54673806 Young 1991 Creating a Low Anxiety Classroom Environment

8/2/2019 54673806 Young 1991 Creating a Low Anxiety Classroom Environment

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Creat ing Low-AnxietylassroomEnvironment: W h a t D o e s Languag eA n x i e t y Research Suggest?DOLLY JESUSITA YOUNGDepartmentf RomanceLanguagesUniversity f TennesseeKnoxville,TN 37996

CURRENTLY, INCREASED ATTENTION IS BEINGgiven to language learners and their perspec-tives, motivations, beliefs about language lear-ning, learning styles, learning strategies, andlanguage anxieties.1 Regardless of method, weknow that learners need to adopt attitudes andstrategies that pay off in terms of low anxiety,high motivation, and ultimately in the abilityto convey information and communicate ideasand feelings. One of the current challenges insecond and foreign language teaching is to pro-vide students with a learner-centered, low-anx-iety classroom environment. In our push tocreate such an environment we need to consultresearch and theory on language anxiety forclassroom implications.From a careful examination of the languageanxiety literature, six general sources oflanguage anxiety can be discerned andnumerous suggestions for reducing it can beidentified. To discuss what can be done toreduce language anxiety, we must not onlyidentify its sources, but also recognize expres-sions of stress in learners. This article pro-gresses, therefore, from a general presentationof language anxiety research, to a discussionof six potential sources of anxiety in theclassroom, to a discussion of ways in which anx-iety is manifested in learners, and, finally, toa list of suggestions for reducing anxiety.RESEARCH ON FOREIGN AND SECONDLANGUAGE ANXIETY

Until recently, it has been difficult todemonstrate concisely the effects of anxiety on

language learning. In the past few years, how-ever, advances in measurement and theoryhave resulted in much more productive lan-guage anxiety research (29). Improved methodsand measurements, alongside a clearer, moreprecise theory of language anxiety, have led toa better understanding of its sources in theforeign and second language classroom.In the past, research in the area of anxietyas it relates to second or foreign language learn-ing and performance was scattered and incon-clusive. Some of this research established its ex-istence.2 Other scholars investigated its effecton language learning and performance3 (seeAppendix for a summary of this research).While some of this research suggested that arelationship between anxiety and foreign or sec-ond language performance existed,' other fin-dings suggested no relationship between anxi-ety and performance (1; 5; 38; 48). Even withinthese studies, however, anxiety may have beennegatively related to one language skill and notto another; conversely, it may have beenpositively related to one and not to another (7;46; 49). In one study (44), second language per-formance was not significantly related to anxi-ety, but seemed to influence the quality oflanguage performance; in another (23), someanxiety enhanced oral performance.The problem with much of the research wasthat the relationship between anxiety and lan-guage learning/performance could not beviewed without taking into account an assort-ment of variables, such as language setting,anxiety definitions, anxiety measures, age ofsubjects, language skill, and research design.Comparisons among studies were often hin-dered by a lack of consistencies in a variety ofareas. Factors often overlooked when decipher-ing anxiety research results included whether

The Modern LanguageJournal, 75, iv (1991)0026-7902/91/0004/426 $1.50/0?1991 The Modern LanguageJournal


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Dolly J. Young 427the anxiety definition and measure were har-monious; whether the interpretation of anxiety(i.e., state, trait, test anxiety, facilitating ordebilitating, classroom anxiety) had been de-fined in accordance with the basic purpose ofthe research;5 and whether the research wasdesigned to examine one variable (anxiety) ora number of variables (motivation, anxiety,personality, self-esteem, etc.). In essence, mostof this research did not adequately define anx-iety nor did it describe its specific effects onlanguage learning.

Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (22) were thefirst to treat foreign language anxiety as aseparate and distinct phenomenon particularto language learning. Their theory evolvedlargely from clinical data and anecdotal evi-dence (33). We have seen in the last few years,however, an increase in evidence that validatestheir theory. Empirical data confirming an anx-iety specific to language learning has beenreported in Horwitz (21). Further supportingevidence can be found in MacIntyre and Gard-ner (29-33). Also developed in the last few yearshas been a body of research offering the stu-dents' perspectives on anxiety in language lear-ning. Through interviews, questionnaires,diaries, and self-report instruments, languagelearners offer insight into language anxiety.6 Inaddition, interviews with language specialistsprovide insight regarding language anxietyfrom the language instructor's point of view(52). In general, the recent literature on foreignand second language anxiety upholds thetheory of an anxiety particular to languagelearning.SOURCES OF LANGUAGE ANXIETY

In a close review of the literature on anxietyin language learning, at least six potentialsources of language anxiety can be identified.Some are associated with the learner, some withthe teacher, and some with the instructionalpractice. From an analysis of this research,language anxiety arises from: 1) personal andinterpersonal anxieties; 2) learner beliefs aboutlanguage learning; 3) instructor beliefs aboutlanguage teaching; 4) instructor-learner inter-actions; 5) classroom procedures; and 6) lan-guage testing.Personal and interpersonal issues are pro-bably the most commonly cited and discussedsources of language anxiety in most studies.Low self-esteem and competitiveness are the

two significant sources of learner anxiety underthis rubric. Bailey contends that competitive-ness can lead to anxiety when language learnerscompare themselves to others or to an idealizedself-image.Similarly, Krashen suggests that an indi-vidual's degree of self-esteem is highly relatedto language anxiety: ". . . the more I thinkabout self-esteem, the more impressed I amwith its impact. This is what causes anxiety ina lot of people. People with low self-esteemworry about what their peers think; they areconcerned with pleasing others. And that Ithink has to do a great degree with anxiety" (52:p. 15).

