theVisuqls for

Longuoge ClqssroomAndrew Wlight ond Sofio Holeem

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Longmoni!!

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f f iLWL'L. rrWll lgofanr

Visuals fortheLanguageClassroomAndrewWright andSafia Haleem

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U\ LongrmonA London Nerv \brk\\N

Longman Group UK Limited,Lanqmon House. Burnt .\[ i l l . Harl^u.Esser CJI20 2JE, Englandand.\ssociated Companies throughout the worLd.

PubLished in the United States of Amertcaby Longman Inc., ]iew York

O Longman Group UK Limited 1991AIL rights reserued; no part of thts publication may be reproduced, stored. in aretrieral sJstem, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,mechonical, photrcopying, recording, or otherLuise, wtthout the prior unttenpermission of the Publishers.

First published 1991Third impression 199.1

BRITISH LIBRARY CATAIOGUING IN PUBLICATION DATA

ISBN 0-582 047811

LIBR,\RY OF CONGRESS CATAIOGING IN PUBLICATION DATAWright, Ardrew, 1937-

Visuals for the language classroom./Andrew Wright and Safia Haleem.p.cm. - (Longman keys to language teaching)Includes bibliographical references.ISBN 0-582-0.1781-1 : 93.501. English language - Study and teaching - Foreigr speakers.2. Engiish language - Study and teaching - Audio-visual instruction.L Haleem. Safia. IL Title. III. Series.PE1r .28 .A2W75 1991128'.007 1-dc20

Set in 10/12pt Scantext Century Schoolbook

Printed in Nlalaysia by TCP

I

90-42581CIP

Contents

PrefaceIntroduction

Questions and activities

Chalkboard and whiteboardr Characteristics and techruques. Presentationandguidedpractice. Dialogue, role playand dramao Guidedwriting: adaptingastoryo Websa Open communicarive practiceo Listenirgo Grammatical explanationo Technicaltips

Overhead projector. Characteristics and techniqueso Single unprepared transparencya Single prepared transparencyo Single hansparency with a water-based pena TWoor more transparencieso Maskingandrevealingo Technicaltips

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13

556

I+

lo

16r.82 l22'21

272 i2828293233r lo

Flannelboard, magnetboard and adhesive plastic 38a Characteristics and techniques 39o Presentationandconnolledpractice 39o Open communicative practice .10

. Listening comprehension and orai retelling 11I Technicaltips {2

Wallpic tures and wallposters. Characteristics and techniques. Presentat ion and guided pract icer Dialoguesr lbcabularya Listeningcomprehensiono Free communicative practicer Technicaltips

41

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5 Pictureflashcards. Characteristics and techniquesa Presentationa Practiceo Open communicative practice. Technicaltips

Wordflashcards. Characteristics and techniques. Presentation. Readingpracticeo Writingpractice. Listeningo Technicaltips

7 Workcards and worksheetso Characteristics and techn iques. Controlled reading and writing practice. Controlled and guided oral practice. Dialogue, role play and simulationo Information-gap activitieso Matchingactivitiesa Fleeoralpracticeo Freewritingo Technicaltips

8 Authentic printed ,naterialsa Characteristics ano techniquesa Newspaperso Publicitymateria.lr Technicaltips

9 The learning environment. Characteristics and techniqueso Lifeintheclassroomo The classroom, its furniture and objectso Theschoolr Theschoolneighbourhood

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58

59595959o l

6261

65666670i2i677808283

939494

9899

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10 Product iont ipso Designing. Layouto Pictures. Groupingand readingduect iono Linesr Bigandsmal l. Coloura Tone. LetteringI Drawingo Coilage. Cutting,stickingand protectingo Displaying

F r r r f h p r r p a d i n o

100r0010010210310.1101105106107108109117118

119

Preface

f1flHE Longman Keys to Language Teachingserresis intended especially forI the ordinary classroom teacher. The books in this series offer sound,

practical, down-to-earth advice on useful techniques and approaches in themodern ELT classroom. Most of the activities suggested in these books can beadapted and used for almost any class, by any teacher.

One of the most important aspects of language teaching is the role of visualmaterial: the importance of using visual media Lo make one's teaching moreeffective, communicative and interesting is well-known. However, malyteachers - even experienced teachers - do not exploit the potential ofvisualmaterials to the full. In addition, deciding which techniques to use, for whichlanguage teaching purposes, is often problematical.

ln this book, An&ew Wright and Safia Haleem survey the characteristics ofthe visual media commonly available to the classroom teacher - from thesimple workcard to the chalkboard to the overhead projector (ifwe are luckyenough io have one). They show how, by appreciating the qualities of thedifferent media, we can develop fresh and dynamic approaches in ourclassrooms appropriate for our teaching aLms.

Like the other books in the KEYS series, hsuals rn the Language Classroom ishighly practical. It is full ofinteresting ideas on how to teach different aspectsoflanguage using visuals - and how to prepare them without fuss. Whateverwe are concerned with - skills, or language content such as functions,grarnmar or vocabulary - fresh and practical approaches using visuals wili befound in these pages. The book is also profusely illustrated - mainly by theauthors themselves. The writers show us, by example, how we too can be asproficient as they are, notjust in using, but also in making, our own visual aids.All the pictures in this book - and many others like them - can be producedwith a minimum of time, money or skill!

NevilleGrant

IntroductionTo help you with this book

Visuals

In this book we have included a.ll those visual media which are commonlyfound in the classroom or are readily available to schools and colleges. You willsee by the illustrations in the book that we believe that the teacher and thestudents can make (simple drawings) or find (cutting out of magazrnes, erc.tmost of the visuals needed. The only exception to this ready accessibilitymight be the overhead projector. What we hope is that the chapter devoted tothe overhead projector will help teachers who do not have one to make a goodcase for having one.

The basis of this book

This book is lrst ofall about the character ofvisual materials aad how theteacher can exploit this character in language teaching. Appreciating thecharacter of the media we use or which surround us ( see The leatningenvftonment,Chapter 9) helps us to be more inventive, dynamic and efficient.So often the media of the classroom are used in a limited and dull manner - itis a Iittle bit like speaking with a very limited number of words withoutintonation. It is such a pity and it is so unnecessary!

Artistic talent

It is obviously true that some people have a natural gift for being inventive andresourceful when using visual materials. However, most of the techniques andexamples given in this book have been chosen because they require verlr littleskill, time or money. Every teacher can do theml And, by the way, we havetended to choose examples which are straightforward and in many cases well-tried rather than emphasise the dramatic and eccenDic.

Categories of activity

The activities are arranged under broad headings, such as:

Presentation(introducing language new to the student);Controiled practice (you determine the patterns the students use but notnecessarily what is conveyed l;Guided practice (you determine the general topic and give some guidance onsentence patterns to use);Flee communicative practice (the students make use of all the language attheir command to express their ideas).

Obviously the degree ofcontrol will vary in each ofthese stages. Often, too, thefour larguage skills - listening, speaking, reading and writing - will beapproached in an integrated manner, so that work in one skill area will helpwork in another.

Mechanical versus meaningful language use

Manipulating language with little sense of meaningis of little value to thestudent. Most ofthe examples have been chosen to show that language can beused for communicative purposes even at the controlled practice stage. Theunderlying theme of this book is that, almost automatically, meaningandcommunication will be built into the English lessons by usingvisual materials.

Clas swork, gloupwork and pairwork

Lively language use for all students in the class depends on groupwork andpairwork. The bigger the class the more important this becomes. Many of theactivities in this book assume that the class is divided into groups and pairs.Tips on the organisation ofgroupwork are not given here as it is well covered inother books in the KeJ:sseries such as Effective Class ilIanagementby MaryUnderwood and Techniques for Classroom Interaction by Donn By'rne.

Questions and activities

There are many practical examples of how each of the media can be used ineach chapter ofthis book. Furthermore, the sfructure ofeach chapter issimilar. For these reasons, suggested questions and activities are groupedbelow rather than at the end ofeach chapter; most ofthe questions andactivities listed below can be applied to any ofthe chapters ofthis book. Thereader is invited to consider them while, or after, reading each ofthe chapters.

1 How would you decide rvhether or not an activity described in this book issuitable for you to use with one ofyour classes? Jot down about five criteria.Ifyou are working through the book with other teachers, compare your fivepoints with theirs. See ifyou can agree on a ranking ofimportance.

2 Compareyour l is tofcr i ter iaforassessingthesui tabi l i tyofanact iv i tywi thours. There car be no fina1'righr'or'wrong'list. See ifyou find any ofoursuseful. Ifyou do, add them to your own list.Our Iist:. Preparation time: if it takes a long time to prepare, fbr what you get out of

it, then don't do it.. Organisation in the classroom: ifit is very difficult to organise in the

classroom, then don't do it.. Interest: if it is likely to be uninteresting to the students or if you feel you

would be very uncomfortable doing it, then don't.. AuthenticitJ*: if the activity makes the students use the language

unnaturally. then don't do it.. A lot of language use: if the activitv passes all the above points but there is

not much Ianguage used, then don't do it.

3 Take an example of an activity given in the book, think of one particularclass ofyours ard apply your list ofcriteria to the activity. Ifthe activity'passes' the

cr i ter ia qui te wel l ask voursel f i fyou wi l l actual ly do i t . I f theanswer is 'No', then fry to establlsh what other criteria are preventing youfrom doing so. Ifyou can locate and examine these other criteria yourunderstanding ofyourselfrelated to the use ofvisuals may become clearer.

4 Referring to your criteria evolved in point I above, take any chapter anddivide the examples into those which are the most suitable for one ofvour

classes and those which are less suitable. Compare your lists with the lists ofanother teacher (preferably one with similar classes).

5 The examples in each chapter have been chosen to reflect the specialqualities of the medium. These special qualities are summarised at thebeginning ofeach chapter under, 'Characteristics and techniques'. Select a

few examples ofactivihes from the chapter which you think best reflect the

characteristics of the medium. Compare your selection with the selection of

another teacher.

6 Select several examples from one chapter and write variafions for them,perhaps for a different age and proficiency level. You can still retain thegeneral idea.

? Take some of the special characteristics of one of the media and lry toinvent some new activities. Ifyou are working through the book with other

teachers, after five minutes show your ideas to your neighbour. Work

together on yours and your neighbour's ideas for ten minutes. Then the two

of you join another pair (making four of you) and compile a list of ideas

which you can then present to the class as a whole.

Note: Most people's minds go blank when they are asked to think of a new idea. Here

are some tips:a It is rare to come across something which is absolutely new, so don't expect

too much of yourselll. Be positive about any idea however trivial it might seem at frst. Get into a

positive frame of mind. Note down any idea that comes to mind, however

impractical it might seem.o Keep on imagining, using the special characteristics. Try them out in your

mind's eye.o Be positive about your neighbour's ideas. Concentrate on the seeds of an

idea and ofa possibility rather than looking for what is wrongwith an idea'

8 An extension of point 7 above is to actually'play'with the medium' In the

act ofhandling a medium and exploring its character you might spot a new

use for it. Chalk is dustv. In many ways this is a disadvantage' Can you think

of any way, however minor, in which you might be able to make positive use

ofthis dustiness?

Nofe: Nlerely reading this book is not enough: you need to try out the ideas in each

chapter-exper imentwi ththem,assuggestedinact iv i t iesTand8.Thisbooktries to help by offering lots of examples, and, we hope, by serving as a source of

inspiration for new or adapted ideas. However, until you dosome ofthe things

suggested, theywill not really become your own:

Chatkboard andwhiteboard

Chalkboards are found in most classrooms. They are usually black or green,

cheap to install, easy and cheap to use and very adaptable. Some chalkboardsare magnetised a.llowing pictures, word cards, etc. to adhere to the surface ifmagrets are placed on top of them.

Whiteboards are increasingly common though more expensive than

chalkboards. Special pens must be used. Whiteboards are easier to keep cleanthan chalkboards; a greater variety of colours can be used and images can beprojected onto the surf'ace from a projector. The surface is often magnetisedand even ifit is not magnetised it is easier to stick pictures and cards to thewhiteboard surface with sticky tape or adhesive plastic than it is to attachthem to a chalkboard.

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Characteristics and techniques

1 The whole class can see it.2 Texts and pictures can' grow' in front of the class.3 Texts and pictures can be erased, added to or substituted quickly.

4 Parts of the board can be obscured.5 Text or pictures on paper or card can be propped against the board, stuck to

it or hung over it.

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6 A white cloth or a sheet of paper can be stuck to the chalkboard or hung over

it to act as a projection screen.7 Several people can work on the board at one time.

This chapter now takes a number ofaspects ofthe language Iearning syllabus,

for example, tense, sentence patterns, vocabulary, functions and fluency and

indicates how the special characteristics and techniques ofchalkboards andwhiteboards can be exploited to promote !hem.

Presentation and guided practice

The present continuous tense

Characteristics and techniques: drawings can be made to'grow' in front ofthe

class.

The present continuous tense (when it refers to an action which is occurring at

the moment of talking) can be illusuated th-rough the action of drawing on the

board in front ofthe students. You use the present continuous to describe what

you are doing as you actually do it rather than when you have done it.

Step one:TEACHER: (dtawing a line)I'm drawing a line.

( drawing another, line 2 )l' m dra'u.tng another line( &awing another, line 3 ) I' m drawing another line.( draw ing ano t her, line 4 ) I' m & awing another line.

TEACHER: (indicating the frst few lines of the stickman)What am I drawing?

STUDENTj AMAN?TEACHER: Yes, I'm drawing a man.

(&awing the line for the second leg and asking the question while

drawing)What am I drawing now?

S-TUDENT: A leg.TEACHER: What am I drawingnow?

etc.

And finally. . .

TEACHER: What's he cioing? He's running.s-ru D E NTS, He's r unnin g.

Step two:Ask two students to be secretaries and to write on the board every verb of

action the class can call out in three minutes. Then ask the secretaries to

become artists. Ask each artist to choose one ofthe verbs and to illustrate it.

The artists must keep stopping to ask the ciass what their drawing represents.

srl DE\r \l?rat's si he doing?GLASS: S/he'srunning,'walking,'swimming,etc

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Step three:In pairs students draw on paper and ask each other the same question.

Nofes; 1 This activity can be used to teach or revise the present continuous tense,and can usefully lead in to the past c0ntinuous tense, as illustrated below.

2 For teachers unsure of their drawingability a number of d_rawings of peoplein action are given on page 111- 113.

The past continuous rense: example I

Characteristics and techniques: erasing information from the board.

Ifthe board has been covered with drawings as in the example above, thenwrite a name by each and erase them one by one asking a question each time.Leavejust a little bit ofeach drawing as a reminder. The activity challenges thestudents' ability to remember all the different actions.

Ta.ACHER: (having erased one drawing)What was Ron doing?Sr(;DFt\-r, He was playing football.

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rL{cHER: (having erased another drawing) What was Ann doing?SrUDE\r: Shewasjumping.TEACHER: (having erased another drawing) What were Ron, Ann and Tom

doing?sruDENr: Ron was playing football. Ann was jumping. Tom was diving.

The past continuous tense: exanple 2

Characteristics and techniques: a setting can be drawn on the board and largemagaz ine pictures (publicity pictures, etc.) can be stuck on the picture inappropriate positions.

The build-up ofthe picture should be done through discussion with the class.Use the present continuous to discuss the actions as they are seen. Thenremove the pictures and challenge the students'memories: 'Whowas here?What was he doing?'

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The simple past tense: example 1

Characteristics and techniques: erasing and substituting information.

Draw (or ask a student to draw) a person on the board.

lL{c{ER: This is Stan Ross. He is fat and bald and he is verv rich. He's notvery happy! (Iha+ving 1)

Erase everything except Stan's head and boots. (Drawing 2) Ask a student toreplace the erased parts with new drawing.

rD{CHER: Stan used to be thin and he had a lot ofcurly hair. He was poor buthe was really happy.

The student then redraws Stan. ( Drawine 3) I

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The simple past tense: example 2

Characteristics and techniques: erasing and substituting informatron.

Draw (or ask students to draw) a map ofthe district you and the students arefamiliarwith. With the help of the students write on the map what the variousshops are and any other information which you think important.

TEAcHER, sTLDENT, The shop on the corner is an electrician's. The next shop is ashoe repairer's.etc.

#kDiscuss with the students their earliest memories of the district and changethe map accordingly. Consider asking the students to ask their parents andgrandparents what the district used to be like.

'TEAcHER STL DE\r: The shop on the corner used to be a clothes shop and theshop next door was a flower shop. The next shop was achemist's.

10

Used to

Characteristics and techniques: sticking pictures on the board and erasing and

substituting information.

Stick six (or more) magazine pictrues of people on the board. Join them with

Iines which show how they feel about each other.

likes --i

doesn'tlike aaa-a-)

quite likes

oBob

Ask such questions as:

r!-A( HER: Who does Sue like?Who likes Bob?DoesJohn Iike Edwina?Do John and Florence like each other?Are Harry and Flo friends?

Erase and redraw some of the connecting Lines and describe and ask questions

about the relationships as they used to be.

TEACHER: Who did Sue use to like?etc.

,\bre; Teachers and their students can invent a variety of characters who can then be

referred to at any point as the need arises.

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Prepositions

Characteristics and techniques: adding information and using colouredchalks.

Step one:Draw (or ask students to draw) a map on the board.

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Ifthe map is invented by the class then there is considerable opportunity fordiscussion and for the use ofvocabulaty to describe objects and locations.

Step two:Say you are go' g to go jogging and then d_raw a route across the map withcoloured chalk. Describe your route. Ifyou place a number at each point youwish to identify, it will help you and the students to repeat what youhave said.Ask the students to write down the route you took.For example, they might write: 'You staried outside your house. Then you randown the road and around the lust bend. At the second bend . . .'

Step three:Using the range ofverbs, prepositions and nouns you made use of (asking forothers as required) each student makes a copy of the map or draws a n.* onuand works out his or her ownjogging route. Individual students describe theirroutes so that other students can draw the described route on the board withcoloured cha.lk.

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Notes;

Sentence pattern table

Characteristics and techniques: information easy for the whole class to see can

be added, pictures can be stuck on.

Draw a sentence pattern table on the board. (For hints on writing and

designing see pages 100- 108. )Substitutions can be cued by words added to the columns or by holding up

pictures, pointing to parts ofa big picture or by sticking small pictures into the

column.

