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Non-crimp fabriccomposites

Manufacturing, properties and

applications

Edited by

Stepan V. Lomov

WP

WOODHEAD

PUBLISHING

Oxford Cambridge Philadelphia New Delhi

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Contents

Contributor contact details xiii

Introduction xvi

Part I Manufacturing of non-crimp fabrics 1

1 Production of non-crimp fabrics for composites 3 A. Schnabel and T, Gries, Institut fur Textiltechnik (ITA)

of RWTH Aachen University, Germany

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Warp-knitted non-crimp fabric (NCF) 51.3 Weft-knitted NCF 22

1.4 Non-crimp woven fabrics 231.5 3D woven and non-interlaced NCF 27

1.6 Fixation by adhesion 30

1.7 Comparison of production technologies 331.8 Future trends 35

1.9 Acknowledgements 37

1.10 References 37

2 Standardisation of production technologies for

non-crimp fabric composites 42F. Kruse and T. Gries, Institut fUr Textiltechnik (ITA) of

RWTH Aachen University, Germany

2.1 Introduction 42

2.2 Classification and standardisation of non-crimp fabric (NCF)

production methods 42

2.3 Outstanding patents of existing machines for theproduction of NCFs 47

2.4 The 'Hexcel patent' - EP 0972102 B1 59

2.5 Product patents in the production of NCFs 61

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2.6 Immobilisation of adhesive on the surface of semi-finished

textile products (DE 102008004112 A1) 64

2.7 References 65

3 Structural stitching ofnon-crimp

fabric preformsfor composites 67

P. Mitschang, Institut fur Verbundwerkstoffe GmbH, Germany

3.1 Introduction 67

3.2 Threads for structural stitching technology 683.3 Stitching technology and sewing machines 70

3.4 Quality aspects for structural stitching 74

3.5 Applications and future trends 81

3.6 References 82

4 Understanding and modelling the effect ofstitching on the geometry of non-crimp fabrics 84S. V. Lomov, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

4.1 Introduction 84

4.2 General parameters of the fibrous plies 854.3 Geometry of the stitching 864.4 Distortions of fibres in the plies 92

4.5 Change of the geometry after shear 984.6 A geometrical model of NCF 1004.7 Conclusion 100

4.8 References 102

5 Automated analysis of defects in non-crimpfabrics for composites 103M. Schneider, Toho Tenax Europe GmbH, Germany

5.1 Motivation 103

5.2 Quality characteristics of non-crimp fabric (NCF) 1045.3 Quality analysis of NCF by digital image

analysis 1065.4 Future trends 111

5.5 References 114

Part II Manufacturing of non-crimp fabric composites 115

6 Deformability of textile preforms in themanufacture of non-crimp fabric composites 117S. V. Lomov, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

6.1 Introduction 117

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6.2 Shear 118

6.3 Biaxial tension 128

6.4 Compression 1326.5 Bending 136

6.6 Conclusion 1396.7 References 141

7 Modelling the deformability of biaxial

non-crimp fabric composites 144P. Harrison, University of Glasgow, UK, W-R. Yu, Seoul

National University, Korea and A. C. Long, University of

Nottingham, UK

7.1 Introduction 144

7.2 Behaviour of fabric architecture on the shear and

draping behaviour of non-crimp fabrics (NCFs) 1457.3 Modelling strategies for NCF forming 1487.4 Energy-based kinematic mapping 1497.5 Finite element modelling of forming for NCFs 1567.6 Future trends 161

7.7 Further information and advice 162

7.8 References 162

8 Permeability of non-crimp fabric preforms 166R. Loendersloot, University of Twente, The Netherlands

8.1 Introduction 166

8.2 Experimental permeability results 1688.3 Geometric effects 187

8.4 Deformation and permeability 1968.5 Conclusions 208

8.6 Acknowledgements 209

8.7 References 210

8.8 Appendix: nomenclature 214

9 Understanding variability in the permeability of

non-crimp fabric composite reinforcements 216 A. Endruweit and A. C. Long, University of Nottingham, UK

9.1 Introduction 216

9.2 Material characterisation 217

9.3 Permeability measurement 222

9.4 Modelling and simulation 233

9.5 Future trends 239

9.6 References 239

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10 Modelling of the permeability of non-crimp fabricsfor composites 242B. Verleye, S. V. Lomov and D. Roose, Katholieke Universiteit

Leuven, Belgium

10.1 Introduction 242

10.2 Numerical simulation 246

10.3 Experimental validation 25110.4 Parametric study 25310.5 Influence of shear 256

10.6 Conclusion 257

10.7 Acknowledgements 25710.8 References 258

Part III Properties of non-crimp fabric composites 261

11 Mechanical properties of non-crimp fabric (NCF)based composites: stiffness and strength 263S. V. Lomov, T. Truonq Chi and I. Verpoest, Katholieke

Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

11.1 Introduction 263

11.2 Materials and composite production 26411.3 Test procedures 26511.4 Mechanical properties of non-crimp fabric

(NCF) composites 26611.5 Mechanical properties of composites based on

sheared MMCF 274

11.6 Damage development in B2 (0790) laminates 27911.7 X-ray radiography 283

11.8 Damage initiation in non-sheared and sheared materials 28511.9 Conclusions 286

11.10 References 287

12 Damage progression in non-crimp fabric composites 289L. E. Asp, J. Varna and E. Marklund, Swerea SICOMP and

Lulea University of Technology, Sweden

12.1 Introduction 289

12.2 Damage progression in non-crimp fabric (NCF)

composites due to in-plane loading 29012.3 Damage progression in impacted NCF composites 30012.4 Conclusions 308

12.5 References 308

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13 Fatigue in non-crimp fabric composites 310K. Vallons, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

13.1 Introduction 310

13.2 Fatigue in non-crimp fabric (NCF) composites 31113.3 Post-fatigue residual properties 33013.4 Conclusions and open questions 33213.5 References 332

13.6 Appendix 333

14 Mechanical properties of structurally stitched

non-crimp fabric composites 335N. Himmel, Institut ftir Verbundwerkstoffe GmbH, Germanyand H. HeB, BASF Engineering Plastics Europe, Germany

14.1 Introduction 335

14.2 Materials and stitching configurations 33714.3 Characterisation of structurally stitched

NCF laminates 341

14.4 Simulation of mechanical behaviour of structurallystitched laminates 348

14.5 Conclusions and future trends 354

14.6 References 355

15 Predicting the effect of stitching on themechanical properties and damage of non-crimpfabric composites: finite element analysis 360D. S. Ivanov, S. V. Lomov and I. Verpoest, Katholieke

Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

15.1 Introduction 360

15.2 Representative volume element (RVE) of non-crimp

fabric (NCF) composites 36315.3 Elastic analysis 369

15.4 Damage accumulation in NCF composites 372

15.5 Conclusions 383

15.6 References 384

16 Modelling drape, stress and impact behaviourof non-crimp fabric composites 386

A. K. Pickett, University of Stuttgart, Germany

16.1 Finite element (FE) methods for drape, stress and

impact analysis 386

16.2 Laminate analysis and FE stiffness for

non-crimp fabric (NCF) 387

16.3 FE methods for infusion analysis 389

16.4 Draping and FE simulation 390

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16.5 Infusion simulation 394

16.6 Stiffness and failure 39416.7 Impact and failure 39616.8 References 400

17 Modelling stiffness and strength of non-crimpfabric composites: semi-laminar analysis 402E. Marklund, J. Varna and L. E. Asp, Swerea SICOMPand

Lulea University of Technology, Sweden

17.1 Introduction 402

17.2 Stiffness models 405

17.3 Strength models for non-crimp fabric (NCF) composites 420

17.4 Conclusions 43517.5 References 436

Part IV Applications of non-crimp fabric composites 439

18 Aerospace applications of non-crimp fabric composites 441P. Middendorf and C. Metzner, EADS Innovation Works, Germany

18.1 Introduction 441

18.2 Aeronautic requirements 44318.3 Application examples 44518.4 Future trends 447

18.5 References 448

19 Non-crimp fabric: preforming analysis forhelicopter applications 449

F. Dumont and C. Weimer, Eurocopter Deutschland GmbH, Germany

19.1 Introduction 44919.2 Preform techniques for non-crimp fabrics (NCFs) 44919.3 Main NCF deformation mechanism

observed during preforming 45419.4 Preforming defect analysis 456

19.5 Conclusion and future trends 458

19.6 References 460

20 Automotive applications of non-crimp fabric

composites 461

B. SkOck-Hartmann and T. Gries, Institut ftirTextiltechnik (ITA)

of RWTH Aachen University, Germany

20.1 Introduction 461

20.2 Applications of non-crimp fabrics (NCF) in theautomotive industry 466

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20.3 Research and development for the use ofNCF in automotive applications 469

20.4 Future trends 47620.5 Conclusion 478

20.6 References 479

21 Non-crimp fabric composites in wind turbines 481G. Adolphs and C. Skinner, OCV Technical Fabrics, Belgium

21.1 Introduction 481

21.2 Development of non-crimp fabric (NCF) compositesin wind energy 483

21.3 NCF materials used in nacelle construction 491

21.4 Future trends 492

21.5 References 493

22 Cost analysis in using non-crimp fabric compositesin engineering applications 494P. Schubel, University of Nottingham, UK

22.1 Introduction 494

22.2 Costing methodologies:

currentapproaches

495

22.3 Technical cost modelling 496

22.4 Case study: 40 m wind turbine blade shell 504

22.5 Acknowledgements 50922.6 References 509

Index 511