Price reports that the majority of her sub-jects believed their language skills to be weakerthan those of the others in class; that they"weren'tdoing a good job and that everyone elselooked down on them; that they should havedone much better than they did; that if theyhad only worked a little harder they could havebeen successful at this task" (p. 106). Hembreeinvestigates the relationship between ability andanxiety and concluded that "the higher the stu-dent's ability level, the lower the test anxiety"(p. 73). It would seem, then, that students whostart out with a self-perceived low ability levelin a foreign or second language are the likeliestcandidates for language anxiety, or any othertype of anxiety for that matter.Other potential sources of personal and inter-personal anxieties have been proposed on thebasis of theoretical considerations. Anxietiesstemming from personal and interpersonalissues in the language learning context havebeen related to communication apprehension(11; 22; 50), social anxiety (50), and anxietyspecific to language learning. According toLeary, constructs such as speech anxiety,shyness, stage fright, embarrassment, social-evaluative anxiety, and communication ap-prehension, although not exactly synonymous,encompass one psychological phenomenon:social anxiety (p. 98). By definition, social anx-iety surfaces from "the prospect or presence ofinterpersonal evaluation in real or imaginedsocial settings" (p. 102). For Leary, "some ofthese terms, such as audience anxiety, speechanxiety, and communication apprehension, aretypically used when people experience socialanxiety while performing or speaking beforeothers" (p. 102). Although social anxiety maycontribute to language anxiety, Krashen, Rar-din, and Terrell (52) suggest that certain


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428 The ModernLanguageJournal 75 (1991)psychological phenomena are particular to theforeign language setting, such as the conceptsof "group membership" and existential anxiety.Krashen posits that anxiety in the languagelearning context is wrapped up in the phe-nomenon he refers to as "club membership."7He argues that the affective filter is down whenyou consider yourself a member of the group -in this context a member of the Spanish,French, German "club," or whatever the tar-get language group is (p. 16).Terrell associates foreign language anxietywith what he calls "target language group iden-tification," similar to Krashen's "group mem-bership" phenomenon, but Terrell takes theconcept one step further. Terrell suggests that"children acquire their first language and a sec-ond language in order to identify and be amember of the group that speaks that language"and that "this strong motivation for identifica-tion or assimilation forces them to attend to theinput very carefully, so that their output willmatch the input" (p. 27). For Terrell, then, thefilter is down when students experience "targetlanguage group identification," similar to Gard-ner's integrative motivation, but this conditionis not sufficient for successful language learn-ing. He suggests that a certain amount of at-tention to the input is also necessary, althoughhe contends attention does not necessarily im-ply anxiety. Like Terrell, Rardin recognizes apositive aspect to a learner's productive stateof alertness versus a non-productive state ofstress.Krashen and Terrell hold a view of languageanxiety close to that of existential anxiety asexplained by Rardin and social anxiety as ex-plained by Leary. For Rardin, existential anx-iety is a more profound type of anxietyinherently built into the language learning pro-cess that "touches the core of one's self-identity,one's self image" (p. 35). According to her, thelearner's train of thought is somewhat asfollows: "If I learn another language, I willsomehow lose myself; I, as I know myself tobe, will cease to exist" (p. 35). Other psycho-logical phenomena particular to the languagelearning context include Schumann's conceptof "social distance," Guiora's idea of languageego, and Clarke's theory of "clash of con-sciousness" or cultural assimilation. Thesepsychological phenomena, along with low self-esteem and erroneous beliefs about languagelearning, may be the seeds for students' lan-guage anxiety as expressed in fear over speak-ing in front of others, and in competitiveness.

Learner beliefs about language learning area major contributor to language anxiety.Gynan reports on a variety of practices learnersbelieve are important for successful languagelearning. His learners believe, for instance, thatpronunciation is the most important practicein language learning. Other preferred learningpractices, in order of popularity, were vocabu-lary, classroom conjugation, communication,memorization of grammar, travel to a countrywhere the language is spoken, translation, andmaking friends (p. 9). Similarly, languagelearners in Horwitz's (20) study: 1) expressedgreat concern over the correctness of their utter-ances; 2) placed a great deal of stress on speak-ing with "an excellent accent"; 3) supported thenotion that language learning is primarilytranslating from English; 4) believed that twoyears is enough time to become fluent in an-other language; and 5) believed some peoplewere more able to learn a foreign language thanothers. As several of these beliefs are unrealisticfor the language learner, they could lead to anx-iety. For example, most beginning students,unless they are highly motivated, will not soundlike a native speaker. If they believe that pro-nunciation is the most important aspect of alanguage, they will end up frustrated andstressed. The same frustration and anxiety setsin if they believe they should be fluent in twoyears. In other words, when beliefs and realityclash, anxiety results.Instructor beliefs about language teachingare a further source of language anxiety. InBrandl, the majority of the instructors con-sidered "alittle bit of intimidation a necessaryand supportive motivator for promoting stu-dents' performance" (p. 50), and, unlike theirstudents, most instructors considered their rolein the language class to be "less a counselor andfriend and objected to a too friendly and in-authoritative student-teacher relationship" (p.49). Instructors who believe their role is to cor-rect students constantly when they make anyerror, who feel that they cannot have studentsworking in pairs because the class may get outof control, who believe that the teacher shouldbe doing most of the talking and teaching, andwho think their role is more like a drill ser-geant's than a facilitator's may be contributingto learner language anxiety. The social contextthat the instructor sets up in the classroom canhave tremendous ramifications for the learners.Anxieties related to instructor-learner in-teractions are reported in Horwitz et al. (22),Koch and Terrell, Price, and Young (50).'A


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DollyJ. Young 429harsh manner of correcting student errors isoften cited as provoking anxiety. In addition,learners consistently report anxiety over re-sponding incorrectly, being incorrect in frontof their peers, and looking or sounding "dumb."They also express concerns over how mistakesare perceived in the language classroom. Onthe other hand, the language learners in thestudies by Koch and Terrell, Horwitz (20; 21),and Young (50) feel that some error correctionis necessary. The issue for the student, then,is not necessarily error correction but the man-ner of error correction - when, how often, and,most importantly, how errors are corrected.Anxieties associated with classroom pro-cedures center primarily on having to speak inthe target language in front of a group. For ex-ample, Koch and Terrell found that more thanone-half of their subjects reported oral presen-tations in front of the class and oral skits as themost anxiety-producing activities in theirNatural Approach classes. Other strong sourcesof anxiety were oral quizzes and being calledon to respond orally in the target language. Inaddition, Young (50) found that more thansixty-eight percent of her subjects reported feel-ing more comfortable when they did not haveto get infront of theclass to speak. Mejias et al.and Daly also reported anxiety over speakingin a second language in front of an audience.Anxieties can stem from aspects of languagetesting. Madsen et al. found that students reactanxiously to particular language test items;some test formats produced significantly moreanxiety than others. Students also experienceanxiety when they spend hours studying thematerial emphasized in class only to find thattheir tests assess different material or utilizequestion-types with which they have no ex-perience. If an instructor has a communicativeapproach to language teaching but then givesprimarily grammar tests, this likely leadsstudents not only to complain, but also to ex-perience frustration and anxiety. Othervariables that can increase learner anxiety inan evaluative situation, like a test (whetherwritten or oral), are offered in Daly. He con-tends that learners experience more apprehen-sion when the situation is novel, ambiguous,or highly evaluative. In language testing, thegreater the degree of student evaluation and themore unfamiliar and ambiguous the test tasksand formats, the more the learner anxiety pro-duced.