1 This kind of practice is more mechanical than meaningful. A creative

element can be introduced by encouraging the students to propose any

words they like providing the sentence remains gtammatically correct. In

seeing that a suggestion is ridiculous and Iaughing about it the students

experience the meaning ofthe Ianguage used.

2 A set of characters invented by the class and referred to constantly also adds

interest and meaning even in the dullest ofexercises. In this case Ron could

be renowned as a crazy spendthrift once he goes shopping.

Questionnabes

Characteristics and techniques: building up information which all the class

can see.

Grids can easily be drawn on the board and the spaces in the grid can be drawn

in, written in or given ticks, etc. as a result of discussion. In the act of

completing the grid, controlled language practice can take place. For example,

in order to carry out the survey and complete the grid below, basic questions

about Iiking and disliking must be asked and answered by each member of the

class.

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TEACHER: Do you like oranges?STUDEIiT: Yes, a lot./No, not very much./No. not at all.

Nole: The formation and completion of this grid has a meaningful purpose. It mightbe interesting to furd out which is the most popu.lar and the least popular fruit(hobby/TV programme/sport/type of holiday). Grids of information can bedrawn on the board which provide simple cues for answers to questions or forsubshitutions in sentences or for the gap completion ofsentences.

Questions and answers

Characteristics and techniques: preparing the rext before the lesson andcovering part ofthe board with a cloth or Iarge piece ofpaper.

Write a series ofquestions on the board before the lesson begins. Include theanswers but in a separat€ column. Pin a cloth or piece ofpaper over theanswers. The questions can be answered in writing by each individual andthen discussed with a neighbour. Finally two pairs can work together untileach group has an agreed set ofanswers. These answers can then be offeredand discussed by the whole class. Finally the cloth can be removed and theconect answers revealed-

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Dialogpe, role PlaY and drama

Dialogue writing and actin g

Characteristics and techniques: erasing and substituting information'

Write a dialogue on the board.

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3 : Not So iooct .

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In the example below, students have, with the teacher's help, created an

ult...,utiu. iiaiogue based on the fust dialogue grven by the teacher' The

information exchlanged is broadly the same but the way in which the two

people are speaking-to each other is very different. In the first dialogue the two

p"opl. ^r. o.t fu-iliar terms. In the second dialogue the people are on more

iorrnal te.-s. In order to bring out fully this change in the formality of the

relationship, the two dialogues should be acted out'

hL lho of t icz:

6: Qoo4 mo/ntyJt B; l l !E: Oh,loool mJrnt^g, fhr Ca"<'ndt'th.C; ftnd hoa ft lhz uork PfoJre*rhg?A: /'na{rzi{ lAere a(e ^/<at ai(<culhbs.c: l1itA /espec! f.iltr if tAere Herz no

aiftcdhes lherc b)o,,!d bc rr-"Sob 16 ao/

Dialogue with a single voice!

Characteristics and techniques: large simple pictures are easy to draw on the

board. (For teachers unsure oflheir drawing ability see pages 108-116')

Quite often the teacher wants to present a dialogue and to act out the part of

two(ormore)people.It ishelpfulbothtotheteacherandtotheclassif there

are two Iarge faces sketched on the board. The teacher can then point to thefaces as he or she speaks their lines or even stand in front of them.

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Drama

Characteristics and techniques: large sketches are quick to do and to adapt.

A scene can be sketched on the board by the teacher or by the students in a fervminutes. The action of discussingwhat should be drawn and the drawing itself

help to develop a sense ofthe context ofthe drama which is to be acted out. In

the example below, fwo of the characters invented by the class might bewaiting at a bus stop. The students, working in pairs, must imagine a dramaticepisode and dialogue and act it out in front ofthe board'theatre'.

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Nofes; 1 Fort ipsondrawingseepages 108-116.2 For more ideas on role play and dialogue practice see pages 72-76. It would

be advisable to introduce many ofthe ideas on the board belbre asking thestudents to work rvith role plav cards.

16

Guided writing: adapting a story

Characteristics and techniques: erasingand substitutinginformation.

Write the beginning ofa short story on the board.

last ueck Pon ue^f f'o ree hicAhfri<nd tnSttcLporE. Hese(of i^ his car a(a,bout.t?()e,^o'clxk. /f was ^ cold h.tnferi <oenrAq and h</ooLea {ordard rb a- ntcz Nara ol,Aie.. Nhen helot fo tAe hoqre he sau lAat tAe t)rAd.od.r {.,ered.ark. The door , 'J,-! apa6 . He r^te,+e in aad /ouad...

Discuss it with the students. Ask the students for suggestions for how the storymight be changed without adding significantly more words. One or severalwords can be added, erased or substituted. The example below shows the fustfew lines ofthe story in its second version, altered by the students.

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Webs

t-o risit herQrandtaa/t ulas a- ^)a..yl

Characteristics and techniques: developing diagrams which everyone can seethrough class discussion.

The use ofwebs in language teaching has flowered in recent years.(They aresometimes known as mind maps or word trees.) Only a few examples can begiven in this book but the potentiaJ ofwebs should not be underestimated.Webs encourage students to see and to express a variety ofrelationships. Theprocess of making the web is more important than the finished web. The act ofmaking a web helps students to appreciate the meaning of the words involvedand to remember them; for this reason the teacher should normally notdominate nor determine exactly how the web is made. Teachers candemonstrate the use ofthe web on the blackboard and then encouragestudents to develop their own webs in their books.There are two broad divisions ofwebs: objective and subjective. In objective

webs the grouping and relationship ofthe words can bejustified by reference tocommon experience. In subjective webs the grouping and relationship ofthewords is justified primarily by the individual referring to his or her personalexpenences.

VocabuLary webs

Characteristics and techniques: sticking a picture on the board, adding anderasing information.

Stick a picture on the board (or ask a student to draw a pictwe). Ask otherstudents to come to the board and write down any words they assocrate withthe picture. Add words yourselfifyou wish to enlarge the vocabulary oftheclass- In the frst example, the teacher has developed a web with the classwhich arranges all the words they know under a general heading. In the secondexample, a student has written down his or her own associations with thestarting word.

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Nofe: This activity can also be done by individual students, in their vocaburarybooks, for example.

Story planningweb

It is a common experience for teachers that the students find it difficult to talkabout their experiences or to invent stories. And this is not surprisingr In theexample below the teacher has asked the students to develop their oivn web ofexperiences based on their last horiday. The exampie shows an individualstudent's web.

The form ofthe web has encouraged the student to rela-x so that each bit ofinformation triggers off another bit of information. The next step is lbr thestudent to check whether or not he or she has the language to talk about theseexperiences. Key phrases can be written against each ,bubble'

One has beenwritten in as an example. The student must use a dictionary, grammar bookand/or the teacher to become equipped to talk about some ofthe points in the

18

,{s,:o.

?**)*tJt las.rocold.

web. The frnal step is for the student to talk about or to write about his or her'story'.

Open communicative practice

Pictwes for speculation

Characteristics and techniques: building up a picture on the board throughdiscussion with the class.

An ambiguous picture can be a stimulus for speculation and subsequently fordialogue work, for discussion ofgeneral themes, and for the rather specialiseddiscussion ofhow the picture can be made less ambiguous. Each ofthese areasoffocus and language is described below.

Draw an ambiguous picture on the board. It should be possible to interpret thepicture in a variety ofways. It is important that you yourselfshould not have afixed view ofwhat the picture 'really' represents. The secret ofinventing anambiguous picture is to draw as Iittle information as possible.

SpeculationStep one:Ask the students to describe what they see. !'ery quickly the class will realisethat some things are interpreted in a similar way (two people, a chair and atable) and other things are interpreted differently (outside or inside/home orschool/people related or not).

Step two:Encourage the'opinion gap'between the students. Do not Iet them think thatyou have a lured idea or that your interpretation is the correct one. When theopinion gaps have become apparent ask the students to note down what thev

19

think the picture represenrs. (Accuracy is not as important as fluency at thissrage. )

Step three:Ask the students to work with their neighbour comparing interpretatrons. Atthis point students can change their opinions.

Step four:Invite class discussion again. Encourage argument. For example:STUDENTA: It can't be outside because tables and chairs are not outside.STUDTNT B: Chairs and tables can be outside - for example, rn a cate.

Nlaking the picture less ambiguousThis activity contextualises the use of ,shouid', ,could', ,would,.

The examplebelow clearly illuslrates that a simple drawrng activity on the boa.-d can beused to give demanding language work for proficient ipeakers ofthe language.

choose one ofihe interpretations being put forward and ask the students whatyou should have included in the drawrng to mare it clear. Here is an example ofa conversation which might take place:

TEAcHER: I f Ihadwanted toshowaclassroomwhatshouldlhavedrawn?STUDENTA: You should have drawn a lot ofdesks.TEA,cHER: That's a good idea. But it would have been difficult because there

isn't much space. So what should I have done?sruDE]''TA. \bu could have drawn part of another desk.TLACHER: Yes, I could have done that. But would it have been clearly a class?sruDENr B, No, it could have been a cafri with lots of tables.TEACHER: So, what should I have drawn?STLTDENTC: You should have written some maths on the blackboard.TEACHER: Yes, that's agood idea. Iflhadwritten some maths on the

rectangle at rhe top it would have Iooked like a blackboard. So theroom would have looked like a classroom. IfI had wanted to showthat the teacher is a woman what should I have clrawn?

SrUDE\r D: lbu should have drawn long hair and a skirt.'rE{cHER: }'es, good idea!

(\bu draw in the extra information once vou have negoriared it with the students. )

PersonaJ experiences and discussion ofa general themeTake a theme which has developed in the discussion and ask students tocontribute their personal experiences and opinions. For example, the picturemay have been interpreted and developed as representing a quarrel.

Students can-talk about: disagreements and quarrels they have had; theirattitude to differences ofopinron; the different ways that people in differenrcircumsrances express their difi 'erences ofopinion (or noi).

20

DialogueHaving agreed on what is happening in the picture, speculate on what may

have happened just before the incident in the picture and what might happen

next. Ask the studenrs to invent diaiogues which take place before, during and

atler the time in the picture.

Follow-up activitiesAny ofthe above activities can be continued int0 pair and groupwork on paper.

Picture sequence stort

Characteristics and techniques: developing a series ofdrawings through

discussion with the class.

Draw (or ask a student to draw) a picture ofa person or an object on the board.

The drawing should be towards the Ieft hand side ofthe board in case it proves

to be the first in a sequence of drarvings.

Ask the students to suggest the beginning of a story. Encourage and welcome

any suggestions and avoid correcting grammatical mistakes at tlus point.

Through discussion with the class, agtee on one ofthe proposals (or a

combination ofthe proposals). Ask another student to draw either some more

information to go with the first picture or to begin a new picture. Invite ideas

ibr how the story might continue incorporating the new drawing. Here is an

example:

1 Therewas a bigblack box.2 I twasunderatree.3 A c loud came and i t began to ra in.-1 A man sat on the box under the tree. He didn't want t0 get wet.

i Suddenly, thebox began to moveletc.

T@WT@I

21

Listening

Characteristics and techniques: drawing pictures and writing on the board.

Key words and sentences, together with pictures and maps can be used toprepare students before they listen to a description or to a story. The studentscan begin to predict what the text might be about by looking ai the key wordsand pictures on the board.In this use ofwords and pictures on the board, the prepararion can be donebefore the class enters the roorn.Here are four basic types oftext for listenins:

Description ofa place

Description ofa scene and ofpeopleand objects ' : - -

E

,#;J"

,*^li""b

Description ofan incident, a process or a story

r<5

?Eni[-,,"^;,i|i'l'

st^,(ie

go^fr

r-;ffirLdbUlF@@EHr e ' l

trmI

22

A dialogueIn this case the teacher (or students) point to the person who is speaking or to

the object referred to'

. ' ^' xttv

pea|To ,ofto}.)E",nt oN

t)(1' - Do aofru

Grammatical exPlanation

Characteristics and techniques: adding and highlighting information with

coloured chalks'

Text analYsis

Thefeaturesolatextcanbehighl ightedandrelat ionshipsbetweenpal tsolarext can be demor.r.^*a Lt ,"aeilining, encircling and by using coloured

chalks.

t*

Full and reduced sentences

Characteristics and techniques: erastng'

The chalkboard helps you to show the relationship between full and reduced

sentences.

TTtot & lL^z ont Ahich I aFe '

That 'sfheone- ? lat<:ro"*o*

;$o'*-

23

Tense

Characteristics and techniques: adding and highlighting information rvithcoloured chalk.

\bu can use a picture and a series of lines to help students to appreciateaspects of the meaning of a tense form.

In this example, a simple drawing of a man running and a house imply that theman hasjust left the house and begun his run. In the second drawing he looksexhausted but he is still running. This implies that it is later on. Thediagrammatic line offers alrother way of generalisingabout the use of thestructure. The advantage ofthe chalkboard over a wallchart of the samedrawing and diagram is that the students can see the'story' develop and seethe analytic diagram related to the drawrng sequence.

f?L_lA

tX..)

_ i.__----_I tlt i bern rB"'^J I

.4f:-$1tr'"^-Jore&srh+ 3 P. F. _

f?{- _______+

Vocabulary grouping

Characteristics and techniques: several people can work together at the boardat the same time and coloured chalks can be used.

Some teachers believe it is important to help the students to develop theirability to find useful generalisations about the Ianguage for themselves. In thefollowing example the students are being encouraged to 1 search forgeneralisations 2 evaluate the usefulness ofthe generalisations they discover.

h..io sP"^r.r.r clook

prt!( ,'.rro\ plr(cr

fabts

f iorrrcra ' l sok t

v,}.cS

nilk .rooar ^;';: rr^,.,.,

q t

Drep one:Ask the students to call out all the words they can remember which areassociated with a particular topic (or with a picture they are shown). Ask twoor three students to act as secretaries and to write down all the words which arecalled out.This activity can be done as a competition or challenge. The class can see howmany words they can compile on the board in a fixed amount of time.

Step wo:Ask the students to write down in their books all the words on the board andthen to think ofas many different ways ofgrouping them as possible. Tell thestudents that no grouping can be wrong and that you are interested in themcollecting as many as possible.For example: by numbers of Ietters in the word; by grammar; by rarity; bywhether they can be eaten or not!After ten minutes, tell the students to work with their neighbour and compile aI.ist in common.Possibly then ask pairs to work with other pairs

Step three:Students call out their ideas for grouping the words and these are discussedaccording to why they were chosen and then at a second stage how useful suchgroupings might be.

In the example given above, singular and plwal forms might be scatteredrandomly on the board. The teacher then asks the students to suggest variousways ofgrouping the words according to the evidence on the board. A variety ofgroupings will be suggested. The teacher encourages the students and does notat this stage behave negatively to any ofthe suggestions. The generalisationsare discussed. Before focusing on singular and plural forms, the teacher couldthen give the students a text in which there are examples ofsingular and plural

forms in context. The students can then try out their theories to see iftheyseem to apply to the text. Finally the students can be asked for theirobservations on what generalisations they can find for the formation oftheplural in English. Similar-coloured chalk can be used to rewrite the endings ofwords following the same generalisation, for example, knife/knives, leaflleaves. Other ways of using coloured chalks include: spelling, sound/spellingrelationships, agreements.

Technical tips

I The lighter-coloured chalks, white and yellow show more clearly on thechalkboard than the darker colours, red and blue.

2 lVrite letters and draw picture details big enough to be seen the length of

25

the classroom. Letters should be about 3 cm in height, clearly formed andconfrasfing in coloLrwith the background ifthey are to be read easily fromabout 10 m away. However, it is best to check by asking the students at theback ofthe class.

3 Usually keep lines of text horizontal. You can rule lines on the whiteboardwith a permanent marker pen in a slightly darker colour than the surfaceofthe board. A grid ofhorizontal and vertical linesjust visible to you butnot obtrusive to the class is most useful for keeping a discipline for yourwriting and for helping you to draw rapidly.

4 Use the side of the chalk as an alternative to the pointed end. This will giveyou, without effort, a variety oflines which are useful in underlining, indrawing boxes, and in drawing.

/

Hz-5A r,

/ ikz

l ikes

Tt taan t \g r

J.J ri,. dr r^g

fCa-ot t \g

' rw ctlKLKt"ff{f,iz *i"'r

'";'+'#;f*

5 For tips on design, drawing and lettering (see pages 100- 116).6 Don't stand with your back to the class for too longl7 Don't obscureyourwritingwithyour body or arm.8 Clean the board from top to boctom and preferably with a wet cloth to

reduce the dust.9 Repaint the chalkboard when necessary.

l0 Utilise the shelf at the bottom of the board for picture or word cards. (Ifthere isn't one then ask for onel)

26

L1 Add a wire across the top of the chalkboard plus clips for

(a) pictures(b) sheetsoftext(c) wordcards makingsentences(d) sheets covering part of the board' for example, hiding questions to

answers or for use as a projection screen'

/ / - d t a P '

12 Use the board beneath the pictures suspended on the wire to make

comments. On a whiteboard it is easier to stick a picture on the surface and

then write comments on the whiteboa-rd around it'

13 Sticking pictures on an unmagnetised board is not easy! Blu-Tack (or

similar plastic adhesive) is affected by chalk dust Make sure that you

clean the chalkboard well where you want to stick it and knead it well

before use.A dab oflatex glue is effective and does not mark the board when dry'

Overhead projector

There are overhead projectors in many schools and colleges but not always inthe hands oflanguage teachers. This is a pity because they are one ofthe mostuseful tools a Ianguage teacher can have. The teacher can use thetransparencies again and again and, at the same time, can adapt and createimages of many kinds.

Characteristics and techniques

1 The whole class can see the projected image.2 The image can be projected without darkening the room.3 Text and pictures can be modified in front of the class:

a adding a transparency or taking one away;o writing on the transparency or wiping lines off;. obscwing or revealing parts of the fransparency by putting something

opaque on the screen or removing it, for example, a book.4 Ttansparencies can be prepared beforehand and used many times.5 Permanent pens make hansparencies which last for a long time; the marks

of water-based pens can be removed with a damp cloth.6 There are pens with a variety of thicknesses of nib and in a variety of

colours.7 Transparencies can be made by photocopying.

As the techniques associated with an overhead projector (OHP) are sodistinctive, activities will be described under technique headings.

