Hybrid vehicleFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other types of hybrid transportation, see Hybrid vehicle (disambiguation).

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A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to move the vehicle.[1]The term most

commonly refers to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), which combine an internal combustion engine and one or

more electric motors.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Power

• 2 Vehicle type

○ 2.1 Two-wheeled and cycle-type vehicles

○ 2.2 Heavy vehicles

2.2.1 Rail transport

2.2.2 Cranes

2.2.3 Road transport, commercial vehicles

2.2.4 Military off-road vehicles

2.2.5 Ships

2.2.6 Aircraft

• 3 Engine type

○ 3.1 Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles

○ 3.2 Continuously outboard recharged electric vehicle

(COREV)

○ 3.3 Hybrid fuel (dual mode)

○ 3.4 Fluid power hybrid

○ 3.5 Electric-human power hybrid vehicle

• 4 Hybrid vehicle power train configurations

○ 4.1 Parallel hybrid

○ 4.2 Mild parallel hybrid

○ 4.3 Power-split or series-parallel hybrid

○ 4.4 Series hybrid

○ 4.5 Plug-in hybrid electrical vehicle (PHEV)

○ 4.6 Fuel cell, electric hybrid

• 5 Environmental issues

• 6 Hybrid vehicle emissions

○ 6.1 Environmental impact of hybrid car battery

○ 6.2 Raw materials increasing costs

• 7 Alternative green vehicles

• 8 Adoption Rate

• 9 See also

• 10 References

• 11 External links

○ 11.1 Hybrid airplanes

Power

Power sources for hybrid vehicles include:

On-board or out-board rechargeable energy storage system (RESS)

Compressed air

Coal , wood or other solid combustibles

Electricity

Electromagnetic fields , Radio waves

Compressed or liquefied natural gas

Human powered e.g. pedaling or rowing

Hydrogen

Liquid nitrogen

Petrol or Diesel fuel

Solar

Wind

Waste heat from internal combustion engine.

Vehicle type

Two-wheeled and cycle-type vehicles

Mopeds, electric bicycles, and even electric kick scooters are a simple form of a hybrid, as power is delivered

both via an internal combustion engine or electric motor and the rider's muscles. Early prototypes of

motorcycles in the late 19th century used the same principles.

In a parallel hybrid bicycle human and motor power are mechanically

coupled at the pedal drive train or at the rear or the front wheel, e.g. using a

hub motor, a roller pressing onto a tire, or a connection to a wheel using a

transmission element. Human and motor torques are added together. Almost

all manufactured models are of this type. See Motorized

bicycles, Mopeds and[2] for more information.

In a series hybrid bicycle (SH) the user powers a generator using the

pedals. This is converted into electricity and can be fed directly to the motor

giving a chainless bicycle but also to charge a battery. The motor draws power

from the battery and must be able to deliver the full mechanical torque

required because none is available from the pedals. SH bicycles are

commercially available, because they are very simple in theory and

manufacturing.[3]

The first known prototype and publication of an SH bicycle is by Augustus Kinzel (US Patent 3'884'317) in

1975. In 1994 Bernie Macdonalds conceived the Electrilite[4] SH lightweight vehicle which used power

electronics allowing regenerative braking and pedaling while stationary. In 1995 Thomas Müller designed a

"Fahrrad mit elektromagnetischem Antrieb" in his 1995 diploma thesis and built a functional vehicle. In 1996

Jürg Blatter and Andreas Fuchs of Berne University of Applied Sciences built an SH bicycle and in 1998

mounted the system onto a Leitratricycle (European patent EP 1165188). In 1999 Harald Kutzke described his

concept of the "active bicycle": the aim is to approach the ideal bicycle weighing nothing and having no drag by

electronic compensation. Until 2005 Fuchs and colleagues built several prototype SHtricycles and quadricycles.

[5]

Heavy vehicles

Hybrid power trains use diesel-electric or turbo-electric to power railway locomotives, buses, heavy goods

vehicles, mobile hydraulic machinery, and ships. Typically some form of heat engine (usually diesel) drives an

electric generator or hydraulic pump which powers one or more electric or hydraulic motors. There are

advantages in distributing power through wires or pipes rather than mechanical elements especially when

multiple drives—e.g. driven wheels or propellers—are required. There is power lost in the double conversion

from typically diesel fuel to electricity to power an electric or hydraulic motor. With large vehicles the

advantages often outweigh the disadvantages especially as the conversion losses typically decrease with size.

With the exception of non nuclear submarines, presently there is no or relatively little secondary energy storage

capacity on most heavy vehicles, e.g. auxiliary batteries and hydraulic accumulators—this is changing.

Rail transport

Main article: Hybrid train

Europe

An is the new Autorail à grande capacité (AGC or high-capacity railcar) built by the Canadian

company Bombardier for service in France. This has dual mode (diesel and electric motors) and dual voltage

capabilities (1500 and 25000 V) allowing it to be used on many different rail systems.[6] A The locomotive has

been on trials in Rotterdam, the Netherlands with Railfeeding, a Genesse and Wyoming company.

China

The First Hybrid Evaluating prototype locomotive was designed and contracted by rail research

center MATRAI in 1999 and the sample was ready in 2000. it was a G12 locomotive that was converted to

hybrid by using a 200KW diesel generator and batteries and also was equipped with 4 AC traction motors (out

of 4) retrofited in the cover of the DC traction motors.

Japan

The first operational prototype of a hybrid train engine with significant energy storage and energy regeneration

capability was introduced in Japan as the KiHa E200. It utilizes battery packs of lithium ion batteries mounted

on the roof to store recovered energy.[7]

North America

In the U.S., General Electric introduced a prototype railroad engine with their "Ecomagination" technology in

2007. They store energy in a large set of sodium nickel chloride (Na-NiCl2) batteries to capture and store

energy normally dissipated during dynamic braking or coasting downhill. They expect at least a 10% reduction

in fuel use with this system and are now spending about $2 billion/yr on hybrid research.[8]

Variants of the typical diesel electric locomotive include the Green Goat (GG) and Green

Kid (GK) switching/yard engines built by Canada'sRailpower Technologies. They utilize a large set of heavy

duty long life (~10 yr) rechargeable lead acid (Pba) batteries and 1000 to 2000 HP electric motors as the

primary motive sources and a new clean burning diesel generator (~160 Hp) for recharging the batteries that is

used only as needed. No power or fuel are wasted for idling—typically 60–85% of the time for these type

locomotives. It is unclear if dynamic braking (regenerative) power is recaptured for reuse; but in principle it

should be easily utilized.

Since these engines typical need extra weight for traction purposes anyway the battery pack's weight is a

negligible penalty. In addition the diesel generator and battery package are normally built on an existing

"retired" "yard" locomotive's frame for significant additional cost savings. The existing motors and running gear

are all rebuilt and reused. Diesel fuel savings of 40–60% and up to 80% pollution reductions are claimed over

that of a "typical" older switching/yard engine. The same advantages that existing hybrid cars have for use with

frequent starts and stops and idle periods apply to typical switching yard use.[9] "Green Goat" locomotives have

been purchased by Canadian Pacific Railway, BNSF Railway, Kansas City Southern Railway and Union Pacific

Railroad among others.

Cranes

Railpower Technologies Corp. engineers working with TSI Terminal Systems Inc. in Vancouver, British

Columbia are testing a hybrid diesel electric power unit with battery storage for use in Rubber Tyred

Gantry (RTG) cranes. RTG cranes are typically used for loading and unloading shipping containers onto trains

or trucks in ports and container storage yards. The energy used to lift the containers can be partially regained

when they are lowered. Diesel fuel and emission reductions of 50–70% are predicted by Railpower engineers.

