spain. This theory is deduced from the letters of Sultâna Safiye sent to The Most Serene Republic of Venice with her signature "Baffo, mother of Mehmed III". Kale Kartanou Recent investigations revealed that a third theory about the ethnic origins of "Sultana Nûr-Banû" may exists, as well. The island of Kerkyra was substantially flourished during the Venetian administration. She withstood two famous sieges by the Turks. The first of these took place in the year 1537. She was conducted by the world-famous Kapudan-i Derya Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha. The story tells how long and terrible the siege was, but the Turks finally compelled to withdraw. They did not go empty-handed, however. They led off as slaves thousands of the inhabitants, men, women, and children. These Kerkyraeans were brought to the market of Constantinople, where they were publicly sold at auction, after a proclamation was heralded that whosoever desired to buy at a low price good Christian slaves could be suited in the Kerkyraean captives. Moustoxydes, a Kerkyraean who in the last century was noted as a historical investigator, narrates the following characteristic though unproven and somewhat inconsistent story. He says that among these ill-starred slaves was one who afterward became famous. Her name was Kale Kartanou. She and her mother and brother were carried off. They were separated in captivity and noone knew the fate of the others. Years afterward the mother was redeemed by some Christian, and wandered back to her native Kerkyra. The brother of Kale also succeeded in gaining his liberty, and returned. But Kale when carried off was a mere child seven years old. She was brought to the palace and kept there, and became the property of Sultan Selim, and the mother of his successor on the throne of Constantinople. In the Ambrosian library of Milan there is still preserved an official copy of a letter which was forwarded through Venetian diplomats to Kale Kartanou, after she had become sultana, a letter from her mother asking that the sultana take her to Constantinople. Together with this letter is preserved a note from the sultana, ordering certain officials to aid her mother in reaching Constantinople. We have no information as to whether the mother actually succeeded in again seeing her daughter or not. The wisdom of Kale was regarded as wonderful, and became proverbial in Constantinople. Being carried off so young, she did not keep her Christian faith, at least openly. But a tradition states that she baptized her son, through a dim remembrance that it was proper to do so. Afîfe Nûr-Banû as a Sultâna Nurbanu became the most favored consort of Ottoman Sultan Selim II, who was put on the throne in 1566, and the mother of Ottoman Sultan Murad III. When Selim II died in 1574, she concealed his death and hid his corpse in an icebox until her son Murad arrived at Istanbul from the Province of Manisa, where Murad was the governor. Twelve days later, upon Murad III's accession to the Ottoman throne, Nûr-Banû acquired the title of Valide Sultan. Foreign politics of Sultâna Nûr-Banû Venetian records claims that Nûr-Banû became the Valide Sultan to her son Murad III managed the government together with the Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmet Pasha, who acted as co-regent with the sultan in the Sultanate of Women. Her intermediary to the world outside the harem was her "kira", Esther Handali. "Kira" was so popular means of communication with the outside world when Nûr-Banû was the Valide Sultan that the two women were said to have been lovers. She corresponded with the queen Catherine de' Medici of France. During her nine years of regency (1574 - 1583), her politics were so pro-Venetian that she was hated by the Republic of Genoa. Some have even suggested that she was poisoned by a Genoese agent. In any case, her demise was a suspicious death at her Palace in the Yenikapı Quarter, Istanbul on 7 December 1583 ( On the 21st day of the month of dhu l-qa'da, 991 of the Arabic calendar ). Moreover, it has been said that Nûr-Banû was related to Giorgio Baffo, as well as to Safiye Sultan, who was born Sofia Baffo, married to Nûr-Banû's son Murad III, and consequently became the next Valide Sultan of the Ottoman Empire when her son Mehmed III acceded to the throne. On the other hand, the Ottoman records

claim that the Republic of Venice became too dependent on the Ottoman Empire during the regency of Sultâna Afife Nûr-Banû because her policies were extremely pro-Jewish. Charitable Establishments and Philantropical Activities of Sultâna Nûr-Banû During her nine years of regency, Afife Nûr-Banû Sultana ordered the renowned Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan to build The Atik Valide Mosque and Külliye, a multi-purpose complex of buildings centered around the mosque and composed of madrasah, darüşşifa, khanqah, caravanserai, and Turkish bath at the district of Üsküdar in Istanbul, where previously a "Jewish bath" was located at. The construction of the Külliye was completed and put in commission at the end of 1583, just before the demise of Afife Nûr-Banû Valide Sultan on 7 December, 1583. She was buried at the mausoleum of her husband Ottoman Sultan Selim II located inside The Hagia Sophia Mosque at Sultanahmet in Istanbul, Turkey. • Goodwin, Jason, Lords of the Horizons, (1998) - page 160 • A.D. Alderson, The Structure of the Ottoman Dynasty. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1956. • Almanach de Gotha: annuaire généalogique, diplomatique et statistique, Justes Perthes, Gotha, 1880-1944. • Burke's Royal Families of the World, Volume II: Africa & The Middle East, Burke's Peerage Ltd., London, 1980. • Yılmaz Öztuna, Devletler ve Hanedanlar, Turkiye 1074-1990, Ankara, 1989. • Osman Selâheddin Osmanoğlu, Osmanli Devleti'nin Kuruluşunun 700. Yılında Osmanlı Hanedanı, Islâm Tarih, Sanat ve Kültür Araştırma Vakfı (ISAR), Istanbul, 1999. • Emine Fuat Tugay, Three Centuries: Family Chronicles of Turkey and Egypt, Oxford, 1963. External links Ancestry of Sultana Nur-Bânû (Cecilia Venier-Baffo) Women Leaders in Power

References

1. ^ Cultures in Colors, Valeria Heuberger, Geneviève Humbert, Geneviève Humbert-Knitel, Elisabeth Vyslonzil, page:68, ISBN 3631368089, 2001 2. ^ The Private World of Ottoman Women, Godfrey Goodwin, Saqi Book, ISBN 0863567452, page:128, ISBN 3631368089, 2001 3. ^ http://books.google.com.tr/books?id=Xd422lS6ezgC&pg=PA178&dq=jewish++%22nur+banu%22&hl=en&ei=cPhtTdD0KMeb8QP4lcTvDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=13&ved=0CGUQ6AEwDA#v=onepage&q=jewish%20%20%22nur%20banu%22&f=false History of the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey, Volume 1 By Stanford J. Shaw Succession

Preceded by Ayşe Hafsa Sultan Valide Sultan 1574 - 1583 Succeeded by Safiye Sultan

The resting place of Afife Nûr-Banû Valide Sultan is located in the mausoleum of her husband Ottoman Sultan Selim II in Hagia Sophia at Sultanahmet in Istanbul, Turkey. The burial place of Afife Nûr-Banû Valide Sultan is located inside the tomb of Ottoman Sultan Selim II in Hagia Sophia at Sultanahmet in Istanbul, Turkey. (The exterior view)

The Mimber of The Hagia Sophia Mosque, the burial place of Afife Nûr-Banû Valide Sultan. Nurbanu Sultan is buried in the

mausoleum of Sultan Selim II located at The Hagia Sophia Mosque in Sultanahmet, Istanbul, Turkey. (The interior invocation area)

Reconstructed scene of a Vâlide Sultân and her attendants in her apartments at Topkapı Palace

Fourth Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Date 1570–1573 Location Cyprus, Ionian and Aegean Seas

Result Ottoman victory Territorial

changes Cyprus under Ottoman rule

Belligerents

Republic of Venice Spain Papal States Republic of Genoa Duchy of Savoy Knights of Malta

Ottoman Empire


Marco Antonio Bragadin Alvise Martinengo Sebastiano

Venier Don John of Austria Marcantonio Colonna Giovanni Andrea Doria Jacopo Soranzo

Piyale Pasha Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha Müezzinzade Ali Pasha † Kılıç Ali Pasha

The Fourth Ottoman–Venetian War, also known as the War of Cyprus (Italian: Guerra di Cipro) was fought between 1570–1573. It was waged between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice, the latter joined by the Holy League, a coalition of Christian states formed under the auspices of the Pope, which included Spain (with Naples and Sicily), the Republic of Genoa, the Duchy of Savoy, the Knights Hospitaller, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, and other Italian states. The war, the preeminent episode of Sultan Selim II's reign, began with the Ottoman invasion of the Venetian-held island of Cyprus. The capital Nicosia and several other towns fell quickly to the considerably superior Ottoman army, leaving only Famagusta in Venetian hands. Christian reinforcements were delayed, and Famagusta eventually fell in August 1571 after a siege of 11 months. Two months later, at the Battle of Lepanto, the united Christian fleet destroyed the Ottoman fleet, but was unable to take advantage of this victory. The Ottomans quickly rebuilt their naval forces, and Venice was forced to negotiate a separate peace, ceding Cyprus to the Ottomans and paying a tribute of 300,000 ducats. Background The large and wealthy island of Cyprus had been under Venetian rule since 1489. Together with Crete, it was one of the major overseas possessions of the Republic. Its population in the mid-16th century is estimated at 160,000.[1] Aside from its location, which allowed the control of the Levantine trade, the island possessed a profitable production of cotton and sugar.[2] To safeguard their most distant colony, the Venetians paid an annual tribute of 8,000 ducats to the Mamluk Sultans of Egypt, and after their fall to the Ottomans in 1517, the agreement was renewed with the Porte.[3][4] Nevertheless, the island's strategic location in the Eastern Mediterranean, between the Ottoman heartland of Anatolia and the newly won provinces of the Levant and Egypt, made it a tempting target for future Ottoman expansion.[5][6] In addition, the protection offered by the local Venetian authorities to Christian corsairs who harassed Muslim shipping, including the pilgrims to Mecca, rankled with the Ottoman leadership.[7][8] After concluding a prolonged war with the Habsburgs in 1568, the Ottomans were free to turn their attention to Cyprus.[9] Sultan Selim II had made the conquest of the island his first priority already before his accession in 1566, relegating Ottoman aid of the Morisco Revolt against Spain and attacks against Portuguese activities in the Indian Ocean to a secondary priority.[10] Despite the peace treaty with Venice, renewed as recently as 1567,[8][11] and the opposition of Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, the war party at the Ottoman court prevailed.[7] A favorable juridical opinion by the Sheikh ul-Islam was secured, which declared that the breach of the treaty was justified since Cyprus was a "former land of Islam" (briefly in the 7th century) and had to be retaken.[8][12] Money for the campaign was raised by the confiscation and resale of monasteries and churches of the Greek Orthodox Church.[13] The Sultan's old tutor, Lala Mustafa Pasha, was appointed as commander of the expedition's land forces.[14] Müezzinzade Ali Pasha, although totally inexperienced in naval matters, was appointed as Kapudan Pasha; he, however, assigned the able and experienced Piyale Pasha as his principal aide.[15] On the Venetian side, Ottoman intentions had been clear, and an attack against Cyprus had been anticipated for some time. A war scare had broken out in 1564–1565, when the Ottomans eventually sailed for Malta, and unease mounted again in late 1567 and early 1568, as the scale of the Ottoman naval buildup became apparent.[16] The defenses of Cyprus, Crete, Corfu and other Venetian possessions were upgraded in the 1560s, employing the services of the noted military engineer Sforza Pallavicini. Their garrisons were increased, and attempts were made to make the isolated holdings of Crete and Cyprus more self-sufficient by the construction of foundries and gunpowder mills.[17] However, it was widely recognized that, unaided, Cyprus could not hold for long.[9] Its exposed and isolated location so far from Venice, surrounded by Ottoman territory, put it "in the wolf's mouth" as one contemporary historian wrote.[18] In the event, lack of supplies and even gunpowder would play a critical role in the fall of the Venetian forts to the Ottomans.[18] Another problem for Venice was the attitude of the island's population. The harsh treatment and oppressive taxation of the local orthodox Greek population by the Catholic Venetians had caused great resentment, so that their sympathies generally laid with the Ottomans.[19] By early 1570, the Ottoman preparations and the warnings sent by the Venetian bailo at Constantinople, Marco Antonio Barbaro, had convinced the Signoria that war was imminent. Reinforcements and money were sent post-haste to Crete and Cyprus.[20] In March 1570, an Ottoman envoy was sent to Venice, bearing an ultimatum that demanded the immediate cession of Cyprus.[9] Although some voices were raised in the Venetian Signoria advocating the cession of the island in exchange for land in Dalmatia and further trading privileges, the hope of assistance from the other Christian states stiffened the Republic's resolve, and the ultimatum was categorically rejected.[21] Ottoman conquest of Cyprus Main article: Ottoman Cyprus On 27 June, the invasion force, some 350 ships and 60,000 men, set sail for Cyprus. It landed unopposed at Salines,near Larnaca on the island's southern shore on 3 July, and marched towards the capital, Nicosia.[22] The Venetians had debated opposing the landing, but in the face of the superior Ottoman artillery, and the fact that a defeat would mean the annihilation of the island's defensive force, it was decided to withdraw to the forts and hold out until