28

mmm

E

Single unprepared transparency

characteristics and techniques: you or the students can write or draw directly

on the transparency as you would on the cha.lkboard but with the advantages

of projected size, brightness ofcolour and clarity. Thus most ofthe activities

desc.ibed under chalkboard in the previous section could be done on the OHP.

Describing pictures: examPle 1

Draw parts ofa picture and ask the students to guess what is happening'

TEACHER: Tell me about the Picture.sruDE\TA: It's a man. That's his head.

sruDE).-r B: He's playing football. That's the ball'

Describing pictures: examPle 2

Draw a picture ofsomething or someone, Ask the students to describe it. Then

add some other features to the drawing and contradict the student (teasingly! )

and ask the students to tell you again what is happening The students can

take over your role once they have got the idea'

rE-{cH!rR: (having &awn the first stage of the picture)Tellme about the

ptclure.

STUDENTA: It'S A MAN.rE-{cHER: What's he doing?

sTUDENTA: He'sstanding.TEACHER:(addingaskir tandlonghab)No, i t isn ' taman!Tel lmeaboutthe

PIcture.S T T ' D B N T B : I t ' S A W O M A N .

TEACHER What's she doing?

STL DE\r B: She's standing.TLACHER, (changing the legs fo runnrng) No, she isn't! What's she doing?

erc.

Sin gle prepared transparency

Characteristics and technniques: one of the basic advantages of the OHP is

that you can prepare a text or a picture and use it instantly and as often as you

wish without furiher wo.k. Ideas for using texts and pictures are given

throughoui this book and many apply to the OHP For tha-t reason we have

chosei some less usual examples which exploit the special characteristics of

theOHP.

Reading

Put a text on the projector back to front and challenge the class to read it!

ro'f ) 'l orq prfl r.o .l*.J D J "9e?nrl le; ) ' t .r 'p snort of : f :od\ -J; bor'l 01 zzol) 9r+l

Sentence construction

Put a number ofstrips oftext on the projector and challenge the students toplace them in a logcal sequence.

Tfi€ 57I./PJ CI'J BC MA'/ED

,4<oq ^J D

. l ; Y

, foo" , r fu j . , *n4nu t . *Fu , iK rpn

- o o?n1u ̂ . t , " i , L . a , , { "t rF ' 8 qu , , - " . . nJu , 11 (

. / ?.u,"& ' r tK 'a, ,

P \ , , r - ' ' n , ^

@FEStorytelling

Prepare a number ofstrips oftransparency with a small drawing on each one,

for example, a car, a man, a cat, etc. You and the students can then move these

pictures on the screen and iUustrate a story.

.nB, l o !

' p?v'

+tt ,r f,x,l4 w '

Single transparency with a water-based pen

Characteristics and techniques: usually the transparency is prepared before

the class with a permanent pen. During the class the teacher or the students

can add information with a water-based pen. The additions in water-based

ink can be cleaned off at any time.

30

Cloze test

A cloze test can be written in permanent based pen and a water-based pen canbe used in ajoint class effort to complete it.

lE uc-s rari^.r). ,9 a^d. ,he b,r ' j - fq;-. . Nc,r i l le - at ' hir

pafoh agai,. . B*t f tal ly l terr - n6 hurry. He -

rca.lly Carr, abo*g ttt b,+-c or lte rr^,;. illg7g -

r r io .a - ;por l 'aaE lk r ig r i h , i n r i .4 .

Conecting texts

An essay containing mistakes can be projected. The teacher and students cancorrect it using a water-based pen.

/o ' ,o to ' . i t / c ,c -p i t " " l c i t y o f Dr , ' l -a ,^ .( . l

the

Translation and text analysis

A text can be written in permanent pen with wlde spaces between the lines.

The spaces can then be used for a translation written in water-based ink.

Aiternatively, the spaces can be used to mark in stress and intonation.

r 2 . / . l J -(iooa tAo.A;ng .' llou aty-- goq /

Errible-.t /'tT lllz otorstdg o/ ,a7 /;f<. .

Listening

A map or street pLan can be prepared inpermanent pen. The teacher might read outa description of a journey taken across the

. citv or might describe the location of various

. . , " t ' p laces onihemap.Astudentcanbeaskedto

"t't drarv in the route or mark in the places with

,a:.;1."'ge I

a water-based pen. Having understood theK '

activity, all the students can then be asked to

complete a similar plan instructed by theteacher or bv another student.

31

Guidedwriting

A text can be prepared in water-based pen. During the lesson the class candiscuss and make modifications to theiext in whiJh they might erase wordsand substitute others to see if they can change the sense'without changing thegalnmar.

QBIP tt'tP64r4A,tENT2Et/

\I

lrrer7ryb Nas re^ss(^rt'n9i he warnlS;"i*!!th- otteerf.t &-Ls of tA. p4"ptcf ,f: ?"r\ 4nat abote 4rl lhe-p.ocp;-ftHhich la^1 bc.forc hi-r.

Elimination text

A text can be prepared in water-based pen. The class attempt to reduce thetext to nothing. You allow them to remove one, two, or three adjacent words.They can change the meaning of the text but the grammar musr remamcorrect. (A technique Ieamt from Mario Rinvolucri.)

1he yourgred'haid uoman crepc guieHq do,onlAcsfats,/ /F .LPL/ \ae

fHe hoRE l r i l !NES tF yaqwts t l

1he t h)etaata crept guiefly doun lhcsfairt.'lhe

- u)et^^ crzpc gui2tlThc - h)ohel

Spellingand Suabble

A Scrabble grid can be prepared in permanent ink. The game can be playedwith letters added in water-based ink which can be creaned otTat the end ofeach game.

In one_simple version ofthe game, the grid ofsquares is projected and the classtry to fill it with as many words as possible, each word oi.erlapping the others.

2::::t,llIfi*.'"'vil r*r"tis+reo Pe^r

L J d l c t f a N o -

c/-e-+Neo aFF '

Nore: For other spellinggames see ,tic, tac, toe,, ,noughts and crosses,and ,hangman,

TWo or more transParencres

Characteristics and techniques: you can add in-formation or take it away by

preparingseveral transparmcies' Translations, annotations, additions and

modifications can all be made by placing a second, third, (or more)

transparency on the top ofthe hrst one.

Vocabulary

A picture can be projected and a second transparency added with words

naming objects and actions.

q'cl'uerr\ctl

frblcdnsrcr l'c1Y.

c\ov

fiorc

'r#w

Comparing differences

A picture can be projected ( 1 ), removed, and then substituted by another

similar picture (i). The students try to remember and spot the differences

between the two pictures. Then the two pictures are shown together (3) ' Ifa

d.ifferent colour ii used for each drawing then the differences between the two

pictures can be easilY seen

An ? ' Y

z\iJ- o\U

'"rt{-" ('.^4{

z(P\\ r , - x \ -",(6P

prc /t

Prc B

PIC A

PIc B

4:,ffi- 6Q--

3z

Identiflring texts

Two texts can be laid one on top of the other. The students can be chailensed toidentif-'- each text and to *rite each of them down.

/llose

>-r !.rr- je" q n,'n'tfff, V,A"f3,Pl ".- .

w =**"u4;ft'c,^t! l-o cscape |

-'+)'. 't-

Masking and revealing

Characteristics and techniques: any opaque object can be laid on the projectorand used to obscure what is beneath.

f . e a r n i n o q c n n o

Put up a song on the OHP and mask it with something opaque. You can showune I ine ar a t ime as rhe c lass learns i t .

Predicting a text

\bu use a piece ofpaper or card to obscure the right hand halfol a text. Thestudents must guess at the missing parts. lnstead ol rhe right hand half, itcould be the left or the bottom ofthe text.

- a : r 4 ''N i f ' . * :p4 . iqe

Discussion

You can place a text or a picture on the projector and hold a piece ofcard (a

book or envelope) under the mirror which projects the image. This preventsany part of the image being projected. Move the card rapidly to and fro thusflashing the image on the screen. Ask the students what they saw. Get them toexpress their views and their differences ofopinion. As them to write downwhat they saw and to discuss it with their neighbour. Flash the image againand once more prompt discussion and the expression ofdifferences ofperception and opinion

, . , o r J M n

#i'tru,'* tne j )6*l

( o t q P ' -

|

Predictive reading

A piece of card or paper can have a hole cut in it. PIace this on the projector andthen pass a text slowly across it. Ifthe hole is very small so that only one or twoletters can be seen then the students are stimulated to guess at the word. Asthey establish a word so they are stimulated to guess at the next word makinguse ofwhat they know about sentence conslruction, cohesion and collocation.

A picture or a picture strip can be shown and made use ofin a similar way.

g-"#x23'' nnt fira ,,7 , pe4

' '

6 L & \ n <bYco-ir*,

f :o ' (- " : ^,n

Hk3f;37"P r t i l I /

, ' "

/ 7

diond.s ,{c

.

35

Vocabulary

Objects can be placed on the projector and their silhouettes projected on thescreen. The students can be asked to guess what they are. ifthere are severalobjects then you can project them for a few moments and then cover the lensand ask the students to tell you what they saw and remember. You couldremove one and then project the image again and ask them what vou havedone.

"W)"'"u,f,!#'

Expressive talking and writing

Anything canae laid on the projector! You can lay your head on it and project aprofile image of yourself talking!You can put a glass plate ofwater on the projector and arrange grasses aroundit and create a pond and a meadowl Try sliding a book, or better, your fingersslowly under the lens (careful, it might be hot!). This will create effects ofsun-rise, sunset and twilight! AII these effects can be used to stimulateexpressive talking and writing.

^ No*def't(ii,n'l#iref,uas,vt'td4'^J'D'

" , r r l * ) ,3ar4q&rct-Fr,'{""*1

' k5

o c

o . oo

6

,10

Drama and story-telling

Put the projector behind the screen (ifit is a free standing screen) and you

have a shadow puppet theatre! The students can make shadow puppets or use

themselves as actors. Groups ofstudents can be responsible for writing a play,

making the props, acring it and reiling the story.

vtr&

ft"@r'-

Technical tips

1 Students at the back of the class must be able to see what you have written.

Letters should be about 5mm high on the transparency if they a-re to be seen

about 10 m away. Ofcourse, the size ofthe image is partly dependent on how

far away your projector is from the screen.

2 A few words and short sentences are best for the OHP Handwriting (as on

the chaikboard) should not be too idiosyncraticl Have full body shapes to

the letters and minimise the length ofthe ascenders and descenders. For

more tips on handwriting see pages 10? and 108.

i) I'ransparencies are made.in dilferent thicknesses and this affects the cost of

them. Find which is suitable for you.

4 \'ellow and orange do not project as well as red, blue and purple.

5 You might consider usinga size of fransparency which can be easily stored.

We use 44 transparencies for this reason rather than the Iarger square

shape.6 Apart from writing and drawing on the transparency, you can also make

transparencies from existing material by photocopying. Make sure however,

that the text is big enough. NIost texts in books are not big enough if

reproduced on the transparency at the same size. Note, however, that manyphotocopying machines will enlarge the original. This will enable you to have

a bigger letter size and satisfactory readability.

afrc

J

6rr- 7.?.2---\. < c t s - . I';,'n"r,

h ̂,,'{n" I

tlA

Ifyour screen is not tilted (and itprobably isn't) you may project apicture which is wider at the top thanat the boftom. If this bothers you,then stick two strips ofcard downeach side ofthe projector glass tocorrect this effect. You can also usethese snips to narrow lhe image ifyou are usingA.l.

-/7.b SiTe-rp: oF

ch<o -m.Ke+'rE4 ,48-cr*r,r<Le oN

,lc<EzM

Check the OHP works before the lesson: make sure the bulb is working, thatthe OHP is in focus and that the lens is cleaa.

obtr

Flannelboard,magnetboard andadliesive plastic

All three media enable pictures or texts on paper or card to be displayed to the

class.

Flannelboard: cutout figtres (pictures or words) are backed by flannel, rough

sandpaper or teazlestrip (e.g. !'elcro) and are placed on a vertical board

covered with flannel or blanket-like material'

Nlagnetboard: cutout figures have a small piece ofstrip magnet stuck on the

bacf or placed on the front. The surface ofthe board is zinc or tinplate metal

sheet. Tie figures adhere much better than on the flannelboard. On the other

hand, the magnetboard is more inconvenient because it is much heavier and

the magnets can be difficult to acquire and to keep'

Adhesive plastic: a plastic is widely available which can be torn into small

pieces ani moulded with the fingers into small balls' It can then be used to

stick paper or card onto most smooth surfaces ln many ways this is the most

useful oithe three media if it is available to the teacher' One well-known

version is called BIu-Tack.

ntbod,t)r1^'- " ot

Nl'oo(,i,,f ,,c,P"^ s('" g,y''

SF''%",'o -"'AKtfr^^gd"'

i,&'*-{, t)v

,tPD

,:",:#,y;lno*n')a"na.'^

oe

1y04 " ogot'

ffi

39

Characteristics and techniques

All three media:

1 All three media are essentially for use by the teacher and material displayedshould be big enough for the whole class to see.

2 Sentences and scenes can'grow' or diminish in front of the class as words orpictures are added, moved or taken away.

3 The words and pictutes can be handled by the teacher or students beforebeing placed on the board or surface.

4 On the magnetboard, background settings (for example, a street) can bedrawn on Iarge pieces ofpaper and placed on the board. Pictures ofobjectsand people can be placed on top ofthis background setting. Pictures can beplaced on top ofother pictures.

5 With adhesive plastic no preparation is required and any piece ofpaper orcard can be stuck or moved from one position to another. Pictures can beplaced on top ofother pictures including large pieces ofpaper representingsettngs.

6 Essentially all three media allow the teacher and students to simulate in avery simple form and with great flexibility, scenes, situations and stories aswell as diagams and short texts. Thus a great variety oflanguage can becontextualised through the use ofthese media.

7 Teachers nervous of drawing on the chalkboard can prepare visuals inadvance with these three media.

Presentation and controlled practice

Characteristics and techniques: showing one or more pictures illustratingobjects or actions.

At the most basic level, pictures can be used to introduce the meaning oflanguage new to the students or to cue answers to questions or substitutionswithin sentences.

Presenting vocabulary

TEACHaR: This is a cat. It's on the tablel Now it's under the table!etc.

{0

ruffi

Vocabulary Practice

The teacher puts a large piece ofpaper on theboard (magnetboard only) with

,fr" ""tfi.. "i""

eleph-ani dta*tt on-it' He or she then places food inside the

;i;;;;.-S;;;ntsiake it in turns to name the food and then to list all the

other food the elePhant has eaten'

rEi\cHER: !!trat'sthis?

srr. DE\T It s an aPPle.

TL{CHERT So, what has the elephant eaten'/

STL.DENT: The elephant has eaten a piece ofcake, a cabbage, some sugar and

an aPPle.etc.

Open communicative Practice

characteristics and techniques: the flexibility ofbeing able to give students

piit*". t" ft"ia *hich they can then come to the front of the class and stick on

the board.

The students can be divided into pairs or groups' Each student can be given

;;;;;t;;Jror word and studenm take it in turns to place their pictures on

if-r. ["*J. fit.v must be able to say what connection their picture has with the

;.r;;;".;"rd placed there' Ii the class like the idea' the picture can be

lelt on the board.

The activity can be done by having only two pictures which have to be related

". tv Ji^g t.,"ry with each successive picture illustrating the next part of

the story.

In this example, the two pictures have been related:

SrUDa\r: The ghost has lived in this house for three hundred years'

"t&)

41

Listening comprehension and oral retelling

Characteristics and techniques: building up a situation, moving pictures toillustrate a story.

These three media Iend themselves to the established audio visual approach ofusing pictures to illustrate a story or a dialogue. The understanding of the storyhelps the student to understand the meaningoflanguage new to them. Thestudents having heard and understood the story then retell it, act out thedialogue and change the pictures as required.

Owing to shortage ofspace in this book, only three scenes ofthe story areillustrated below. However, in the classroom the number of intermediarystages is limited only by the number ofpictures the teacher can get hold of.

When Ron was a baby he used to be so nice and so happy. He used to play withhis teddy bear. And everybody used to like him . . .etc.

When Ron was twenty he was a student. He was poor but he was happy. He used to live

in a little room and in the winter he used to weu his coat ir his room because he hadn't

got enough money for a heater. He didn't play with his teddv bea anymore but he used

to keep it wth him for luck!

etc.

(Note: the picture of Ron at r* enty can be stuck on top of the picture of Ron as a bab1. )

@a nmf o@

1 0

Now he is frfty. He has a car and a big house but he is a miserable man. He isalways complaining. No one likes him.

The first few developments in a story are illustrated here. The picture growsand changes according to the stage in the story.

QDADO

oQ noo @aTechnical tips

Magnetboard

1 Magnetboards can be made easily and cheaply. Hardware shops sell themeta.l plate. Check that magnets stick to it. The metal should be aboutI m by 1.5 m depending on how you can cope with the weight. The metalshould be mounted on a wooden frame or against a wooden board. Thealternative is to use a metal cupboard ifthere is one convenient. (As

mentioned before, some whiteboards are already magnetised.)2 Magnetic strip can be obtained from refrigerator repairers; it is used as the

seal on refrigerator doors. Hardware shops or stationers sometimes sellrnagnetic strips or small, flat magnets.

Flannelboard

I Flannel or blanket-like material should be stretched on a board. Becausethe figures do not adhere as well as on a magnetboard it is an advantage toposition the board so that it is leaning rather than vertical.

2 The figures must have a rough surface on the back which adheres to theboard. Sandpaper or flannel itselfwill work reasonably well. However, acommercial product like flock paper or teazel or Velcro is better.

Adhesive plastic

The surface should be free from dust. The chalkboard ought to be spongedclean and must be allowed to dry before the adhesive will stick. An alternativeis a rubber glue which peels offwhen dry and does not damage the surface orthe picture.

43

Notes for all tfuee media

1 Pictures can be cut from magazines. \'ery often it is more satisfactory todraw them and to colour them with felt tip pens.

2 Some teachers do not attempt to have individua.l pictures for all objects.They have a number of s1'mmetrical shapes which they introduce at thebeginning ofeach acti!'ity as s)'rnbols ofparticular objects. Here areexamples ofthe sort ofbasic shapes which can be used to symbolisedifferent things:

[ [

fln' Fl* ,\rr.*'u [lftBu'orc'

I[]ooo^<

The advantage ofthis approach is not only that it is time saving but thatsome students like the challenge to their imagination.