The sources of language anxiety identifiedin the literature and summarized here could be

viewed as interrelated in light of MacIntyre andGardner's recently developed theory regardingforeign language anxiety. MacIntyre andGardner (33) contend that learners do not beginthe language learning experience with languageanxiety. If they experience anxiety, it is mostlikely state anxiety. According to them, lan-guage anxiety occurs only after attitudes andemotions regarding the language learning ex-perience have been formed. If MacIntyre andGardner's theory is correct, this suggests thatthe problem is not so much in the student butin the language learning experience, i.e., themethodology. Student language anxiety mightbe an indication that we are doing somethingfundamentally unnatural in our methodology.

Helping teachers to recognize the signs ofanxiety in language learners is an importantstep in responding to anxiety in the classroom.The next section of this article will focus on adiscussion of ways students express anxiety intheir language classes.STUDENT MANIFESTATIONS OF ANXIETY

Communication apprehension and socialanxiety have previously been related to lan-guage anxiety (22; 50). Recognizing learnermanifestations of anxieties related to speaking,negative evaluation, and foreign languagelearning-generated anxieties are important firststeps in coping with language anxiety. Learyoffers three categories of behavior arising fromsocial anxiety: 1) arousal-mediated responses;2) disaffiliative behavior; and 3) image-protec-tion behavior. According to Leary, arousal-mediated responses are the side-effects of indi-viduals' activation of their sympathetic nervoussystem. These side-effects serve no real socialfunction and usually accompany all arousedstates. Individuals manifest anxiety when they"squirm in their seats, fidget, play with theirhair, clothes, or other manipulable objects,stutter and stammer as they talk, and generallyappear jittery and nervous" (p. 110). Disaffilia-tive behaviors are characterized as any actionsthat reduce social interactions; these are mani-fested by fewer initiations of conversations, lessparticipation in conversations, more allowancefor silent periods in the conversation, fewer in-stances of silence breakers, and shorter speak-ing periods when in front of an audience.Image-protection behavior is characterized bysmiling and nodding frequently, by seldominterrupting others, and by giving frequentcommunicative feedback such as "uh-huh."


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430 The Modern LanguageJournal 75 (1991)According to Leary, "these responses may serveto protect an image of the person as friendly,agreeable, polite, interested, and even sociable,without incurring any social risks" (p. 114).Rardin distinguishes between the typicalresponses to general anxiety and those mani-fested as a result of existential anxiety. Sheposits that an extreme degree of anxiety couldmanifest itself "in 'flight' or 'fight' response pat-terns with the obvious physiological signs ofsweaty palms, nervous stomachs, acceleratedheartbeat and pulse rates"(52: p. 36). More ob-vious manifestations of anxiety in the foreignor second language classroom could surface inthe form of distortion of sounds, inability toreproduce the intonation and rhythm of the lan-guage, "freezing up"when called on to perform,and forgetting words or phrases just learned orsimply refusing to speak and remaining silent.At a subtle, perhaps subconscious level, lan-guage learners may actually resist learning thelanguage. Rardin posits that merely talkingabout the language, hypothesizing aboutit, andanalyzing it can also be manifestations of anx-iety (p. 36).Horwitz et al. (22) offer additional descrip-tions of anxiety-related behaviors particular tothe foreign language classroom setting. Theysuggest that students are anxious when theyavoid trying to convey difficult or personalmessages in the foreign language; freeze up inrole-play activities; report that they "know" acertain grammar point but "forget"it during atest or an oral exercise when many grammarpoints must be remembered; complain of dif-ficulties discriminating the sounds and struc-tures of a foreign language message; confessthey know the correct answer on a test but putdown the wrong one due to nervousness orcarelessness; and over-study without any im-provement in grades (pp. 126-27). Steinbergand Horwitz found that giving more concreteversus interpretive information in the foreignlanguage was another learner behavior result-ing from language anxiety.Bailey advises instructors to recognize signsof too much competitiveness among languagelearners, since this leads to increased states ofanxiety. She identifies certain behaviors assigns of competitiveness, such as obvious self-comparison to other classmates and personalexpectations, hostile reactions toward otherstudents based on comparisons, a desire to out-do other classmates, an emphasis on tests andgrades with reference to other student perfor-

mances, a desire to gain teacher approval, anda mental or physical (temporary or permanent)withdrawal from the language learning experi-ence.Other manifestations of foreign languageclassroom anxiety include nervous laughter,avoiding eye contact, joking, short answerresponses (52: p. 26), avoiding activities inclass, coming unprepared to class, acting in-different, cutting class, putting off taking theforeign language until the last year, crouchingin the last row, and avoiding having to speakin the foreign language in class (22).REDUCING FOREIGN AND SECONDLANGUAGE ANXIETY

A common denominator among currentforeign language methods or approaches is theemphasis on creating a "low anxiety classroomatmosphere" (47). Other than Suggestopedia,however, rarely are instructors given specificexamples of how to go about creating a lowanxiety atmosphere in the foreign languageclass (For specific suggestions, see 13; 27; and36.). From a careful review of research in thearea of language anxiety, suggestions for reduc-ing language anxiety emerge. These sugges-tions focus on a range of foreign languagevariables from in-class practices and activitiesto instructor behavior.To deal with personal and interpersonal anx-ieties, a variety of techniques and approachesare called for. Foss and Reitzel offer severaltechniques for reducing language anxiety stem-ming from learner beliefs, and these sametechniques apply when dealing with personaland interpersonal anxieties. They argue thatif students can recognize their irrational beliefsor fears, they will be able to interpret anxi-ety-provoking situations in more realistic waysand eventually opt to approach rather thanavoid an anxiety-evoking situation. To helpstudents recognize their fears about languagelearning, Foss and Reitzel recommend that theinstructor ask students to verbalize any fearsand then to write them on the board. In thisway students can see they are not alone in theiranxieties. Another technique for reducing lan-guage anxiety is to use an anxiety graph.Students chart their level of anxiety to showthat not every phase of an oral interaction pro-duces an equal amount of anxiety. An anxietygraph helps pinpoint the highest level of anxi-ety in a given interaction. An analysis of the