reinforcements arrived.[23] The Siege of Nicosia began on 22 July and lasted for seven weeks, until 9 September.[22] The city's newly constructed trace italienne walls of packed earth withstood the Ottoman bombardment well. The Ottomans, under Lala Mustafa Pasha, dug trenches towards the walls, and gradually filled the surrounding ditch, while constant volleys of arquebus fire covered the sappers' work.[24] Finally, the 45th assault, on 9 September, succeeded in breaching the walls after the defenders had exhausted their ammunition. A massacre of the city's 20,000 inhabitants ensued.[25] Even the city's pigs, regarded as unclean by Muslims, were killed, and only women and boys who were captured to be sold as slaves were spared.[24] A combined Christian fleet of 200 vessels, composed of Venetian (under Girolamo Zane), Papal (under Marcantonio Colonna) and Neapolitan/Genoese/Spanish (under Giovanni Andrea Doria) squadrons that had belatedly been assembled at Crete by late August and was sailing towards Cyprus, turned back when it received news of Nicosia's fall.[21][26] Following the fall of Nicosia, the fortress of Kyrenia in the north surrendered without resistance, and on 15 September, the Turkish cavalry appeared before the last Venetian stronghold, Famagusta. At this point already, overall Venetian losses (including the local population) were estimated by contemporaries at 56,000 killed or taken prisoner.[27] The Venetian defenders of Famagusta numbered about 8,500 men with 90 artillery pieces and were commanded by Marco Antonio Bragadin. They would hold out for 11 months against a force that would come to number 200,000 men, with 145 guns,[28] providing the time needed by the Pope to cobble together an anti-Ottoman league from the reluctant Christian European states.[29] The Ottomans set up their guns on 1 September.[25] Over the following months, they proceeded to dig a huge network of crisscrossing trenches for a depth of three miles around the fortress, which provided shelter for the Ottoman troops. As the siege trenches neared the fortress and came within artillery range of the walls, ten forts of timber and packed earth and bales of cotton were erected.[30] The Ottomans however lacked the naval strength to completely blockade the city from sea as well, and the Venetians were able to resupply it and bring in reinforcements. After news of such a resupply in January reached the Sultan, he recalled Piyale Pasha and left Lala Mustafa alone in charge of the siege.[31] At the same time, an initiative by Sokollu Mehmed Pasha to achieve a separate peace with Venice, foundered.[32] Thus on 12 May 1571, the intensive bombardment of Famagusta's fortifications began, and on 1 August, with ammunition and supplies exhausted, the garrison surrendered the city.[30] The siege cost the Ottomans some 50,000 casualties.[33] The Holy League As the Ottoman army campaigned in Cyprus, Venice tried to find allies. The Holy Roman Emperor, having just concluded peace with the Ottomans, was not keen to break it. France was traditionally on friendly terms with the Ottomans and hostile to the Spanish, and the Poles were troubled by Muscovy.[34] The Spanish Habsburgs, the greatest Christian power in the Mediterranean, were not initially interested in helping the Republic and resentful of Venice's refusal to send aid during the Siege of Malta in 1565.[9][35] In addition, Philip II of Spain wanted to focus his strength against the Barbary states of North Africa. The Spanish reluctance to engage on the side of the Republic, together with Doria's reluctance to endanger his fleet, had already disastrously delayed the joint naval effort in 1570.[27] However, with the energetic mediation of Pope Pius V, an alliance against the Ottomans, the "Holy League", was concluded on 15 May 1571, which stipulated the assembly of a fleet of 200 galleys, 100 supply vessels and a force of 50,000 men. To secure Spanish assent, the treaty also included a Venetian promise to aid Spain in North Africa.[9][21][36] Lepanto and the failure of the League According to the terms of the new alliance, during the late summer, the Christian fleet assembled at Messina, under the command of Don John of Austria, who arrived on 23 August. By that time, however, Famagusta had fallen, and any effort to save Cyprus was meaningless.[21] However, as it was sailing down the Ionian Sea, the combined Christian fleet came upon the Ottoman fleet, commanded by Müezzinzade Ali Pasha, which had anchored at Lepanto (Nafpaktos), near the entrance of the Corinthian Gulf.[37] On 7 October, the two fleets engaged in a battle off Lepanto, which resulted in a crushing victory for the Christian fleet, while the Ottoman fleet was largely destroyed.[38] In popular perception, the battle itself became known as one of the decisive turning points in the long Ottoman-Christian struggle, as it ended the Ottoman naval hegemony established at the Battle of Preveza in 1538.[9] Its immediate results however were minimal:[39] the harsh winter that followed precluded any offensive actions on behalf of the Holy League, while the Ottomans used the respite to feverishly rebuild their naval strength. At the same time, Venice suffered losses in Dalmatia, where the Ottomans advanced, taking several inland positions and the island of Brazza (Brač). The strategic situation was graphically summed up later by the Ottoman Grand Vizier to the Venetian bailo: "[in defeating our fleet] you have shaved our beard, but it will grow again, but [in conquering Cyprus] we have severed your arm and you will never find another."[40] The following year, as the allied Christian fleet resumed operations, it faced a renewed Ottoman navy under Kılıç Ali Pasha.[41] Both fleets cruised and skirmished repeatedly off the Peloponnese, but no decisive engagement resulted. The diverging interests of the League members began to show, and the alliance began to fail. In 1573, the Holy League fleet failed to sail altogether; instead, Don John attacked and took Tunis, although retaken by the Ottomans in 1574.[42] Venice, eager to cut her losses and resume the trade with the Ottoman Empire, initiated unilateral negotiations with the Porte.[41][43] Peace settlement and aftermath Marco Antonio Barbaro, the Venetian bailo who had been imprisoned since 1570, conducted the negotiations. In view of the Republic's inability to regain Cyprus, the resulting treaty, signed on 7 March 1573, confirmed the new state of affairs: Cyprus became an Ottoman province, Venice paid an indemnity of 300,000 ducats, and the Dalmatian border between the two powers was restored to its 1570 status quo ante.[41] Peace would continue between the two states until 1645, when a long war over Crete would break out.[44] Cyprus itself remained under Ottoman rule until 1878, when it was ceded to Britain as a protectorate. Ottoman suzerainty continued until the outbreak of World War I, when the island was annexed by Britain, becoming a crown colony in 1925.[45] Notes

1. ^ McEvedy & Jones (1978), p. 119 2. ^ Faroqhi (2004), p. 140 3. ^ Finkel (2006), pp. 113, 158 4. ^ Cook (1976), p. 77 5. ^ Setton (1984), p. 200 6. ^ Goffman (2002), p. 155 7. ^ a b Finkel (2006), p. 158 8. ^ a b c Cook (1976), p. 108 9. ^ a b c d e f Finkel (2006), p. 160

10. ^ Faroqhi (2004), pp. 38, 48 11. ^ Setton (1984), p. 923 12. ^ Finkel (2006), pp. 158–159 13. ^ Finkel (2006), p. 159 14. ^ Goffman (2002), p. 156 15. ^ Finkel (2006), pp. 159–160 16. ^ Setton (1984), pp. 925–931 17. ^ Setton (1984), pp. 907–908 18. ^ a b Setton (1984), p. 908 19. ^ Goffman (2002), pp. 155–156 20. ^ Setton (1984), pp. 945–946, 950 21. ^ a b c d Cook (1976), p. 109 22. ^ a b Turnbull (2003), p. 57 23. ^ Setton (1984), p. 991 24. ^ a b Turnbull (2003), p. 58 25. ^ a b Hopkins (2007), p. 82 26. ^ Setton (1984), pp. 981–985 27. ^ a b Setton (1984), p. 990 28. ^ Turnbull (2003), pp. 58–59 29. ^ Hopkins (2007), pp. 87–89 30. ^ a b Turnbull (2003), pp. 59–60 31. ^ Hopkins (2007), pp. 82–83 32. ^ Hopkins (2007), pp. 83–84 33. ^ Goffman (2002), p. 158 34. ^ Setton (1984), p. 963 35. ^ Setton (1984), pp. 941–943 36. ^ Hopkins (2007), pp. 84–85 37. ^ Turnbull (2003), p. 60 38. ^ Finkel (2006), pp. 160–161 39. ^ Faroqhi (2004), p. 38 40. ^ Cowley & Parker (2001), p. 263 41. ^ a b c Finkel (2006), p. 161 42. ^ Finkel (2006), pp. 161–162 43. ^ Faroqhi (2004), p. 4 44. ^ Finkel (2006), p. 222 45. ^ Borowiec (2000), pp. 19–21 Sources

• Borowiec, Andrew (2000). Cyprus: a troubled island. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-96533-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=hzEDg6-d80MC. • M. A., ed (1976). A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730: Chapters from the Cambridge History of Islam and the New Cambridge Modern History. Cambridge University Press Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-09991-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=nUs7AAAAIAAJ. • Cowley, Robert; Parker, Geoffrey (2001). The Reader's Companion to Military History. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0618127429. • Faroqhi, Suraiya (2004). The Ottoman Empire and the World Around It. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-715-4. • Finkel, Caroline (2006). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1923. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-6112-2. • Goffman, Daniel (2002). The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45908-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=3uJzjatjTL4C. • Greene, Molly (2000). A Shared World: Christians and Muslims in the Early Modern Mediterranean. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00898-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ecy575SBY1cC. • Hopkins, T. C. F. (2007). Confrontation at Lepanto: Christendom Vs. Islam. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0765305398. http://books.google.com/books?id=4a6ZetIufKcC. • Lane, Frederic Chapin (1973). Venice, a Maritime Republic. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-1460-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=PQpU2JGJCMwC. • McEvedy, Colin; Jones, Richard (1978). Atlas of World Population History. Penguin. http://books.google.com/books?id=WZkYAAAAIAAJ. • Nicolle, David (1989). The Venetian Empire, 1200–1670 (Men-at-Arms Series #210). Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-0850458992. http://books.google.com/books?id=WuwULNmr2_cC. • Rodgers, William Ledyard (1967). Naval Warfare Under Oars, 4th to 16th Centuries: A Study of Strategy, Tactics and Ship Design. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0870214875. • Setton, Kenneth M. (1984). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. III: The Sixteenth Century. DIANE Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87169-161-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=EgQNAAAAIAAJ. • Setton, Kenneth M. (1984). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. IV: The Sixteenth Century. DIANE Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87169-162-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=SrUNi2m_qZAC.