3 In all cases it is advisable to mount the pictures on thin card and to coverthem with a clear, seif-adhesive plastic so that they can be used many fimes.

,/, t Wallpictures and( / - -.wallposters

aI

--,aqEid- r L ' ' ' + 6 . n

M^rn- - f i l o A t a .

.a - t6 *Je

'

Wallpictures and wallposters illustrare scenes, people or objects and are largeenough to be seen by all the students.lVallpictures may be:

t y1o$r1ed collercialiy for language teaching purposes (see Byrne, D andHall, D, 1976 lVall Pict;u:es for Language priiiceLongman);

2 produced for other educational purposes, for example,i road safety poster,or for commercial purposes unconnected with education, for example, apublicity poster;

3 produced by the teacher and/or students, either drawn or made by collage(seepage 116).

h R - 1 t p t . a l . W t . a

JEe PRet o8 - t/()

45

Characteristics and techniques

1 Wa.llpictures often show a complicated scene and contain many details. Ifthe students cannot see the necessary detail oi if tfr.V i. att .r.t"a UV tfrurest ofthe picture then that is clearly a disadvant"g" On ,f.," orn"r hand, it isthe very complexity of mosr wallpi.r*.s *t icn m""k..'.o_* u.ririries souseful.

2 The whole class can see the picture.3 It is ready to use and can be used more than once.4 It can be left on display or taken down.

Presentation and guided practice

ch"racteristics and techniques: a wallpicture like the one illustrated aboveprovides a context for language use and a variety ofreference for controlledpractice in both speaking and writing.

Wallpictures have a traditiona.l role in the presenting ofnew language, bothvocabulary and structures, to the students. In the hurrd_dru*r, p,"rur"illustrated above, the teacher can in|roduce many words for people and objectsseen in a street. The scene a-s a whole gives a context for this newlanguage andan opportunity to move into controlled practice by the students.

The present perfect tense

Traditionaily, the wailpicture is associated with the present con'nuous rense.However, other tense forms can be introduced and practised, for example, thepresent perfect:

TEACHER: (pointingat the man coming out of the shop)Thsmar ls cofiungout of the shop. He,s got a bag. He's bought somerhing. What ha.ihe bought, do you think?And this woman, she,s dropped something on the pavement. Whathas she dropped?

Having introduced the present perfect, the teacher might write a sentencepattern table on the board and ask the students to offer more exampres basedon the picture. For example:

STUDENTA: The cat has climbed the tree.sruDENr B: The plane has left the auport.STUDENTC: Thewoman has crossed the road.

46

i lIight

Scenes always imply that something has happened before the time in thepicture and that something is going to happen aiierwards. The teacher canexploit this. For example:

TTACHER: lVhat might the woman have done before her bag broke?SrUDE\rA: She mighthave put too many heavy things init.TEACHER: lVhatmightshedonext?Sru DEr-r B: She might wrap the shopping in her scarf.

Trueifalse game

Controlled practice does not always need to be an occasion when the studentsmerely articulate the Ianguage. Activities can be introduced which make thestudent think about meaning and want to communicate it. For example, thewell-known true/false game can be used. The teacher (or a student) makes anumber of statements some of rvhich are true and some of which are false. Ifthis is done oraily then the students can correct the teacher when he or shemakes a false statement. For example:

rD\cHER: The cat is being chased by the dog.srUDEvrS: Nol The dog is being chased by the catl(In the picture, the dog really is being chased by the cat! )

If the truei false game is done in writing, then the teacher might write anumber ofsentences on the board and ask the students to copv the correctones and to correct and then copy the incorrect ones.

Once this version ofthe activity has been done, each student can write anumber of sentences making some true and some false. The students thenread out each other's sentences ifthev are true.

N[emory game

Another well-established game which can transform a mechanical exerciseinto real communication is the memory game. The teacher stands with his orher back to the picture and tries to describe everything in it. The studentscorrect the teacher whenever he or she makes a mistake, a source ofgreatsatisfaction to the students. Once the students have understood the game theycan try it out in pairs or gloups for themselves with one ofthem (or possiblytwo ) trying to descrihe the picture from memorl .

Hide and seek

Prepositions can be practised with the game of'hide and seek'. One studentimagines that he or she is a mouse and is hiding somewhere in the picture. Theother students trv to find out where the mouse is hidine.

1 1

b-ruDENT.\: Are you in the old man's pocket?STUDENTuoLSE: No.sTL DE\T B. fue 1ou behind the tree in the park?STLDE\TUOL;SE: No.

a r a

OIder students might prefer to imagine that they have hidden something in theplcture.

Guidedwriting

You can give the sludents a text with some words or sentences missing. Thestudents complere the teKt by referr ing to the picture.

Dialogues

Characteristics and techniques: the quantity and variety of informationrelated to a theme in both wallpictures on page,4.4 provides 4context fbrdialogue and role pLay.

The dialogues can be controlled as in the lust example below or open as rn thesecond example.

Controlled dialogue

Write a model dialogue on the board which one or two pairs ofstudents act outin front of the class. !!tren you feel that all the students understand thedialogue, ask them to work with a neighbour and to devise a new dialoguesubstituting other words for those which are underlined, based on the picture.

Your dialogue might be like thrs:

STLALL BO\': lVhere are we going now, Mummv?M0THER: We are going to the baker's.

Students might change the dialogue to:

cAr', Where are we going now, Fred?ooc, lVe are going to the park.

Open dialogue

In this example, students have studied the wallpicture of animals on page'1'{

and have invented and written a dialogue rvhich they can then act out f0r the

class or direct another pair to act for them. The students have used thepictures of animals on the poster as a reference rather than as a setti ng furtheir dialogue.

48

ANrliAl RTcHTS\f orul, You shouldn't kill birds.HU\"TER: Whynot?A\.'tr,rAL RTcHTS\!oyAN: Because it is wrong.HU\rER: But thebidseatthecorn.A\rM{L RTGHTS\.!'ouAN, These bhds don't eat com, thev eat insects

Vocabulary

Characteristics and techniques: the picture can be displayed quickly and itscomplexity can provide a rich source ofvocabulary practice.

The students cal out in, say, five minutes a.ll the words they remember whichcan be related to the picture. More advanced students can be restricted tocertain kinds ofword, for example, adjectives. One or two student'secretaries'write down all the words given by the class on the board.As the students call out the words you should male a rapid note ofthem.(Alternatively be ready to cover the board with paper or a cloth.)

When all the words have been wriften down, give the students a moment tolook at them and then erase them. Each student then hies to remember all thewords and to write them down. After five minutes ask the students to workwith their neighbour ald to compile a joint list. After another five minutes askpairs ofstudents to work together in groups offour to compile their finalcomposite list. Tell the students to put their words into alphabetical order. Seewhich group remembers the most words.

Listening comprehensron

Characteristics and techniques: the variety and complexity of information inthe wallpicture mean that students must listen or read very carefully in orderto identify what is being referred to.

The teacher describes: 1 a person's appearance in the picture2 aperson'sthoughts 3 anobject 4 whattheteacherthinksaboutanything in the picture. The students try to say who or what is being describedThe description can be easy both conceptually and linguistically or be verydemanding in both senses. Here is a description intended for beginners:

TEACHER: He is thinking. 'I must go slowly. It's dangerous.'STUDENTA: The man on the motorbike.TL{cHER: Yes.

19

A more demanding example.

rFncHER: lVhat a wonderful quiet place to retreat to in the lunch break.SrLDE\rB: Thepark.TEACHERI YES.

Free communicative practice

characteristics and techniques: the variety and complexitv ofinformationoffers considerable choice ofwhat to talk about.

Speculation

With the wallpicture made of magazine pictures of animals (page.1.l), thestudents could be asked to irientify the animals, to say where thev Iive and totalk about their characteristics. The students can then be asked to discussbroader issues such as, 'the relarionship between these animals and people,,'animal

rights', 'animals in history', and their own personal associations withthese anima.ls.

Story-telling

In the picture ofthe street scene (page ,1.l) there is a great variety ofinformation which could provide a basis for story-telling. Students might beasked to imaginewhat one of the people is thinkingor feeling and towrite ashort story about him or her. The story could include reference to severalplaces or other people in the picture.

Technical tips

I The students at the back of the class must be able to see and recoexise thedetails that you want them to see. The only wav to ensure this haJpens is totest it. As a general rule details must be about 2 cm in height to be seen thelength of the classroom. Nevertheless, testing is rhe onl-v way ofbeing sure.

2 Teachers and students can make wallpictures by drawing rhem andTor bysticking pictures from magazines, etc. on to the paper. Aithough the resultis, bv definition, amateurish the studenrs are verv likely to appreciate it asmuch or more than a commercially produced pictu_re.

3 The drawing style used must be almost diagrammatic with clear. simoleoutlines and simple colour-filled shapes rather than a sketchy,impressionistic style which is difficult to ,read,.

.1 The easiest way Io store wallpictures is to fold them neatly, untess vou haveaccess ro a map rack or shelf

5 For more suggesrions for drawing, mounting and displaying wallpictures seepages 108 to 118.

f- -:-l Picture flash cardsI L-l - r,i--.--z

Picture flash cards are pictures mounted or drarvn on cards approximatelyi5 cm by 20 cm. They are normally used by the teacher in oral work for cueingresponses to questions or in more open communicative work for stimulatingconversation, story-telling, etc. The normal picture card has a picture on oneside only. However, both sides can be used and the card can be folded or cut invarious ways with particular teaching purposes in mind.

fu trntrCharacteristics and techniques

I Picture cards are easy and inexpensive for the teacher to prepare whichmeans that sets of cards related to language teaching points or to subjectmatter can be built up over a period of time.

2 The cards are easy to store and to carry to the classroom so they offerconsiderable flexibilitl/ to the teacher in the conduct of the lesson.

3 The cards can be shown to the whole class or to a single student which allowsthe teacher to control who receives the information on them.

4 Because they are held and can be presented at speed or in a leisurelymanner, the teacher can control the pace, variety and interest ofthe lesson.

5 The teacher can show one or fwo cards at any one time by hand. However,the cards can also be propped on a shelf, for example, at the bottom ofthe

5t

chalkboard. The cards can a.lso be pinned on a board, or stuck to amagnetboard or to any smoorh su.Lce *irlia;;;;i'ilastic. The studentcan be asked ro stand at the front oitfr. .fu.. *Jio',,ji.urA.. f n this wav a- great number ofcards can be displayed.6 The cards can be used in groupwork by the students.

Presentation

Characteristics and techniques: there is great flexibility in being able to shorvone or several picture cards at key moments.

Teaching meaning with one ptct ure

Sometimes it is possibie to show a single picture illustrating a new word andexpect it to be understood. For example, a bicycle, o -

Teaching meanin g u sing several pict ures

Usually it is advisable to show several pictures to be sure that the studentskn_ow what you are rel'erring ro. f,o, "*urnpf ",

_"t.l"frili it i p..."n, p..r..,contrnuous: He's been swimmLng. She's been climti.*.'?i-r."l,,* U.en eating.These cards can be shown to the"cr".. ""Jii..

pr"pp".*on", .r,.tf, .u.hreinforcing the others.

$Utr.irrh

For

52

Contrasting meanings

Sometimes it is helpful to introduce contrasting Ianguage items at the same

time. The fwo pictures can be placed on either side ofthe card. In the act of

turning the card over the contrast is demonstrated. The examples given below

are: canlcan't, likes/doesn't Iike, too big/too small:

HNWEMH

uomparng meantngs

Card can also be folded. In the example below, the difference between'hill ' and'mountain' is demonsrrated. Each one may be seen by itself or in comparison

with the other.

Presenting meanings of new words in a story

Sometimes it is essential to innoduce the new language within a longer text,perhaps a story. The language which is already known to the student leads to

an understanding ofthe story and this understanding ofthe story indicates the

meaning of the new language. Picture cards can be used to illustrate the story

and by making the story more readily understood, the new language, in turn,

might be understood by the student. It is important to say'might be'because it

is often difficult to ascertainjust how people have responded to and

interpreted the information they have received.

Folding card story

A miniature story is created simply by folding the paper. By folding the paperinto three panels, three srages in the story can be illustrated and this, in turn.illustrates rhree tense forms.

He's going to sit on the car.He's sitting on the cat.He has sat on the cat.

Nofe: Ifyou show one example of this three fold story, you could ask the students toproduce one of their own for homework. Although it would only involve them indealing with one example of these three tense forms, it would nevertheless bevery intensive and memorable. They would also be able to show their work totheir fellow students ard more practice would occur.

Practice

Characteristics and techniques: a great variety of pictures can be shown at amoment's notice to the students one after the other or the cards can be placedon a shelf. The pictures carr provide reference for the students as they answeror ask questions, make substitutions or complete sentences.

rE{cHlrR: (holding up a picture of some apples) I've been to the shops. Whatdid I buy?

SrUDE\r: You bought some apples.

ftlil

iA

Alternativell', don't show the picture to the students, so that they must guess

what you have bought. The language practice is the same but the interest is

greater and the language is used more meaningfully.

Pictwes and sentence pattems

The teacher might wish to write a sentence model table on the board to guide

the students and then use picture flash cards to cue variations Usually this

kind ofwork requires the student to think very little about the meaning ofwhat

he or she is saying. It is possible, however, to plan the activity so that the

student must give more th0ught to meaning before speaking. In the example

below, the student has a choice ofwhat to say based on his or her general

knowledge. The teacher writes the model on the board.

TEACHER: (showing a picture of a horse and pointing to a student)What

about horses, Edwina?

SrUDE\r: Horses can jump but they can't fly

oY! Ca^ a.^ t{

brr

c 4 n

CIA,E

L ro l k

Jr.tia

E xp re ss ing pers o n a I p r e Ib r e n c e s

The examples above provide a certain amount of practice in the manipulation

of the language and they do demand some attention to the meaning' However,

such practice is, by its nature, remote fiom the way language is used for real

purposes. Alter all the teacher knows very well that horses canjump but not

flyl So why should the student say this? Simple practice of language potnts can

oiten be achieved with a closer approximation to the use oflanguage in order to

communicate an idea. In the example below, the student is practising the use

of'would' but, at the same time, expressing his or her own preferences which

the teacher could not have predicted. In this sense the student is telling the

teacher something he or she did not know. A simple practice exercise is thus

being used for real communicative puposes.

Tlvo basic sentences could be written on the board:I would prefer the orange.I don't like either of them.

frfrTEACHER: (showingtwo pictures offruit) \tlhich would you prefer, or perhaps

you don't like either of them?sruDE\r: i would prefer the apple.TEACHERT Fine

Nofe: Because the student is being asked to give a genuine response, it is only naturalthatyou should respond to what he or she says in someway, even ifit is only tosmile and to say,'fine', 'good', 'right',

etc.

Mini role plays cued by pictues

In the above example the students are being asked to express theirpreferences. Pictures provide one way of stimulating and giving reference tosuch 'mini'

but real conversations. An alternative is to have mini role olavs inwhich the students pretend to be a character. What the srudents say is cued bythe picture and might be in response to what is said to them. The teacher oranother student might provide the other role.

TEACHER: What are you doing this evening, Rogerl (asking the question andthen showing a pictue of a basketball match)

sluDENr: I'm going to a basketbali match.TEACHER: That's greatlrHow interestinglr'Rather you than mel

etc.

K

56

The slow picture reveal

The card can be put in an envelope and then withdrawn a centimetre at a time. As the students see more of the picture ask them to try to identify what they can see and to predict what might appear next in the picture. This gives guided practice in the use of descriptive language.

Open communicative practiceCharacteristics and techniques: the cards can be juxtaposed rapidly.

Imagining connectionsShow the students any two picture cards together and ask them to imagine a connection between them.

STUDENT: This man is driving home very quickly because he is hungry and wants his dinner.

57

Story connectionsThe example above can be extended into a story with each part of the story cued by the next picture (chosen at random). The pictures can be propped up on a shelf. Alternatively, they can be kept in the teacher's hand, in order. Each student who adds a sentence to the story must retell the story so far, cued by the pictures. Here is an example:

The man was driving home very quickly because he was hungry and wanted his dinner. He thought about his difficult job and he wished he could live on a desert island. He remembered his old friend Bill the Knife. He remembered that Bill loved ice cream. Suddenly he saw a dog in the road.An alternative to the above example is to show the pictures to the students and to ask them to write for four minutes about each one. Insist that the writing links together as one story. At the end of the four minutes the students should take it in turns to read out their story to their neighbours. Ask one or two students to read out their story to the class as a whole.

Flashing a pictureFlash a picture card at the class at great speed and ask the students what they saw. Some will say they saw nothing, others will, amazingly, have seen something. Encourage differences of opinion and do not confirm or deny any ideas. Flash the picture again and ask the students to tell each other what they think they saw. Continue flashing, encouraging differences and debate. Finally show the picture.

58

Technical tips

1 The pictures must be clear enough to be seen the Iength of the classroom and

at some speed. Magazine photographs may sometimes be too complicatedand full ofirrelevant detail. One way ofreducing the distracting detaii is to

cut away the background leaving the main shape.

Line drawings should be simple and not sketchy. The lines should be quite

thick, the shape should be as suggestive ofthe object as possible.

- lcor4 '

-44t -

nL

,,0{u7["tofoD*iogLa

,rtt,.'P?re t . f (

ffi,a'!ia'

,cl4 i t<Kt

' . , {6 . f

ft;(2f/.' Lt^''" P ( '

f i r , )', , eFo

3 Colour should be used to make the shape stand out clearly and to contributeto recognition; for example, orange for an orange, yellow for a lemon.Sometimes colour can be used to draw attention to a small shape in thepicture, for example, a smail present; the rest ofthe picture can be drawnwith black lines and the present can be brightly coloured. Just using coloursfor decorative purposes is probably a mistake in language teaching.

4 Card is expensive. Sometimes cheap'offcuts'can be obtained free from alocal printer. Otherwise use food packets or cut up cardboard boxes.

ir,r(

Word flash cards

Word flash cards are usually about 8 cm in height and are as long asis necessary for the text. They are principally, though notexclusively, used in the teaching ofreading and writing.