[10] First systems are expected to be operational in 2007.[11]

Road transport, commercial vehicles

GM has launched hybrid versions of its full-size GMC Yukon (pictured) andChevrolet Tahoe SUVs for 2008

Early hybrid systems are being investigated for trucks and other heavy highway vehicles with some operational

trucks and buses starting to come into use. The main obstacles seem to be smaller fleet sizes and the extra

costs of a hybrid system are yet compensated for by fuel savings,[12] but with the price of oil set to continue on

its upward trend, the tipping point may be reached by the end of 1995.[dated info] Advances in technology and

lowered battery cost and higher capacity etc. developed in the hybrid car industry are already filtering into truck

use as Toyota, Ford, GM and others introduce hybrid pickups and SUVs. Kenworth Truck Company recently

introduced a hybrid-electric truck, called the Kenworth T270 Class 6 that for city usage seems to be

competitive.[13][14] FedEx and others are starting to invest in hybrid delivery type vehicles—particularly for city

use where hybrid technology may pay off first.[15]

Military off-road vehicles

Since 1985, the U.S. military has been testing serial hybrid Humvees [16] [17] and have found them to deliver faster

acceleration, a stealth mode with low thermal signature/ near silent operation, and greater fuel economy.

Ships

Ships with both mast-mounted sails and steam engines were an early form of hybrid vehicle. Another example

is the diesel-electric submarine . This runs on batteries when submerged and the batteries can be re-charged by

the diesel engine when the craft is on the surface.

Newer hybrid ship-propulsion schemes include large towing kites manufactured by companies such

as SkySails. Towing kites can fly at heights several times higher than the tallest ship masts, capturing stronger

and steadier winds.

Aircraft

Taxiing and other ground operations of Boeing 737NGs will soon be done using hybrid electric drives

as WheelTug ground propulsion systems become available.[18][19] By using the APU (powered by a turbine) to

energize a Chorus electric motor mounted in the landing gear for ground movement, aircraft will be operating in

a hybrid configuration where the main engines are used only for take off, landing, and flight.

Boeing 737-800

The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane has a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion

battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which is coupled to a conventional propeller. The fuel cell

provides all power for the cruise phase of flight. During takeoff and climb, the flight segment that requires the

most power, the system draws on lightweight lithium-ion batteries.

The demonstrator aircraft is a Dimona motor glider, built by Diamond Aircraft Industries of Austria, which also

carried out structural modifications to the aircraft. With a wing span of 16.3 meters (53.5 feet), the airplane will

be able to cruise at approximately 100 kilometers per hour (62 miles per hour) on power from the fuel cell.[20]

Engine type

Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles

Hybrid New Flyer Metrobus

Hybrid Optare Solo

Main article: Hybrid electric vehicle

When the term hybrid vehicle is used, it most often refers to a Hybrid electric vehicle. These encompass such

vehicles as the AHS2 (Chevrolet Tahoe, GMC Yukon, Chevrolet Silverado, Cadillac Escalade, and the Saturn

Vue), Toyota Prius, Toyota Camry Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid, Toyota Highlander Hybrid, Honda

Insight, Honda Civic Hybrid Lexus RX 400h and 450h and others. A petroleum-electric hybrid most commonly

uses internal combustion engines (generally gasoline orDiesel engines, powered by a variety of fuels)

and electric batteries to power the vehicle. There are many types of petroleum-electric hybrid drivetrains,

from Full hybrid to Mild hybrid, which offer varying advantages and disadvantages.[21]

Ferdinand Porsche in 1900 developed the first gasoline-electric series-hybrid automobile in the world, setting

speed records using two motor-in-wheel-hub arrangements with a combustion generator set providing the

electric power. While liquid fuel/electric hybrids date back to the late 19th century, the braking regenerative

hybrid was invented by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer from Springdale, Arkansas in 1978–79. His home-

converted Opel GT was reported to return as much as 75MPG with plans still sold to this original design, and

the "Mother Earth News" modified version on their website.[22]

The plug-in-electric-vehicle (PEV) is becoming more and more common. It has the range needed in locations

where there are wide gaps with no services. The batteries can be plugged in to house (mains) electricity for

charging, as well being charged while the engine is running.

Continuously outboard recharged electric vehicle (COREV)

Given suitable infrastructure, permissions and vehicles, BEVs can be recharged while the user drives. The BEV

establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate or overhead wires on the highway via an attached conducting

wheel or other similar mechanism (see Conduit current collection). The BEV's batteries are recharged by this

process—on the highway—and can then be used normally on other roads until the battery is discharged.

This provides the advantage, in principle, of virtually unrestricted highway range as long as you stay where you

have BEV infrastructure access. Since many destinations are within 100 km of a major highway, this may

reduce the need for expensive battery systems. Unfortunately private use of the existing electrical system is

nearly universally prohibited.

The technology for such electrical infrastructure is old and, outside of some cities, is not widely distributed

(see Conduit current collection,trams, electric rail, trolleys, third rail). Updating the required electrical and

infrastructure costs can be funded, in principle, by toll revenue, gasoline or other taxes.

Hybrid fuel (dual mode)

Ford Escape Hybrid the first hybrid electric vehicle with a flexible fuelcapability to run on E85(ethanol).

In addition to vehicles that use two or more different devices for propulsion, some also consider vehicles that

use distinct energy sources or input types ("fuels") using the same engine to be hybrids, although to avoid

confusion with hybrids as described above and to use correctly the terms, these are perhaps more correctly

described as dual mode vehicles:

Some electric trolleybuses can switch between an on board diesel engine and

overhead electrical power depending on conditions (see dual mode bus). In

principle, this could be combined with a battery subsystem to create a true

plug-in hybrid trolleybus, although as of 2006, no such design seems to have

been announced.

Flexible-fuel vehicles can use a mixture of input fuels mixed in one tank —

typically gasoline andethanol, or methanol, or biobutanol.

Bi-fuel vehicle :Liquified petroleum gas and natural gas are very different from

petroleum or diesel and cannot be used in the same tanks, so it would be

impossible to build an (LPG or NG) flexible fuel system. Instead vehicles are

built with two, parallel, fuel systems feeding one engine. While the duplicated

tanks cost space in some applications, the increased range and flexibility

where (LPG or NG) infrastructure is incomplete may be a significant incentive

to purchase.

Some vehicles have been modified to use another fuel source if it is available,

such as cars modified to run on autogas (LPG) and diesels modified to run

on waste vegetable oil that has not been processed into biodiesel.

Power-assist mechanisms for bicycles and other human-powered vehicles are

also included (see Motorized bicycle).

Fluid power hybrid

Hydraulic and pneumatic hybrid vehicles use an engine to charge a pressure accumulator to drive the wheels

via hydraulic or pneumatic (i.e.compressed air) drive units. The energy recovery rate is higher and therefore the

system is more efficient than battery charged hybrids, demonstrating a 60% to 70% increase in energy

economy in EPA testing.[23] Under tests done by the EPA, a hydraulic hybrid Ford Expedition returned 32 miles

per US gallon (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg-imp) City, and 22 miles per US gallon (11 L/100 km; 26 mpg-imp) highway.

[24] UPS currently has two trucks in service with this technology.[25]

While the system has faster and more efficient charge/discharge cycling and is cheaper than gas-electric

hybrids, the accumulator size dictates total energy storage capacity and requires more space than a battery.

Electric-human power hybrid vehicle

Another form of hybrid vehicle are human power-electric vehicles. These include such vehicles as the Sinclair

C5, Twike, electric bicycles, and electric skateboards.

Hybrid vehicle power train configurations

Main articles: Hybrid vehicle drivetrains and Micro HEV

Parallel hybrid

The Honda Insight is a Mild Parallel Hybrid.

The Toyota Prius is a series-parallel hybrid.

The Ford Escape Hybrid has a series-parallel drivetrain.

In a parallel hybrid the single electric motor and the internal combustion engine are installed so that they can

both individually or together power the vehicle. In contrast to the power split configuration typically only one

electric motor is installed. Most commonly the internal combustion engine, the electric motor and gear box are

coupled by automatically controlled clutches. For electric driving the clutch between the internal combustion

engine is open while the clutch to the gear box is engaged. While in combustion mode the engine and motor

run at the same speed.