• Shaw, Stanford Jay; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol. 1: Empire of the Gazis – The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280–1808. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29163-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=E9-YfgVZDBkC. • Turnbull, Stephen (2003). The Ottoman Empire 1326–1699 (Essential Histories Series #62). Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-0415969130.

Sultan Selim II The Battle of Lepanto

The Battle of Lepanto 1571, engraved by Martin Rota. Map of Nicosia with its new fortifications, made in 1597 by the Venetian

Giacomo Franco

Marco Antonio Bragadin 1523-1571 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Marco Antonio Bragadin, also Marcantonio Bragadin (21 April 1523 – 17 August 1571) was an Italian lawyer and military officer of the Republic of Venice. Bragadin joined the Fanti da Mar (marine infantry) Corps of the Republic of Venice. In 1569, he was appointed Captain-General of Famagusta in Cyprus and led the Venetian resistance to the Ottoman conquest that began in 1570. He was gruesomely killed in August 1571 after the Ottomans took the city, the fall of which signalled the end of Western presence in the Mediterranean island for the next three centuries. Life He was born at Venice. After a short stint as lawyer in 1543, Bragadin pursued a career in the navy, being entrusted with several posts on the Venetian galleys. Once back in Venice Bragadin was pressed into the city's magistrates; in 1560 and later in 1566 he was made a galley governor, without, though, having occasion to actually assume command of a ship. In 1569 he was elected as Captain of the Kingdom of Cyprus and moved to Famagusta, then a rich port, where he assumed civil governorship over the whole island, well aware that a decisive clash with the Ottoman fleet was imminent. Bragadin worked hard to fortify Famagusta thoroughly; the introduction of gunpowder meant that scientifically-planned fortifications with solid walls were needed. So the harbour was endowed with strong defenses, such as the Martinengo bastion, an excellent example of modern fortification granting easy defense on both sides of its walls. The Turks landed at Cyprus on July, 3, 1570. Nicosia fell in two months' time and its garrison was slaughtered. The head of the locumtenens regni ("viceroy"), Niccolò Dandolo, was sent to Bragadin, who, undaunted, prepared for the enemy assault. The Siege of Famagusta Famagusta came under siege in September; the Ottoman forces kept pressure on for months, while their artillery relentlessly pounded the city's bulwarks. Marcantonio Bragadin led the defence of Famagusta with Lorenzo Tiepolo, Captain of Paphos, and general Astorre Baglioni. According to Venetian chroniclers (whose numbers are treated with some skepticism by modern scholarship), about 6,000 garrison troops stood against some 100,000 Turks with 1,500 cannons, backed by about 150 ships enforcing a naval blockade to stave off reinforcements and victuals. The besieged garrison of Famagusta put up a heroic struggle lasting well beyond the most optimistic assumptions, against far superior enemy numbers and without any hope of help from the motherland. Furthermore the Turks were employing new tactics. The entire belt of walls surrounding the town and the exterior plain was filled with earth up to the top of the fortifications. In the meantime a number of tunnels were dug out towards and under the city walls to undermine and breach them. In July, 1571 the Turks eventually breached the fortifications and their forces broke into the citadel, being repulsed only at the cost of heavy losses. With provender and ammunition running out, on 31 July Bragadin had to agree to a surrender. Death and legacy Famagusta's defenders made terms with the Ottomans before the city was taken by force, since the traditional laws of war allowed for negotiation before the city's defenses were successfully breached, whereas after a city fell by storm all lives and property in the city would be forfeit. The Ottoman commander generously agreed that, in return for the city's surrender, all Westerners in the city could exit under their own flag and be guaranteed safe passage to Crete; Greeks could leave immediately, or wait two years to decide whether to remain in Famagusta under Ottoman rule, or depart the city for any destination of their choice. For the next four days, evacuation proceeded smoothly. Then, at the surrender ceremony where Bragadin offered the vacated city to Mustafa, the Ottoman general, after initially receiving him with every courtesy, began behaving erratically, accusing him of murdering Turkish prisoners and hiding munitions. Suddenly, Mustafa pulled a knife and cut off Bragadin's right ear, then ordered his guards to cut off the other ear and his nose. There followed a massacre of all Christians still in the city, with Bragadin himself most brutally abused. After being left in prison for two weeks, his earlier wounds festering, he was "dragged round the walls with sacks of earth and stone on his back; next, tied to a chair, he was hoisted to the yardarm of the Turkish flagship and exposed to the taunts of the sailors. Finally he was taken to the place of execution in the main square, tied naked to a column, and flayed alive." [1] Bragadin's quartered body was then distributed as a war trophy among the army, and his skin was stuffed with straw and sewn, reinvested with his military insignia, and exhibited riding an ox in a mocking procession along the streets of Famagusta. The macabre trophy, together with the severed heads of general Alvise Martinengo, Gianantonio Querini and castellan Andrea Bragadin, was hoisted upon the masthead pennant of the personal galley of the Ottoman commander, Amir al-bahr Mustafa Pasha, to be brought to Constantinople as a gift for Sultan Selim II. Bragadin's skin was later purloined from the Constantinople's arsenal in 1580 by the young Venetian seaman, Girolamo Polidori, who brought it back to Venice. The skin was preserved first in the church of San Gregorio, then interred in the Basilica di San Giovanni e Paolo, a traditional burial place of the doges, where it still is. Bragadin's fame rests upon the incredible resistance that he made against the vastly superior besieging forces. From a military point of view, the besieged garrison's perseverance required a massive effort by the Ottoman Turks, who were so heavily committed that they were unable to redeploy in time when the Holy League built up the fleet later victorious against the Muslim power at Lepanto. Historians to this day debate just why Venice did not send help to Bragadin from Souda, Crete. It is alleged that some Venetians thought about putting their limited military assets to better use in the forthcoming clash, already in sight, which would climax in the Battle of Lepanto. When news of Bragadin's agonizing death reached Venice, he was regarded as a martyr and his story galvanized Venetian soldiers in the fleet of the Holy League. The Venetian seamen went on to fight with greater zeal than any of the other combatants at the decisive Battle of Lepanto where an Ottoman fleet was crushed by the combined force of much of Western Europe. An impostor using the name Marco Bragadino claimed to be Bragadin's son. In Venice and later Germany the impostor claimed amongst other things to be able to convert base metals into gold until he was executed in 1591. Sources

• U. Foglietta, The Sieges of Nicosia and Famagusta. London: Waterlow, 1903. • John Julius Norwich, A History of Venice. Random House 1982, pbk. Vintage 1989. ISBN 0-679-72197-5 (bpk) • Hugh Bicheno, Crescent and Cross: The Battle of Lepanto 1571. Phoenix, London, 2003. ISBN 1-84212-753-5 • T. C. F. Hopkins, "Confrontation at Lepanto - Christendom vs. Islam" • G. Monello, "Accadde a Famagosta, l'assedio turco ad una fortezza veneziana ed il suo sconvolgente finale", Cagliari, Scepsi e Mattana, 2006. • Roger Crowley, "Empires of the Sea: The Siege of Malta, the Battle of Lepanto, and the Contest for the center of the World." Random House: New York, NY. 2008.

References

1. ^ Norwich, John Julius (1982). A History of Venice. New York: Vintage Books. pp. 479. ISBN 0-679-72197-5.

157-1576 Titian's Flaying of Marsyas. Some researchers such as Helen Lessore speculate that Bragadin's flaying provided the inspiration for this painting.

Map of Nicosia in Cyprus, created in 1597 by the Venetian Giacomo (Jacomo) Franco (1550-1620) for his book Viaggio da Venetia a

Constantinopoli per Mare. Uploaded from Flickr

Battle of Lepanto 1571


Date 7 October 1571 Location Gulf of Patras, Ionian Sea

Result Decisive Holy League victory

Holy League: Spanish Empire Republic of Venice

Republic of Genoa Papal States Grand Duchy of Tuscany

Knights of Malta Duchy of Savoy

Ottoman Empire


Holy League:[1][2] Christian Center:

John of Austria Sebastiano Venier

Marcantonio Colonna Christian Left: A.

Barbarigo † Christian Right: Gianandrea

Doria Christian Reserve: Álvaro de Bazán

Ottoman Fleet:[3][4]

Turkish Center: Ali Pasha † Turkish Right: Mehmed Siroco †

Turkish Left:

Uluç Ali Reis

208 ships (202 galleys, 6 galleasses)

22,840 soldiers 40,000 sailors and oarsmen 1,334

guns (est.)