Characteristics and techniques

1 Word flash cards are easy and inexpensive for the teacher to prepare.

2 The cards are easy to store and to carry to the classroom.3 They are easy for the teacher and the students to handle and to use at the

appropriate moment. They can be held, propped, or stuck to the board.4 Anumber of cards can be displayed at thesame time: by askingseveral

students to hold them, by sticking them to the board, by clipping them to awire (see technical tips page 118), by propping them on a shelf, by using asentence maker. (See technical tips page 64.)

Presentation

Characteristics and techniques: the cards can be prepared by the teacher andror students and may be handled and then stuck on different surfaces withadhesive plast ic , s t icky tape. p ins, erc.

60

La b elli n g c las s r o o m obj e c t s

A well-established way of usingword cards is for the teacher to stick them onobjects in the classroom: the door, the cupboard, a window, a desk, etc. Theintention is to famifiarise the student with the written form ofthe word.

At the reading practice stage, a game could be played based on true/false inwhich the teacher moves the cards around before the students come into theclassroom. The students must spot which words are in the wrong place andmove them to the correct olace.

ffimReadingpractice

Characteristics and techniques: strips ofcard or paper are easy and cheap toobtain and texts can readily be written on them with markers.

Di al o gu e s e n t enc e c ards

Cards can be made of the sentences which have become familiar to thestudents in a short dialogue or in a story. These sentences can be shown as thedialogue is being spoken and then stuck on the board or held by students. Thisstage ofrecognition reading is modest in what it offers.

However, it is a well-tried technique and is particularly helpful to thosestudents who are not only learning to read a foreign language but one with adifferent script.

G@F..t-, F; "- vt^ it

6i

Commandcards

Another well-established use of word cards is 'commands,. Commands are

written on the cards, the teacher shows a card to a student and the studentcarries out the command. The usual commands are: 'open the door', etc.However, more amusing commands could be added to the collection. Forexample:

s r - n g a s o n g

s t a n d o n o n e l e g f o r o n e m i n u t e

Writingpractice

Characteristics and techniques: the ease and speed ofselecting and displayingwords and in any combination.

Class sentences

Word cards allow the teacher and class to build sentences and to experimentwith the addition, the substitution and the subtraction ofwords within asentence. The physical manipulation ofthe words can contribute enormouslyto an understanding of sentence construction by some students. (A variety ofways oflearning should be offered to the class to match the variety ofwavs inwhich individua.l students need to learn.)

In the lust example, successive students take a card, read it out to the classand then with the heip ofthe class decide where they should stand in thesentence.

b,

ffiffi&etu &

62

In the second example, the teacher asks the students to arrange the cards on

the board to make a sentence. Here, one sentence is stuck on the board and

another is propped on the shelf at the bottom of the board.

In the third example, the teacher gives a group of students a set ofword cards

and asks them to stand in alphabetical order.

ds&&ffi&Listening

Characteristics and techniques: the cards are easy and quick to make. They

can be displayed at the most appropriate moment without technical dilliculty

Spot the word

The teacher reads or tells a story and the individuai students hold up their

cards as they hear their rvord spoken. This is training in intensive listening.

The students are learning how to c0ncentrate on one word or phrase and to

ignore the rest.

The words might be selected b-v- the teacher to reinlbrce a theme in the subject

matter or in the Ianguage being used. For example, the students may have

word cards representing the various ways in rvhich narration can be

EtrETM

od

connected: suddenly/then/next/ a few moments later"meanwhile/just at thatmoment,/just before. Each student can be asked to note down how many timeshis or her word phrase is used. The frequency ofuse and the role ofthe wordscan then be discussed after the ston'.

Summarising a talk

Cards which summarise key points in a talk are most helpful in structuring thetalk. They are useful in drawing attention to key points, in giving variety andinterest in the talk, in acting as reminders of what the talk was about once it isover and in providing a reference for discussion.

The teacher (or students) might find this use ofword cards helpful inreminding them of the order ofpoints they have planned to make. And it alsohelps the listeners to understand thegeneral argument ofthe talk and not toget lost.

The cards can be held up, pinned to soft board, stuck to the board withadhesive plastic, or propped along the blackboard shelf.

An exampie of a set of key points for a taik might be:

Cornrnutr r tc^- t . toNf

The same technique can also be used rn story-telling. Each key creature orohject can be named on a card.

loue roo"l

@lffiffil

I rhtney It,NbusTRTl

I-mEl

ta;"TlEffilIa co" I

t@]

64

Technical tips

1 Although card is stiffer and more durable than paper, paper snips are quiteadequate.

2 Printers throw away enormous quantities of 'offcuts'. These are the suips ofpaper cut offthe ends ofprinted sheets.

3 An altemative to producing individual cards is to have a number of standardlength cards which are covered in a self-adhesive plastic. A water-basedoverhead projector pen can then be used to write words which can be wipedofflater once the activity is over.

.1 To establish a minimum height for the letters, try one out! That is the bestway. However, the general guidance is that Ietters should be about 6 cm highto be seen 10 m away.

5 Words composed solely of CAPITAL LET"f ERS are more difficult to readthan those in upper and Iower case Ietters. We recognise words partly bytheir overall shape. Words made of capital letters all look the same shape,i.e. rectangular.

6 Ways of displaying word cards have been referred to above. A class displaysentence maker can be made as follows:

, A/ N

__,- ffXii^i'Tl o r

A large sheet ot paper is folded as shown above and then stapled onto card orhardboard.

-rono "^t"*

€t-D -', 2ct -D ^ ?x

q] Workcardsand,, i worksheets

Workcards (about 15 cm X 20 cm) and worksheets are lbr individual studentuse or for use by stud:,ll:_workrnC"rn small groups. Tf.,., p..Ua"l"-";;*_.;useful base for the development ofall four skils without the teacher,simmediate involvement. Good course books proviJe a tot ot this kind ofmaterial. However, many teachers make their own materials for students nomatter how good their course book

This [pe of visual materia.l can be treated with a very wide range oftechniques, only some ofwhich can be exemplified here.Nofe: For any individua.l and groupwork activities to be successful two things arenecessary: 1 thestudentsshouldunderstandwhattheyhavetodo

2 thelanguage demands on the student ,t-,ouf a U" *itiin-their capabilities.

Standard exercise types

The following are all well_known types ofexercise and are usually not toodifficult and time-consuming for ihe teacher to prefare in the form ofcards orsheets:

A text intended for f,ranslationA text and comprehenston questronsA texr or a p icr ure and mul t ip le choice quest ionsA text or a picture and true/false statementsSentences and,,or pictures which must be matchedA picture to be describedGapped texts to be completedJumbled texts lwords or sentences to be arranged in the correct order)

. Word games including crosswords, anagrams. "etc.

tl6

Characteristics and techniques

I Pictures, drawn by the teacher or by the students or taken from magazines,can be combined rvith texts either handrvritten or ty.ped or taken fromauthentic printed matter.

;l The two sides of the card can be used for presenting dif'ferent information.This separation ofthe information is useful in certain types ofactivity.

{ A set ofworksheets enables the teacher ro set either individual or grouptasks rvhich students can perform more or less independently ofthe teacher

i The cards or sheets contribute to varietv and interest in the classroom.

Controlled reading and writing practice

Characteristics and techniques: individual studenrs can work at their ownpace and level with their orvn rvorkcard chosen by the teacher and,/orthemseives-

Handtwiting and copy wrir ing

\!brksheets can be used to help students learn to write English script. Cardsand sheets can be designed by the teacher to guide the student in theformation of individuai letters and in thejoining of letrers. The studentsshould, first of all, watch the teacher actually forming the letters on the board.(Some students have a natural abilitv to remember the sequence ofmovements vou make, remembering in the way thelr might remember asequence ofdance steps.) The sheets or cards then ofl'er individual suidanceand memory support.

rYore: If the student uses thin paper or piaces the master sheet on a window it ispossible to trace over the Ietters.

6 ;

once the students ha'e c ie ' . e l , rped a reasrrnable r iegree' i accuracr.ancl crntr r r lin let ter t 'ormat ion andjoin ing. encourage thenr to Jrr ,c luce sorne persrn. lwr i t ing, lbr exampie, rvrr t tng their names or their f r ien( l - r ' narrres.

Copl'w'riting

The students should move , . rn to rnore extenclecl copving as * eu as rnoreexpioratorv creatrVe, ,vr i t ing. .Strarght lbrrvard copl . ing i_s mind nunlbing anclnot ven' usefu I I I t is bet ter to gve a reas0n fbr cop1. ing. One reason fbr r opvingls to ha'e a copv tbr oneselfofa song or a yroem. 'I'he

student doe-s not ha'e t. befamr[ar rv i th a l ] the language ot the song but , o i course, i t w.ould be sensib le i t .he or she had heard i t ancl l iked r t .

True,, Ialse cop1' w'ri ting

Cop] ing does not need to be unthinking' l \hr ious s imple.chal lenges canrequrre the student to th ink of the meaning of the ter t rvhi ls t actuai lv on11,havingtocopvir .Simplechal lengesinclude: 1 onlvcopvthetruesentences 2 sort out the -sentences into the correct orc ier ano rnen copvthem l l copvout thesenrenceswhich gotogether. These.chal lenges' notonlv add interest and reason ibr using the language, but allrrv the teacher touse the technique for a h igher prof ic iencl . ler .e l o l 's tudent. In th is exanrple thestudent must onlv copl the t rue sentences.

t,iy\l*uP',ll'lrrc'.h Dax*

6 F

I Dop'f BELIErE w1

| /t was beauhfu/ ; ffi7a 4tasn,ta cloud in lhe sky.

Z 7rte pilh was easl/ fo fo//ot^t.3 There aas a briQeolerlk1 7he sfream uas near/q en pfq.5 {ohn wa/ked behi^d all hc h'ne5 / carried /fre haversact< .

63

Pict tLre. text matching

Like manl 'of the act iv i t ies descr ibed above, th is one can be done at i r var iet l 'o f 'le le ls. In th is case the example has been chosen to demonstrate a p icture textrnarchins activitv suitable tbr an advanced Ievel student.

T p v l t l v t m q t r h i n o

Once more we have chosen to illustrate this type of activit)'with an examplesuitable ibr an advanced leveistudenr. Clearl-u.', however, examples can bedevised for any proficiency Ievel.

Gapped text'fhe gaps in the text can be chosen qui te arbitrarill ', but it is of more use to thestudent if -u-ou select gaps which tbcus on a skiil (ior example, the skill olguessing at the meaning of an unknorvn rvord from its position in the text) or ona language t'eature ( for example, prepositions, pronouns, tense lbrms). Thegap can be tilled onll bl reading the text or might be lilled b1' rel'erring to aDicture.

f^,HlCH l5 TA€ *.frE1c'+?1ov ?

'&4444lo 2;

ffi^n"-t', ttttAcd oifh

;log flor"'ft'h::nfr,lj^?!+:iii';;;" "" *:Y:t

',t no" on,]-----..-

Qu/.v:;7;:

:l;#[,liii'''""

ii:;:vlno wovtoe fa4

A fir.te of

harvest ondgoLTlering

Yogether.

69

The texl can, of course. be taken t rom the sruclenrs books, l rom authenrrrmaterial or be rvritten b,, r'ou.

Junbled texts'l'he

texts might be singie rvord cards. These couid be kept rouether in irnenvelope and used tbr sentence bui ld inq. \bu might chal lenge rhe sru( lent robuild the longest senrence possibie rvith the rvords in the en'elope'r to builci asnanv sentenees as pussi f ; ie in l i le nt intu0. , copi . ing c iou n each one beibre. tar t ing to bui ld anrrrher.

[il.'I@l"b""aMl;mE@|ffil|HllffillffiI[""rillF""''\

i t - - - u n u s u a l i y c o l c t h e d a y I - _ _ _m y w i f e , T h e w i n o o w s - - - - - - - a s w e- - - o f f b u t t h e v i s i b i l l t y - - - n ' t t o og o o d . l i J h e n i - - - l h a t w e - - - - l o w o nF r e L r u r I - - 3 : a O e t n O i S t - a - - i C n ,M y w i . f e - - - - s h e w o u i d t h e w r n d o w s .S h e - - r h e r r o n t . n e s i i i i t i n g u pt h e w i p e n s q u i t e c a r e f u i l y . T h e n s n e- - - - r o u n d r _ o i - h e o a c k o i t h e c a r a n dI n e v e r - - - h e r a g a i n . l J h e n s h e

- - - n t f i - ^ 1 .u d u K I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ S n e m u s t- - - - t o L h e t o i . l e t s . B u l a f t e r

s o m e t i m e w h e n s h e d i d n ' t - - - - b a c k I- - - o u t a n d t h e a t t e n d a n t i f h eh a d - - - - h e r g o i n t o t h e t o i l e t s . T h e nI - - - - - a w o m a n t o g o i n t o s e e i f s h e- - - t h e r e . S h e - - - n ' t . T h e a t t e n d a n ld i d n ' t e v e n s e e m t o r e m e m b e n h e n s e t t i n qo u t o f t h e c a r ,I - - - - - - t h e p o l i c e b u t t h e y n e v e rh e r .

;0

Controlled and guided oral practice

Character is t ics ancl technrques: sorkcard-s: tncl t l rkshet ' ts can prrr l tc ie

rn() t iVat ion, guidance anci re lerence i i r r gr0t t l l$rr rk.

- [ 'here are var ious estab] ishecl technic l t tes tor r r rganis ing contro l lec i l r ra l

pr i lc t ice in grot lps. ' l -hese inclLrde:

Pictures cues lbr use in mrni d io log' . res

Texts and or p ictures guid ingrole p i ; r1 '

Informat ion'gap acl iv i t iesPictures and or texts to be ln l tched. gror : l led or r l rc lered

Game-l ike act i l i t res( ]uest ionnaires

Picture cued n in i diaktgue s

Pictures can be cues in mini d ia logues I t \ r0 to s i \ exchanges). ' fh is t1 'pe of '

actir. itl- has enorntous potential lbr the teacher.

Hou'ever, tor i t to be ei f ic ient the te i icher must bui ld up a col iect ion o1'

rnagazine pictures and keep thern l i led bl subject .

Pictures can be used to ct te ans$ ers to quest ions (r r to provide cues tbr

subst i tut ions i n sentences. Fi rst of a l l en ' .ure th i i t the studen ts knorv rvhir t thel

are supposed to do end check that thct have the Ienguage t , , do i t . This cnn l )e

cione b] 'doing sarnple rn in i c l ia logues in t ront o l the c lass

In most cases there should be lour to s ix students in the group around a table

A pi le ot p ictures is p laced Iace c ior i n on the table and the students stuclv a

rnin i d ia iogue and the instruct ions sbout what thev have to do. ' [ 'he1' then take

I)ar t in the dia logue, p ick ing up the pictures a 's c l i recteci and using thenl t l r

determine tvhat ther might sar ' .' i 'he

dia logues can l )e at a var i0t \ 'o l l t ' r e ls. Here are two. ' f l le I i rs t is h ighh

controi le( lpract iceat i reginners le le l . ' l 'he.et t l t r ( l t - . t t toreclenral lc l ingrrst l le

l i r l lorv up is not guided bLrt i t is le l t to the st t lc lent to express anv ic iea he or she

l i re ls is i r l )pr{)pr l i r te.' l 'he

students are gr . r ic ied l lv a nr in i c l iabgt te t arr l :

;1

'i:l3'

')ir -4.' F : , ^ . : +

f t14 ' . -

< t ' :

Elementary levelA piie ofpictures ofhobbres and sport-r

srr r)frvr' {: (picking up a picture of someone pla;.ing relrull Do vou liketennis?

sr-L DE\ r R t a n ss'er i ng t ru t lx'ulJ y a nd ch oosing from t he range ol responsessrel) \ 'es, r 'en much. Iqurrel ikei t . . Idon' t l ikei tvervmuch., Ihate i t l

The dia loque conr in ues b,r ' s l udents p ick ing up a card and then asking anotherstudent a s imi lar quest ion.

i ' < . )

Do yoq Lrr<€ re^lr.rTil

hcfurtr rt j",rrd : hobbitr n.4 "po.t,

-

Insl'a.Lo"3.' Plq. lL. prtfe/cr {qq dourr

l Y l r a i D i a l o g - q

A I (p ick ,^3 up q p tL fu r< d so- ronc o , - - r^5)

D - y o - l i k q r q i u a r i . j B ?

6 : (an.ruerrl^9 Fatl{*ttyJ

Y e r , l d o ! / N o . l a " " c l

OPtlo^J,tL - Jf

'5 roncterf*l ./ lf i gre oC I

l f r l t r r ib le r f f ! bq l ig . /

;2

Intermediate levelA pile of pictures tiom other countries

,irL DE\r I (picking up a picture ol Rome )\f truld 1ou like to go to Ronle'.'

,irf DE\r B l a nswe ri ng t rut hlull,r'l Yes, I u ould

sr t oerrr , Wh1'?-<r'r.DE\r B: Because I n ould [ke to visit the ancient burlclings and I s ould like

to see \lichelangelo s cerling in the Sistine Chapel.

Dialo gue, role play and simulation

Dialogue and role plal'are rvell-establlshed activities rn language teat hing

Thel'are relativell'easy'to prepare b1'the teacher and students and provide

intensir. e and usetul Ianguage practice. Changes to the dialogues can be cued

bv text and or p ictures.

Ifyour class are not familiar rvith dialogue and role plaf it is advisable to begin

by rvriting the model dialogue on the chalkboard. All the examples given belorv

could be written on the chaLkboard; indeed, as rve have seen ( pages 1{ an d 15 )

the chalkboard offers the teacher great flexibilitf in adapting the examples

below tiom one t)'Pe to another'

llanl' designs of role pla-"- card hal e been developed in recent 1'ears A few

basic t1'pes are illustrated in the examples belorv, roughil'graded according to

the diificulties the!'present to the student. Each gives a different level 0f

control over what is said.

.\bre; \bu should give as much attention as possible to the design o1 the cards or

sheets. Any'difficultf in using them can demoralise the students and reduce

the usefulness of the activitl '. In the examples belorv some basic design

decisions have been made to:

. give character and inrerest to the dialogues b1' the addition of faces:

. separate the texts from each other and to keep their order ciear b1'the

tollorving means:1 using difl'erent st1'les of rvriting

2 usingenclosingsPeech bal loons

3 usingtrvo thrcknesses of lineJ olerlappingthe speech ballo,rns5 r.rsing direction llorv lines6 ustngtones.

