6 th Edition Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights...

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

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6th Edition

PsychologyStephen F. Davis

Morningside College Joseph J. Palladino

University of Southern IndianaPowerPoint Presentation by

Fred W. WhitfordMontana State University

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6th Edition

States of Consciousness

Chapter 4


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What Is Consciousness?

• Consciousness is a person’s awareness of feelings, sensations, and thoughts at a given moment.

• Daydreaming is a form of consciousness involving fantasies, usually spontaneous, that occur while a person is awake.

• The experience of daydreaming is different from normal waking consciousness, and for that reason it is called an altered state of consciousness.


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What Is Consciousness?

• Anesthetic depth and anesthetic awareness are important in understanding consciousness.

• Brain-injured patients and consciousness are important with the increase of brain-injured patients.


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The Rhythms of Life

• All living organisms exhibit built-in rhythms or cycles of internal biological activity called biological rhythms.

• Biological rhythms such as the heartbeat that are shorter than 24 hours are called ultradian rhythms.

• Longer rhythms, such as the menstrual cycle, are known as infradian rhythms.


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The Rhythms of Life

• Internal biological changes that occur on a daily schedule are called circadian rhythms and have been found in nearly all species.


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The Rhythms of Life• The sleep–wake cycle is just one of our

circadian rhythms; scientists can detect peaks and valleys in body temperature, heart rate, and hormone levels during a 24-hour period.

• Exactly how the biological clock operates is still under investigation.

• Researchers suspect that the hormone melatonin, produced by the pineal gland, is involved.


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The Rhythms of Life

• Chronobiology is the branch of science that investigates and applies information about biological rhythms.

• The body’s internal clock is in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a pinhead-sized collection of neurons located in the hypothalamus, just above the optic chiasm.


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The Rhythms of Life

• Body temperature is not a constant 98.6 °F; rather, it fluctuates 2 to 3 degrees over the course of a day.

• Body temperature is related to our level of alertness and our sleep–wake cycle.


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The Circadian Rhythm of Body Core Temperature


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The Rhythms of Life

• Jet travel and shift work can disrupt the sleep-wake cycle.

• Jet lag is the temporary maladjustment that occurs when a change of time zone causes biological rhythms to be out of step with local time.


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The Rhythms of Life

• It is easier to adapt to phase delays (east-west travel) than to phase advances (west-east travel).

• Rotating shifts can be improved by using a clockwise rotation (days to evenings to nights), which involves a series of phase delays.


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The Study of Sleep

• A major breakthrough in the study of sleep was the observation of rapid eye movements (REM).

• Measures of physiological processes such as the electroencephalograph (EEG) also aid sleep research.

• A polysomnograph is an instrument that amplifies and records signals associated with biological changes taken during a night in a sleep laboratory.


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The Study of Sleep

• Non-REM (NREM) sleep, during a typical night you pass through four stages of sleep: Stages 1, 2, 3, and 4.

• Slow-wave sleep is deep sleep with NREM stages 3 and 4.


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The Study of Sleep

• We descend through NREM Stages 1 to 4 and then ascend through them to rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.

• Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is a sleep stage characterized by rapid eye movements, dreams, high brain activity, and muscle paralysis.


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The Study of Sleep

• The average adult repeats this cycle about four to six times each night.

• Sleep decreases from about 16 hours at birth to about 7 to 8 hours in young adulthood, with little change until the 70s.


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The Study of Sleep

• Contrary to common belief, older people do not need less sleep than younger adults.

• They do, however, awaken more often during the night; consequently, their sleep is more fragmented.

• Elderly people spend more time in the lighter stages of sleep, which makes them more susceptible to awakening.


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The Study of Sleep

• Common sense tells us that we sleep to restore our fatigued bodies; however, this notion is difficult to reconcile with certain facts.

• Sleep-deprived persons experience microsleeps, which are brief episodes of sleep (up to 30 seconds) that intrude on wakefulness.

• Sleep may have developed in different species in ways that increased their chances of survival.

• REM sleep deprivation leads to REM rebound, an increase in the typical amount of REM sleep.


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The Study of Sleep

• REM sleep might play a role in memory consolidation; however, the evidence for this function is weak and contradictory.

• REM sleep may serve to provide external stimulation that leads to neuronal development, especially in animals that have delayed sensory development.


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The Study of Sleep

• Sleep disorders range from annoying to life-threatening and can be divided into three categories: insomnia, hypersomnias, and parasomnias.