251 ships (206 galleys - 45 galliotsP

31,490 soldiers 50,000 sailors and oarsmen 741 guns (est.)[5]


7,500 dead 17 ships lost[6] 20,000 dead, wounded or captured[6][7] 137 ships captured 50 ships sunk 10,000

Christians freed

The Battle of Lepanto took place on 7 October 1571 when a fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of Catholic maritime states, decisively defeated the main fleet of the Ottoman Empire in five hours of fighting on the northern edge of the Gulf of Patras, off western Greece. The Ottoman forces sailing westwards from their naval station in Lepanto (Turkish: Đnebahtı; Greek: Ναύπακτος or Έπαχτος Naupaktos or Épahtos) met the Holy League forces, which had come from Messina. The Victory of the Holy League prevented the Mediterranean Sea from becoming an uncontested highway for Muslim forces, protected Italy from a major Ottoman invasion, and prevented the Ottomans from advancing further into the southern flank of Europe. Lepanto was the last major naval battle in the Mediterranean fought entirely between galleys, and has been assigned great symbolic importance. Forces See Battle of Lepanto order of battle for a detailed list of ships and commanders involved in the battle. The members of the Holy League were Spain (including its territories of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia), the Republic of Venice, the Papacy, the Republic of Genoa, the Duchy of Savoy, the Knights Hospitaller and others. Its fleet consisted of 206 galleys and 6 galleasses (large new galleys, invented by the Venetians, which carried substantial artillery) and was commanded by John of Austria, the illegitimate son of Emperor Charles V and half brother of King Philip II of Spain. Vessels had been contributed by the various Christian states: 109 galleys and 6 galleasses from the Republic of Venice, 80 galleys from Spain, 12 Tuscan galleys of the Order of Saint Stephen, 3 galleys each from the Republic of Genoa, the Knights of Malta, and the Duchy of Savoy, and some privately owned galleys. All members of the alliance viewed the Ottoman navy as a significant threat, both to the security of maritime trade in the Mediterranean Sea and to the security of continental Europe itself. Notwithstanding, Spain preferred to preserve its galleys for its own wars against the nearby sultanates of the Barbary Coast rather than expend its naval strength for Venetian benefit, although it contributed the bulk of the Christian infantry.[8] The various Christian contingents met the main force, that of Venice (under Venier), in July and August 1571 at Messina, Sicily. John of Austria arrived on 23 August. This fleet of the Christian alliance was manned by 40,000 sailors and oarsmen. In addition, it carried almost 28,000 fighting troops: 10,000 Spanish regular infantry of excellent quality,[8] 7,000 Germans and Croatians in Spanish pay,[9] 5,000 Italian mercenaries and 5,000 Venetian soldiers[10], including Greeks from Crete and the Ionian Islands. Also, Venetian oarsmen were mainly free citizens and were able to bear arms adding to the fighting power of their ship, whereas convicts were used to row many of the galleys in other Holy League squadrons.[11] Many of the galleys in the Ottoman fleet were also rowed by slaves, often Christians who had been captured in previous conquests and engagements.[12] Free oarsmen were generally acknowledged to be superior by all combatants, but were gradually replaced in all galley fleets (including those of Venice from 1549) during the 16th century by cheaper slaves, convicts and prisoners-of-war owing to rapidly rising costs.[13] The Ottoman galleys were manned by 13,000 experienced sailors - generally drawn from the maritime nations of the Ottoman Empire, namely Berbers, Greeks, Syrians, and Egyptians—and 34,000 soldiers.[14] Ali Pasha, the Ottoman admiral (Kapudan-i Derya ), supported by the corsairs Chulouk Bey of Alexandria and Uluç Ali, commanded an Ottoman force of 222 war galleys, 56 galliots, and some smaller vessels. The Turks had skilled and experienced crews of sailors but were significantly deficient in their elite corps of Janissaries. The number of oarsmen was about 37,000,

virtually all of them slaves.[15] An advantage for the Christians was their numerical superiority in guns and cannon aboard their ships, and probably the better fighting quality of the Spanish infantry.[8] It is estimated the Christians had 1,815 guns, while the Turks had only 750 with insufficient ammunition.[5][7] The Christians embarked with their much improved arquebusier and musketeer forces, while the Ottomans trusted in their greatly feared composite bowmen.[16] Background The Christian coalition had been promoted by Pope Pius V to rescue the Venetian colony of Famagusta, on the island of Cyprus, which was being besieged by the Turks in early 1571 subsequent to the fall of Nicosia and other Venetian possessions in Cyprus in the course of 1570. The banner for the fleet, blessed by the pope, reached the Kingdom of Naples (then ruled by the King of Spain) on August 14, 1571. There in the Basilica of Santa Chiara it was solemnly consigned to John of Austria, who had been named leader of the coalition after long discussions between the allies. The fleet moved to Sicily, leaving Messina and reaching the port of Viscando, where news arrived of the fall of Famagusta and of the torture inflicted by the Turks on the Venetian commander of the fortress, Marco Antonio Bragadin. On August 1 the Venetians had surrendered after being reassured that they could leave Cyprus freely. However, the Ottoman commander, Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha, who had lost some 52,000 men in the siege[citation needed] (including his son), broke his word, imprisoning the Venetians. On 17 August Bragadin was flayed alive and his corpse hung on Mustafa's galley together with the heads of the Venetian commanders, Astorre Baglioni, Alvise Martinengo and Gianantonio Querini. Despite bad weather, the Christian ships sailed to Kefalonia, where they remained for a while. On 6 October they reached the Gulf of Patras. On 7 October they encountered the Ottoman fleet. While neither fleet had immediate strategic resources or objectives in the gulf, both chose to engage. The Ottoman fleet had an express order from the Sultan to fight, and John of Austria found it necessary to attack in order to maintain the integrity of the expedition in the face of personal and political disagreements within the Holy League. [17] Deployment The Christian fleet formed up in four divisions in a North-South line. At the northern end, closest to the coast, was the Left Division of 53 galleys, mainly Venetian, led by Agostino Barbarigo, with Marco Querini and Antonio da Canale in support. The Centre Division consisted of 62 galleys under John of Austria himself in his Real, along with Sebastiano Venier, later Doge of Venice, Mathurin Romegas and Marcantonio Colonna. The Right Division to the south consisted of another 53 galleys under the Genoese Giovanni Andrea Doria, great-nephew of admiral Andrea Doria. Two galleasses, which had side-mounted cannon, were positioned in front of each main division, for the purpose, according to Miguel de Cervantes (who served on the galley Marquesa during the battle), of preventing the Turks from sneaking in small boats and sapping, sabotaging or boarding the Christian vessels. A Reserve Division was stationed behind (that is, to the west of) the main fleet, to lend support wherever it might be needed. This reserve division consisted of 38 galleys - 30 behind the Centre Division commanded by Álvaro de Bazán, and four behind each wing. A scouting group was formed, from two Right Wing and six Reserve Division galleys. As the Christian fleet was slowly turning around Point Scropha, Doria's Right Division, at the off-shore side, was delayed at the start of the battle and the Right's galleasses did not get into position. The Ottoman fleet consisted of 57 galleys and 2 galliots on its Right under Chulouk Bey, 61 galleys and 32 galliots in the Centre under Ali Pasha in the Sultana, and about 63 galleys and 30 galliots in the South off-shore under Uluç Ali. A small reserve existed of 8 galleys, 22 galliots and 64 fustas, behind the Centre body. Ali Pasha is supposed to have told his Christian galley-slaves: "If I win the battle, I promise you your liberty. If the day is yours, then God has given it to you." John of Austria, more laconically, warned his crew: "There is no paradise for cowards."[18] The battle The left and centre galleasses had been towed half a mile ahead of the Christian line. When the battle started, the Turks mistook the galleasses to be merchant supply vessels and set out to attack them. This proved to be disastrous, the galleasses, with their many guns, alone were said to have sunk up to 70 Ottoman galleys, before the Ottoman fleet left them behind. Their attacks also disrupted the Ottoman formations. As the battle started, Doria found that Uluç Ali's galleys extended further to the south than his own, and so headed south to avoid being out-flanked, instead of holding the Christian line. After the battle Doria was accused of having maneuvered his fleet away from the bulk of the battle to avoid taking damage and casualties. Regardless, he ended up being out maneuvered by Uluç Ali, who turned back and attacked the southern end of the Centre Division, taking advantage of the big gap that Doria had left. In the north, Chulouk Bey had managed to get between the shore and the Christian North Division, with six galleys in an outflanking move, and initially the Christian fleet suffered. Commander Barbarigo was killed by an arrow, but the Venetians, turning to face the threat, held their line. The return of a galleass saved the Christian North Division. The Christian Centre also held the line with the help of the Reserve, after taking a great deal of damage, and caused great damage to the Muslim Centre. In the south, off-shore side, Doria was engaged in a melee with Uluç Ali's ships, taking the worse part. Meanwhile Uluç Ali himself commanded 16 galleys in a fast attack on the Christian Centre, taking six galleys - amongst them the Maltese Capitana, killing all but three men on board. Its commander, Pietro Giustiniani, Prior to the Order of St. John, was severely wounded by five arrows, but was found alive in his cabin. The intervention of the Spaniards Álvaro de Bazán and Juan de Cardona with the reserve turned the battle, both in the Centre and in Doria's South Wing. Uluç Ali was forced to flee with 16 galleys and 24 galliots, abandoning all but one of his captures. During the course of the battle, the Ottoman Commander's ship was boarded and the Spanish tercios from 3 galleys and the Ottoman Janissaries from seven galleys fought on the deck of the Sultana.[19] Twice the Spanish were repelled with heavy casualties, but at the third attempt, with reinforcements from Álvaro de Bazán's galley, they took the ship. Müezzinzade Ali Pasha was killed and beheaded, against the wishes of Don Juan. However, when his severed head was displayed on a pike from the Spanish flagship, it contributed greatly to the destruction of Turkish morale. Even after the battle had clearly turned against the Turks, groups of Janissaries still kept fighting with all they had. It is said that at some point the Janissaries ran out of weapons and started throwing oranges and lemons at their Christian adversaries, leading to awkward scenes of laughter among the general misery of battle.[7] The battle concluded around 4 pm. The Ottoman fleet suffered the loss of about 210 ships—of which 117 galleys, 10 galliots and three fustas were captured and in good enough condition for the Christians to keep. On the Christian side 20 galleys were destroyed and 30 were damaged so seriously that they had to be scuttled. One Venetian galley was the only prize kept by the Turks; all others were abandoned by them and recaptured. Uluç Ali, who had captured the flagship of the Maltese Knights, succeeded in extricating most of his ships from the battle when defeat was certain. Although he had cut the tow on the Maltese flagship in order to get away, he sailed to Constantinople, gathering up other Ottoman ships along the way and finally arriving there with 87 vessels. He presented the huge Maltese flag to Sultan Selim II who thereupon bestowed upon him the honorary title of "kιlιç" (Sword); Uluç thus became known as Kılıç Ali Pasha. The Holy League had suffered around 7,500 soldiers, sailors and rowers dead, but freed about as many Christian prisoners. Ottoman casualties were around 15,000, and at least 3,500 were captured.