Repetition dialogue

In thrs t-"-pe ofrole piay'the students read out the dialogue as it is gl en

S ub stitu tion di alogue s

In this t1'pe the studenrs choose what to say from what is given.

tJhn{ atz 1gu'. o|,otag

F" ??* Jorrg /ol ? ? > t h O ^

/ts, 3o"a iaea I

LtV't nceu oE

J . r rho r .

What are you dor'Agthr: aftcrnoon Helcn?

ow abouf 9oir1.g to/se e5i-o7-isil'rr. arl 9 ctlery/tt'e narheli

nds/eE your house,/ctrnero+Willrhm Sfrclr.

QrcaE.r/o.k/ Nl-taE an orgra.n izcr/

7{

[ 'ot o,{oo,.t9o,$ t" -/ tr/O:

,/. .Q.l Le(r rne"l qc- 7

- / - / .

gA12

E\G

Symbol dialogue

Some of the rvords are replaced b1.'abbrevraring and or b1's1.mbois and. orblanks. I t is importanr ro ensure that rhe c iass understand the conr enr ionsused. It is essential to explain or even to $ ork out rhe svmbols rvith the classhafnro t l - ro r : q ro ncor l

Key word cue dialogue

lVhat the students say is represented b1,'a single kev rvord or svmbol

Itou abo*f... >

F lowchar t ins tr uc tion dia log u e

The students are directed what to sal'b1'an instruction. This is probabll.themost difficult t]'pe ofcue.

'fhe student must be able ro read and understand a

rather abbreviated and abstract direction and produce an appropriateutterance using clifferent laneuage ancl in a natural u ar',

i ; l

The particular design of tlouchart made use ot here is one of the most usefuldesigns as it is clear horv the dialogue progresses, The paper can be foldeddorvn the middle so that each student can onl)',see his or her own part.

Bnn ching fl owchart dialo gu e

This techruque aliows the student to choosedialogue should take.

ro some degree, rvhat direction the

Simulation

In a simulation, each student takes on ihe role of a llctional character in animaginary situation. Dialogues are not specit-red and they'cannot be predicted

Simulations can be er,olved b1'the teacher together rvith the students quite

easill '. The most basic simulation only requires a situation and a number ofcharacters to be describeci.

4irk Jln""aFl . ( he /she ' :

ri.g l-|r r'r f . rn .5a.9 noE raauoh

Arf . r th. i .

{o/ ;^ oof\r;Yy

So. i t-r a.;ood rdeae D h c r e F "

r*rk y".r frieaal Jha t he /she ' r

i ^ 9 i l r ! | . u .

FroPorc a^ talQq

for a^ achv iFy .

A6rz<.

/ o

Ifthere are six characters then there must be six srudents in the group to play

out the simulation, i.e. six worksheets are required plus one which all thestudents can see describing the situation. The students read and study thedescription on their cards or sheets and then take part in the discussion whichtbllows as ifthev were the person on the card.

9itualiov

A g roup o { s i x yeop le a r c v i s t f t ^3 a ' 1 ruv151 - ' l - o *n .

Thry hote arr t r 'eal in *h< er '€nra3 anol ar€ askeal' l o make dec rs ,ons abou t wha t ' t hey wou lo l \ r ze 1o

o4o .*le nexl ola!.

Information- gap activities

This t1-pe of activity is now closeiy'identified with the emphasis placed onusing Ianguage ior the purposes ofcommunication in the classroom. In fact,although information-gap acti!'ities inciude some useful devices, the) areetTectivei-v- games rather rhan the sort of things people do in their normal dailldealings rvith each other. Four examples based on the difi'erence berween two

€dwi^n ' i ce

Sev,en+3 - ( , je g"oc o ld . L iL<s v rs ,hns ar f ga l l c r resa^e ^ds4utvts. Can' l- Walk Ver3 far.

Den^ t s ' +1a l l

lt^ his {v{+e.t. Lr L€s{<ants No interer" ' , l ' " .11. . ' - !a t !cu l l r i

got( and

ta l - , i3 ou, l - . t^ hqseu'ee1s €a1ags

Maggre Sfee/Ninzfee.q yea.(s ol4. €"Lolsswiuu in j . A lso rn*ere t ted tn

wa.lk,A3 anc,la r f aa6( ry .us(C.

t 1

sets of information which are easv for the teacher to devise are summarisedhere. Other examples ofinformation-gap activities can be found elsewhere.(See other volumes in the Keys series. )

What's the difference?

In this version ofarr information-gap actir.ity there should be two lots ofinformarion stuck on either side ofa piece ofcard. (Alternatively, theinformation can be on rwo different cards.) The information shourd be similarbut not identical. Students working in pairs sit either side ofthe card (one ofthem holding it so that rhey can each see one side). There are many possiblevariations of this idea.

In this example, the students have fwo similar pictures. They couid be tw.omagazine photographs of sirnilar scenes or similar Iors of people. The students'job is tojot down as many differences as they car find between rhe two sets ofinformation in five mintues. The student not holding the picture must do thewritingl

n,ocut,t i i i*," , * o f rb" r7L t 'o* t

, ' ^ , . / .a1 ' .a t' i o e t i

Matching activities

There are a Iarge number ofversions ofthis useful and productive t),pe ofactivity. Here are a few of them:

Pelmanism

A goup ofstudents work together sitting around a table. They are given aneven number ofcards (rv'enty is sufficient). The cards are paired; for example.there may be a picture offruit on one card and on the other card will be itsname. The students study.ail the catds, mix them rogether and then rurn

r8

them lace dorrn on the table in neat ron s. The student's are allou'ed to see\\'here each picture t or rrord carci i is being laid. The student's then take it in

t urns to point to rhe back of nvo cards clain.ring them to be a pair. If the studentis r ight , then he or she keeps the:1. For exampie:

- i r ' f r ) r - \ r 'A This i - .aprctureof apineapple l tunt ingi tover. . .andi t is ! )andthrs is the u ord. 'p ineapple ( turnhg i t orcr . . . andir rsJ l \ -es!

Ii the student is not right. both cards are left in the same place and turned back

agaln.

, . a '' ' ; i '

nnIrA,lrnlE\q

lE&?t',,NE

Search for your tv in

In thrs matching activitr'. each student in the cla-.s is given a piece ol paperq'ith a text and or a picture on it. He or she mu.st search {br another student in

the class u'ith the matching paper. The same kind of pairs can be used as in

Pelmanism: orher t1 'pes of pairs inc lude:

Questions. anss'ers

Flou arc Yo'^ ? Not rrcry ,.re ll

79

\\brds dictionarv definitions

Sn^all dome|ha.f 'e d rna.rr,+.al keptr a15 a. peEcavc|\ ral'r or r'1ic1,

Poets extracts f rom theirpoems

O tf,t oPa.l ancr qg-jra hric

First half of a sentence second half of a sentcnce

r.)al cold bcca-se he h bc.".loitr"iE. -oa lf' 'n 3 hqurr-

Picture of actions sentences describing actions

Shc 's shoppr ig

Present tense form of a verb past tense form of the same verb

EEAmerican English u'ord British English u'ord

f"h'"t.I @Questionnaires

Questionnaires prolide a rich source ol ar:tilities s hich locus on particr:lar

Ianguage leatures, most obviousll the question {orln. and ale also seetl 3: eL ti\ itjti

rrhich are interesting in rhemseiles.

The questionnaire illustrated here contains sonle question-' that nlake use rll

elententan Iocabularv and structure and Vet could lead to an intere'tinq

80

statistical survet'. Other questions are more personal and would Iead to further

discussion.

Free oral practice

Characteristics and techniques: there are a number of standard techniques on

worksheets and workcards which can be used in groupwork for promotlng

conversation, discussion, extended description and story-telling. These

techniques include:

Who.c Y,ve da Yo4 9o lo bea'?

Hou. l m,^"1 ' t 5 {e-ep c lo you rea ' l l y r \ezc^?

Do you. l ih-e- s leeprng ?

Do yo* -errer SieeP 6lr^rr'ng h' :91:

Do yo* snore- ?

Do yo* d(eaw^?

Can vo* rz*eeber t lonr Otreo.nrs ?

Do yo * ha .ne . Jc rmq c ( f ec r t ^ r cSq l ^ a *o l l Ja rT i

IJ

Do Yo'^ haoe n iShi - rna ' rer ?

Nhct da-t \4o(^( dorsr ni l ln(tna-rz)

h.lnof 1j fh. lonJet( l-r'-,e- yo* ha',"c sGpC-?

l tJt^,af rs fhe lo19esf,t-,*eyo* |tq.'^q bee^ a'ta{R-'1

[o yoc slee,p ..r ' iK fhe t:(^dou, open?

Are yo* l>r ighC a"d@

J)o i .o . 1 - \€ rc i te t )hen Yon 7eC *P?

a 1

Speculating about a pictureDiscussing a topic with ret'erence to pictures and,/or textsExpressing feelings and rallirng abour personal experiences based on a picture

or a textStor l ' - te l l ingbased onaser ies ol p icturesand or texrs

Speculating

The students lust of all describe what the-"- see in the picture and thenspeculate about rvhat mighi be happerung. In pracrice rhe fw'o stages overlapbecause people do not a.ll 'read' a picture in the same wa1.. In this sense what rsdescription for one person might be speculatron for anorher.

The rvorkcard should have a picture and two sets ofquestions. To involve oralwork, two students can be asked to work together. Even more oral rvork isinvolved ifthe following orgarLisation is adopted, Have rwo pairs ofstudents (Aand B; C and D). Each pair should rvork on one workcard. After an agreedamount of time the pairs exchange cards and work on their 'new'

card in thesame way. After another agreed amount of time make netv pairs of A and Cand B and D. Each student expiains ro rhe other student what ideas they hadabout each ofthe cards.

{ay,1f !€.#1,.,gllod . ' , ̂ ,94p,*\^w{ir:in

* Df ." rvQt)a4

erte s'(r oN '

oAJ * D

seffi'f,'ss,"N

I Hor.r old is fhis perron?

2. hhaf is he dor i rg noo?

3 Di:,a.t is his;ob?

4 lnho& sort ol personolity

d .oes he ha , te?

t What olher ft-,tags c.cn

lOu rw ro -g tae abowF

h r ^ ?

E2

An alternative to using a picture oi a person is to use a picture ofa place,perhaps a picture postcard of a torvn. The students rvork in pairs to trl toanall'se the picture and to deduce as much as they can aboul the place:industries,'size of town' rvhich countr)''north 0r south, climate, etc.

in this case the answer need not be speculative. Ify'ou have the lacts about thepiace, these couid be rvritten on another card. \Vhrch pair ofstudents was ableto deduce the more accuratell'?

Freewriting

Charactenstics and techniques: rt is relatir,'ei1'eas1'for the teacher to iindpictwes which can be cut from magazines, etc. and to find or to rvrite re-{tswhich can be pasred onto cards for stimulating writing: description andanall'sis, speculaiion, expression, story- telling.

Some t1'pes of material rnciude:

Artistic, stimulating pictures which stir the imagination;Ambiguous pictures which can be interpreted in a variety ofways;A series ofpictures or diagrams rvhich describe a process;Sample letters and suggestions for equivalent letters;Texts with gaps which can be filled in creatively, with single words, phrases,dialogues or whole paragraphs. In this type of acdvitv there is no one correctanswer.

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83

Technical tips

i Ii 1'ou have smooth card l'ou can rvrite direcriy on it. Ifl 'ou are using card cutirom packets, etc. then vou should paste onto it t1.ped, photocopied orhandwritten texts. Ifl 'ou make a rot ofrvorkcards or rvoiksheets then it rshelpful to give each one a code whrch 1'ou ririre in the same place on thesheet. It is also helpful ifall the cards and sheets are made to standard sizeswhich t'it into file boxes, spring iiles, etc.

2 Card is clearil' more attractir.e and durabie if it is cor.ered in transparentclear adhesive plasric or kept in a clear plastic bag.If,"-ou can reproduce sheets easilv vou mar. feel ther.are easier to producethan cards and can be replaced more easily. Cards can be Iost, taken bvstudents and not returned, erc. and then 1.our hard rvork is lostl

3 Students can sometimes be asked to conceive, design, write and illustratecards and sheets w'hich are rhen used either rvithin the same ciass or in lorverclasses. Ifrhe students know that their rvork rvill be used, they are moreIikelv to do their best and they rvill see the sense in 1,our insisting that thefinai version is correct. The act ofmakingteachingmaterial is one ofthe bestways oflearningi It is thus not a rvaste ofthe students'time to ask them to dothis. They might like to sign the workcards or worksheets with their names.

4 If you can share thework of producingworksheets with other teachers itwould clearlv be a big help.

5 Y-ou are not supposed to make multiple copies of published materials.However, you can cu! up trvo Students' Books and mount each exercise on apiece of card. If the card is then laminatedyou rvi.ll ha'e a most valuable andflexible resource pack which will help you to deal with a varietv ofneeds in1'our class at the same time and for Iittle cost.

6 Instructions on the card or sheer must be as ciear as possible or the studentswill rvaste time and disruption rvill be caused. Ifnecessarl.give theinstructrons in the morher rongue. The marn rhing is thaithe acti'itv shourdbe uel l done.

7 Be sure that l'ou kno* roughiv horv long the * ork shourd take. If the rvork isover in a minute it is probabl-,- not rvorth doing because of rhedisproportionate amount of time spent organising it. On the other hanclm0re than tlfreen mrnutes mal'be too long rvithout s0me sort of interactionrvith 1'ou.

8 Ifthe cards or sheets are ior the students to keep, they can be encouragecr toiilustrate them, colour them or add graphic sl.mbols to thern.

9 For suggestions on lavout and letteringseepages 100 to lOE.

( . ( ) )

{ t ) \\ \ " J f

Authentic printedmaterials

Authentic printed materials include anl thing written and printed in English

newspapers, magazines, publicitl ', technical instructions tbr equipment,

holiday' brochures. etc.

n{ED

g\:;\\AY\'=*>

4

8;

Characteristics and techniques

1 \'er-v.- olten, l'ree materia.l is available to the teacher.2 The lact that it is authentic materiar clearrl' not produced tbr schoors means

that studenrs are often morivared b1.it and curious.3 The complexrtl' of the language is a disadvantage onl1, i1.1.ou expect the

students ro understand e'ery rvord. It is not the difficultv of the text whichdetermines , ,vhich prof ic ienc'Je 'e l ofsrudents can use the text . but the task1'ou give them to do. For exampie, 1.ou could give a newspaper anicle to aiirst year group ofstudents and ask them to find how manv worcrs thev canrecognise. Thus one shouid be exproiting the compiexity of the materiai andshorving studenrs that the_"- can often make some sense even oi difiicultmaterial if thel'look r'or e'er1'possible clue. The material should not be usedfor testing comprehension but for reaching comprehension which meansde.,'eloping a positive and coniident attitude to it and Iearning some basictechniques for deaiing with a lot of ianguage which is dil1ic uliro u nderstand.

'1 The material can usually be phorocopied and then stuck onto card for reuse.5 The material is often much more expensively produced than educationai

books available to teachers in manv countries.

Newspapers

Ch.aracteristics and tech'iques: the very fact that the language ofnewspapersis difficuir to read is one of the reasons for using them. Studenrs musrexperience the florv ofnatir.e ianguage use and know horv to do their bestwrth i t .

The topicality ofneivspapers is relevant and so too is the reflection oftheculture.

Here are a few things you can do with most newspapers.

With 1'our beginners:1 Ask them to list all the rvords thel' recognise.

DOZENS of pensionc' r : h: lc been le i r outrn the cold as plans to more into luxurrr e r r r cmrn l U r t ' h r r c f J l l cn i h roL , rh r t r hci J \ l m l n u t c

, W i m p c v H o m c s H o l d r n q s L t d . . o p e n e dthcr r reccn t ly -conrp le ted Park f ie jd t -our td r \ c l o p m ( n t r n _ D r d s b u r r t u o m ( , n t h \ J p uI ' ) r a p u n l t c \ l e w t n q

2 Ask them to guess rvhat each article is about either broadll, for example,sport 0r nl0re specificai11., lbr example, the London marathon.

S6

"*ffi

, l Askthemtoident i t - t ' thedi t lerentsect ionsof thenesspaper: thernainnervs,

the editorial, general t'eatures, spcirt, business, advertisements, etc

\ \ ' i th mure advanced student. :

1 Prepare some questions based on dilTerent parts ol the newspaper rvhich

clo not entail the students reading everl'thing in detail but onll in searching

for the ansrvers to ]-0ur questions. l^{dvanced students could be asked to

prepare the questions lbr less advanced students ) F'-rr example:

r Horv much does the 198i Ford Granada cost and horv manv miles has it

done?

B ASTRA GTE '1.8i , 8l l whi le white al loy whels 'ful l h isto.y. .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84795

(C) SUZUKI SJ413 JEEP. 13OOcc. Gunmetal graymdal l ic. Hard & Sot l tops. Sup€rb 4-wheld t i v i n g t o r o n l y . . . . . . . - . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " ' e 4 9 9 5

EXECUTIYE87 FOAO GRANAOA GL. net model, Gold Metal-

l ic. ABS brskes, 20.OOO mi1o5.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . €6995

86 VAUXHALL CARLTON GoId molal l ic ' oneowne., low mileage, Prist i re exsmPl€. . . . . . . . . . . . !4995

89 RENAULT 25 GtS AUTOMATIC. Lsg@n Blue.save c1'5oo on n€w " " " " e1 1750

85 BENAULT 25 GTX, Ltg@n 8lue, alarm,suntoot. lu l l ssdie history.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . €5995

e What time is Gone l\-ith rrhe il rndon the teievision?r Who lost their car?o What did Sarah Raphael saJ' w hen her painting rvas sold to the

Iletropolitan \Iuseum of )Iodern fut in Nerv \brk?

2 Give the students advertisements from a newspaper showing prices of, for

exampie, houses, cars, TVs, etc. and advertisemenrs forjobs showing

salaries. Ask questions such as:o How much do things cost in Britain (or the country of orign of the

newspaper)?r Horv do theseprices relateto what people earn, judgingby the

advertisements tbr jobs?

a How do these prices and incomes relate to those in,v-our orvn countrt'?