The first mass production parallel hybrid is the Honda Insight.

Mild parallel hybrid

These types use a generally compact electric motor (usually <20 kW) to provide auto-stop/start features and to

provide extra power assist[26] during the acceleration, and to generate on the deceleration phase (aka

regenerative braking).

On-road examples include Honda Civic Hybrid, Honda Insight, Mercedes Benz S400 BlueHYBRID, BMW 7-

Series hybrids, General Motors BAS Hybrids and Smart fortwo with micro hybrid drive.

Power-split or series-parallel hybrid

Typical passenger car installations include the Toyota Prius, the Ford Escape, the Lexus RX400h, RX450h,

GS450h and LS600h.

In a power-split hybrid electric drive train there are two motors: an electric motor and an internal combustion

engine. The power from these two motors can be shared to drive the wheels via a power splitter, which is a

simple planetary gear set. The ratio can be from 0-100% for the combustion engine, or 0-100% for the electric

motor, or an anything in between, such as 40% for the electric motor and 60% for the combustion engine. The

electric motor can act as a generator charging the batteries.

On the open road, the primary power source is the internal combustion engine, when maximum power is

required, for example to overtake, the electric motor is used to assist maximizing the available power for a short

period, giving the effect of having a larger engine than actually installed. In most applications, the engine is

switched off when the car is stationary reducing curbside emissions.

Series hybrid

The Chevrolet Volt is a series plug-in hybrid released at the end of 2010.

A Honda Civic Hybrid used by Zipcar, a car sharing service at Washington, D.C.

Ford Escape plug-in hybrid.

A series- or serial-hybrid vehicle has also been referred to as an Extended Range Electric Vehicle or Range-

Extended Electric Vehicle (EREV/REEV); however, range extension can be accomplished with either series or

parallel hybrid layouts.

Series-hybrid vehicles are driven by the electric motor with no mechanical connection to the engine. Instead

there is an engine tuned for running a generator when the battery pack energy supply isn't sufficient for

demands.

This arrangement is not new, being common in diesel-electric locomotives and ships. Ferdinand Porsche used

this setup in the early 20th century in racing cars, effectively inventing the series-hybrid arrangement. Porsche

named the arrangement "System Mixt". A wheel hub motor arrangement, with a motor in each of the two front

wheels was used, setting speed records. This arrangement was sometimes referred to as an electric

transmission, as the electric generator and driving motor replaced a mechanical transmission. The vehicle

could not move unless the internal combustion engine was running.

The setup has never proved to be suitable for production cars, however it is currently being revisited by several

manufacturers.

In 1997 Toyota released the first series-hybrid bus sold in Japan.[27] Meanwhile, GM will introduce theChevy

Volt EREV in 2010, aiming for an all-electric range of 40 miles,[28] and a price tag of around $40,000.

[29] Supercapacitors combined with a lithium ion battery bank have been used by AFS Trinityin a converted

Saturn Vue SUV vehicle. Using supercapacitors they claim up to 150 mpg in a series-hybrid arrangement.[30]

Plug-in hybrid electrical vehicle (PHEV)

Main article: Plug-in hybrid

Another subtype added to the hybrid market is the Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV). The PHEV is usually

a general fuel-electric (parallel or serial) hybrid with increased energy storage capacity (usually Li-ion

batteries). It may be connected to mains electricity supply at the end of the journey to avoid charging using the

on-board internal combustion engine.[31][32]

This concept is attractive to those seeking to minimize on-road emissions by avoiding – or at least minimizing –

the use of ICE during daily driving. As with pure electric vehicles, the total emissions saving, for example in

CO2 terms, is dependent upon the energy source of the electricity generating company.

For some users, this type of vehicle may also be financially attractive so long as the electrical energy being

used is cheaper than the petrol/diesel that they would have otherwise used. Current tax systems in many

European countries use mineral oil taxation as a major income source. This is generally not the case for

electricity, which is taxed uniformly for the domestic customer, however that person uses it. Some electricity

suppliers also offer price benefits for off-peak night users, which may further increase the attractiveness of the

plug-in option for commuters and urban motorists.

Fuel cell, electric hybrid

The fuel cell hybrid is generally an electric vehicle equipped with a fuel cell. The fuel cell as well as the electric

battery are both power sources, making the vehicle a hybrid. Fuel cells use hydrogen as a fuel and power the

electric battery when it is depleted. The Chevrolet Equinox FCEV, Ford Edge Hyseries Drive and Honda

FCX are examples of a fuel cell/electric hybrid.

Environmental issues

Fuel consumption and emissions reductions The hybrid vehicle typically achieves greater fuel economy and

lower emissions than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), resulting in fewer emissions

being generated. These savings are primarily achieved by three elements of a typical hybrid design:

1. relying on both the engine and the electric motors for peak power needs,

resulting in a smaller engine sized more for average usage rather than

peak power usage. A smaller engine can have less internal losses and

lower weight.

2. having significant battery storage capacity to store and reuse recaptured

energy, especially in stop-and-go traffic,which is represented by the

city driving cycle.

3. recapturing significant amounts of energy during braking that are

normally wasted as heat. This regenerative braking reduces vehicle

speed by converting some of its kinetic energy into electricity, depending

upon the power rating of the motor/generator;

Other techniques that are not necessarily 'hybrid' features, but that are frequently found on hybrid vehicles

include:

1. shutting down the engine during traffic stops or while coasting or during

other idle periods;

2. improving aerodynamics; (part of the reason that SUVs get such bad fuel

economy is the drag on the car. A box shaped car or truck has to exert

more force to move through the air causing more stress on the engine

making it work harder). Improving the shape and aerodynamics of a car is

a good way to help better the fuel economy and also improve handling at

the same time.

3. using low rolling resistance tires (tires were often made to give a quiet,

smooth ride, high grip, etc., but efficiency was a lower priority). Tires

cause mechanical drag, once again making the engine work harder,

consuming more fuel. Hybrid cars may use special tires that are more

inflated than regular tires and stiffer or by choice of carcass structure and

rubber compound have lower rolling resistance while retaining acceptable

grip, and so improving fuel economy whatever the power source.

4. powering the a/c, power steering, and other auxiliary pumps electrically

as and when needed ; this reduces mechanical losses when compared

with driving them continuously with traditional engine belts.

These features make a hybrid vehicle particularly efficient for city traffic where there are frequent stops,

coasting and idling periods. In additionnoise emissions are reduced, particularly at idling and low operating

speeds, in comparison to conventional engine vehicles. For continuous high speed highway use these features

are much less useful in reducing emissions.

Hybrid vehicle emissions

Hybrid vehicle emissions today are getting close to or even lower than the recommended level set by the EPA

(Environmental Protection Agency). The recommended levels they suggest for a typical passenger vehicle

should be equated to 5.5 metric tons of carbon dioxide. The three most popular hybrid vehicles, Honda

Civic, Honda Insight and Toyota Prius, set the standards even higher by producing 4.1, 3.5, and 3.5 tons

showing a major improvement in carbon dioxide emissions. Hybrid vehicles can reduce air emissions of smog-

forming pollutants by up to 90% and cut carbon dioxide emissions in half.[33]

Environmental impact of hybrid car battery

Main article: Electric vehicle battery

This section needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(July 2008)

Though hybrid cars consume less petroleum than conventional cars, there is still an issue regarding the

environmental damage of the Hybrid car battery. Today most Hybrid car batteries are one of two types: (1)

nickel metal hydride, or (2) lithium ion; both are regarded as more environmentally friendly than lead-based

batteries which constitute the bulk of car batteries today. There are many types of batteries. Some are far more

toxic than others.[34] While batteries like lead acid or nickel cadmium are incredibly bad for the environment, the

toxicity levels and environmental impact of nickel metal hydride batteries—the type currently used in hybrids—

are much lower.[35] Nickel-based batteries are known carcinogens, and have been shown to cause a variety of

teratogenic effects.[36]