Aftermath The engagement was a significant defeat for the Ottomans, who had not lost a major naval battle since the fifteenth century. The defeat was mourned as an act of Divine Will, contemporary chronicles recording that "the Imperial fleet encountered the fleet of the wretched infidels and the will of God turned another way." [20] To half of Christendom, this event encouraged hope for the downfall of "the Turk", the Satan-like personification of the Ottoman Empire,[5] who was regarded as the "Sempiternal Enemy of the Christian". Indeed, the Empire lost all but 30 of its ships and as many as 30,000 men,[16] and some Western historians have held it to be the most decisive naval battle anywhere on the globe since the Battle of Actium of 31 BC. Despite the decisive defeat, the Ottoman Empire rebuilt its navy with a massive effort, by largely imitating the successful Venetian galeasses, in a very short time. By 1572, about six months after the defeat, more than 150 galleys and 8 galleasses, in total 250 ships had been built, including eight of the largest capital ships ever seen in the Mediterranean.[21] With this new fleet the Ottoman Empire was able to reassert its supremacy in the Eastern Mediterranean[22] On 7 March 1573 the Venetians thus recognized by treaty the Ottoman possession of Cyprus, whose last Venetian possession, Famagosta, had fallen to the Turks under Piyale Pasha on 3 August 1571, just two months before Lepanto, and remained Turkish for the next three centuries, and that summer the Ottoman navy attacked the geographically vulnerable coasts of Sicily and southern Italy. Sultan Selim II's Chief Minister, the Grand Vizier Mehmed Sokullu, argued to the Venetian emissary Marcantonio Barbaro that the Christian triumph at Lepanto made no lasting harm to the Ottoman Empire, while the capture of Cyprus by the Ottomans in the same year was a significant blow, saying that: You come to see how we bear our misfortune. But I would have you know the difference between your loss and ours. In wresting Cyprus from you, we deprived you of an arm; in defeating our fleet, you have only shaved our beard. An arm when cut off cannot grow again; but a shorn beard will grow all the better for the razor.[23] Numerous historians pointed out the historical importance of the battle and how it served as a turning point in history. For instance, it is argued that while the ships were relatively easily replaced, [16] it proved much harder to man them, since so many experienced sailors, oarsmen and soldiers had been lost. The loss of so many of its experienced sailors at Lepanto sapped the fighting effectiveness of the Ottoman navy, a fact emphasized by their avoidance of major confrontations with Christian navies in the years following the battle. After 1580, the discouraged Ottomans left the fleet to rot in the waters of the Horn.[24] Especially critical was the loss of most of the caliphate's composite bowmen, which, far beyond ship rams and early firearms, were the Ottoman's main embarked weapon. British historian John Keegan noted that the losses in this highly specialised class of warrior were irreplaceable in a generation, and in fact represented "the death of a living tradition" for the Ottomans.[16] Historian Paul K. Davis has argued that: This Turkish defeat stopped Turkey's expansion into the Mediterranean, thus maintaining western dominance, and confidence grew in the west that Turks, previously unstoppable, could be beaten.[25] In 1574, the Ottomans retook the strategic city of Tunis from the Spanish supported Hafsid dynasty, that had been re-installed when Don Juan's forces reconquered the city from the Ottomans the year before. With the long-standing Franco-Ottoman alliance coming into play they were able to resume naval activity in the western Mediterranean. In 1579 the capture of Fez completed Ottoman conquests in Morocco that had begun under Süleyman the Magnificent. The establishment of Ottoman suzerainty over the area placed the entire coast of the Mediterranean from the Straits of Gibraltar to Greece (with the exceptions of the Spanish controlled trading city of Oran and strategic settlements such as Melilla and Ceuta) – under Ottoman authority. Thus, this victory for the Holy League was historically important not only because the Turks lost 80 ships sunk and 130 captured by the Allies, and 30,000 men killed (not including 12,000 Christian galley slaves who were freed) while allied losses were 7,500 men and 17 galleys - but because the victory heralded the end of Turkish supremacy in the Mediterranean.[16][26] It has been said that "after Lepanto the pendulum swung back the other way and the wealth began to flow from East to West", as well as "a crucial turning point in the ongoing conflict between the Middle East and Europe, which has not yet completely been resolved."[27] Religious significance The Holy League credited the victory to the Virgin Mary, whose intercession with God they had implored for victory through the use of the Rosary. Andrea Doria had kept a copy of the miraculous image of our Our Lady of Guadalupe given to him by King Philip II of Spain in his ship's state room.[28] Pope Pius V instituted a new Catholic feast day of Our Lady of Victory to commemorate the battle, which is now celebrated by the Catholic Church as the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary.[29][30] Depictions in art and culture The significance of Lepanto has inspired artists in various fields.The only known commemorative music composed after the victory is the motet Canticum Moysis (Song of Moses Exodus 15) Pro victoria navali contra Turcas by the Spanish composer based in Rome Fernando de las Infantas[31] There are many pictorial representations of the battle, including one in the Doge's Palace in Venice, by Andrea Vicentino on the walls of the Sala dello Scrutinio, which replaced Tintoretto's Victory of Lepanto, destroyed by fire in 1577. A painting by Paolo Veronese is in the collection of the Gallerie dell'Accademia in Venice and Titian's Allegory of the Battle of Lepanto, using the battle as a background, hangs in the Prado in Madrid. A painting by Filipino painter Juan Luna depicting the Battle of Lepanto is also displayed at the Spanish Senate in Madrid. The battle has also appeared in literature and poetry. Spanish poet Fernando de Herrera wrote the poem "Canción en alabanza de la divina majestad por la victoria del Señor Don Juan" in 1572. The English author G. K. Chesterton wrote a poem Lepanto, first published in 1911 and republished many times since. It provides a series of poetic visions of the major characters in the battle, particularly the leader of the Christian forces, Don Juan of Austria (John of Austria). It closes with verses linking Miguel de Cervantes, who fought in the battle, with the "lean and foolish knight" he would later immortalize in Don Quixote. Miguel de Cervantes lost the use of an arm in this battle and therefore he is known as el manco de Lepanto in the Hispanic world. The battle also features prominently in "Scenes from an Execution" by British playwright Howard Barker, in which a fictional artist is commissioned to create a painting of the battle. See also

• Battle of Preveza (1538) • Battle of Djerba (1560) • Siege of Malta (1565) • Ottoman-Habsburg wars • Our Lady of the Rosary Notes

1. ^ Drane, Augusta Theodosia (1858). The Knights of st. John: with The battle of Lepanto and Siege of Vienna. London. 2. ^ Konstam, Angus (2003). Lepanto 1571: the greatest naval battle of the Renaissance. Oxford.

3. ^ George Ripley and Charles A. Dana (1867). The new American cyclopaedia: Volume 10. New York. 4. ^ Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1984). The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571, Volume 161. Philadelphia. 5. ^ a b The number of Turkish guns is said to be deduced from list of booty after the battle. These lists are unlikely to be complete. 6. ^ a b Confrontation at Lepanto by T.C.F. Hopkins, intro 7. ^ a b c Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution, p. 88 8. ^ a b c Stevens (1942), p. 61 9. ^ Clissold (1966), p. 43. 10. ^ Konstan (2003), p. 20 11. ^ John F. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 222-225 12. ^ John F. Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys, pp. 222-225 13. ^ The first regularly sanctioned use of convicts as oarsmen on Venetian galleys did not occur until 1549. re Tenenti, Cristoforo da Canal, pp. 83, 85. See Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice (Berkeley, 1967), pp. 124-25, for Cristoforo da Canal's comments on the tactical effectiveness of free oarsmen c. 1587 though he was mainly concerned with their higher cost. Ismail Uzuncarsili, Osmanli Devletenin Merkez ve Bahriye Teskilati (Ankara, 1948), p. 482, cites a squadron of 41 Ottoman galleys in 1556 of which the flagship and two others were rowed by Azabs, salaried volunteer light infantrymen, three were rowed by slaves, and the remaining 36 were rowed by salaried mercenary Greek oarsmen. 14. ^ Stevens (1942), p. 63 15. ^ Konstan (2003), pp. 20-21 16. ^ a b c d e A History Of Warfare - Keegan, John, Vintage, 1993 17. ^ Glete, Jan: Warfare at Sea, 1500-1650: Maritime Conflicts and the Transformation of Europe. Routledge. 2000. pp. 105. Retrieved from Ebrary. 18. ^ Stevens (1942), p. 64 19. ^ A flag taken at Lepanto by the Knights of the Order of Saint Stephen, and traditionally said to be the standard of the Turkish commander, is still in display, together with other Turkish flags, in the Church of the seat of the Order in Pisa. [1], [2] (in italian) 20. ^ Wheatcroft 2004, pp.33-34 21. ^ J. Norwich, A History of Venice, 490 22. ^ L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, 272 23. ^ Wheatcroft 2004, p. 34 24. ^ Roger Crowley, "Empires of the Sea: The siege of Malta, the battle of Lepanto and the contest for the center of the world", publisher Random House, 2008, p287 25. ^ Davis, Paul K. 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present 26. ^ [3] 27. ^ Serpil Atamaz Hazar, “Review of Confrontation at Lepanto: Christendom vs. Islam,” The Historian 70.1 (Spring 2008): 163. 28. ^ Badde, Paul. Maria von Guadalupe. Wie das Erscheinen der Jungfrau Weltgeschichte schrieb. ISBN 3548605613. 29. ^ Answers to Recent Questions 30. ^ EWTN on Battle of Lepanto (1571) [4] 31. ^ Stevenson, R. Chapter 'Other church masters' section 14. 'Infantas' in Spanish Cathedral Music in the Golden Age pp316-318. References

• Anderson, R. C. Naval Wars in the Levant 1559-1853 (2006), ISBN 1-57898-538-2 • Beecher, Jack The Galleys at Lepanto Hutchinson, London, 1982; ISBN 0-09147-920-7 • Bicheno, Hugh. Crescent and Cross: The Battle of Lepanto 1571, pbk., Phoenix, London, 2004, ISBN 1-84212-753-5 • Capponi, Niccolò (2006). Victory of the West:The Great Christian-Muslim Clash at the Battle of Lepanto. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-30681-544-3. • Chesterton, G. K. Lepanto with Explanatory Notes and Commentary, Dale Ahlquist, ed. (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2003). ISBN 1-58617-030-9 • Clissold, Von Stephen (1966). A short history of the Yugoslav peoples. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-04676-9. • Cakir, Đbrahim Etem, "Lepanto War and Some Informatıon on the Reconstructıon of The Ottoman Fleet", Turkish Studies -International Periodical For The Language Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, V o l u me 4 / 3 S p r i n g 2 0 0 9, pp. 512–531 • Cook, M.A. (ed.), "A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730", Cambridge University Press, 1976; ISBN 0-521-20891-2 • Crowley, Roger Empires of the Sea: The siege of Malta, the battle of Lepanto and the contest for the center of the world, Random House, 2008. ISBN 978-1-4000-6624-7 • Currey, E. Hamilton, "Sea-Wolves of the Mediterranean", John Murrey, 1910 • Hanson, Victor D. Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise of Western Power, Anchor Books, 2001. Published in the UK as Why the West has Won, Faber and Faber, 2001. ISBN 0-571-21640-4. Includes a chapter about the battle of Lepanto • Hess, Andrew C. "The Battle of Lepanto and Its Place in Mediterranean History", Past and Present, No. 57. (Nov., 1972), pp. 53–73 • Konstam, Angus, Lepanto 1571: The Greatest Naval Battle of the Renaissance. Osprey Publishing, Oxford. 2003. ISBN 1-84176-409-4 • Stevens, William Oliver and Allan Westcott (1942). A History of Sea Power. Doubleday. • Harbottle's Dictionary of Battles, third revision by George Bruce, 1979

• Warner, Oliver Great Sea Battles (1968) has "Lepanto 1571" as its opening chapter. ISBN 0-89673-100-6 • The New Cambridge Modern History, Volume I - The Renaissance 1493-1520, edited by G. R. Potter, Cambridge University Press 1964 • Wheatcroft, Andrew (2004). Infidels: A History of the Conflict between Christendom and Islam. Penguin Books. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Battle of Lepanto • Battle of Lepanto animated battle map by Jonathan Webb • Chronicle of the battle of Lepanto by Luis Coloma, SJ • "Lepanto cultural center" • The Battle that Saved the Christian West by Christopher Check • Overview of the battle • Lepanto: The Battle that Saved Christendom? • "The Tactics of the Battle of Lepanto Clarified: The Impact of Social, Economic, and Political Factors on Sixteenth Century Galley Warfare"

Battle of Lepanto order of battle

Álvaro de Bazán, Neapolitan commander (1526—1588) Agostino BarbarigoPortrait of Andrea Doria, by Sebastiano del Piombo.


This is the order of battle during the Battle of Lepanto on 7 October 1571 in which the Holy League deployed 6 galleasses and 206 galleys, while the Ottoman forces numbered 216 galleys and 56 galliots.

The Fleet of the Holy League¹ The combined Christian fleet was placed under the command of John of Austria (Don Juan de Austria) with Marcantonio Colonna

as his principal deputy. The Left Wing Commanded by Agostino Barbarigo (53 galleys, 2 galleasses) • Venetian Galleasses (2)

o Galleass of Ambrogio Bragadin o Galleass of Antonio Bragadin

• Venetian Galleys (39) o Capitana Lanterna (flagship lantern) of Venice (L) — Agostino Barbarigo †, Prov. General o Capitana (flagship) of Venice (L) — Marco Querini, Prov. of the Fleet o Fortuna (Fortune) of Venice — Andrea Barbarigo † o Tre Mani (Three Hands) of Venice — Giorgio Barbarigo o Due Delfini (Two Dolphins) of Candia — Francesco Zen o Leone e Fenice (Lion & Phoenix) of Candia — Francesco Mengano o Madonna (Milady) of Candia — Filippo Polani o Cavallo Marino (Seahorse) of Candia — Antonio De Cavalli o Due Leoni (Two Lions) of Candia — Nicolò Fradello o Leone (Lion) of Candia — Francesco Bonvecchio o Cristo (Christ) of Candia I — Andrea Corner o Angelo (Angel) of Candia — Giovanni Angelo o Piramide (Pyramid) of Candia — Francesco Bono † o Cristo Risorto (Risen Christ) of Venice I — Simon Guoro o Cristo Risorto (Risen Christ) of Venice II — Federico Renier o Cristo (Christ) of Corfu — Cristoforo Condocolli o Cristo Risorto (Risen Christ) of Candia I — Francesco Zancaruol o Cristo (Christ) of Venice I — Bartolomeo Donato o Cristo (Christ) of Candia II— Giovanni Corner o Christo Risordo (Risen Christ) of Candia II o Rodi (Rhodes) of Candia — Francesco Molini (Konstam gives Kodus) o Sant'Eufemia (St. Euphemia) of Brescia — Orazio Fisogni o Bravo (Skillful) of Candia — Michele Viramano (Konstam gives Blessed) o Cavallo Marino (Seahorse) of Venice o Cristo (Christ) of Candia III — Danielo Calefatti o Braccio (Arm) of Venice — Nicolò Lippomano (Konstam gives "of Candia") o Nostra Signora (Our Lady) of Zante — Nicolò Mondini o Christo Risordo (Risen Christ) of Candia III — Giorgio Calergi o Nostra Signora (Our Lady) of Venice I — Marcantonio Pisani

o Dio Padre e Santa Trinità (God, Father & Holy Trinity) of Venice — Giovanni Marino Contarini † o Cristo Risorto (Risen Christ) of Venice III — Giovanni Battista Querini o Angelo (Angel) of Venice — Onfre Giustiniani o Santa Dorotea (St. Dorothy) of Venice — Polo Nani o Ketianana of Rethymno/Retimo — Nicolò Avonal o Lion's Head of Istria o Croce (Cross) of Cefalonia — Marco Cimera o Vergine Santa (Virgin Saint) of Cefalonia — Cristoforo Criffa o Cristo Risorto (Risen Christ) of Veglia — Lodovico Cicuta (Konstam gives "of Vegia") o San Nicolò (St. Nicholas) of Cherso — Colane Drascio o Some sources include:

� Dama a cavallo (Lady on Horseback) of Candia — Antonio Eudomeniani � Leone (Lion) of Capodistria — Domenico Del Taco

• Spanish and Neapolitan Galleys (12) o Lomellina of Naples — Agostino Cancuale (Konstam gives "of Spain") o Fiamma (Flame) of Naples — Juan de las Cuevas o San Giovanni (St. John) of Naples — Garcia de Vergara o Invidia (Envy) of Naples — Teribio de Accaves o Brava (Skillful) of Naples — Miguel Quesada (Konstam gives Blessed) o San Jacopo (St. James) of Naples — Moferat Guardiola o San Nicola (St. Nicholas) of Naples — Cristobal de Mongiu (Konstam gives San Nicolò) o Vittoria (Victory) of Naples — Occava of Rocadi o Fortuna (Fortune) of Gio Andrea Doria — Giovanni Alvigi Belvi (Konstam gives "of St. Andrew") o 3 other unnamed galleys, given by some sources as:

� Sagittaria (Archer) of Naples — Martino Pirola � Idra (Hydra) of Naples — Luigi Pasqualigo � Santa Lucia (St. Lucy) of Naples — Francesco Bono

• Papal Galley (1) o Regina (Queen) — Fabio Valicati (Konstam gives Reign)

• Genoese Galley (1) o Marchesa (Marquise) of Gio Andrea Doria — Francesco San Fedra (Konstam gives Marchessa)

The Center Division Commanded by Don John of Austria (62 galleys, 2 galleasses) • Venetian Galleasses (2)

o Galleass of Jacopo Guoro o Galleass of Francesco Duodo

• Venetian Galleys (29) o Capitana (flagship) of Venice (L) — Sebastiano Venier, Captain-General of the Navy o Capitana (flagship) of Lomellini — Paolo Orsini o Padrona (squadron flagship) of Lomellini — Pier Battista Lomellini o Capitana (flagship) of Mari — Giorgio d'Asti o San Giovanni (St. John) of Venice I — Pietro Badoaro o Tronco (Trunk) of Venice — Girolamo Canale o Mongibello (Mt. Gibel) of Venice — Bertucci Contarini o Vergine (Virgin) of Candia o Nostra Signora (Our Lady) of Venice II — Giovanni Zeni o Cristo (Christ) of Venice II — Girolamo Contarini o Ruota con Serpente (Wheel & Serpent) — Gabrio da Canale o Piramide (Pyramid) of Venice o Palma (Palm) of Venice — Girolamo Venier † o San Teodoro (St. Theodore[disambiguation needed]) of Venice — Teodoro Balbi o Montagna (Mountain) of Candia — Alessandro Vizzamano o San Giovanni Battista (St. John the Baptist) of Venice — Giovanni Mocenigo o Cristo (Christ) of Venice III — Giorgio Pisani o San Giovanni (St. John) of Venice II — Daniele Moro o Passaro (Sparrow) of Venice — Nicolò Tiepolo o Leone (Lion) of Venice — Pietro Pisani o San Girolamo (St. Jerome) of Venice — Gasparo Malipiero o Giuditta (Judith) of Zante — Marino Sicuro o San Cristoforo (St. Christopher) of Venice — Alessandro Contarini o Armellino (Ermine) of Candia — Marco Quirini (Konstam gives Armelino) o Mezza Luna (Half Moon) of Venice — Valerio Valleresso o Uomo di Mare (Man of the Sea) of Vicenza — Jacopo Draffano o Sant'Alessandro (St. Alexander) of Bergamo — Giovanni Antonio Colleoni o San Girolamo (St. Jerome) of Lesina[disambiguation needed] — Giovanni Balsi o Another unnamed Venetian galley

• Genoese Galleys (8) o Capitana (flagship) of Genoa (L) — Ettore Spinola †

o Capitana (flagship) of Gil d'Andrada (L) — Bernardo Cinoguera o Padrona (squadron flagship) of Genoa (L) — Pellerano o Padrona (squadron flagship) of David Imperiali (Sicily) — Nicolò da Luvano o Perla (Pearl) of Gio Andrea Doria — Giovanni Battista Spinola o Temperanza (Temperance) of Gio Andrea Doria — Cipriano De Mari o Vittoria (Victory) of Gio Andrea Doria — Filippo Doria o Doria of Gio Andrea Doria — Jacopo of Casale (Konstam gives Piramide, Pyramid)

• Spanish, Sicilian, Savoyard, & Neapolitan Galleys (15) o Real (royal flagship) — Don John of Austria, admiral of the navy o Capitana (flagship) of Castille — Luis de Requesens o Capitana (flagship) of Savoy — Andrea Provana of Leinì (Konstam gives Prince of Urbino, admiral of Savoy) o Patrona Real (royal squadron flagship) — Juan Bautista Cortés or Luis de Requesens o Capitana (flagship) of Bandinelli (Naples) — Bandinelli Sauli (Konstam gives Bandinella & Bendinelli) o Capitana (flagship) of Grimaldi (Naples) — Giorgio Grimaldi o Padrona (squadron flagship) of Naples — Francesco de Benavides (Konstam gives Bonavides) o Roccaful of Spain — Roccaful (Konstam gives Fortress) o San Francisco (St. Francis) of Spain o Granada of Spain — Paolo Bottino (Konstam gives Granata) o Figiera of Spain — Diego Lopez de Ilianos o Luna (Moon) of Spain — Manuel de Aguilar o Fortuna (Fortune) of Naples o Mendoza of Naples — Alvaro of Bazán (Konstam gives Mendozza) o San Giorgio (St. George) of Naples — Eugenio de Vargas o Another unnamed galley, given by some sources as:

� Piramide con cane (Pyramid & Dog) of Spain (?) — Marcantonio Uliana • Papal Galleys (6) (including Tuscan contingent)

o Capitana (flagship) of His Holiness — Marcantonio Colonna, flagship of the papal contingent o Toscana (Tuscany) of Tuscany — Metello Caracciolo o Pisana (Pisa) of Tuscany — Ercole Lotta o Firenze (Florence) of Tuscany — Tommaso De' Medici o Pace (Peace) of His Holiness — Jacopo Antonio Perpignano o Vittoria (Victoria) of His Holiness — Baccio of Pisa o Some sources also include

� Grifona (Gryphon) of His Holiness — Alessandro Negrone • Galleys of the Knights of Malta (3)

o Capitana (flagship) of Malta — Pietro Giustiniani †, prior of Messina; flagship of the Maltese contingent (Konstam gives "Justin, the Prior of Messina")

o San Pietro (St. Peter) — Roquelare St.-Aubin (Konstam gives The Order of St. Peter) o San Giovanni (St. John) — Alonso de Texada (Konstam gives The Order of St. John)

The Right Wing Commanded by Gian Andrea Doria (53 galleys, 2 galleasses) • Venetian Galleasses (2)

o Galleass of Andrea da Cesare o Galleass of Pietro Pisani

• Venetian Galleys (25) o Padrona (squadron flagship) of Mari (Parini) — Antonio Corriglia o Forza (Force) of Venice — Rinieri Zeni o Regina (Queen) of Candia — Giovanni Barbarigo (Konstam gives Rema) o Nino (Boy) of Venice — Paulo Polani o Cristo Risorto (Risen Christ) of Venice IV — Benedetto Soranzo o Palma (Palm) of Candia — Jacopo di Mezzo † o Angelo (Angel) of Corfu — Stelio Carchiopulo o Nave (Ship) of Venice — Antonio Pasqualigo o Nostra Signora (Our Lady) of Candia — Marco Foscarini o Cristo (Our Lady) of Candia IV — Francesco Cornero o Fuoco (Flame) of Candia — Antonio Boni o Aquila (Eagle) of Candia — Girolamo Zorzi o San Cristoforo (St. Christopher) of Venice — Andrea Tron o Cristo (Christ) of Venice IV — Marcantonio Lando † o Speranza (Hope) of Candia — Girolamo Cornaro † o San Giuseppe (St. Joseph) of Venice — Nicolò Donato o Torre (Tower) of Vicenza — Lodovico da Porto o Aquila (Eagle) of Corfu — Pietro Bua † o Aquila (Eagle) of Rethymno/Retimo — Pietro Pisano o San Giovanni (St. John) of Arbe — Giovanni de Dominis o La Donna (The Lady) of Friuli/Traù — Luigi Cipoco o Re Attila (King Attila) of Padua — Pataro Buzzacarini (Konstam gives Reality) o 3 other unnamed galleys, given by some sources as

� Uomo Armato (Armed Man) of Retimo — Andrea Calergi, signore of Candia � San Vittorio (St. Victor[disambiguation needed]) of Crema — Evangelista Zurla � San Trifone (St. Tryphon) of Cattaro/Kotor — Girolamo Bisante or Bizanti

• Spanish and Neapolitan Galleys (10) o Sicilia (Sicily) of Sicily — Francesco Amodei o Piemontese (Savoyard) of Savoy — Ottavio Moretto † o Margherita (Margaret) of Savoy — Battaglino o Cingana of Naples — Gabriel de Medina o Luna (Moon) of Naples — Julio Rubio o Speranza (Hope) of Naples — Pedro de Busto o Gusmana of Naples — Francesco de Osedo o 3 other unnamed galleys, given by some sources as

� Fortuna (Fortuna) of Naples — Diego de Medrano � Determinada (Determined) of Naples — Juan de Angustina Carasa � Turca (Turk) — Simone Goto

• Genoese Galleys (16)

o Capitana (flagship) of Gio Andrea Doria — Gio Andrea Doria o Capitana (flagship) of Negroni — Gio Ambrogio Negroni o Padrona (squadron flagship) of Grimaldi — Lorenzo Treccia (Konstam gives "Trecha") o Padrona (squadron flagship) of Nicolò Doria — Giulio Centurione (Konstam gives "of Andrea Doria") o Padrona (squadron flagship) of Negroni — Luigi Gamba o Padrona (squadron flagship) of Lomellini — Giorgio Greco o Swordsman of Rethymno/Retimo o San Vittorio (St. Victor[disambiguation needed]) of Crema o Furia (Fury) of Lomellini — Jacopo Chiappe o Negrona (Negress) of Negroni — Nicolo da Costa o Bastarda (Bastard) of Negroni — Lorenzo da Torre o San Tritone of Cataro o Monarca (Monarch) of Gio Andrea Doria — Nicolò Garibaldo o Donzella (Maid) of Gio Andrea Doria — Nicolò Imperiale o Diana of Genoa — Giovanni Giorgio Lasagna o Another unnamed Genoese galley, given by some sources as

� Urania of Genoa o Other sources include

� Capitana (flagship) of Nicolò Doria — Pandolfo Polidoro � Padrona (squadron flagship) of Mari — Antonio Corniglia

• Papal Galleys (2) o Santa Maria (St. Mary) of His Holiness — Pandolfo Strozzi o San Giovanni (St. John) of His Holiness — Angelo (or Antonio) Bifali

The Rearguard Commanded by Don Álvaro de Bazán (38 galleys, including 8 galleys of the Advance Guard) • Venetian Galleys (12)

o Cristo (Christ) of Venice V — Marco da Molino o Due Mani (Two Hands) of Venice — Giovanni Loredano † o Fede (Faith) of Venice — Giovanni Battista Contarini o Pilastro (Pillar) of Venice — Caterino Malipiero o Maddalena (Magdalene) of Venice — Alvigi Balbe o Signora (Lady) of Venice — Giovanni Bembo o Mondo (World) of Venice — Filippo Leoni o Speranza (Hope) of Cipro — Giovanni Battista Benedetti † (Konstam gives "of Venice") o San Pietro (St. Peter) of Venice — Marco Fiumaco o Sibilla (Sibyl) of Venice — Danielo Troni o San Giorgio (St. George) of Sebenico — Cristoforo Lucio o San Michele (St. Michael) of Venice — Giorgio Cochini

• Spanish and Neapolitan Galleys (13) o Lupa (Wolf) of Naples — Don Alvaro de Bazan, Marchese of Santa Cruz; Neapolitan flagship o Capitana (flagship) of Vasquez (Spain) — Juan Vasquez de Coronado o San Giovanni (St. John) of Sicily — David Imperiale o Gru (Crane) of Spain — Luis Heredia o Leonessa (Lioness) of Naples (Konstam gives Leona) o Costanza of Naples — Pietro Delagia o Marchesa (Marquise) of Naples — Juan de Machado † o Santa Barbara (St. Barbara) of Naples — Giovanni de Ascale o Sant'Andrea (St. Andrew) of Naples o Santa Caterina (St. Catherine[disambiguation needed]) of Naples — Juan Rufis de Velasco o Sant'Angelo of Naples o Terana of Naples — Giovanni de Riva of Neillino

o Another unnamed Spanish or Neapolitan galley, given by some sources as � Ocasion (Occasion) of Spain — Pedro de Roig

• Papal Galleys (3) o Padrona (squadron flagship) of His Holiness — Alfonso d'Appiano o Suprema (Supremacy) — Antonio da Ascoli o Serena (Serenity)

• Genoese Galleys (2) o Baccana — Giovanni Pietro de Morilo o Another unnamed Genoese galley, given by some sources as

� San Bartolomeo (St. Bartholomew) The Vanguard Commanded by Juan de Cardona (8 galleys attached to the Reserve force)

• o Capitana (flagship) of Sicilia — Giovanni Antonio de Cardona o Padrona (squadron flagship) of Sicily o San Giovanni (St. John) of Sicily — Davide Imperiale o San Ionica of Sicily o Santa Maddalena (St. Magdalene) of Venice — Marino Contarini o Sole (Sun) of Venice — Vincenzo Quirini † o Santa Caterina (St. Catherine) of Venice — Marco Cicogna o Nostra Donna (Our Lady) of Venice — Pier Francesco Malipiero (Konstam gives "Our Woman")

The Ottoman Fleet² Supreme command of the Ottoman Fleet was held by Müezzinzade Ali Pasha The Left Wing Commanded by Uluç Ali Reis (61 galleys, 32 galliots) • Turkish (Constantinople) Galleys (14)

o Nasur Ferhad o Kasam Reis o Osman Reis o Kiafi Hajji o Ferhad Ali o Memi Bey o Piri Osman o Piri Reis o Selim Basti o Talatagi Reis o Celebi Reis o Tartar Ali o Kafir Hajji o Karaman Pasha

• Barbary (Algerian) Galleys (14) o Uluç Ali Reis - Wing commander o Karl Ali o Karaman Ali o Alemdar Pasha o Sinian Celebi o Amdjazade Mustafa o Dragud Ali o Seydi Ali o Peri Selim o Murad Darius o Uluj Reis o Macasir Ali o Ionas Osman o Salim Deli

• Syrian Galleys (6) o Kara Bey o Dermat Bey o Osman Bey o Iusuf Ali o Kari Alemdar o Murad Hasan

• Anatolian Galleys (13) o Karali Reis o Piriman Reis o Hazuli Sinian o Chios Mehemet

o Hignau Mustafa o Cademly Mustafa o Uschiufly Memy o Kari Mora o Darius Pasha o Piali Osman o Tursun Osman o Iosul Piali o Keduk Seydi

• Greek (Negropont) Galleys (14) o Seydi Reis o Arnaud Ali o Chendereli Mustafa o Mustafa Hajji o Sali Reis o Hamid Ali o Karaman Hyder o Magyar Fehrad o Nasur Ferhad o Nasi Reis o Kara Rhodi o Kos Hajji o Kos Mend o Karam Bey (Albanian)

• Turkish (Constantinople) Galliots (19) o Uluj Piri Pasha o Karaman Suleiman o Haneshi Ahmed o Hyder Enver o Nur Memi o Karaman Reis o Kaleman Memi o Guzman Ferhad o Hunyadis Hasan o Kemal Murad o Sarmusal Reis o Tursun Suleiman o Celebi Iusuf o Hascedi Hassan o Sian Memi o Osman Dagli o Karaman Reis o 2 unnamed Turkish galiots

• Albanian Galiots (8) o Deli Murad o Alemdar Reis o Sian Siander o Alemrdar Ali o Hasan Omar o Seydi Aga o Hasan Sinam o Jami Fazil

• Anatolian Galiots (5) o Kara Alemdhar o Suzi Memi o Nabi Reis o Hasan Osman o Hunyadi Iusuf

The Centre Division Commanded by Ali Pasha (87 galleys divided into the First Line (among which are the fittest and newest galleys of the fleet) and the Second Line) First Line • Turkish (Constantinople) Galleys (22)

o Muezzenade Ali Pasha Sultana - Fleet flagship o Osman Reis - Wing commander o Portasi Pasha - Commander, embarked troops o Hasan Pasha (son of Barbarossa) o Hasan Reis

o Kos Ali o Kilik Reais o Uluj Reis o Piri Uluj Bey o Dardagan Reis - Governor of the Arsenal o Deli Osman o Piri Osman o Demir Celebi o Darius Haseki o Sinian Mustafa o Heseki Reis o Hasan Uluj o Kosem Iusuf o Aga Ahmed o Osman Seydi o Darius Celebi o Kafar Reis

• Rhodes Galleys (12) o Hasan Rey - Governor of Rhodes (L) o Deli Chender- date=June 2011[disambiguation needed] of Rhodes (L) o Osa Reis o Postana Uluj o Khalifa Uluj o Ghazni Reis o Dromus Reis o Berber Kali o Karagi Reis o Occan Reis o Deli Ali o Hajji Aga

• Black Sea (Bulgarian and Bithynian) Galleys (13) o Prauil Aga o Kara Reis o Arnaud Reis o Jami Uluj o Arnaud Celebi o Magyar Ali o Kali Celebi o Deli Celebi o Deli Assan o Kamen Aga o Sinian Reis o Kari Mustafa o Seydi Arnaud