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DollyJ. Young 431graph (the highest point in the graph) as wellas student comparisons and discussions of theirgraphs could help the learner approach thesame situation with more information and,therefore, more realistically (p. 402). Andfinally, Foss and Reitzel suggest journal writingas a good way to help reduce language anxi-ety. From their journals, students can "learnto recognize feelings of inadequacy so they mayarrive at more realistic expectations" (p. 405).Crookall and Oxford offer a number of ac-tivities, such as Agony Column, Ghost Aven-gers, and Anxious Photos, that can be usedwith language learners to help them examinetheir language anxieties. For example, in theactivity Agony Column, students participate inan editorial simulation where they take on threeroles: themselves (language learners), an"agony aunt" (like a Dear Abby), and a coun-selor. In the first phase of this activity studentswrite letters to Agony Column in which theyexpress any anxieties they have over languagelearning. Then, in groups of three or four,students play the role of "Agony Aunt." Theyread and discuss a few of the letters and focuson advising on others' anxieties. In the thirdphase of this activity, students function ascounselors. The letters are returned with theirreplies and, still in small groups, studentsdiscuss their anxieties and react to replies andsoundness of advice given. The final phase con-sists of a debriefing session where the focus ison feedback from the groups, with one repre-sentative from each group serving as the groupvoice. Activities such as those described byCrookall and Oxford help students get in touchwith their anxieties, an important step in theprocess of working them out.To help reduce personal and interpersonalanxieties further, learners may need to par-ticipate in some form of supplemental instruc-tion or a support group (see 6; 9), work witha tutor, join a language club, do relaxation ex-ercises, and/or practice self-talk. Self-talk canbe particularly useful for coping with "state anx-iety," which refers to an individual's anxiety dueto a specific evaluative situation, e.g., a test,a competition, a performance of some sort, etc.The following example (from the Learning Re-source Center at the University of Texas,Austin) demonstrates the role of self-talk.

Situation: Walking toward the front of theroom for an oral presentation.Anxiety-ProvokingSelf-Talk: "I can't talk in

public. I'll forget everything. .... I've alwaysstumbled over my words when it reallycounts. Last time I was so nervous I sound-ed like a robot . . ."ProductiveSelf-Talk:"I can handle this .Just relax . .. take a deep slow breath andI'll start as I rehearsed it."Other variations of self-talk include makingpositive statements about yourself (see 36 fordetailed examples of this strategy).To reduce anxieties based on learner beliefs,Horwitz (20) suggests that instructors "discusswith their students reasonable commitments forsuccessful language learning and the value ofsome language ability if it is less than fluent"

(p. 286). She contends that "as students' beliefsabout language learning can be based onlimited knowledge and/or experience, theteacher's most effective course may be to con-front erroneous beliefs with new information.In some cases, students may never have hadtheir views about language learning challenged"p. 292). In addition, instructors may want tohold these brief discussions about the processof language learning periodically throughoutthe language learning experience.To decrease anxieties related to instructorbeliefs, instructors need to be sensitized to theirnew role as language teachers in a learner-centered language environment. Unlike theAudiolingual Method, in which the instructorrole was almost that of a drill sergeant, somecurrent communicative approaches allow theinstructor to be seen as more of a facilitatorwhose responsibility is to provide students withinput and opportunities to communicate in thelanguage in authentic situations with authen-tic materials. This is a new and perhaps threat-ning role for the language instructor whobelieves that all errors should be corrected, thatthe instructor is the authority figure in theclassroom, and who, as in Brandl, believes thatsome intimidation is necessary for studentmotivation. It might be useful for instructorsto consciously examine their own languageteaching beliefs to help dispel those beliefs thatnegatively impact learners. Because instructorbeliefs about language learning are oftenreflected in teacher behavior, videotaping orreciprocal class visits might facilitate the iden-tification and discussion of teacher assumptionsabout language learning. Instructors could alsocomplete the "Beliefs about Language Learn-ing Inventory (BALLI)" (20). Above all, in-


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432 The ModernLanguageJournal 75 (1991)structors should involve themselves in languageteaching workshops, panels, and conferencesin an effort to keep pace with current languageteaching research and practices.To reduce anxieties based on instructor-learner interactions, instructors may need toassess their error correction approach as wellas their attitudes toward learners. Price's sub-jects gave numerous suggestions for ways in-structors could reduce language anxiety, suchas "giving students more positive reinforce-ment, and helping them to develop more realis-tic expectations of themselves by letting themknow that they weren't supposed to be fluentor have a perfect accent after two semesters"(p. 107). According to Young's languagelearners, instructors who had a good sense ofhumor and were friendly, relaxed and patient,who made students feel comfortable, and whoencouraged students to speak out were cited ashelpful in reducing foreign language class anx-iety (50).Young's subjects also described certain in-structor characteristics that helped reduce theiranxiety over error correction (50). Their com-ments suggest that instructors can reducelanguage anxiety by adopting an attitude thatmistakes are part of the language learning pro-cess and that mistakes will be made by every-one. Students felt more at ease when the in-structor's manner of correction was not harshand when the instructor did not overreact tomistakes (p. 9). The most frequent suggestionmade by Price's subjects for alleviating lan-guage anxiety was "that they would feel morecomfortable if the instructor were more like afriend helping them to learn and less like anauthority figure making them perform"(p. 107).Crookall and Oxford's activity "MistakesPanel" offers students and instructors a uniqueway of viewing mistakes in the second language--one that potentially can lead to less anxietyover errors. In this activity, students compilea list of mistakes expressed over a period of timeand rate the mistakes according to the follow-ing criteria: amusement, logic, communicativeintelligibility, and learning contribution. In thisgame, the best mistakes are rewarded but thereal object is to encourage students to "take anamusing look at errors and realize that they arenot taboo- and that they can contribute tolearning" (p. 147).Many foreign language learners in studies byKoch and Terrell, Horwitz et al., Horwitz (20),and Young (50) felt, nevertheless, that some er-

ror correction was necessary. Whether the in-structor's pedagogical philosophy sides with the"correct or fossilize" perspective or the noncor-rective "go for meaning" approach, one way toprovide correct input without much anxiety isto model students' responses; that is, simplyrepeat the correct version of what the studentsare attempting. For example, if a student's re-sponse to the question "e'Qui quiere hacer elPresidente Bush?" was "Quieres subir lospresupuestos,"he instructor would respond "Si,quieresubir los presupuestos."The instructor's Siacknowledges that the student conveyed ameaningful message and by repeating with thecorrect form, quiereinstead of quieres, the in-structor provides the appropriate feedback forthe class. Although we currently do not haveabsolute evidence that modeling is effective, wealso do not have reason to believe it is not.Modeling, from a theoretical perspective,makes sense. In a modeling approach to errorcorrection, students are not spotlighted in frontof their peers and corrected, but correct feed-back is provided for those language learnerswho feel they need it. If modeling is to work,however, students must learn to listen careful-ly and strategically.Another strategy that addresses the issue oferror correction and anxiety stems from theclassroom emphasis on grammar. If instructorsreward students for successful communication,the message we send to our students is thatthere is more to language learning than justgrammar rules and forms. Brandl provides agood example of this approach to grammar anderror correction.