• Insomnia, the most common sleep complaint, is defined as inadequate or poor-quality sleep characterized by one or more of the following: difficulty initiating sleep (called sleep-onset insomnia), difficulty maintaining sleep, or waking too early in the morning.


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The Study of Sleep

• Sleep specialists also classify insomnia as either acute or chronic.

• Short-term or acute insomnia lasts up to a month and is usually due to temporary situations such as life stress, disruption of circadian rhythms owing to jet lag or nighttime work, job loss, or relationship problems.

• Long-term or chronic insomnia lasts for a month or longer and can be secondary to medical, physical, or psychological conditions, another sleep disorder, or substances (such as too much caffeine) and medications.


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The Study of Sleep

• Sleeping pills have limited usefulness and should be used with care.

• The stimulus control method—used for sleep-onset insomnia—is a set of rules designed to establish better sleeping habits.

• People with sleep-onset insomnia are instructed to lie down to sleep only when sleepy, not to use the bed for anything except sleep and sex, and to get out of bed if unable to sleep.


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The Study of Sleep

• Hypersomnias are sleep disorders marked by excessive daytime sleepiness.

• Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and attacks of muscle weakness (cataplexy) induced by emotion, as well as hypnagogic hallucinations.

• The symptoms are due to the intrusion of REM sleep into waking time.


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The Study of Sleep

• Sleep apnea is a serious, potentially life-threatening condition in which the flow of air to the lungs stops for at least 10 seconds and may not start again for a minute or longer.

• The risk of developing sleep apnea is higher among men and obese people.

• Apnea victims may awaken hundreds of times a night, and although they become accustomed to this pattern, the repeated awakenings leave them extremely tired and often complaining of insomnia.


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The Study of Sleep

• The parasomnias are undesirable and/or distressing sleep behaviors other than insomnia and hypersomnia that occur exclusively during sleep or that are worsened by sleep.

• Sleepwalking is a parasomnia that occurs during Stage 4 sleep, usually in children.

• It most often consists of sitting up in bed and usually disappears without treatment.


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The Study of Sleep

• Enuresis (bedwetting) is a sleep disorder that commonly occurs in childhood and is considered a disorder of arousal that is likely to improve with maturation of the CNS.

• Most bedwetting occurs in the first half of the night during NREM sleep; it has no relation to any particular NREM stages.

• A common treatment is the “pad and buzzer,” or urine alarm.


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The Study of Sleep

• Sleep terrors (also called night terrors) are intensely frightening experiences that begin during Stage 4 sleep.

• About 5% of children between ages 2 and 5 experience sleep terrors; the disorder usually disappears as the child matures.

• The first sign of a sleep terror is often a blood-curdling scream, usually followed by sitting up in bed.

• Nightmares are frightening dreams that occur during REM sleep.


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The Study of Sleep• Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is the

sudden death of an apparently healthy infant under 1 year of age that is not explained by an autopsy and investigation of the child’s history and death scene.

• We do not know what causes SIDS, but we do know that several factors increase the risk: sleeping in the prone position (on the belly), a recent illness, sleeping on a soft mattress, and elevated room temperature.


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The Study of Sleep

• As typically defined, dreams are associated with REM sleep, although NREM sleep is not a mental wasteland.

• Dream recall varies from one person to another; some people recall a dream every morning, whereas others rarely recall any dreams.

• Interference is apparently the major reason we forget dreams.


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The Study of Sleep

• Although some people claim they never dream, when awakened during the night in a sleep laboratory they inevitably report dreams.

• Whether a person remembers a dream upon awakening in the morning depends, in part, on factors such as interference but also on how one’s culture views dreams.


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The Study of Sleep

• Different cultures place varying emphases on dreams and support different beliefs concerning dreams.

• Some cultures view dreams as real acts or channels of communication.


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The Study of Sleep

• According to Sigmund Freud, the dream you remember in the morning is the manifest content.

• Freud believed, however, that we must probe beneath the obvious content for the deeper underlying meaning—that is, we must seek the latent content.


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The Study of Sleep

• Analysis of the manifest content would reveal attempts to fulfill wishes, especially of a sexual or aggressive nature, of which the dreamer was not consciously aware.

• Despite Freud’s focus on dreams as a form of wish fulfillment, decades of research have produced little to suggest that dreams serve this purpose.


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The Study of Sleep

• The activation-synthesis hypothesis is an explanation of dreams that suggests that they result when the cortex seeks to explain the high level of neuronal activity occurring during REM sleep.


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Hypnosis• Hypnosis, a heightened state of suggestibility,

can be traced to the 18th century, when Franz Anton Mesmer claimed he had the power to reestablish magnetic equilibrium in the bodies of his patients.