The Lithium-ion battery has attracted attention due to its potential for use in hybrid electric vehicles. Hitachi is a

leader in its development. Additionally, the market for Lithium-ion batteries is rapidly expanding as an

alternative to the nickel-metal hydride batteries, which have been utilized in the hybrid market thus far. In

addition to its smaller size and lighter weight, lithium-ion batteries deliver performance that helps to protect the

environment with features such as improved charge efficiency without memory effect. In an environment where

motor vehicle requirements including lower exhaust emissions and better fuel economy are prevalent, it is

anticipated that the practical use of hybrid, electric, and fuel cell vehicles will continue to increase. The lithium-

ion batteries are appealing because they have the highest energy density of any rechargeable batteries and

can produce a voltage more than three times that of nickel-metal hydride battery cell while simultaneously

storing large quantities of electricity as well. The batteries also produce higher output (boosting vehicle power),

higher efficiency (avoiding wasteful use of electricity), and provides excellent durability, compared with the life

of the battery being roughly equivalent to the life of the vehicle. Additionally, use of lithium-ion batteries reduces

the overall weight of the vehicle and also achieves improved fuel economy of 30% better than gasoline-

powered vehicles with a consequent reduction in CO2 emissions helping to prevent global warming. The

lithium-ion batteries supplied by Hitachi are flourishing in a wide range of different applications including cars,

buses, commercial vehicles and trains. Electric vehicles that have the ability to be recharged from an owner’s

main power supply are now available in several global automotive markets. When these vehicles are charged

overnight, which is less costly than charging the vehicle during the day in Japan, the expense is about one-

ninth of the cost for fueling a gasoline powered vehicle.[37]

Raw materials increasing costs

There is an impending increase in the costs of many rare materials used in the manufacture of hybrid cars.

[38] For example, the rare earth element dysprosium is required to fabricate many of the advanced electric

motors and battery systems in hybrid propulsion systems.[38] [39] Neodymium is another rare earth metal which is

a crucial ingredient in high-strength magnets that are found in permanent magnet electric motors.[40]

Nearly all the rare earth elements in the world come from China,[41] and many analysts believe that an overall

increase in Chinese electronics manufacturing will consume this entire supply by 2012.[38] In addition, export

quotas on Chinese rare earth elements have resulted in an unknown amount of supply.[39][42]

A few non-Chinese sources such as the advanced Hoidas Lake project in northern Canada as well as Mount

Weld in Australia are currently under development;[42] however, the barriers to entry are high[43] and require

years to go online.

Alternative green vehicles

Main article: Green vehicle#Types

Other types of green vehicles include other vehicles that go fully or partly on alternative energy sources

than fossil fuel. Another option is to use alternative fuel composition (i.e. biofuels) in conventional fossil fuel-

based vehicles, making them go partly on renewable energy sources.

Other approaches include personal rapid transit, a public transportation concept that offers automated on-

demand non-stop transportation, on a network of specially built guideways.

Adoption Rate

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While the adoption rate for hybrids is small today (under 3% of new car sales in the US for August 2010),[44] it

has to potential to be very large over time as more models are offered and incremental costs decline due to

learning and scale benefits. However, forecasts vary widely. For instance, General Motors's Bob Lutz, a long-

time skeptic of hybrids, recently indicated he expects hybrids "will never comprise more than 10% of the US

auto market."[45] Similar to Lutz, Edmunds.com and JD Power (and some financial houses such as Credit

Suisse) believe hybrid penetration rates in the U.S. will remain under 10% for many years.[46][47][48]

Contrary to the Lutz view, is the much more optimistic expectation from AllianceBernstein, which in a June

2006 report predicated hybrids would dominate new car sales and the car park in the US and elsewhere over

the next 10 to 20 years, see Alliancebernstein and hybrids.[49]In a chapter in the Brookings

Institution book Plug-In Vehicles: What Role for Washington?, Saurin D. Shah presents the penetration rates

(or S-curves) of four analogs (historical and current) to hybrid and electrical vehicles in an attempt to gauge

how quickly the vehicle stock could be hybridized and/or electrified in the United States. The analogs are 1) the

electric motors in U.S. factories in the early 20th century, 2) diesel electric locomotives on U.S. railways in the

1920-1945 period, 3) a range of new automotive features/technologies introduced in the U.S. over the past fifty

years, and 4) e-bike purchases in China over the past few years. These analogs collectively suggest it would

take at least 30 years for hybrid and electric vehicles to capture 80% of the U.S. passenger vehicle stock.[50]

See also

Energy portal

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media related to: Hybrid-

powered vehicles

Wikinews has news related

to:

Alternative propulsion

Alternative propulsion

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List of hybrid vehicles

Multifuel stove

PNGV

Plug-in hybrid

Solid oxide fuel cell

Tribrid vehicle

References

1. ̂ What is a Hybrid Vehicle? - An introduction to hybrid cars and how they are

defined, with examples of different hybrid technologies

2. ̂ "Das Powerbike (German), ISBN 3-89595-123-4". Retrieved February 27,

2007.

3. ̂ "Velomobile Seminar 1999, ISBN 3-9520694-1-8". Retrieved January 11,

2006.

4. ̂ MCN.org

5. ̂ Bluewin.ch

6. ̂ ENN.com

7. ̂ "Japan to launch first hybrid trains". The Sydney Morning Herald. 2007-07-

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Advantages of Hybrid Cars

Hybrid cars carry with them a bundle of advantages.

• Hybrids combine clean energy of the electrical motor with the power of the gas-powered engine which results into lower emissions and better mileage.

• Thanks to the ever improving technology, hybrids perform at par with the normal ga-powered vehicles, if not better.

• Hybrids are reliable and comfortable as any traditional car and they have a tax benefits(only till 2006).

• There are purchase incentives for Hybrid vehicle owners (varies by state).

• Hybrids are much cleaner cars than normal vehicles with lesser CO and other greenhouse gas emissions.

• Hybrids provide a better mileage.

• The future for hybrids looks bright with rapid developments in hybrid technology to improve engine efficiency.

• Due to the Regenerative Braking technology, the batteries need not be charged by an external source.

• Special warranties are provided for the battery pack, the electric motor other costly items.

• Hybrids help reduce the dependency on fossil fuels which directly affects fuel prices.

Hybrid cars are often refered to as the 'car of the era'. The unique advantages of the hybrid car will be sole basis for such recognition in the market. The motor industry was always in the effort to develop most

beneficial model and the disadvantages of the conventional model might be the triggering factor for the formation of advantageous models. Usually, anything to be considered as advantageous will make benefit only to its owner, and to the maximum, the family of the owner. The specialty of the hybrid car enhances in this situation since its advantages can attribute benefit to not only the owner or his family, but to the entire society, nation and the mankind.

The advantages of the hybrid car start right from its difference in the basic pattern. Hybrid car is type of car that utilizes two energy sources for its movement. The popular hybrid cars in the market are manufactured in such a manner to combine the benefits of an internal combustion engine and electrical motor. The shortening level of gasoline in the world as it is a non-renewable energy was the major drawback of the conventional cars, which was rectified in the electrical cars, but it also had its own disadvantages. The advantage of the hybrid car is that it can rectify the complaints in the both systems and balances the use of electrical energy and gasoline engine, in their optimum levels.

In the hybrid car, the electrical energy is used while starting up of the car and its low speed ranges, which will help to impart a check to the tail pipe emissions. As the automobiles is increasing, world is at the threat of toxic pollutants and global warming, due to their exhaust ingredients. The decrease in the tail pipe emission will be a great advantage for the environment as well as the society. However, gasoline engine will take up the transmission, when the speed goes up since, it is essential to attribute the pace for the drive. While the traffic stops and steep slopes the electrical energy will be again activated, which will help to reduce the gasoline utilization. The aerodynamic design, lighter materials and smoother tyre will help for better energy consumption. The striking technological advantage of the hybrid car is that the energy loss, while braking is re-channeled for the electrical battery charging, called as regenerative braking, and a separate energy for battery charging is not required.

The advantages of the hybrid car are multifaceted since it attributes economical, technical and economical benefits. Despite of the owner, the country as well as, is benefited from the gasoline saving as the oil prices are steeping very high, and its effects the country's whole economy. This advantage is also a benefit to the customer as government has decided to give reductions and tax credits for the hybrid car buying. In addition to Federal exemption certain states also provide local exemptions to promote the use of hybrid car.

Hybrid car is thus an advantageous car, which helps to over come much of the crisis related to the motor world.

Disadvantages Of Hybrid Cars

Hybrid cars, though useful, have some disadvantages. The point to be noted here is that the advantages far exceed the disadvantages.

• High cost: hybrids cost anywhere from $2,000 to $5,000 more their non-Hybrid versions.

• More weight due to battery packs.

• Some states charge additional fees for registration.

• In the event of an unfortunate accident, there is a risk of exposure to high voltage wires.

• They have a complicated system which needs to be taken care of by experienced mechanics only.

• Spare parts maybe hard to find and may be costly.

• Usually, hybrids have a lower acceleration than that their normal counterparts.

Future Hybrid Cars

When the entire world is facing the scarcity of petrol and the gasoline prices are touching the sky, Hybrid Cars have come up as a promising and a feasible option to cope with the situation. These are indeed the cars of future. An exceptionally fuel efficient car equipped with the electric motor as well as the gasoline one, the hybrid car proves extremely economical in the long run.

The leading car manufacturers in the world are launching the hybrid versions of many of their popular makes and the use of hybrids is being encouraged by many governments in the world. I felt it necessary to give some vital information regarding the future hybrid cars. Here it follows.

2011 Ford Fusion

The 2011 model of Ford Fusion is the carryover from 2010. It is an elegant 4 door family sedan wherein 5 passengers can merrily travel. The model is available in 7 trims: I-4 S FWD, I-4 SE FWD, I-4 SEL FWD, V6 Sport FWD, Hybrid, V6 SEL AWD and V6 Sport AWD.

The Hybrid trim of 2011 Ford Fusion is a fine blend of supreme fuel efficiency, elegant looks, affordability and driving enjoyment. Spacious interiors, useful Sync system, ample luxury and comfort, engaging handling for a hybrid version and superb fuel efficiency can be counted among a few pros of the make.

2011 Ford Fusion Hybrid comes with a 2.5-liter four-cylinder gasoline engine which can churn out maximum 156 horsepower and 136 pound-feet of torque. The car is mated with an electric motor that lifts up the numbers to 191 hp and 166 lb-ft respectively. As per the EPA estimates Fusion Hybrid will give 41 mpg in the city and 36 mpg on highways, which are indeed better stats than many others in the race.

As regard the MSRP, the Fusion Hybrid will come for $28140 but is going to be a good value for your money.

2011 Toyota Camry Hybrid

The Japanese auto giant Toyota is bringing the hybrid model of its popular make Camry soon. Smart key system, Multi information display with eco drive, auto dimming rear view mirror with compass and level and energy flow monitor are some of the most prominent features of the make.

The car is a regular Camry sedan having a gasoline electric hybrid powertrain. The system consists of 2.4 liter 4cylinder gasoline engine which churn out the maximum of 147 horsepower and 138 pound feet of torque and a 45 hp electric motor.

The car is coming for $ 26,575 and considering the exterior, interior and performance features of the make, I must say, it's a great deal in the long run.

2011 Mercury Milan

This is America's most fuel efficient midsize sedan which combines gas and electric power and delivers an amazing 41city/ 36 highway miles per gallon. Moreover in the electric mode, it can give up to 47 miles per hour which is the highest top speed for hybrids so far. An innovative Dual LCD Smart Gauge Cluster and the Eco-guide sport a four level display giving you the info useful for more fuel efficiency.

2011 Nissan Altima Hybrid

This beauty comes with an advanced technology partial zero emissions vehicle (AT-PZEV). EPA estimates that the car will give 33mpg both in cities and on highways. Altima Hybrid is equipped with 158 hp 2.5 L 4cylinder engine mated with 40 hp electric power motor. The all new Nissan Altima Hybrid will be available from $26,780.

How Hybrid Cars Work

Hybrid Cars integrate the power of the conventional gasoline engine with that of an electric motor. A high powered battery pack provides energy to the motor which itself gets recharged when the car is decelerating. This is called as regenerative braking. The gas engine can also assist the battery in recharging. This kills the need to plug the car to an external source of energy.

As of now, there are two types of hybrid vehicles.

In one type, the electric motor acts as a side-kick to the gas engine, assisting it whenever surplus power is needed. The electric motor alone is incapable of independently operating the vehicle. Honda's Power Assist technology in its hybrids, Civic and Insight is an example. Such vehicles are termed as Mild Hybrids. In mild hybrids, the gasoline engine provides the main source of power, and the electric motor provides additional power whenever needed.

The second type of hybrid can be termed as a Full Hybrid, where the gasoline engine and the electric motor can operate the vehicle separately. In this type, the electric motor can drive the vehicle at lower speeds. In need of more speed, the gasoline engine kicks in. The Toyota Prius and the Ford Escape implement the same technology.

Be it mild hybrids or full hybrids, both are capable of providing lower emissions and better fuel efficiency.

The Internal-Combustion Engines (both gasoline and diesel) installed in Hybrid cars are often smaller than those in normal cars for a simple reason that Hybrids have the electric motor for assistance.

The motor can take care of city travel which poses stop and go conditions as well as power-consuming add-ons such as the A/C or power-windows and power-steering. At high speeds, the gasoline engine supplies power. This switching of power sources is computer controlled and nothing needs to be manually done.

Power to the electric motor comes from the battery-pack. Recharging of the battery is automatic and need not be done by external sources. When the car is in uniform motion or when it is decelerating, it generates power which charges the batteries which utilizes the valuable kinetic energy.

As with any other battery, the Hybrid car battery also has a limited life span. Auto makers however, put the battery life at around 200,000 miles which roughly comes around to 7-8 years, depending on the kind of travel it endures. Thus, It pays to take extra care of your vehicle and travel when necessary.

Hybrid Car Pros and ConsThe pros and cons of hybrid car is one of the widely discussed topics since hybrid car is a trend among the new generation vehicles. Hybrid car is the type of car, which utilizes two different energy sources to meet the energy requirement. Even though the hybrid technology was prevailing for many purposes such as train engines and submarines, its well-liked use among the people was begun only with the incorporation of the idea in the motor vehicles. Hybrid car became soon accepted among the customers, however, its increased popularity arise the need for a cross analysis since it is a fact that every factor will have two sides.

To start with the pros of the hybrid cars, the basic technology itself seems to be advantageous. The common hybrid cars use the combination engine of the gasoline and electrical energy, which strongly emphasis on the reduced use of gasoline. In the working, the starting up and low pace of the car is used up with the electrical energy and the gasoline engine will come to the scene in the higher speeds. The effective computer programs will efficiently balance the switching over process between the gasoline and electrical energy. This really attributes two benefits, gasoline use will be minimum and enhances the energy efficiency, but the required pace can be gained, with comfort. To boost up the efficiency factor, the engine size is minimized and the body is made with light weight materials in an aerodynamic drag reduction design. The appropriate electrical use in the system helps to avoid the environmental pollution by reducing the tailpipe emissions and also assist the energy in maintaining the accessories and backing up in steep slopes. But, the real advantage is that the electrical energy does not require a recharge since it is automatically recharged with regenerative braking.

But, as usual, cons exist for hybrid cars also. The practical viability of the energy efficiency is considered as the major question among the cons. The proficiency to attain high speed is also checked in most cases. The battery life and the cost for the battery change is considered to be an inevitable

con associated with the hybrid car. The security factors raised due to the light weight body is also a risk for hybrid cars.

However, government seems to be impressed with the attributes of hybrid cars such as less pollution and higher energy efficiency. Government allows tax credit and reductions for the promotion of the hybrid cars. It is also often added among the pros for the hybrid cars. The cons have to be considered as motivating factors for the improvisation of the hybrid cars.

Hybrid Electric Cars

Honda Civic Hybrid Sedan

Toyota Prius Hybrid Sedan

Honda Accord Hybrid Sedan

Honda Insight Hybrid Sedan

Ford Prodigy Hybrid Sedan

Toyota Highlander Hybrid SUV

Ford Escape Hybrid SUV

Lexus RX 400h Hybrid SUV SUV

Lexus GS 450h Hybrid SUV SUV

Chevrolet Silverado Hybrid Pick-Up

Dodge Ram Hybrid Pick-Up

Why Hybrid CarsHere are the reasons why you should choose a hybrid car instead of conventional gasoline car:

1. A Hybrid car is environment friendly. It can reduce pollution by 90 percent.

2. Hybrid cars are economical in medium and long run than normal gasoline cars.

3. Hybrid cars are more reliable than electric cars, as they have gasoline as an alternate fuel.

4. Hybrid cars makes you less dependent on fossil fuels (gasoline).

5. Hybrid cars are more efficient, as they have smaller engines.

6. Hybrid cars help in "Greenhouse Effect", as they lower the fuel emission.

7. Hybrid cars improve mileage to a great extent.

What are Hybrid Cars?Hybrid cars are one among the promising types of new generation cars. In the present era, the motor vehicle industry is going through a transition phase, which is to meet the pace of the growing world. Cars are now become inevitable assistants for the travel and it is not uncommon to have 2 or 3 cars in a home. And, motor vehicles are now facing the next generation problems of the conventional cars.

Moreover, many environmental and energy utilization issues are coming cross. Hybrid cars are developed with an intention to answer much of these questions, and the success of it in the road make it a favorite choice of many.

Although any car, which has a combination of two different ideas can be called as a hybrid, but the cars, which combine two energy sources for its running is popularly named as hybrid car. To be simple, the conventional cars run on a single fuel source such as gasoline, petrol and diesel. The energy efficiency of the cars was insufficient to meet the future needs, in the highly energy depleting situation. The search for alternative resources is intensive and one of them, electric cars were a success, but its limitation was the inadequacy for a long drive and difficulty for frequent recharges. Hybrid cars were a better solution since it combines the benefits of both types of cars. Now, most of the hybrid cars use the engine that work in combination of gasoline and electricity.

Hybrid cars are much appreciated by the experts because of its energy efficiency. As the car has two energy sources, the car will in effect, use up only reduced energy and the most beneficial attribute is that the batteries in the car for electrical transmission will be spontaneously charged, along with the working of the car. However, the success of the hybrid cars among the motorists relies on mainly on its performance on the road. Despite of the great fear, whether the new car could give out the performance as of a conventional car, hybrid car gave out adequate performance, with aid of its sophisticated technology and aerodynamic design.

The utility of hybrid cars for the society was proved, when Government adopted particular measures for its promotion. Now, as part of its preferred usage, tax credits are available, which are changed yearly, according to the prevailing market conditions. Government was impressed with the two important advantages such as improved mileage and reduced tailpipe emissions, which can attribute low environmental pollution and reduced non renewable fuel consumption.

Now many companies such as Toyota, Ford, Honda and Lexus are competing in the market of hybrid cars with their latest versions. Any how, a comparison of different models is advised before the purchase.

Hybrid cars are thus the present phase of car industry. The advancements are going on continuously in its fuel selection and structure, to persist it to a future car, and motorists are looking forward to the best out of it.

Hybrid Car TechnologyWith the prices of gasoline and fuel always on the increase, car manufacturers have today found a new form of car technology that is fuel efficient and low in pollution. This technology is called the hybrid car technology where the cars have a rechargeable energy storage system (RESS) found in the vehicle, along with some fuel propulsion source.

Hybrid cars don't produce much pollution and consumes minimal fuel; and its different propulsion systems have either common parts or systems. Hybrid cars are generally designated to vehicles running on a combination of petroleum and electricity. These vehicles are called hybrid-electric vehicles where electric cells are used to power electric engines, along with an internal combustion engine.

The advantage of these cars is that they sort of extend their battery charge through the kinetic energy they catch in regenerative braking. Moreover when such cars cruise, or move on a small thrust, the combustion engine generates energy with the running of a second electric motor. This is done to either recharge the battery or to provide energy to the motor for driving the car. This is unlike the conventional electrical cars where they avail of their battery charge through external sources like the grid.

Today, most of the hybrid cars run on either gasoline or diesel as their main energy source while there are some cases where other fuels like ethanol or plant based oils are used too. There are also some cars that use hydrogen fuel. Sometimes, hybrid cars are also referred to the cars that are flexible-fuel vehicles where they run on a combination of different fuels like gasoline and ethanol alcohol fuel.

The main reason people prefer to use hybrid cars is because of its hybrid technology of a combination of technologies. With this, a lot of gas fuel is saved which is of course, beneficial to the car buyer. With the passage of time, hybrid car technology has improved in the different hybrid cars. This is

because with time, hybrid cars have also become popular and the manufacturers have been working on more means to make the car more feasible to the prospective car buyer.

With hybrid car technology, the motion of the car is designed in such a way that the engines in these cars have a smaller size that is used when drifting and driving leisurely. It is usually the battery source that provides the additional power like going uphill or accelerating whenever needed. To couple things, when the hybrid car is stopped, the hybrid fuel engine gets switched off to run off the electric motor.

Hybrid cars are built lighter and are designed more aerodynamically for better speed. And its tires are usually stiffer and have a higher inflation so that the drag of the car is reduced. So it can be seen that with hybrid car technology, a car has become more efficient. Though the rates of these cars may initially be a bit high, they are very much worth it in the long run during its lifespan.

Hybrid Car ProblemsA hybrid car is very much in use today. This is a car that does not run on a single energy source, but on a combination of a fuel engine and a battery. This is unlike the normal cars that run on a single energy source. In these cars, the car does not run with the two energy sources getting merged together; they are alternatively used instead. When cruising, where there is limited use of energy, the hybrid car runs on the energy of the battery. When there is need for additional power, then the fuel engine is used for energy purposes.

Hybrid cars are generally very advantageous and beneficial when compared to normal cars. However, there are some disadvantages or problems that generally stop it from making a large impact on the society. One of the main problems of a hybrid car is its cost. It is estimated that in the long run, its manufacturers will start losing money. So the rate is expected to increase over the years and may cause a pinch on the pocket of the buyer. Some people also claim that the estimated fuel savings that are to be expected in a hybrid car are exaggerated.

Another disadvantage that hybrid cars bring along with it is that they tend to accelerate at a slower speed when compared to normal vehicles. In other words, you can't attain your expected speed within the same time period in a hybrid car, than you would in cars totally powered by gasoline. It is because of this point that many drivers tend to feel unsafe in a hybrid car, as with this, they cannot keep pace with the normal cars.

Though the batteries of the hybrid cars come for a long period, before harboring a need to be replaced, you have to replace them at least on completing 80,000 miles. It depends on your usage and way of running the car. Each battery pack costs about $5,000 to $8,000, which is dependent on the model of the car. This may turn out to be rather expensive on your budget in the long run; moreover if you are a frequent traveler with the car.

To facilitate increased speeds, hybrid cars are usually smaller than normal cars and are usually manufactured using lightweight body materials. Though this facilitates increased speeds, this also makes the hybrid car more vulnerable to destruction. In other words, when compared to larger and steel reinforced cars, hybrid cars are most likely to get damaged if and when involved in an accident.

Since hybrid cars are relatively new in production, they are not available in all pats of the country. And where you can find them, their stocks are generally limited. So you may not be able to buy a hybrid car from wherever you live. Don't think you can avail of deductions from the government when buying a hybrid car, as this is not possible. The government does not offer any deductions, as there is still some gasoline in the combustion process of the car.

Hybrid Car MaintenanceA hybrid car is basically a car that runs on a combination of a fuel combustion engine and mechanical energy provided by a battery cell. These cars are usually run using petrol, but there are also hybrid cars that run on gasoline and diesel. Some also run on optional fuels like ethanol alcohol or plant fuel.

Though hybrid cars generally cost more than normal cars, they don't need much maintenance. These hybrid cars don't need any type of additional maintenance on its components. The only maintenance that some cars may need is the replacement of the air filter on some battery systems every 40,000 miles. Of course, you have to run similar maintenance to the fuel engine of a hybrid car as you would to any other regular fuel-engine vehicle. So this implies that according to the driving conditions and vehicle, oil changes have to be made every 5,000 to 10,000 miles.

In fact, when comparing some aspects of hybrid cars, they offer less maintenance than ordinary cars. The brake pads of ordinary cars tend to wear out and thus need periodical changes. However, because of regenerative braking that exists in hybrids, the brake pads in hybrid cars tend to last longer. Here the electric motor acts as a generator where energy is captured to be lost when the car is either cruising or when brakes are applied. This energy is changed into electricity to recharge batteries, which in turn is used to increase the efficiency of fuel in the car.

There is no need of plugging a hybrid car as maintenance for its battery as the battery receives its energy source through regenerative braking. This is unlike other electric cars where the battery has to be plugged periodically for its battery to be in running condition. Unlike the notion that the batteries of hybrid cars have to be replaced repeatedly, there is no need of replacing batteries here as long as the charge is maintained between 40% and 60% its charge. This way the battery is never fully charged or drained by which the longevity is extended.

It is usually thought that hybrid cars charge more in terms of maintenance. However, this is not true, as sometimes its maintenance is lower because of decreased wear and tear on the engine and its braking system. Moreover, when you do a maintenance check up for a hybrid car, it is better to take the hybrid car to its dealer. This is because the dealer offers a warranty on the amount of usage of the car on both the emission parts and the battery pack. Of course, you may have to pay a little more when servicing the car in the dealer service center; however, you are will be confident of receiving the best service for your car.

Today, there are many classes being run to teach mechanics all there is to know about the maintenance of hybrid cars. This is to meet the demand of the rising demand for hybrid cars. So by the time your warranty on your hybrid car expires, you will be confident of finding qualified mechanics for your hybrid car maintenance.

How Hybrid Cars Workby Karim Nice and Julia Layton

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Inside this Article

1. Introduction to How Hybrid Cars Work

2. Gasoline Power vs. Electric Power

3. Gasoline-electric Hybrid Structure

4. Hybrid-car Performance

5. Improving Fuel Economy

6. The Honda Insight 7. See more »

Invention Nation: Super Hybrid

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Hybrid Car Image Gallery

2008 HowStuffWorksHybrid cars like the 2007 Honda Civic Hybrid are designed for fuel efficiency and low emissions.

See more hybrid car pictures.

Have you pulled your car up to the gas pump lately and been shocked by the high price of gasoline? As

the pump clicked past $20, $30, $40 or even $50, maybe you thought about trading in your car for

something that gets better mileage. Or maybe you're worried that your car is contributing to

thegreenhouse effect.

The auto industry has the technology to address these concerns. It's the hybrid car. There are a lot

of hybrid models on the market these days, and most automobile manufacturers have announced plans to

manufacture their own versions.

How does a hybrid automobile work? What goes on under the hood to give you 20 or 30 more miles per

gallon than the standard automobile? And does it pollute less just because it gets better gas mileage? In

this article, we'll help you understand how this technology works, and we'll even give you some tips on

how to drive a hybrid car for maximum efficiency.

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Many people have probably owned a hybrid vehicle at some point. For example, a mo-ped (a motorized

pedal bike) is a type of hybrid because it combines the power of a gasoline engine with the pedal power

of its rider. In fact, hybrid vehicles are all around us. Most of the locomotives we see pulling trains

are diesel-electric hybrids. Cities like Seattle have diesel-electric buses -- these can draw electric

power from overhead wires or run on diesel when they are away from the wires. Giant mining trucks are

often diesel-electric hybrids. Submarines are also hybrid vehicles -- some arenuclear-electric and some

are diesel-electric. Any vehicle that combines two or more sources of power that can directly or indirectly

provide propulsion power is a hybrid. Most hybrid cars on the road right now are gasoline-electric hybrids,

although French car maker PSA Peugeot Citroen has two diesel-electric hybrid cars in the works. Since

gasoline hybrids are the kind you'll find at your local car dealership, we'll focus on those in this article.

How Hybrid Cars Workby Karim Nice and Julia Layton

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Inside this Article

1. Introduction to How Hybrid Cars Work

2. Gasoline Power vs. Electric Power

3. Gasoline-electric Hybrid Structure

4. Hybrid-car Performance

5. Improving Fuel Economy

6. The Honda Insight 7. See more »

The Hybrid Experience

• More Auto Videos »

Gasoline Power vs. Electric Power

The gasoline-electric hybrid car is just what it sounds like -- a cross between a gasoline-powered car

and an electric car. Let's start with a few diagrams to explain the differences between a gasoline-powered

car and a typical electric car.

A gas-powered car has a fuel tank, which supplies gasoline to the engine. The engine then turns

atransmission, which turns the wheels.

Gasoline-powered car

Move your mouse over the parts for a 3-D view.

An electric car, on the other hand, has a set of batteries that provides electricity to an electric motor. The

motor turns a transmission, and the transmission turns the wheels.

Electric car

Move your mouse over the parts for a 3-D view.

The hybrid is a compromise. It attempts to significantly increase the mileage and reduce the emissions of

a gas-powered car while overcoming the shortcomings of an electric car.

To be useful to you or me, a car must meet certain minimum requirements. The car should be able to:

• Drive at least 300 miles (482 km) before re-fueling

• Be refueled quickly and easily

• Keep up with the other traffic on the road

A gasoline car meets these requirements but produces a relatively large amount of pollution and generally

gets poor gas mileage. An electric car, however, produces almost no pollution, but it can only go 50 to

100 miles (80 to 161 km) between charges. And the problem has been that the electric car is very slow

and inconvenient to recharge.

A gasoline-electric car combines these two setups into one system that leverages both gas power and

electric power.

Gasoline-electric Hybrid Structure

Gasoline-electric hybrid cars contain the following parts:

• Gasoline engine - The hybrid car has a gasoline engine much like the one you will find on

most cars. However, the engine on a hybrid is smaller and uses advanced technologies to

reduce emissions and increase efficiency.

• Fuel tank - The fuel tank in a hybrid is the energy storage device for the gasoline engine.

Gasoline has a much higher energy density than batteries do. For example, it takes about

1,000 pounds of batteries to store as much energy as 1 gallon (7 pounds) of gasoline.• Electric motor - The electric motor on a hybrid car is very sophisticated. Advanced electronics

allow it to act as a motor as well as a generator. For example, when it needs to, it can draw

energy from the batteries to accelerate the car. But acting as a generator, it can slow the car

down and return energy to the batteries.• Generator - The generator is similar to an electric motor, but it acts only to produce electrical

power. It is used mostly on series hybrids (see below).• Batteries - The batteries in a hybrid car are the energy storage device for the electric motor.

Unlike the gasoline in the fuel tank, which can only power the gasoline engine, the electric

motor on a hybrid car can put energy into the batteries as well as draw energy from them.• Transmission - The transmission on a hybrid car performs the same basic function as the

transmission on a conventional car. Some hybrids, like the Honda Insight, have conventional

transmissions. Others, like the Toyota Prius, have radically different ones, which we'll talk

about later.

Image courtesy DaimlerChryslerThe Mercedes-Benz M-Class HyPer -- a hybrid concept vehicle

You can combine the two power sources found in a hybrid car in different ways. One way, known as

aparallel hybrid, has a fuel tank that supplies gasoline to the engine and a set of batteries that supplies

power to the electric motor. Both the engine and the electric motor can turn the transmission at the same

time, and the transmission then turns the wheels.

The animation below shows a typical parallel hybrid. You'll notice that the fuel tank and gas engine

connect to the transmission. The batteries and electric motor also connect to the transmission

independently. As a result, in a parallel hybrid, both the electric motor and the gas engine can provide

propulsion power.

Parallel hybrid carMove your mouse over the parts for a 3-D view.

By contrast, in a series hybrid (below), the gasoline engine turns a generator, and the generator can

either charge the batteries or power an electric motor that drives the transmission. Thus, the gasoline

engine never directly powers the vehicle.

Take a look at the diagram of the series hybrid, starting with the fuel tank, and you'll see that all of the

components form a line that eventually connects with the transmission.

Series hybrid carMove your mouse over the parts for a 3-D view.

The structure of a hybrid car harnesses two sources of power to increase efficiency and provide the kind

of performance most of us are looking for in a vehicle. In the next section, we'll see how it accomplishes

this.

Hybrid-car Performance

The key to a hybrid car is that the gasoline engine can be much smaller than the one in a

conventional carand therefore more efficient. Most cars require a relatively big engine to produce enough

power to accelerate the car quickly. In a small engine, however, the efficiency can be improved by using

smaller, lighter parts, by reducing the number of cylinders and by operating the engine closer to its

maximum load.

There are several reasons why smaller engines are more efficient than bigger ones:

• The big engine is heavier than the small engine, so the car uses extra energy every time it

accelerates or drives up a hill.

• The pistons and other internal components are heavier, requiring more energy each time they

go up and down in the cylinder.

• The displacement of the cylinders is larger, so more fuel is required by each cylinder.

• Bigger engines usually have more cylinders, and each cylinder uses fuel every time the engine

fires, even if the car isn't moving.

This explains why two of the same model cars with different engines can get different mileage. If both

cars are driving along the freeway at the same speed, the one with the smaller engine uses less energy.

Both engines have to output the same amount of power to drive the car, but the small engine uses less

power to drive itself. But how can this smaller engine provide the power your car needs to keep up with

the more powerful cars on the road?

Let's compare a car like the Chevy Camaro, with its big V-8 engine, to our hybrid car with its small gas

engine and electric motor. The engine in the Camaro has more than enough power to handle any driving

situation. The engine in the hybrid car is powerful enough to move the car along on the freeway, but when

it needs to get the car moving in a hurry, or go up a steep hill, it needs help. That "help" comes from the

electric motor and battery -- this system steps in to provide the necessary extra power.

The gas engine on a conventional car is sized for the peak power requirement (those few times when you

floor the accelerator pedal). In fact, most drivers use the peak power of their engines less than one

percent of the time. The hybrid car uses a much smaller engine, one that is sized closer to the average

power requirement than to the peak power.

The electric motor on the Insight helps in several ways. It can:

• Assist the gasoline engine, providing extra power while the car is accelerating or climbing a

hill• Provide some regenerative braking to capture energy during braking

• Start the engine, eliminating the need for a starter

However, the motor cannot power the car by itself; the gas engine must be running for the car to move.

To get the best mileage possible, Honda used all of the efficiency tricks discussed previously. But the

Insight relies mainly on three areas:

• It reduces the weight - Already a small car, the Insight uses a lightweight aluminum body

and structure to further reduce weight. By making the car lightweight, Honda is able to use a

smaller, lighter engine that can still maintain the performance level we have come to expect

from our cars. The Insight weighs less than 1,900 pounds (862 kg), which is 500 pounds (227

kg) less than the lightest Honda Civic.

• It uses a small, efficient engine - The engine in the Insight,

shown below, weighs only 124 pounds (56 kg) and is a tiny,

1.0-liter, three-cylinder that produces 67 horsepower at 5,700

rpm. It incorporates Honda's VTEC system and uses lean

burn technology to maximize efficiency. The Insight achieves

an EPA mileage rating of 60 mpg/city and 66 mpg/highway.

Also, with the additional power provided by the small electric

motor, this system is able to accelerate the Insight from 0 to

60 mph in about 11 seconds.

• With the electric motor running, the Insight produces 73

horsepower at 5,700 rpm. If you compare that to the engine

horsepower alone, it looks like the electric motor only adds 6

horsepower. But the real effectiveness of the electric motor occurs at lower engine speeds.

The electric motor on the Insight is rated at 10 kilowatts (about 13 horsepower) at 3,000 rpm.• It's the peak torque numbers that really tell the story. Without the electric motor, the Insight

makes its peak torque of 66 pound-feet at 4,800 rpm. With the electric motor, it makes 79

pound-feet at 1,500 rpm. So the motor adds a lot of torque to the low end of the speed range,

where the engine is weaker. This is a nice compromise that allows Honda to give a very small

engine the feel of a much larger one.• It uses advanced aerodynamics - The Honda Insight is designed using the

classicalteardrop shape: The back of the car is narrower than the front. (Note that real

teardrops do not behave this way aerodynamically -- click here for an interesting article on the

aerodynamics of falling water droplets.) The rear wheels are partially covered by bodywork to

provide a smoother shape, and some parts of the underside of the car are enclosed with

plastic panels. These tricks result in a drag coefficient of 0.25, which makes it one of the most

aerodynamic cars on the market.

The Insight is actually not very different from a conventional car once you get behind the wheel. When

you accelerate, the gas engine does most of the work. If you accelerate quickly, the electric motor kicks in

to provide a little extra power.

When you are cruising along the freeway, the gas engine is doing all of the work. When you slow down by

hitting the brakes or letting off the gas, the electric motor kicks in to generate a little electricity to charge

the batteries. You never have to plug the Insight into an electrical outlet; the motor generates all of the

power needed to charge the battery.

One interesting thing to note is that in the Insight, the manual transmission is separated from the engine

and motor by the clutch. This means that if you are the type of driver who likes to put the clutch in or put

the car in neutral when you slow down to a stop, you are not going to get any regenerative braking. In

order to recover energy when you slow down, the car has to be in gear.

Now let's take a look at the technology of the Toyota Prius. The Prius works in a very different way from

the Insight.

Hybrid Mileage Tips

More Power, Less EfficiencyA driver's desire for quick accelerationcauses

Insight engine

our cars to be much less efficient than they could

be. You may have noticed that a car with a less

powerful engine gets better gas mileage than an

identical car with a more powerful engine. Just

look at the window stickers on new cars at a

dealership for a city and highway mpg

comparison.

The amazing thing is that most of what we

require a car to do uses only a small percentage

of its horsepower. When you are driving along the

freeway at 60 mph (96.6 kph), your car engine

has to provide the power to do three things:

• Overcome the aerodynamic drag

caused by pushing the car through the

air• Overcome all of the friction in the car's

components such as

the tires,transmission, axles and brakes• Provide power for accessories like air

conditioning, power steering and

headlightsFor most cars, doing all this requires less than 20 horsepower. So, why do you need a car with 200 horsepower? So you can "floor it," which is the only time you use all that power. The rest of the time, you use considerably less power than you have available.

You can get the best mileage from a hybrid car by using the same kind of driving habits that give you

better mileage in your gasoline-engine car:

• Drive slower - The aerodynamic drag on the car increases dramatically the faster you drive.

For example, the drag force at 70 mph (113 kph) is about double that at 50 mph (81 kph). So,

keeping your speed down can increase your mileage significantly.• Maintain a constant speed - Each time you speed up the car, you use energy, some of which

is wasted when you slow the car down again. By maintaining a constant speed, you will make

the most efficient use of your fuel.• Avoid abrupt stops - When you stop your car, the electric motor in the hybrid acts like a

generator and takes some of the energy out of the car while slowing it down. If you give the

electric motor more time to slow the vehicle, it can recover more of the energy. If you stop

quickly, the brakes on the car will do most of the work of slowing the car down, and that energy

will be wasted. The same reasoning applies to gasoline-powered cars: Abrupt stops waste a

lot of energy.

To see reviews of 2007 hybrid cars, follow the links on the next page.