}IEDICAL SECRETARYThis chal lenging and interesr ing F€st rnvolves

responsibi l i ty for the provision of a secreerial seryice

to i Professor of Cl naecology and his ream

S h o n h a n d a n d r y p i n g s k i l l s a r c e s s m u g l r s i s p r e v l o s

medical secreurial exPenence

Hours of work:37 per week, Monday to Fr iday'

Salarv: {5,484 r is ing by amual i rcremmts Lo ,4 '71'

pius prof ic iency al lowances of shonhand md tyPing uP

io a m-imum of f 573 *herc approprir te

lnfomal enquir ies welcome for both posit ions Pl*se

conuct Christ ine Tomlins on 061-276 6999 Closing

dare: 28 Apri l 1989.

86 VOLVO 3.10 GL, 5-door, Navy l l lue,20,000 miles,v e r y c l e a n e x a m p l € , . , . ' . , ' . . i J 9 9 5

(D) ROVER 216 SE, Bhck, 17,000 miles, toP of therangg every ex t ra , superb example . . . . . . . 15795

86 FIESTA POPLI-AR PLUS 1.1 In maroon,1 ,1 ,000 mi les , fan tas t ic cond i t ion . . . . . . . . . f3795

(E) FIAT UNO 135X, Black' central lNking,e lec t r i c * ' indows. . . ' . f5J95

(C) FI.{T U\O 55 SUPER, in whitg full serviceh i s t o r y . , , \ l o y e l y l i t t l e c a n . . . . . . t l j 9 5

85 FORD FIEST.\ 1.1 DASH, in black, special editionm o d e l , e x c e l l e n t c o n d i t i o n . . . . . . ! 1 1 9 5

d /

3 Cut out several headlines and ask the students to cliscuss rvhat the articlemight be about. This is a good *'av oi deleloping predictive reacling skills.

'1 Cut out -severai headlines and articies and ask the students to murch,h.-.' i Cutoutseveralphotographsandtheircapt ionssepararel l ' .^{skthestudents

to match them. One approach ro this rechnique is to gir.e a photograph to apair of students and to ask them to note dow n as much as thev can surnrisefion.r a studl of the picrure. The1. sho ulci then w ri re a ;hort ariicle 0r capuonto go rvith it before beinq shou.n rhe acrual one used.

6 Cut up an artrcle into several pieces and a-.k the students to sequence thepieces correctlr'. This can be done in r arious n ar s. In une version the class lsdn'ided into small groups and each is gilen one section of an article. I'hevstudf it and trv to make sense of it. Then rhe teacher asks each group tu ieadout their piece of the article. The groups make nores on the othei pieces thevhear and rr ' ro decide *hat order the'shourd be in. \exr r here is a c lassdiscussion. The pieces can be read and re-read until er.ervone is inagreement. Finalll.the u.hole article is read out.

Fgstival undgr waY ,,,.".ri.,g."''"l'llliil "1i,""" "'

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88

The students study an article or a letter to the editor and trv to rervrite it in away which expresses a different point ofview.

Sir,In recent yeus there hr been more

md more criricism of dogs md dogomers. Some of this crit icism may bereconable. However, there is noreron why dog owners should bcuhmed of having a dog. Dogs, l ikea l l pes . p rov ide a rcc ia l sery ice :lonely peopie have a compmion locue for: pople who would otieryisebecome unfit, have to take rheir dogsfor a walk.

A free comtry mems a free coutryfor people md their pes o l ive ourtheir i ives a they wmt o, providing,of course, that they do noc interferewi*r rhe l ives of odrer people.

Anthony Higgim12 Beifield RoadMmches[er M20 OBH

Study two articles on the same topic and discuss the different views

expressed.Photocopy an article and use typists' correction fluid to remove items from

it. You could remove: punctuation, language items such as articles,conjunctions or prepositions. Photocopy the article with the gaps and give it

to rhe students, asking them to work out what is missing. Finally let themcompare theb effort with the original.

TIELP THE AGEDVolunteers urgently needed to help *ithjobs at the Help the Aged shop on PaletineRoad, Northenden. They nccdcd lo hclpwith son goods, iron clolhes. ser!customers and other tasks.

The shop manager would bc dclightcd to

hru ftom anyone who can spirre al lcast amoming or an e f temoon r ucek . Thc shopsraffed almost entirell by voluntecrs andcanno! oDerate without such suDporL.

89

10 Ask rhe studenrs ro examine the rvar. that journalists use English. This canbe done in pairs anci then in groups belbre the class pool all theirobservations, lbr example, intinitil.es used to express future, use ofalliteration, passives, erc. Thel could then make a Iist of usefui expressionsand ofclich6s which vou rvould prefer not to use.

Publicitymaterial

Publiciry material includes: the ad'ertisements of major industries, the small'ads' (advertisingrooms ro rent, jobs, ,,vork, etc. ), propaganda ( health care androad safety).

The language is often succinct; on the other hand, ir is olten so colloquial as tobe obscure except to the likely customers ofthe product.

Characteristics and techniques: there are two main aspects to the use olpublicity material, fustil.'a study ofthe nature ot persuasion, oftheassumption ofvalues, of srereotyping, etc. and secondly the Ianguage, borhpictorial and verbal, which is used.

Here are a few things y'ou can do with most beglnners:1 Show the students a number 0f ad'"'ertisements and ask them rvhat idea,

experience or object is being advertised and rvho the publicity is aimed at.How is the advertiser trling to persuade people? Beginners can be allowedto use iheir mother tongue fbr this anal"r-sis. The learning derives from theiranai,v'sis ofthe advertisement and from their preparation to do this kind ofanall'sis in the loreign language at a later date.

2 Ask the students to lisr all the rvords and phrases in the material that thevknorv.

4

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90

3 A"k the str,rclent- to note do\'r'n horv oiten certain kev rvorcls are used

{ C} ivethestudeni-ctora. l1 l " ' { r rwr i t tenonlheboardlanr:nberofs logansandask ihem to sav ri'hat product thel'lre reterring tc

Eo1 69pp 3d.r 'anr 'ed " t , :c ienl . :L A-ck the str idenis to th ink cf * hat should be promoteci in their coLtnrr l

Lirealt,h. safety', leisrrre. etc. ) and produce some icieas tbr it. The ideas rnight

include terl anci pictures tbr posters, sl,rglns, badges. direct maii leatlet-s,

nelvs br0a.lcasts (cione ti-. trvo-ilinute cassctte tape recordings).

2 Ask the students t0 stririi an xciveriisentent for a product or erperience

thoiiCal's, restaur&nt. SprrrtS csrltre) and $ rite a lettei oicomplaint to the

rnanager about the ob.iect thev have bought or aboul their inlagined

expenence ihere.

-?ea r,St ",/aenf o^' ,/ou-r

(or^r of kr{o*ftQ'att' /f c.'as

?errt'ble / -7Ae

bar dv'ti.er wat cl 4nnk aa-d-

Crtu1+ lle Uat'ct a tfra- te/car,;n 7,1/ni/e hc ctars y -

5lrtt-tnq / 4,.,a rfr. ho(eb ./ 7/LL bedl o<,r. l-zt4 A.f tcrr . / a ' ,ant h2 /YLo'a/7 bq'*.'

L/ourr 76-kf*Le, ,4n h"n^, ltg3 a-,

L ) Ask the students to anall,'se the ianguage: the rvaf it is used, the use of

metaphor, colloquialisms; the use of imperatives or more persuasive

language, advice, suggestions; the use of the rvord '1'ou' impersonai and

personal . What ' tone of voice ' is used?

A,.k the str,rdents to produce an alternative advertisement w hich ri'or-rld be

more appropriate for a particular social group thel knorv.

ir ^\sk the stucients to rvrite, tbr amusement's sake. an advertisement rvhich

rvould sell as little of the product as possible.

7nE S/aIALLEST cftalc€ ./7ft€ hJoR.s-:r S€e-r'rc€.rCts re tt E4\ S fr Tt r tftct7 o N

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91

6 Ask the students to u'rite an advertisement pretending that one ofthe otherstudents in the class is a product. They can use the language ofadvertisingrvhich they have noted in earlier tasks.

7uaifti is fr t qt-tc.liPg / She Aat ka *.iletOn l\,e clc,ck- . She sta.lfu qru".HQ on Co/C

. c ) //^o./'^ i^gt . J'Az ri c.o*.f-o- ho-b /e- b t r Ar- hr.La- higlt r-p tpezd-.

/ow ^ou-(d b< p.-oua- "{

At- ,{ "A-

uo,PAFh-ed ou4-.rtc{z eot-r horo_rz

7 Give the students copies of holiday brochures. Ask them to choose a holidaytogo onwith theirfriend. Theyshouldsaywhai each of themwill enjoy, howmuch itwill cost and when they have chosen to gc. They couldbe asked tochoose a holiday for someone else in the sameway.

Technical tips

1 Sources of materialInyoru country English language newspapers may be available either froman Engiish-speaking counlry or produced locally-Much publicity material and many equipment instructions are in English.You rnightbe able to getmatedai in English from frms in your countryowned by companies from English-speaking countries.You might be able to get materials from the embassies of English-speakingcountries.In many countries the British Council/USIS and the equivalent institutionsfrom other English-speaking countries have arrangements with teachers touse their libraries.Ifyou have friends in an English-speaking counlry they can send youprinted material through the post at a cheap rate.

2 Organisationin the classroomYou are unlikely toget enough copies ofnewspapers or publicity leaflets, etc.for every student. There are severalways ofdealingwiih this limitation:(a) You can give a newspaper to a pair or group to work on while other

groups work on diiferent tasks altogether.(b) You can cut the nervspaper up and give out parts ofit to different pairs

or groups.

(c) You can cut out certfi articles or parts of articles and paste those on asheet ofpaper andmake a photocopy ofthat (for purposes ofresearch).

(d) You can separate the pages and display these on the classroom walls or ontables. Studen'* must then study the paper where it is displayed and withthis arrangement a lot of students can work from one singie copy of anewspaperorfrom several examples of publicity material displayedin thesarnewav.

t-

The learnin g environment

By far the richest material availabie to the language teacher iies ir: the learningenvironment. Only a few ofthe possibiiities sketched outbelow can beillustrated in this book.

scul{aci l iher

noro{acPurerfcleetrir.g uilll le 6n5t ish-sPak'i:g entld

Engt ish-9peakugl-oarir l-s

C O h a u n r L a f r o n f

Characteristics and techniques

Because this is such avaried andrich source ofmaterial only a few pointers

can be given here.1 The learni:ng environment is a living society which the students care about

in one way or another. They are aiso knorvledgeable abouttheir

environment in many respects. They know some things you do not know, for

example, about themselves, about iheir families and friends and very

probably about parts ofthe neighbourhood, aboutjobs, leisure and so on.

Fbr these reasons there is much to exploit in the learning environmeni.

The question for some teachers and students might be: Why do this in the

foreign language? It is a fair questionifaskedl One answer would be, because

it is interesting and lets us see ifwe can taik about such things in the foreign

language, i.e. it is a personal chailenge. Another response rnightbe: Let's

prepare ourselves for dealingwith foreignvisitors to our neighbourhood who

we couid help.2 For the most part the resources of the learning environment are readily

available, varied and free!

Life in the classroom

Chan ctei stic s an d techniques

1 Language course boo]<s rry to represent real people in real life situations.

The classroom is one part ofthe real, andvery visual, world. In every class

there is a wealth ofexperience, ofopinions and ofideas. It is rarely tapped in

haditional teaching.Normally a teacher's knowledge and experience is much greater than a

youngstudent's. Nevertheless, each student has his or her own experiences,

hopes, ambitions, an.<iet es, joys and possessions which are evidenced in

visual in-formation such ;rs personal appearance, personal possessions,

abilities, andbyreference to visual experience outside the classroom'

The fact that these are different to those ofother students in the class (to a

greater or lesser exterrt) means that there are 'information gaps', 'opinion

gaps', 'experience gaps', and various other 'gaps' which provide the very

reasonwe need for speaking and listening, reading and writing.

2 In every culture there is a different level of willingn ess to share personal

information. Only you can be the judge of how much the students might be

willing to share. Nevertheless, it is usuaily the case that sturients are willing

to share more than is iraditionaily expected of ihem providing what they say

is treatedwith respect and is givenvalue.

3 The relationship between the students and between you and the students is

different in most cultures. This is an opportunity for you to contextualise

95

leveis offormality and informaiity oflanguage in arvay that the studentscan understand, for example, greetings: Good morning; . . . . fli!

4 The organisation of the class and the lesson provides considerableopportunit-v for the teacher to contextualise language.

Here are some ways of talking about the visual aspects of life in the classroom.o h . I l i k e y o u r

P a m ' sd r e s s .s h i r t .n e w h a i r s t y l - e ,

I t ' s v e r y n i c e I

U a o o a h y o ud o n

I o o k v e r y p f e a s e c i . t l h a t r s i t ?w h a t ' s w r o n g ?

w h o s e i s t h i s b o o k I f o u n d i t c o

o n

m y d e s k .t h e f . L o o r

P l e a s e I m o v e y o u r d e s k s t o g e t h e r .p u t y o u r c h a i r s i n a c i r c l e

w h a c d o y o u t h i n k t h e ! a r e l a o l n g :s a y i n g ?

h i n k i - n q ?

The classroom, its furniture andobjects

Characteristics and iechniques: there is a floor, a ceiling a door and there arewalls and windows in most classrooms. There are usually desks, chairs,chalkboards, cupboards. There are the possessions cfthe students.Sometimes there are plants. And there could be a collection offood packets,some fruit, a bicycle, and basic equipment for simple scientific experiementsFor drama there canbe a collection ofold clothes, scarves, hats and an oldtelephone. These objects can be used in various ways:

1 They can be used for what they are: students can be asked to name objectsand describe their qualities, to open and closewindows and so on.

B a r b a r aG o r d o n ,

w o u l d y o u c l e a n t h e b o a r d f o r m ep u t t h e s e b o o k s i n t h e c u p b o a r d

p l e a s e

T e f i m e a b o u t y o u r p i c L u r e .y o u r f a v o u r i t e f i l n .L h e m o s t h o r r i b l . e t h i n g y o u h a v e e v e r s e e n .

(shouing a piuure)

96

2 The origin and manufacture of the objects can be analysed.

3 The objects canbe used as symbols and metaphors: an ancient method of

teaching. Onebrick onits ownis of limited use,together theymakeawall.

Words related together offer meaning, whereas on their own they are fairly

useiess. Bricks musibe joined jusi as thoughts must belinked, etc.

The teacher might suggest that the front wall of the classroom represents

the present time, the two sidewails represent past time touchingpresent

time and the back wall is an identifiable period of time in the past.

4 The objects in the room can be subjected to the fantasy and imagination of

thestudents. For example, the ideas below ca:ne from a class offourteenyear olds when ihe teacher showed them an ordinary exercise book and said,

This is not an exercise book, what is it? The studenis, sometimes combining

the exercisebook with mime claimedthe following:

sruDENrA: (putting it on his head)It's ahat'

sruDENr B: (holding the bottom and swinging it) It's a tennis racquet.

SruDEr\rc: (hoidingit in front of her eyes)It'satelevision.

sruDENr D: (holding it on one long edge as if it were heavy) lt's asuitcase'

srUDENr E; (holding it up on all five Iingers of one iand) It's an umbrelia.

SrUDElir F: (rolling it and peelingit) It's a banana.

sTUDENTG: (rolling ii and witing with it) It's apen.

sruDENrn: (rolling it and looking through it)It's atelescope-

SruDEr\r r: (ro)Iing it with one end small and placing it in a vase)It's a bunch of

flowers.srUDENr J: (opening it out)lt's an aeroplane.

sruDENrK: (opening it out and flapping the pages) It's a bird.

sruDENr L: (opening it out and blowing his nose on it) It's a handkerchief.

Here are a few rnore ideas for each ofthe above types ofobject:

Walls

Obviously walts invite displays ofwallpictures and posters ofstudent collages

and writings and of charts explainingpoints of grammar. All of these make a

creative language environment. This is difficult ifyou do nothave your own

classroom.

qt

Siudent possessions

These can be identified, named and analysed with regard to performance,origin, cost, sentimental vaiue, associated experiences. etc.

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PIants

A seed can be pianted and language used to organise its suwival and to recordits progress.

&6mw?ffiEverydayobjects

Everyday objects can be identified and evaluated, and their cost, availabilitl,,efficiency, and students' personal preferences can be discussed. Theirqualities can be compared. They can be used inrole plav.

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Interesting objects

We becomefamiliar with everyday objecis and don'tthink about theirpotential in language teaching. For example, we can getstudents involved intuning a radio to see how many stations are broadcasting in English, or tryingto identify different languages and what the people might be talking about.

Old clothes

Old hats, scarves and coats together with old telephones and other everydayobjects can be used in drama, either in controiled role play or in creativedrama. For example, give out a range ofhats, perhaps a trilby, a flat hat, aberet, a rainhat, a crash helmet, a baby's hat, a flowery, old-fashioned lady'shat. Ask the students to work out characters, a situation and a dialogue to playfor the others.

Fwnitwe

Chairs arranged around a table at the front ofthe class become a caf6. Chairsin a line represent a bus.

Theschool

Characteristics and techniques: the class is usually part ofa school which itselfis a compiex community. The organisation and social life of the school, thepeople and their roles, and the school buildings and facilities are important inthe life ofthe student. Experiences, knowledge and opinions about the schoolcan be the subject ofconversation and discussionin the class. Here are a fewexamples ofwhatcan be done.

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99

Drawingplans

Drawingplans ofthe school and naming the parts_ This is not an easy task,particularlyifthe students are unused to makingplans. It is rich in itslanguage potential.

Thework ofpeople in theschool

Director, office staff, caretaking staff, technicians and teachers. What do theyhave to do?A natural contextfor the present habituall Also ,what

haopens if;you breakyour arm, etc. Produce a booklet about the school for foreimvisitors. Cover its history, location, facilities, aims, achievements, plans, etc.

The school nei ghbourhood

Characteristics and techniques: most ofthe students will be from theneighbourhood of theschoolorwillbefamiliarwith jt. Oncemore. itis apotentially rich resource for the teacher. Here are some suggestions :

. How well do the students know their neighbourhood? Ask thern to hv toremember and to describe everythingtheycan seefrom the front eate oftheschoolor what they can seeifthey stand on the town hall steps.

o Help them to prepare a study of the neighbourhood in English:emplol'rnent, leisure, history, geography, climaie, etc. This might be donefor the town hall to give away to visitors.