• Gallipoli Galleys (4) o Piri Hamagi o Ali Reis o Iusuf Ali o Sinian Bektashi

• Greek (Negropont) Galleys (11) o Osman Reis o Mehmed Bey - Governor of Metelina o Baktashi Uluj o Baktashi Mustafa o Sinian Ali o Agdagi Reis o Deli Iusuf o Orphan Ali o Cali Celebi o Bagdar Reis o Hanyadi Mustafa

Second Line • Constantinople Galleys (12)

o Tramontana Reis o Murad Reis o Suleiman Celebi o Deli Ibrahim

o Murad Korosi o Darnad Ali o Kari Reis o Darius Sinian o Dardagi Ali o Hyder Carai o Darius Ali o Kan Ali

• Barbary (Tripoli) Galleys (6) o Hyder Aga o Kari Hamat o Husam Kahlim Ali o Deram Uluj o Deydi Ali o Mohammed Ali

• Gallipoli Galleys (7) o Aziz Khalifa - Governor of Gallipoli o Selim Sahi o Seydi Pasha o Hasan Mustafa o Hasseri Ali o Hassan Deli o Iusuf Seydi

The Right Wing Commanded by Mehmet Sulik Pasha (60 galleys and 2 galiots) • Turkish (Constantinople) Galleys (20)

o Suleiman Bey o Kara Mustafa o Ibrahim Reis o Suleiman Reis o Karaman Ibrahim o Chender Sinian o Hasan Nabi o Ali 'Genoese' o Hali Reis o Seydi Selim o Kumar Iusuf o Bardas Celebi o Bardas Hasan o Fazil Ali Bey o Drusari Piri o Koda Ali o Sinaman Mustafa o Caracoza Ali o Mustafa Alendi o Mamara Reis

• Babary (Tripoli) Galleys (5) o Arga Pasha o Arnaut Ferhad o Darnad Iusuf o Suleiman Reis o Fazil Memi

• Anatolian Galleys (13) o Mehemet Bey o Maysor Ali o Amurat Reis o Kalifi Memi o Murad Mustafa o Hyder Mehmet o Sinian Darius o Mehmet Darius o Amdjazade Simian o Adagi Hasan o Sinjji Musafa o Hajji Cebebi o Tursan Mustafa

• Egyptian (Alexandrian) Galleys (22) o Mehmet Julik Pasha (wing commander)

o Kari Ali o Herus Reis o Karas Turbat o Bagli Serif o Hasan Celebi o Osman Celebi o Dink Kasai o Osman Occan o Darius Aga o Drazed Sinian o Osman Ali o Deli Aga o Dardagut Bardabey o Kasli Khan o Iusuf Aga o Iusuf Magyar o Khalifa Hyder o Mustafa Kemal o Dernadi Piri o Memi Hasan o Kari Ali

• Egyptian (Alexandrian) Galiots (2) o Abdul Reis o Piali Murad

The Rearguard Commanded by Amuret Dragut Rais (8 galleys and 22 galiots) • Greek (Negropont) Galleys (4)

o Amuret Dragut Reis o Kaidar Memi o Deli Dori o Hasan Sinian

• Anatolian Galleys (4) o Deli Suleiman o Deli Bey o Kiafar Bey o Kasim Sinian

• Mixed Squadron of Galiots (22) o Ali Uluj o Kara Deli o Ferhad Kara Ali o Dardagud Reis o Kasim Kara o Hasan Reis o Alemdar Hasan o Kos Ali o Hajji Ali o Kurtprulu Celebi o Setagi Meni o Setagi Osman o Hyder Ali o Hyder Deli o Armad Memi o Hasan Reis o Jami Naser o Nur Ali o Kari Ali o Murad Ali o Iumaz Ali o Haneschi Murad

Notes on ship nomenclature

1. Several vessels among the fleet of the Holy League bore the same name. Whilst this is not unheard of among ships belonging to different nationalities, some of the said ships belong to the same nation. These did not seem to be of great importance to Christian commanders at that time. In order to avoid confusion, those vessels bearing the same name were suffixed with ordinal number according to nationality (i.e. Christ of Candia I, Christ of Candia II; Christ of Venice I, Christ of Venice II, etc.).

2. In contrast to their Western contemporaries, Turkish records only show the names of commanders of the ships instead of the names of the ship themselves.

3. In Italian use, various flagships were called by the rank of their commander. A reale ("royal") was personally commanded by a king or his agent; a capitana ("captainess") by a captain general; a padrona ("mistress") by a padrone.

References

• Braudel, Fernand (1972-73). The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. trans. Siân Reynolds (2 vols. ed.). London: Collins. ISBN 0-00-211536-0 (vol. 1), ISBN 0-00-211540-9 (vol. 2).

• Konstam, Angus (2003). Lepanto 1571: The Greatest Naval Battle of the Renaissance. illus. Tony Bryan. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 1-84176-409-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=xloOS43F-X8C.

• Marx, Robert F. (1966). The Battle of Lepanto, 1571. Cleveland: World Pub.

The Battle of Lepanto, H. Letter, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich/London.

The Victors of Lepanto (from left: John of Austria, Marcantonio Colonna, Sebastiano Venier).

Battle of Lepanto, part of a 19th-century carpet in a museum in Gennep, Netherlands.

Formation of the fleets just before contact.

Detailed positions of both forces during the battle.

A sinking Ottoman Navy vessel.

Depictions of the Ottoman Navy during the battle of Lepanto.

Sebastiano Venier From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sebastiano Venier at the Battle of Lepanto. Painting by Tintoretto Funeral effigy in the Basilica di San Giovanni e Paolo

Sebastiano Venier (or Veniero) (c. 1496 – March 3, 1578) was Doge of Venice from June 11, 1577 to March 3, 1578. Venier was born in Venice around 1496. He was a son of Moisè Venier and Elena Donà, and a nephew of Zuan Francesco Venier, Co-Lord of Cerigo.[1] He was a paternal grandson of Moisé Venier (ca. 1412 - ca. 1476).[2] He was the great-great-great-grandson of Pietro Venier, Governor of Cerigo,[3] and wife. He worked as a lawyer from a very early age, though without holding formal qualifications, and subsequently was an administrator for the government of the Republic of Venice. In 1570 he was procurator and, in the December of the same year, capitano generale da mar ("Chief admiral") of the Venetian fleet in the new war against the Ottoman Turks. He was the commander of the Venetian contingent at Battle of Lepanto (7 October 1571), in which the Christian League decisively defeated the Turks. After the peace he returned to Venice as a very popular figure, and in 1577, at the age of 81, he was unanimously elected Doge. He was married to Cecilia Contarini, who bore him a daughter, Elena Venier, and two sons. One of his sons, Francisco Venier, went to France. Sebastiano Venier died in 1578, allegedly of broken heart after a fire that had heavily damaged the Doge's Palace of Venice. He was interred in the Basilica di San Giovanni e Paolo, a traditional burial place of the doges. Relations He was a first cousin once removed of Cecilia Venier-Baffo, known as Nurbanu Sultan after her conversion to Islam, daughter of his first cousin Nicolò Venier, Lord of Paros. He sold her to the Ottoman Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent in 1536[4] in order to counter the ascension of Roxelana. She became eventually the wife of his rival Selim II and the mother of Murad III, from whom descend all succeeding Sultans.[5]

Preceded by Alvise I Mocenigo Doge of Venice 1577–1578 Succeeded by Nicolò da Ponte

1. ^ http://www.wargs.com/royal/venier.html Ancestry of Sultana Nur-Banu (Cecilia Venier-Baffo) 2. ^ Mihail-Dimitri Sturdza, Dictionnaire Historique et Généalogique des Grandes Familles de Grèce, d'Albanie et de Constantinople, Paris: Sturdza, 1983, p. 446 3. ^ Mihail-Dimitri Sturdza, Dictionnaire Historique et Généalogique des Grandes Familles de Grèce, d'Albanie et de Constantinople, Paris: Sturdza, 1983, p. 445 4. ^ Ancestry of Sultana Nur-Banu (Cecilia Venier-Baffo) 5. ^ A. D. Alderson, The structure of the Ottoman dynasty, Oxford: Clarendon, 1956, Table XXXI et seq., for details. • Ancestry of Sultana Nur-Banu (Cecilia Venier-Baffo)

Agostino Barbarigo


Portrait of Doge Agostino Barbarigo formerly attributed to Giovanni Bellini An undated portrait of Barbarigo.

Agostino Barbarigo (c. 1420 – 20 September 1501) was Doge of Venice from 1486 until his death in 1501. While he was Doge, the imposing Clock Tower in the Piazza San Marco with its archway through which the street known as the Merceria leads to the Rialto, was designed and completed. A figure of the Doge was originally shown kneeling before the lion of Venice on the top storey below the bell but this was removed by the French in 1797 after Venice had surrendered to Napoleon.[1] In 1496 he created an Italian coalition to push back Charles VIII of France from Italy, which led to the Battle of Fornovo during the French retreat from Italy. During his reign Venice gained several strongholds in Romagna and annexed the island of Cyprus. His relationships with the Ottoman sultan Bayezid II were initially amicable, but they became increasingly strained starting from 1492, eventually leading to open war in 1499. The Venetian merchants in Istanbul were arrested, while Bosnian troops invaded Dalmatia and reached Zara. The Venetian fleet was defeated at the Battle of Zonchio, and the Republic lost its base in Lepanto. The latter was soon followed by Modone and Corone, which meant the loss of all the main intermediate stops for the Venetian ships sailing towards the Levante. After four years of war, a peace treaty was signed in 1503. By it, Venice maintained in Morea only Nafplion, Patras and Monemvasia. Agostino's brother was Marco Barbarigo, who had preceded him as Doge but survived in office for less than a year;[2] their tomb, originally in the church of the Carita, has been demolished. Part (a relief of the Resurrection of Christ) is in the Scuola di San Giovanni Evangelista, attributed to the workshop of Antonio Rizzo.[3] Popular culture Agostino Barbarigo makes a cameo as the doge-elect for his brother Marco in the video game "Assassin's Creed II". Marco's short reign as Doge is ended when the main character assassinates him. In Facebook game Assassin's Creed: Project Legacy it is discovered that he has become corrupt like his brother before, and is subsequently killed by the Assassins on the 20th of September 1501 via a series of poison-coated letters. References 1. ^ Deborah Howard: The Architectural History of Venice (Yale U.P. Revised & enlarged edition: 2002)pp.146-9. Giulio Lorenzetti: Venice and its Lagoon (English edition. Trieste. 1975)pp.141-2 2. ^ John Julius Norwich: A History of Venice (Penguin Books. 1 vol edn. 1983)p.363 3. ^ Giulio Lorenzetti: Venice and its Lagoon (English edition. Trieste. 1975)p.614

Preceded by Marco Barbarigo Doge of Venice 1486–1501 Succeeded by Leonardo Loredan

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