• Hypnosis has been defined as a social interaction in which one person, designated the subject, responds to suggestions offered by another person, designated the hypnotist, for experiences involving alterations in perception, memory, and voluntary action.


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Hypnosis

• A hypnotist cannot make you do anything you would not do otherwise.

• Hypnosis does not endow you with superhuman strength.

• Hypnosis has been used to reduce pain in various kinds of medical treatments.

• It is not clear, however, what aspect of hypnosis may be responsible for pain reduction; relaxation, distraction, and expectations seem to play significant roles.


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Hypnosis

• Hypnosis has been used to improve recall.• However, hypnotically refreshed memories tend

to contain distortions and false reports.• Positive and negative hallucinations are among

the various perceptual effects reported by people who have been hypnotized.

• Positive hallucinations are reports of seeing an object that is not really present.

• With negative hallucinations, a hypnotized person fails to perceive an object that is present.


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Hypnosis

• In the phenomenon of age regression, hypnotized people are given suggestions that allegedly lead them to relive events that occurred when they were younger—often during childhood—and to feel and act like a child of that age.

• Research indicates age regression results in the reporting of memories suggested by the hypnotist.


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Hypnosis

• In hypnotic past-life regression, people are said to report prior lives as well as events from earlier times.

• Such reports, however, depend in part on suggestions by the hypnotist.

• These past-life reports are also sprinkled with errors of historical fact that people from the relevant historical period would be unlikely to make.


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Hypnosis

• According to the cognitive-social view of hypnosis, the phenomena we label hypnotic occur when someone enacts the role of a hypnotized person.

• This view suggests that hypnosis is not an altered state of consciousness.

• Another explanation, offered by Ernest Hilgard, suggests that dissociation, or a splitting of consciousness, may be at work in hypnosis.


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Altering Consciousness with Drugs

• Psychoactive substances are chemicals that affect consciousness, perception, mood, and behavior.

• Every year, surveys of high school seniors provide statistics on the percentage that use various drugs.


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• Substance abuse occurs when use of a substance disrupts family and social relationships, interferes with work, and/or creates health and safety hazards for the abuser.

• People who display substance dependence, a more serious disorder that is popularly called addiction, develop a physical dependence on the substance in addition to a pattern of abuse.


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• Physical dependence is evident in the phenomenon of tolerance, which occurs when a person needs increasing doses of a substance to achieve the effect formerly obtained from a smaller dose.

• Withdrawal, characterized by changes in behavior, cognition, and physiology, may then occur if the person stops taking the substance or reduces the amount taken.


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• The symptoms of withdrawal range from irritability to a craving for the substance that can begin within hours of taking the last dose.

• A common denominator in drugs of abuse (cocaine, alcohol, opiates, amphetamine) is that they stimulate release of dopamine in the brain’s reward circuitry, which projects from the base of the brain (an area called the nucleus accumbens) to the hippocampus and amygdala.


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• Depressants are drugs that slow the functioning of the CNS.

• Among the depressants are alcohol, barbiturates, and the benzodiazepines.

• Alcohol is one of the most widely used psychoactive substances in the United States and throughout the world.


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• Alcohol use is associated with a range of medical and mental health problems.

• The alcohol in beer, distilled liquor, and wine is ethyl alcohol, or ethanol.

• This colorless liquid contains a high number of calories (210 calories in 1 ounce of pure alcohol) that provides energy but no nutrients to nourish the body.


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• Drinking alcoholic beverages adds calories to your diet at the same time it slows the rate at which you burn fat.

• The fat that is not broken down is likely to be deposited on your hips, thighs, and stomach.

• Alcohol content varies with the beverage: Beer is 3% to 6% alcohol, wine is 8% to 20%, and distilled beverages are 40% to 50%.


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• Your body can break down alcohol before it affects you if you consume it slowly, but few people consume it slowly enough (the liver can break down the alcohol in one standard serving per hour).

• Blood alcohol concentration (BAC) is the percentage of alcohol in the blood; a BAC of .05% is 5 parts of alcohol per 1,000 parts of blood.

• Forty-six states and the District of Columbia use a BAC of .08 as the legal definition of intoxication.


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• Alcohol affects virtually all organs of the body, especially the brain.

• Alcohol leads to an altered state of consciousness characterized by a decreased capacity to attend to information.

• There appears to be a relation between alcohol and aggression.


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• One serious consequence of long-term heavy consumption of alcohol is a form of withdrawal called delirium tremens (DTs).

• The symptoms include severe anxiety, a fast pulse, and even death.