. Ask them to work out a guide for tourisis, giving a plan, location of faciliiies,times, costs, etc.

o Ask the students to collect any examples ofthe use ofEnglish in theneighbourhood.

. If there are any English-spealingvisitors to theneighbourhood invite themto the school. Prepare the class by getting each student to make up aquestion to put to the visitor.

. If there are any firms or institutions in the area which deal wiih Enelish-speakingcountries, see what experience theyhave and ifyou coulJuse it inyour lessons.

. Ifthere is an airport, consider takingl'our students there and studyingwhere the planes are f,raveliing to, and interviewing passengers and airportstaffifthat is possible. It is advisable to arrange the visit to the airportbefore you go!

r*t ^ Production tips

u8JDesigning

Teachers design every time theyrvrite or draw on the chalkboard or produce aworksheei. The question is noi rvhetherycu design but whether you do it wellor badly Visual design is an aspect ofcornmunicatron. It is no rncrejustifiableto say that visual design is unimportant than it is io say that speaking orwilting are unimportant.

Attistic anC communicative talent?

Yes, artistic and communicative ialent are necessary and, thank goodness, weall have this talent! (I admit that some have it more strongly ihan others. )

A lot can be achieved by simply making use of our common sense or commontalent-

Ttvo things to concenf,rate on:

1 Clarity of hformation. The studentshouldbe able to seevhat you want hinor her to see.

2 Expression. The style in which the inforrnaiion is presented affects how werespond to the meaning. There is a dign-ified way of speaking, of moving andof designing a page. There are rvays of speaking, moving and designingpageswhich can express a wide variety offeelings: excitement, humour,modernity, con{lict, gloom, mystery, carng and consideration.

The suggestions on thefoilowingpages apply to the design ofall the visualmaterials referred to in this book.

Layout

Layout ofyour informaiion (text and./or pictures) on the chalkboard, onworksheets, on wallpictures and in exhibitions and displays, etc.

Designers usuailybase their layouts on grids. Grids give a sense oforganisationto the information. The ve.rtical and horizonial'liningup'of information is thebasis ofthe grid. Ifthis is done verv sirictly, the effect is formal. Ifphotographs

101

or titles sp6n more th6n one column ofthe $id then a ce ain informality is

inhoduced. Moreinformality is introduced ifthepictures are not rectangularbut cutoutshapes or ifthe textis piaced at an angle. Many teachers wouid liketo prcject an image of themselves which is friendiy but neverthelessauthoritative and oganised. The ght choice ofgrid and way of using it uanrcflect this. Here are some basic g ds whjch you can use:

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102

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The suggestions on the following pages applyto lhe desiga ofworkcards,wallpictures, OHP transparencies and displays and exhibitions.

Pictures

Pictures need not always be placed st ctly within the grid- They mieht beallowed to go offthe paper altogether. The edge ofthepaper then contributesto theverticalityorhoriontality ofihedesign and gives great strength but witha feeling of variety and informality.

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103

Pictures need not always be rectangular. The character of an obj ect is oftenbetter shown by cutting out its shape and bhis contributes lo the overallrichness ofeffect.

Grouping and reacling direction

Gtouping

Th€ following featues help to gtoup information; they are not all necessary I

. a separate heading;

. space at the top and bottom;o a line at top and bottom or an enclosing line box;o a line dmwn vertically to separate it ftom nearby information;. a differcnt typeface or style oflette ng;o a diffeEnt backg?ound tone or colour;. lheproyimit) ofacapfion to i ts i l lusnarion.

Reading dircction

Most people familiar with roman script want to read from left to dght andfrom top to boltom. lvhen ihere is more than one column oftext and whenthese colurnns are divided by pictures thenthereader may Lose the direction,'ou want him or her to follow.

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101

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Lines

Lines can be thick or thin, smooth or rough. Thesedillerences are easy to.rchip\ e and.onfi ibute toboLh clari ty and erpress.reness.

In the thee exampLes below, the informationissepamtedby lines. This helpsclarity. At thesametime, the difference between the thickness ofthe linescont butes io variety and chnessofeffect.

Thick and thin lines are easy to do on thechalkboard. Just use theside olthechalk for the thick lines I For worksheets have two thicknesses of pen.

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Big and small

Big piciures can be set against a series ofsmall ones. Big titles combinedwithf ine lcneringal lmakc for r ichne"s ofconuast.

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Colour

It is tempting to male full use of all the coloured felt tip pens which areavailable. But it is a little like a teacher tiying to win friends by smiling all thetimelStudents willgive littlevalue to the smile after about two minuies ifitisunconnected with a cornmunicative reason for smiling.

Colour certainly has an expressive roie but how this is achieved can only bejudged by the teacher and students. There are two idenlifiable reasons forusing colour for clarity:

Descriptive use of colout

Coiour can help ustorecognisesomething. Colourwouldhelp us io recognisethe difference between an orange, a tomato and a potato.

Diagammatic we of colow

Colour can be used to draw attention to certain pa s ofa pictlrle, diagram ortext. Perhaps a small present is i(rportant in a picture showing several peopie.If the people ale drawn in black aad the present is in colour it will attrsctattention even though it is small.

Tone

Tone is the de$ee of darkness of a coiour. The use of tone can help clarity,recognition and exp&ssiveness.

Clatity

Tonal differences can male shapes easily discemible, for example, thechildren stand out clearly in the illusftation below because of the different toneofthebackground.Tone over an area of text helps us to see it as a unity in ils own dghl.

Recognition

Tone may help us to rccognise an object. For example, the dark tone of aBdtish policeman's uniformis very characte stic. Thetoneof calsisnotsochancteristic becauseitcanvary so much,

Exprexnn

The tone of a design or picture, like music, may be contmlled by the amountand relationship of contrasting or harmonising tones. Sharp contrastswill tend

106

to attract attention and be diamatic. Solter tones will offer haimony andgentleness.

Lettering

The teacher can produce a witten text by writing, by typing or by using astencil. Most teachers do not have access to more sophisticated equipment.Herc are a few tips ananged according to the basic needs: clarity, recognitionand expression.

Clarity

Ability to see what is wdtten depends on the viewer's eyesight, on the size ofthe letteN, on the degree of conhast with the background, on the distance olthe viewer and oo the illumination.

It is alw-ays best to try out any text at the distance you intend using it. However3 cm is usually a reasonable guide for distances of 10 m.

For projection, many people believe that it is better to have white lettedngagainst a dark background. Computer manufacturers now believe that blacklettering on a white soeen is the most satisfactory.

Becognition

Recognition of the letters by the lorm of them depends on familiadty withthem. The nearer they aie to a familiar form the more readily they will berecognised. An individual handwriting style may present problems. It is betterto go for a w ting style which is rether like printing.

Exprexion

Teache$ cannot be expected to develop the skills necessary to produce speciallette$ forava ety of expressive puposes. However, in the examples below afew tips for acqui ng basic skills willbe mentiored.

10?

Tips onw ting

The two major contributors to rcadabiiity aretheclaityofthe individualletter forms and the distinctive shape ofgoups of letteis in words. Capitals donot give a distinctive shape to a word.

co-p,'" -SPhAPE *d shopeHatrd$rritingFor handwriting, a semi-printed lorm of letter is probably the clearest.

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Alist of tipsKeep your letterurg on a horizontal iine (usually rubbed out afterwads).Keep your letters open and clear.Keep your letters fairly close together.Keep the upper ard lower snokes fairly short.Keep about two letter's body height between the lines.Keep the left-hand edge vertica.l.Usealotolruledlines goiryright acrosstheg d in order to convey frmnessand organisation.

Special iitlesIt is helpful if you can do a few special types of lettering for titles, particularlylor wall displays. The main thing is not to try to do neat and disciplined lookingletters.Fancy stfes are easy to do, fast, characteriul, eye catching and hideincompetencel

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Double penletteri!gFasten two pens or pencils together. Alwa!€ hold them at one consist€nt angle.

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CutoutletteringA surprisingly successful a.lthough sljghtly more time-consuming tedmiquefor displars is to cut out ]ettels with a craft knife from coloured papers. TheletteE are then stuck down. These letters should be no more than sketchedout. Their pat€ntly varying character, but with sharp sides ard angles, is thesecret of their athactiveness and apparent professionalism.

Drawing

Tlacing

Method 1Ifthe paper you want to use is thin, then you may be able to see the image to becopied through it. Ifyou can't, then place both the paper with the image on itand the paper to be traced on against the window, preferably with strongsuilight behind. This is the fastest way oftuacing.

Alternatively, ifyou a.re working at night, put a table lamp on the floor and restthe picture 6nd the paper on a sheet ofglass placed above the lamp.

Method2Use tracing paper. Ttace the pictue. Scribble with a 6oft pencil on the back ofthe hacing paper. Put the bacing paper down on the arca to receive the tracingand &aw on top ofthe tracing.

EnlaryineMethod IDivide the pictue to be copied into squares. Dvide the paper you are goitg totransfer it to into squares. Copy from one square on the picture to a similarivpositioned square on the new paper U the squares on the new paDer are Mi;ess big as lhose on t|e pictue. tlen the enlargement wil be twice as bie. Thesame technique can be used Io copy or l,o red uce a picLure. This teclurique wasused by Renaissance painters!

Method2EnJarge the picture by epidiascope, or other project r, throwirg theimage ontolhe paper you want to use for the copy.

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Dnwing stickpeofle

Which line is longer, a or b?

Which angle is wider, a orb?

Ifyou said (a) in both cases you have the necessary talent to draw IDra\ringthingssothatpeoplecanrccognisethemisbasicaliyamatterof '

proportiors and being able to j udge comparative lengths and angles.

Here are the proportions of the basic stickpelson.

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For the sake ofspeed and the minimising of dishecting elements thestickperson need have no further features, for example, hands, shoulders,hips, neck. Occasionally it is useful to show the hsnds.

Herc are some badly drawn stickpeople.

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111

The wslking snd rul}aing stickpersonIt isjust a matter ofgetting the angles right.

Very slow walkiry is shown by drawing the arms and legs very near to thevettical. Faster movement is shown by opening the arms and legs out.

Some teachers do not rca]ise that their knees always bend forwards the waythey are going and that theit elbows point mole or iess backwa.rds.

Does your stickperson fall over?

The cenhe ofgavity of the body, roughly the abdomen, should be over thesuppo*ing point or between the supporting points, lvo of the people in thedrawing above will fall over Put in their oiesing legs to save theln!

NosesNoses are usefrd because they show which way a stickperson is looki:rg anrithismight be impo ant ifyouwantto show more than merely an action.

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HandsUsually it is a waste ol time to &aw the hands. Draw them when you wantsome special actio!,

rT'" T|- M rrqStickmen, stick women and stickchildrenYou car show stickwomen easily ifyou accept the convention of a skirt andlong hair. Stickchildren are, obviously, smaller. However, the head is a.lsobigger in proportion. A few characters can be shown.

AAqrlCopy some of the stickpeople you have seen so far in this book. Practise doing

Boxpeople

There is usually not enough time to &sw more than a few lines on thechalkboard. However, you may want to draw 'proper' people on workcards,flashcards, wallpictures or when making figues to use with your magnetboardor flannelboard. These solid figues add interest, give character and increaseclarity when seen over a long distance.

And they are no more difficult to &aw than stickpeople. If a very simpleprinciple is followed without change nobody need fail I

I Draw a box for the body, thin if seen from the side and broader if seen fromthe front.

2 Draw the head.

113

3 Draw four stick limbs exactly as you would for a stickpelson.4 Wlen srep 3 issa[isfacrory d_raw the jnside of the legs and crms copl ing rhe

outside lhes more or less exactly.5 Draw circles for ihe hands and triangles lbr the feet.

Because this is a very powerlul way of &awing you may be tempted to p ut inall sorls ofbends and flicks to rcpresent clothesand muscles. Anv attemDt toshowmorenarural ismwil iexposeyourl imiredabil i rytodrarv.Noborl l i igoingto say that the hiangle is a poor &awing of a foot. So it really is best to stick tothe classical boxpe$on!

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Symbols

Symbols can be very useful if they are understood and most of those iilushatedhere are now intemationally known.

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Faces

Any bumpy circle will do for a face. (When you want to deate speciaicharacterc you cai draw a special shape for the face.) The eyes and nose don'Lconhibute to the expression so put them in first- It is true that iarye eyes looksofter and less aggressive than small eyes.

It is the eyebrows and the mouth which make the expression. Basically,

114

surp se is when the eyebrows are raised. Concenhated thinking is I ,hen theyare nearer together and nearer to the eyes.

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How to turn someone's headHeads can be tuned very easily. Draw the nose in well over to one side. Put theeyes well aooss aa well. The ear is important ifyou want to turn someone'shead; move it aooss as well.

How to look Jrourger!Here is the secret. Ifyou want to look younger you must move your featuEsfurther down your face and make them smallerl In the heads below the overa.llshape is the same. Note how the nose becomes less pronounced.

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Wlich of these shapes is a London taxi and which is a spots ca.r?

115

CharactersIlyou can draw a 'normal' face then al1 you have to do to crcate a character is todraw a face which is in some way not 'normal'. You can lengthen or shorten thenose. You can place the nosemuch higher than usual.0ryou might Like tobegin with a dilferent shape to the head, perhaps very square at the bottomand pointed at the top. llhatever you do, you must commit yor.uselJ. No halfmeasrDes!

Ifyou are familiar with London taxis you wili have said that the fust drawing isthe taxi and the second the sports car. Every object, however complex itsappearzmce, can be seen as a basic rectangle. The proportions ofthe rectangleare the essence of its special shape.

Which shape is the horse and which is the cow?

Once you have decided on rhe object's basic shape you can add those featureswhich will help to mahe it recognisable. Sometimes you will want to change theoutlines away ftom a rectangie. Howevet for reasons of speed do this as little aspossible. Also try not to be too rcalistic because then your inexperience indrawine will be revealed.

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116

Drawing scenes

Whenpeople say they cannot diaw they usuallymean two things:1 theycannotdrawpeoplenaiualisticallywithallthefoldsof clothesandthemuscles, etc. 2 They cannot draw buildings, carc, etc inperspective.

In the earlier sections you have seen how to deal with the firct self_doubt. Thesecond self-doubt? Don't tly to dlaw pe$pective! The sod of penpective mostpeople tly to draw was only invented in about 1450 in Italy. Many wonderfulpaintings were done without this Renaissance pe$pective before 1450 and inother cultrres. AII you need to do is to flatten everytlling. Don't show linesdisappearing into the distance.Here is an example lor you to copy.

Collage

A rewardng way of making pictures is by collage. Pictues can be drawn orcollected by stude[ts and combined withw ting to make an athactivedisplay.

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Cutting, sticking arrd protecting

CuttingScissors are useful, of course. However a crall knife is a wonderful help forteacherc who want to make their own visual materials.

When cutting out it is advisabletoput apiece of thin card under themagazinepage.

Ifyou want to cut card with your cm ft knife do not try to do it ai one go. Cuiwith light shokes again and again.

Metal rulers are usefr:l ifyou want to cut along a straight line.

Sticking

Paste is cheap. The paper will w nlle unless you let it expand fllst. When iihas expanded then put it down. As it dries it shrinks and most of the wrinkiesshould disappear.

Peholeum-based adhesives do not make the paper winkle.

Some teachers staple pictues to the backing card.

Protecting

The idea-l is to use clear, self-adhesive plastic. It is wonderful ifyou can tame it!But it seems to have a wilful lile of its own. It reaches up and sticks to thewrong part olyour workcaid, to your sleeve, to the table and wome, to itself.Ttvo ways of dealhg with this living creatu€:EtherLay down the plastic sticky side up and &op the workcaid on to it. This is allight for small things.OrLay down the rvorkcard image side up. Fold the piastic round like a magazine.Lower the middle onto the middle of the image. Put a ruler through on theinside and slowly press the work out to the outside. Leave enough border totuck around the back.

The alternative is to tape a clear plastic sheet around the back olthe visual orto keep it in a clear plastic enveiope-

118

Displaying

Paste onto hardboard orcadboard and hang up.

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Double sided adhesivetape.

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Pin or staple tosoftboard.

Magdetsonto steelst p.

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Magnet stdp on reveNe ofpicture. Bulldog clip scrcwed into suppolt.

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Klemboys glued to wall.

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Wie or string stretched between screws. Bulldog clips lor holding the paper.

Furtherreading

Baoks abour rhemakingand use o[ visua]s

BcnvE.,t,E 1982 Laok Herc! Visual Aids in Language Teaching MacmillanBYRNE,D 1980 l/strg t're rllajn erroard Heinemann EducationalHTLL.D A1990 Visual Impacl LongnranHorDEN, s (ed) 1973 yrsu, Aids for Classrcom Interactibn Modern EnglishPublications/MacmillanroNEs,r R H 1982 [/srngt] e Overhead Pmjector Heinemann EducationaiMcALprN,J 1980 ?fie Maga zine Picture Library Heinemann EducationalivrucclEsmNE. p 198I Pla rning and Using the Blac.kboard HeinemannEducationalsIIAw, p and d.vET, r 1980 Llsr?g Blackboard Drawing Heinemann Educationalwerc}J'r,^1984 1000 Pictwes far Teacherc to Copy CollinswRlorrr,A 1989 Pictues lor Language Leaming Cambridge Universiry press

Publications makhg use ofvisuaJs which teacheg can adapt

ByRNE.D 1986 acrrrgora.lt grli (new edition) LonqmanB\ tr\ r. D an d gALL. D 19 76 Wall Pict urc. fot Lang)age practice LongmatHADFTELD,J 1984.E1emen tary Contmunication Games Nelso]lHEAToN,J B 1966 &mposrtrb, Tfuough Pictures LongmanKERR,ry K1919 Picture Cue Cards l)ar Oral Language practr'ce NelsonMAIE!A. DUTF.A and cRELLsr.F 1980 The Mind\ Eye Cambridge UniversityPressMoRcAN,r and RrNlolucRr,;trl9g3 Once [Jpon aTime Cambridge Unive$ityrressscorr,lv 1980 Are foutrsfenrag? Oxford Universitv press\r R.LHr.A 1986 Hor" ro EnjoyPar,rrmgs Cambridge Universir v p-ess