Student A writes:"ichgehzu hausjezt."(correct: IchgehejetztnachHause. [I go home now.])Student B writes:"Jetzt chgehezu Hause."(correct: Jetzt geheichnach Hause.)Brandl explains that "both student A and Bshow some degree of communicative compe-tence in so far as they can get their messageacross. Student B, however, shows a better

linguistic performance. Student A's sentenceconsists of six errors (three spelling, two gram-mar, and one word order mistake). Student Bmade only two mistakes (one word order andone grammar mistake)" (p. 41). In grading, sixpoints are assigned to each correct sentence,three for linguistic accuracy and three for suc-


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Dolly J. Young 433cessful communication. Such an approach toerror correction and grammar places as muchemphasis on successful communication as oncorrect forms. Students may begin to get themessage that instructors are equally interestedin what they have to say as in how they say it,and this may lead to a reduction in anxiety overerrors and error correction.To decrease anxieties associated with class-room procedures, instructors can do more pairwork, play more games, and tailor their ac-tivities to the affective needs of the learner.Koch and Terrell, Price, Young (50), andOmaggio (52) suggest that language anxiety isalleviated when students work in small groups,do pair work, and experience personalized lan-guage instruction. Group work not only ad-dresses the affective concerns of the students,it also increases the amount of student talk andcomprehensible input (see 26; 28; 43).In the Natural Approach there is a concernto reduce the learners' affective filter. This isdone in several ways. Besides group work, itis the personalized aspect of the Natural Ap-proach that makes students feel the most com-fortable. Examples of personalizing instructioninclude using pictures to present vocabularyand associating the vocabulary with studentsand objects in class; personalizing grammar;and pairing students to work with another stu-dent or other students. The Natural Approachalso emphasizes listening comprehension andan initial period where students do not have tospeak in the foreign language.Krashen suggests that the best way to reducelanguage anxiety is to make the message so in-teresting that students forget that it is in anotherlanguage (52). According to him, when theteacher drops the book and starts talking aboutsomething really important, students listen (p.22).Saunders and Crookall suggest that playinggames with the language can also reducelanguage anxiety. They posit that

If the learning of a new language provokes inhibitionand caution in the part of the adult who fears ridiculebecause of incompetence in a real situation, the activityof play within game scenarios has great potential. In ef-fect the person at play can be more easily forgiven forerrors of judgment and poor communication. There isalways the excuse of unfamiliarity with the social rules,roles and norms of a game for novice players (p. 169).Playing games with the language does notnecessarily mean playing traditional, competi-tive games such as Jeopardy, Password, or

Hangman. Language games might includesomething as simple as using the targetlanguage to solve a problem. For example, stu-dent A has a diagram and has to describe it inthe target language well enough for Student Bto draw it. Diagrams are compared afterwardto check for similarity. In this kind of "game"students focus on communicating informationto each other for an ultimate purpose.Language games with an emphasis onproblem-solving as suggested by Saunders andCrookall can be an effective way to create in-terest, motivate students, encourage participa-tion and reduce language anxiety. They advise,however, that "some care has to be taken in theoverzealous introduction of play in simulatedcontexts within the classroom, especially whengames have the potential of arousing too muchexcitement, anxiety, or competition amongstmore experienced or critical participants" (p.171).8Tailoring activities to the affective needs ofthe learner is also necessary in dealing withanxieties related to classroom procedures. Forexample, speaking in front of the class has beenrepeatedly cited as evoking anxiety. Foss andReitzel describe an activity that takes into ac-count learner's anxiety over speaking in frontof the class --oral interpretation. In this kindof tailored activity students practice reading ascript orally before an audience only after theyhave practiced it extensively in a small group(p. 403). Another way to tailor activities to meetthe affective needs of the learner is to precederole plays, usually cited as highly anxi-ety-provoking, with activities that build classrapport, such as having students work in smallgroups enough times to get to know each otheror attending a "fun" foreign film together.

Typical classroom procedures that fail to re-spond to the affective needs of the learner arefurther rejected in Daly. He advises instructorsnot to seat students alphabetically, not to re-quire presentations from students such as oralreports and oral readings, and/or not to call onstudents at random.To decrease language testing anxieties, in-structors and language programs as a wholemust develop and oversee the construction offair tests that accurately reflect in-class instruc-tion. This suggestion is merely common sense,but it bears repeating for the many languageprograms that continue to ignore the soundprinciple: test what you teach in the context ofhow you teach it.


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434 The Modern LanguageJournal 75 (1991)Madsen et al. found that students have reac-tions to particular language test items. Somecan be more anxiety-evoking than others. If atest has been constructed that accurately reflectsin-class practices and if the instructor has beensensitized to language anxiety, then the test isless likely to contain test items which increasestudents' anxiety, particularly if students haveexperienced the test item-type in class. What-ever the objective of the test item, pre-test ex-posure to the item may help reduce studentanxiety and frustration during a language test.For example, consider a hypothetical situa-tion where the emphasis in class has been onproficiency. The instructor develops a test itemthat consists of an incomplete dialogue in which

the students have to complete the blanks so thedialogue makes sense (an integrative, com-municatively oriented test item with some writ-ten production and reading comprehension).9Although students have participated in dia-logues and in writing skits in groups, they maybecome frustrated and experience anxietybecause of the lack of exposure to this particularitem-type (see 37 for a study describing a situa-tion in which discrete-point testing practices didnot match communicative instruction).For pre-test exposure to this item-type, theinstructor may want to write an incompletedialogue on the board and have students workin pairs to complete it. Students could thenshare their solutions with the class. Oncestudents understand that sometimes they haveto respond to previous statements, sometimesto something said after the blank, andsometimes to both, and once they realize thatthere is not just one right way to respond ormerely one correct answer and that a varietyof responses are appropriate, they are likely tobecome more comfortable and experience lessanxiety with the item-type.Practice with item-types also gives learnersinformation about "performance expectations."For example, if a test contains contextual situa-tions, the instructor should give students an ex-ample of the way they will be expected to per-form, e.g., "On the test, I will ask you to res-pond to a variety of situations, such as, 'Whatwould you say to the hotel clerk if you wantedto obtain a room for three nights and youwanted to pay half of the bill with your Master-card and the other half with a check?' "

CONCLUSIONLanguage anxiety is a complex, multidimen-sional phenomenon. It manifests itself instudents quite differently depending on ethnicbackground, prior language experience, learnerpersonality, and classroom circumstances. Asa result, its impact on the learning experienceis not easily assessed. Through interviews,questionnaires, and diaries in language anxi-ety research, the language learner has providedinsight into language anxiety from the students'perspective, and interviews with languagespecialists have offered significant insight intothe impact it has on language teaching, learn-ing, and performance.This article summarizes language anxietyresearch with a focus on classroom implicationsand offers anxiety reduction strategies, whichare by no means inclusive. No doubt instruc-tors and learners can identify other sources oflanguage anxiety and offer additional sugges-tions for coping with it. We can conclude, how-ever, that some evidence suggests that thesources of language anxiety are interrelated andmay in part be a result of unnatural classroommethods. Until future research can documentmore fully such a contention, it is hoped thatthis article has provided a framework that canhelp the instructor begin to reduce current anx-iety in second and foreign language learning.The objective in ridding language learningof unnecessary anxiety is to create more effec-tive language learning and to instill in studentsincreased interest and motivation to learnanother language. All too often foreign lan-guage learners dread their language require-ment, refuse to enroll in a language class untiltheir last year, or suffer through four semestersof a language only to forget it all gladly whenthe requirement is met. Similarly, second lan-guage learners experience unnecessary levels ofanxiety and resulting unpleasant emotions andstress as they learn the second language. Ourtask as foreign and second language teachersis to create an atmosphere in our classes for ef-fective language learning and an attitude in ourlearners that reflects genuine interest andmotivation to learn the language. By reducinglanguage anxiety, we will begin to move in thatdirection. 10


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Dolly J. Young 435NOTES

1Although Gardner (14) has studied this area for thirtyyears, only recently has the foreign language professionbegun to pay significant attention.

2See, for example, references 1; 3; 5; 7; 12; 15; 16; 22;23; 38; 42; 45.

3See, for example, references 3; 5; 7; 15; 16; 23; 42; 45;46; 48; 51.

4See, for example, references 7; 12; 15; 16; 23; 44; 45;46; 51.

5State anxiety refers to an unpleasant emotional condi-tion or temporary state, while trait anxiety refers to a stablepropensity to be anxious. Trait is a permanent personalitytrait. Anxiety leading to improved performance is calledfacilitating anxiety and anxiety leading to impaired per-formance is called debilitating anxiety. Test anxiety refersto the unpleasant emotion due to a given task, e.g., a test(51).

6See, for example, references 2; 11; 22; 24; 34; 35; 39; 50.7Krashen borrows this concept from Frank Smith's work,

specifically his essay "Joining the Literacy Club," which ap-pears in Smith's book of the same name, published byHeineman, 1988.

80Oxfordand Nyikos also suggest that with some cognitivestyles or personality types, game playing or group workitself can be anxiety-evoking.9An example of this type of test item would looksomething like the following: Context: Jose runs into Rober-to and Cristina (a newly married couple) at the Sears depart-ment store. All three are students at the local university.Jose: iRobertoyCristina,que'sorpresancontrarlesquien elalmacinde Dillards!Cristina:Jose: Muy biengracias. Y, ccd'mostdn Uds.?Roberto:Cristina: Jose, eque hacespor aqui?Jose:Roberto: Tambienbuscoropanueva. Hay una gran variedadderopa en este almacin. eQudLipo de ropa quierescomprar?

10I acknowledge and thank Janet Swaffar and RebeccaOxford for the many useful suggestions they made on anearly draft of this paper. I also acknowledge the insightfulcomments made by the MLJ referees.

BIBLIOGRAPHY1. Backman, Nancy. "Two Measures of Affective Factorsas They Relate to Progress in Adult Second-

Language Learning." WorkingPapersin Bilingualism10 (1976): 100-22.2. Bailey, Kathleen M. "Competitiveness and Anxiety inAdult Second Language Learning: Looking at andthrough the Diary Studies." Classroom OrientedResearch n SecondLanguageAcquisition. Ed. HerbertW. Seliger & Michael H. Long. Rowley, MA:Newbury House, 1983: 67-102.3. Bartz, Walter H. "A Study of the Relationship of Cer-tain Factors with the Ability to Communicate in aSecond Language (German) for the Developmentof Communicative Competence." Diss., Ohio StateUniv., 1974.

4. Brandl, Klaus. "Ecclecticism in Teaching Com-municative Competence." Master's Thesis, Univ.of Texas, 1987.5. Brewster, Elizabeth S. "Personality Factors Relevant toIntensive Audiolingual Foreign Language Learn-ing." Diss., Univ. of Texas, 1975.6. Campbell, Christine M. & Jose A. Ortiz. "HelpingStudents Overcome Foreign Language Anxiety."LanguageAnxiety.From TheoryandResearch o ClassroomImplications. Ed. Elaine K. Horwitz & Dolly J.Young. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991:153-68.

7. Chastain, Kenneth. "Affective and Ability Factors in Se-cond Language Learning." Language Learning 25(1975): 153-61.8. Clarke, Mark A. "Second Language Aquisition as a

Clash of Consciousness." Language Learning 26(1976): 377-89.9. Cope Powell, Jo Ann. "Foreign Language ClassroomAnxiety: Institutional Responses." LanguageAnxiety:From Theory nd Research o ClassroomImplications.Ed.Elaine K. Horwitz & Dolly J. Young. EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991: 169-76.10. Crookall, David & Rebecca Oxford. "Dealing with Anx-iety: Some Practical Activities for LanguageLearners and Teacher Trainees." LanguageAnxiety:From Theoryand Research o ClassroomImplications.Ed.Elaine K. Horwitz & Dolly J. Young. EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991: 141-50.11. Daly, John. "Understanding Communication Ap-prehension: An Introduction for Language Educa-tors." LanguageAnxiety: From Theoryand ResearchtoClassroom mplications.Ed. Elaine K. Horwitz & Dol-ly J. Young. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,1991: 3-13.12. Dunkel, Harold B. "The Effect of Personality onLanguage Achievement." Journal of EducationalPsychology 38 (1947): 177-82.13. Foss, Karen A. & Armeda C. Reitzel. "A RelationalModel for Managing Second Language Anxiety."TESOL Quarterly22 (1988): 437-54.14. Gardner, R. C. SocialPsychology ndSecondLanguageLear-ning; TheRole ofAttitudesandMotivation. London: Ar-nold, 1985.15. - , P. C. Smythe & G. R. Grunet. "Intensive Se-cond Language Study: Effects on Attitudes, Motiva-tion and French Achievement." Language Learn-ing 27 (1977): 243-61.16. - , P. C. Smythe, R. Clement & L. Gliksman."Second Language Learning: A Social-Psychological


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436 The Modern LanguageJournal 75 (1991)Perspective." Canadian Modern Language Review 32(1976): 198-213.17. Guiora,A. Z. "ConstructValidityandTranspositionalResearch: Toward an Empirical Study of Psycho-analytic Concepts." Comprehension Psychiatry 13(1972): 139-50.18. Gynan, Shaw N. "PreferredLearning Practices ofSelected Foreign Language Students." AmericanAssociation of Teachers of Spanishand PortugueseAnnual Meeting, San Antonio, 10 August 1989.19. Hembree, R. "Correlates,Causes, Effects,and Treat-ment of Test Anxiety." Review of EducationalResearch58 (1988): 47-77.20. Horwitz, Elaine K. "The Beliefs about LanguageLearning of Beginning University Foreign Lan-guage Students." ModernLanguage ournal 72 (1988):283-94.21. - . "PreliminaryEvidenceforthe ReliabilityandValidity of a Foreign Language Anxiety Scale."TESOL Quarterly20 (1986): 559-62.22. , Michael B. Horwitz&Jo Ann Cope. "ForeignLanguage Classroom Anxiety." ModernLanguageJournal70 (1986): 125-32.23. Kleinmann, Howard. "AvoidanceBehavior in AdultSecondLanguageAcquisition."Languageearning7(1977): 93-107.24. Koch, April & Tracy D. Terrell. "AffectiveReactionsof Foreign LanguageStudentsto NaturalApproachActivitiesand TeachingTechniques."Languagenx-iety:From Theoryand Research o Classroom mplications.Ed. Elaine K. Horwitz & Dolly J. Young.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ: PrenticeHall, 1991: 109-26.25. Leary, Mark R. "SocialAnxiety."ReviewofPersonalityand Social Psychology3. Ed. Ladd Wheeler. BeverlyHills: Sage, 1982.26. Lightbown,PatsyM. "ExploringRelationshipsbetweenDevelopmentaland InstructionalSequences in L2Acquisition." Classroom Oriented Research in SecondLanguageAcquistion. Ed. H. W. Seliger & MichaelH. Long. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1983:67-102.

27. Littlewood, W. Foreign and Second Language Learning:LanguageAcquisitionResearchand Its ImplicationsfortheClassroom.Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press,1984.28. Long, MichaelH. & PatriciaA. Porter."GroupWork,InterlanguageTalk, and SecondLanguageAcquisi-tion." TESOLQuarterly9 (1985): 207-28.29. MacIntyre,Peter D. & RobertC. Gardner.Anxiety ac-tors in SecondLanguage Learning. Research Bulletin677, Univ. of Western Ontario, 1988.30. - & Robert C. Gardner. "Anxietyand SecondLanguage Learning:Toward a Theoretical Clarifi-cation." LanguageLearning 9 (1989): 251-75.31. - & Robert C. Gardner."The Effectof Anxietyon Foreign Language Learning and Production."Master'sThesis, Univ. of Western Ontario, 1988.32. ~ & Robert C. Gardner. The MeasurementofAnx-iety and Applications to SecondLanguage Learning: AnAnnotatedBibliography.Research Bulletin 672, Univ.of Western Ontario, 1988.

33. - & Robert C. Gardner. "Methodsand Resultsin the Study of Anxiety and Language Learning:A Review of the Literature." anguage earningorth-coming).34. Madsen, Harold S., Bruce B. Brown & Randall L.Jones. "Evaluating tudentAttitudes owardSecondLanguage Tests." LanguageAnxiety:From TheoryandResearch o Classroom mplications.Ed. Elaine K. Hor-witz &DollyJ. Young. EnglewoodCliffs,NJ: Pren-tice Hall, 1991: 65-86.35. Mejias, Hugo, Ronald L. Applbaum, Susan J. Ap-plbaum & Robert T. Trotter. "OralCommunica-tion Apprehensionand Hispanics:An Explorationof Oral CommunicationApprehensionamongMex-ican American Students in Texas."Language nxi-ety:From Theoryand Research o Classroom mplications.Ed. Elaine K. Horwitz & Dolly J. Young.EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall, 1991: 87-97.

36. Oxford, Rebecca. Language Learning Strategies. NewYork: Newbury House, 1990.37. - & MarthaNyikos. "VariablesAffectingChoiceof Language Learning Strategies by UniversityStudents." Modern Language Journal 73 (1989):291-300.38. Pimsleur, Paul, Ludwig Mosberg & Andrew L. Mor-rison. "StudentFactors n Foreign Language Lear-ning." Modern LanguageJournal 46 (1962): 160-70.39. Price, Mary Lou. "The Subjective Experience ofForeign Language Anxiety: Interviewswith Anx-ious Students." Language Anxiety: From TheoryandResearch o Classroom mplications.Ed. Elaine K. Hor-witz &DollyJ. Young. EnglewoodCliffs,NJ: Pren-tice Hall, 1991: 101-08.40. Saunders, Danny & David Crookall. "Playingwith aSecond Language." Simulation/Gamesor Learning 15(1985): 166-72.41. Schumann, J. H. "The AcculturationModel for Se-cond Language Acquisition." SecondLanguageAcquisi-tion andForeignLanguageTeaching.Ed. R. C. Gingras.Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics,1978: 26-50.42. Scott, M. L. "Student Affective Reactions to OralLanguageTests."Language esting (1986):99-118.43. Seliger, H. A. "LearnerInteractionin the Classroomand Its Effecton Language Acquisition."ClassroomOrientedResearchin SecondLanguageAcquisition. Ed.HerbertW. Seliger & Michael H. Long. Rowley,MA: Newbury House, 1983: 67-102.44. Steinberg, Faith S. &Elaine K. Horwitz. "The Effectof Induced Anxiety on the Denotative and Inter-pretive Content of Second Language Speech"TESOL Quarterly20 (1986): 131-36.45. Swain, Merrill & Barbara Burnaby. "PersonalityCharacteristicsand Second Language LearninginYoung Children:A Pilot Study." Working apersnBilingualism 2 (1976): 115-28.

46. Tucker, Richard, Else Hamayan & Fred H. Genesee."Affective,Cognitive, and Social Factors n SecondLanguage Acquisition." Canadian Modern LanguageReview32 (1976): 214-26.

47. Underwood, John. Linguistics,Computersnd theLanguage


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DollyJ. Young 437Teacher.Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1984.48. Westcott, Donald B. "PersonalityFactors AffectingHigh School Students Learning a Second Lan-guage." Diss., Univ. of Texas, 1973.49. Wittenborn,J. R., R. P. Larsen & R. L. Mogil. "AnEmpirical Evaluationof Study Habits for CollegeCourses in French and Spanish."Journal f Educa-tionalPsychology6 (1945): 449-74.50. Young, DollyJ. "AnInvestigationof Students'Perspec-

tives on Anxietyand Speaking."Foreign anguageAn-nals 23 (1990): 539-53.51. . "The Relationship between Anxiety andForeignLanguageOralProficiencyRatings."ForeignLanguageAnnals19 (1986): 439-45.52. . "Thoughts on Language Anxiety by AliceOmaggio, Stephen Krashen, Tracy Terrell, andJennybelle Rardin."Foreign anguage nnals forth-coming).

Appendix (see pages 438-39).

Information about The Modern Language JournalMajorFocus:a refereed publication devoted primarilyto research in methods, pedagogy, and appliedlinguistics pertaining to modem languages includingTESL; publishes articles, reports, teaching tips,news, book reviews, professional advertisements, andoccasional essays on the state of the profession.Circulation: approximately 7000.Frequency f Publication:four issues per year (approxi-mately 150 pages each).Evaluation: manuscripts refereed by at least twospecialist readers.Timefrom Submission oDecision: normally sixty days;longer during academic vacation periods; time fromacceptance to publication usually no longer than oneyear.AcceptanceRate: ten to thirteen percent of manuscriptssubmitted are accepted.Articles Publishedper Volume: hirty to forty.Book Reviews per Volume:approximately 200.Ownership.TheModernLanguage ournal is owned andcopyrighted by the National Federation of ModernLanguage Teachers Associations and published byit at the University of Wisconsin Press. The MLJhas no legal relationship to the Modern LanguageAssociation of America (MLA).Payment:authors of articles eceive two complimentarycopies of the issue in which their work is published;bookreviewersreceive one gratis copy.Offprints:available at cost, but must be purchaseddirectly from the reprint service at the time authorreads galley proofs.Language of Publication: English.ManuscriptFormat:typewritten, double-spaced through-out (including bibliography, notes, citations, figures,

and tables); leave a 2" left margin, 1" elsewhere;submit original and two clear copies (only originalwill be returned).ManuscriptLength: twenty pages preferred (excludingbibliography, tables, notes); longer acceptable, de-pending on merit.Manuscript Style: MLA Style Manual (1985).Multiple Submissions:manuscripts submitted simul-taneously for publication elsewhere not considered;author(s) must inform editor at time of submissionof similar/related versions of manuscript that haveappeared or are being considered elsewhere.SpecialRequirements:1) indicate full name of institu-tion where (each) author is employed; 2) include aself-addressed 9 x 12 manila envelope and US $5.00in loose postage or thirteen international postalcoupons (non-US submissions $10.00 or twenty-fiveinternational postal coupons if air mail returndesired); 3) prepare cover sheet containing the titleof the manuscript, separate short title (see 4 below)for identification, name, address, and both office andhome telephone numbers of author(s); 4) select oneor two key words from the title of the manuscriptto function as identification markers; type thosewords at the top right of all pages of the manuscriptfollowed by the appropriate page number; 5) referto your own previous publications in the thirdperson--not "as I said in . .. ," but "as Jane Smithnoted . .. ";6) refer to an institution where researchwas conducted or where the author teaches as "insti-tution X" during the refereeing process; 7) numberconsecutively each entry in the "Bibliography," beingsure that the second and subsequent lines of eachentry are indented four spaces.


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APPENDIXQuantitative Research on Anxiety and Foreign or Second Language Learning up to 1985

LangLanguage Anxiety Anxiety Multifactor R

Researcher(s) Setting Population Interpretation Measure StudyBackman SLL University students Foreign lan- Attitude and motiva- Yes Anxiety a

guage class tion questionnaire ment test,anxiety compreheoral skills

Bartz FLL University students Trait anxiety 16 Personality Ques- Yes Communitionnaire petence o

Brewster FLL Adults Trait anxiety Items on a personality Yes Anxiety atest grade witgiven toChastain FLL University students Test anxiety Test Anxiety Scale Yes Anxiety aand Manifest Anxiety gradeScale

Dunkel FLL University studnets Trait anxiety Items on a psycho- Yes Anxiety alogical test placement

Gardner et al. (16) SLL Junior and senior Classroom Items on an attitude Yes Anxiety ahigh anxiety motivation question- skillsnaire

Gardner et al. (15) SLL High school Speaking anxi- Five-item anxiety Yes Anxiety aety in French scale skillsclass


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Kleinmann SLL University Facilitating/ Facilitating/Debili- No Anxiety astudents debilitating tating Anxiety skillsanxiety

Pimsleur et al. FLL Junior and senior Trait anxiety Manifest Anxiety Yes Anxiety ahigh Scale and previo

experienceScott FLL University Test anxiety Affective question- Yes Anxiety astudents naire format

Steinberg & SLL Adults Test anxiety Test Anxiety Scale No Anxiety aHorwitz and Multiple AffectAdjective Checklist

Swain & Burnaby SLL Children Trait anxiety Items on a personality Yes Anxiety a(45) measure readingTucker et al. SLL Junior high Classroom Items on an attitude Yes Anxiety a

anxiety motivation battery reading

Westcott (48) FLL High school State anxiety Motivation, Aptitude, Yes Anxiety aPeer Influence andAnxiety Test

Wittenborn et al. FLL University Foreign lan- Items on a self-report Yes Anxiety astudents guage test of study habits gradeanxiety

Young (51) FLL University State anxiety STAI/FLCAS and Yes Anxiety-spstudents CIQ anxiety-dicState AnxietyInventoryFL Class ActivityScale & CognitiveInterference Inventory

54673806 Young 1991 Creating a Low Anxiety Classroom Environment

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