• Another long-term consequence of alcohol use is Korsakoff’s syndrome, a severe brain impairment characterized by forgetting incidents of one’s daily life as soon as they occur.


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• Drinking patterns vary among different populations within our society.

• For example, men are more likely than women to drink alcohol and more likely to drink greater amounts.

• Age is also a factor: The 1-year prevalence of problem drinking is much higher among persons aged 18 to 29 than at other ages.

• Both physiological and social factors play important roles in alcohol consumption.


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• Barbiturates are commonly called “downers” because they depress the functioning of the CNS.

• Depending on the dosage, their effects range from mild sedation to coma.

• At very high doses, barbiturates can lead to serious withdrawal symptoms, including life-threatening convulsions.


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• Both barbiturates and benzodiazepines work by increasing the binding of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA.

• In addition to their use in treating sleep-related difficulties, benzodiazepines are used in the treatment of anxiety and agitation and to relax muscles.


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• Stimulants are drugs that speed up the activity of the CNS.

• Among the most common stimulants are a group of synthetic drugs called amphetamines such as Benzedrine and Dexedrine.

• Also known as “uppers” or “speed,” these drugs stimulate the release of the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine.


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• In low to moderate doses, amphetamines increase alertness, elevate mood, reduce appetite and the need for sleep, and induce euphoria.

• Larger doses of amphetamines cause irritability and anxiety or bring on a serious reaction that is indistinguishable from paranoid schizophrenia.


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• Amphetamines have a wide range of effects that mimic the body’s reaction to stress: increasing blood pressure, increasing respiration rate, diverting blood from internal organs to skeletal muscle, and suppressing appetite.


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• Another stimulant, cocaine, is extracted from the leaves of the coca plant that grows primarily in Peru and Bolivia.

• Cocaine is the most potent stimulant of natural origin.

• It can be eaten, injected into the veins, smoked, or inhaled through the nose (snorted).


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• Because the high produced by smoked cocaine is so short and intense, it is especially addictive.

• Methamphetamine is a stimulant that has been called “America’s most dangerous drug”: it can be snorted, smoked, or injected.

• In 2003, over 1 million Americans aged 12 and over were current users of meth, crystal, speed, or ice.


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• Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is a synthetic substance that can be manufactured from readily available materials.

• MDMA or ecstasy is also known as XTC, Adam, MDM, hug, beans, and love drug.

• In high doses, it can interfere with the body’s ability to regulate temperature.


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• One of the most widely-used stimulants is caffeine, which is found in foods such as chocolate and beverages such as coffee as well as in some nonprescription drugs.

• Also included in the category of stimulants is nicotine, a potent substance that activates the brain, heart, and nervous system.


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• The term opiates or opioids refers to a group of naturally occurring or synthetic drugs that have properties similar to those of opium.

• This family of drugs is also called narcotic analgesics (or just narcotics) because they produce analgesia (loss of sensitivity to pain) and make a person sleepy.

• Morphine, codeine, and heroin are all opiates.• Opiates are highly addictive and potentially

dangerous.


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• Hallucinogens are drugs that can change a person’s perception, thinking, emotions, and self-awareness.

• This class of drugs, sometimes called psychedelic drugs, includes compounds that are natural in origin as well as a growing number of drugs produced in laboratories.

• Hallucinogens can produce hallucinations, time and space distortions, and symptoms similar to those found in severe psychological disorders.


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• Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a colorless, odorless, and slightly bitter to tasteless hallucinogen derived from ergot, a fungus that grows on rye and other grains.

• Usually taken by mouth, LSD is rapidly absorbed by the body, and a small amount finds its way to the cortex.

• Phencyclidine piperidine (PCP) can have depressant, stimulant, hallucinogenic, or analgesic effects, depending on the dosage.


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• Marijuana consists of dried leaves and flowers from the Cannabis sativa plant.

• Of the more than 400 compounds found in marijuana, one is an important psychoactive ingredient—delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).

• Byproducts of THC can be detected for days or weeks following even brief use of marijuana.


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• Marijuana stimulates nerve receptors in the cortex and hippocampus, which are areas responsible for motor activity, concentration, and short-term memory.

• Marijuana is known to be able to disrupt attention, short-term memory, and coordination.


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• The most common effects of THC, however, are an increase in heart rate and bloodshot eyes.

• In recent years, an ongoing debate has focused on the potential medical benefit of marijuana.

• One side sees marijuana as a “wonder drug,” whereas the other side considers it “inherently evil.”

6 th Edition Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights...

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Transcript of 6 th Edition Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights...