ConsequentialismDR. CB. Kusmaryanto, SCJThe ends justify the meansLogo UGMGADJAH MADA UNIVERSITYCenter for religious & cross-cultural studiesLOGOTerminology: Consequentialism.Consequentialism is an ethical theories holding that the consequences of one's conduct are the ultimate basis for any judgment about the rightness or wrongness of that conduct. .term of Consequentialism was coined by Elizabeth Anscombe (1919 -2001) in her 1958 essay "Modern Moral Philosophy", as a pejorative description of what she saw as the central error of certain moral theories (she was a Virtue Ethicist). It then came to be adopted by both sides of the argument.LOGOTerminology: Consequentialism.The Morality is all about producing the right kinds of overall consequences. .Here the phrase overall consequences of an action means everything the action brings about, including the action itself: 1.to spread happiness and relieve suffering,2.to create as much freedom as possible in the world,3.to promote the survival of our species, If so, then you accept consequentialism. LOGOTerminology: Consequentialism.Thus, from a consequentialist standpoint, a morally right act (or omission from acting) is one that will produce a good outcome, or consequence. .In another words: Consequentialism is based on two principles:.Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the consequences (results) of that act.The more good consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act.Thus, from a consequentialist standpoint, a morally right act (or omission from acting) is one that will produce a good outcome, or consequence. LOGOTerminology: Consequentialism.What is the meaning of consequence? The consequences of an action include (a) the action itself, and (b) everything the action causes. Example: Both A itself and the things A causes are things that happen if you do A rather than the alternatives to A. .In an extreme form, the idea of consequentialism is commonly encapsulated in the English saying, "the ends justify the means, meaning that if a goal is morally important enough, any method of achieving it is acceptable LOGOTerminology.Consequentialism, in general approach can be applied at different levels to different normative properties of different kinds of things, but the most prominent example is consequentialism about the moral rightness of acts, which holds that whether an act is morally right depends only on the consequences of that act or of something related to that act, such as the motive behind the act or a general rule requiring acts of the same kind. LOGOConsequentialism.Consequentialism is usually distinguished from:.Deontological ethics (or deontology), in that deontology derives the rightness or wrongness of one's conduct from the character of the behavior itself rather than the outcomesof the conduct. .Virtue ethics, which focuses on the character of the agent rather than on the nature or consequences of the act (or omission) itself, and pragmatic ethics which treats morality like science: advancing socially over the course of many lifetimes, such that any moral criterion is subject to revision. .Consequentialist theories differ in how they define moral goods. Division of Consequentialism .Consequentialism is usually divided into:1.Utilitarianism: is an ethical theory which evaluates the moral worth of an action based on the utility of action, The greatest happiness of the greatest number.2.Ethical egoism can be understood as a consequentialisttheory according to which the consequences for the individual agent are taken to matter more than any other result.3.Ethical altruism can be seen as a consequentialistethic which prescribes that an individual take actions that have the best consequences for everyone except for himself. This was advocated by AugusteComte, who coined the term "altruism," and whose ethics can be summed up in the phrase: Live for othersDivision of Consequentialism 4. Hedonism, which is the philosophy that pleasure is the most important pursuit of mankind, and that individuals should strive to maximise their own total pleasure (net of any pain or suffering). .people should maximise human pleasure.5. State consequentialism (Mohist consequentialism), also known as state consequentialism, is an ethical theory which evaluates the moral worth of an action based on how much it contributes to the welfare of a state.Division of Consequentialism State consequentialism (Mohist), dating back to the 5th century BCE, is the "world's earliest form of consequentialism, a remarkably sophisticated version based on a plurality of intrinsic goods taken as constitutive of human welfare. It is the business of the benevolent man to seek to promote what is beneficial to the world and to eliminate what is harmful, and to provide a model for the world. What benefits he will carry out; what does not benefit men he will leave alone.(Mozi, Mozi-5th century BC) Critiques of Consequentialism1.By the time of the action, a consequentialistdoesnt know exactly wheterhis action is right or wrong because it depends on the consequences which is still in the future.2.Some Virtue Ethicists hold that Consequentialisttheories totally disregard the development and importance of moral character. PhillipaFoot (1920 -), for example, argues that consequences in themselves have no ethical content, unless it has been provided by a virtue, such as benevolence, etc.3.Others have argued that Consequentialism is unable to explain adequately why a morally wrong action is morally wrong, and attempts to do so lead to absurdity, such as the example of an "obliging stranger" who agrees to be baked in an oven.Critiques of Consequentialism4.Elizabeth Anscombe(1919 -2001) has objected to Consequentialism on the grounds that it does not provide guidance in what one ought to do, since the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined based solely on the consequences it produces.5.Bernard Williams (1929 -2003) has argued that Consequentialism is alienating because it requires moral agents to put too much distance between themselves and their own projects and commitments, and to take a strictly impersonal view of all actions. Critiques of Consequentialism6.No type of act is inherentlywrong -not even murder -it depends on the result of the act7.Others argue that Consequentialism makes no distinction between consequences that are foreseen and those that are intended (e.g. relieving a terminally ill patient's pain may also cause an effect one would normally be obliged to avoid, namely the patient's death: the Principle of Double Effect).8.Still others have argued that Consequentialism fails to appropriately take into account the people affected by a particular action (e.g. A Consequentialist cannot really criticize human rights abuses in a war if they ultimately result in a better state of affairs).UtilitarianismThe greatest happiness of the greatest numberJeremy Bentham & John Stuart MillUtilitarianism.Utilitarianism was developed by English philosophers and economists.Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) in his book Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation(1781)..John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) in his book: Utilitarianism.Bentham and Mill are claimed to create utilitarianism, although it is not totally new. Epicurus (341 270 BC) already mentioned it in his idea. We can find also in David Hume (1711-1766)who said "utility, in all subjects, is a source of praise and approbation; . . . it is a foundation of the chief part of morals, which has a reference to mankind and our fellow creatures" (Hume, 1948, p. 221).Utilitarianism.Utilitarianism is one of the best known and most influential moral theories. Like other forms of consequentialism, its core idea is that whether actions are morally right or wrong depends on their effects. More specifically, the only effects of actions that are relevant are the good and bad results that they produce. .Philosophers refer to it as a teleological system. The Greek word telos means end or goal. .This means that this ethical system determines morality by the end result. Whereas religions ethics are based on rules, utilitarianism is based on results. Utilitarianism.Utilitarians believe that the purpose of morality is to make life better by increasing the amount of good things (such as pleasure and happiness) in the world and decreasing the amount of bad things (such as pain and unhappiness). .They reject moral codes or systems that consist of commands or taboos that are based on customs, traditions, or orders given by leaders or supernatural beings. Instead, utilitarians think that what makes a morality be true or justifiable is its positive contribution (consequences) to human (and perhaps non-human) beings. .Consequences of the Utilitarian includes all of the good and bad produced by the act, whether arising after the act has been performed or during its performance. If the difference in the consequences of alternative acts is not great, some Utilitarians do not regard the choice between them as a moral issue. Utilitarianism.Utilitarianism is a philosophical view or theory about how we should evaluate a wide range of things that involve choices that people face. Among the things that can be evaluated are actions, laws, policies, character traits, and moral codes. Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham.Bentham in his book wrote: Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters: pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand the standard of right and wrong, on the other the chain of causes and effects, are fastened to their throne. They govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think: every effort we can make to throw off our subjection, will serve but to demonstrate and confirm it. " (1789, p. 12). .Bentham believed that pain and pleasure not only explain our actions but also help us define what is good and moral. He believed that this foundation could provide a basis for social, legal, and moral reform in society.Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham.Bentham wrote: By the principle of utility is meant that principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever, according to the tendency which it appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in question: or, what is the same thing in other words, to promote or to oppose that happiness. .Bentham formulated his famous principle, The greatest happiness of the greatest number.What he means by happiness is pleasure, free from painUtilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham.What is good?.Jeremy Bentham answered this question by adopting the view called hedonism. According to hedonism, the only thing that is good in itself is pleasure. Hedonists do not deny that many different kinds of things can be good, including food, friends, freedom, and many other things, but hedonists see these as instrumental goods that are valuable only because they play a causal role in producing pleasure or happiness. .Pleasure and happiness, however, are intrinsic goods, meaning that they are good in themselves and not because they produce some further valuable thing. .Bentham and Mill were hedonists; i.e, they analyzed happiness as a balance of pleasure over pain and believed that these feelings alone are of intrinsic value and disvalue. Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham.Bentham believed that a hedonic calculus is theoretically possible. A moralist, he maintained, could sum up the units of pleasure and the units of pain for everyone likely to be affected, immediately and in the future, and could take the balance as a measure of the overall good or evil tendency of an action. .Such precise measurement as Bentham envisioned is perhaps not essential, but it is nonetheless necessary for the utilitarian to make some interpersonal comparisons of the values of the effects of alternative courses of action..His final intention of acting is pleasure so that his philosophy is called pig philosophy.Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham.Many thinkers have rejected hedonism because pleasure and pain are sensations that we feel, claiming that many important goods are not types of feelings. .Being healthy or honest or having knowledge, for example, are thought by some people to be intrinsic goods that are not types of feelings. .Other thinkers see desires or preferences as the basis of value; whatever a person desires is valuable to that person. If desires conflict, then the things most strongly preferred are identified as good. .John Stuart Mill (1806 1873) who was the nephew of Bentham revised and criticized his uncle. .John Stuart Mill modified Bentham philosophy and developed it apart from Benthams hedonistic foundation. Mill used the same utilitarian calculus but instead focused on maximizing the general happiness by calculating the greatest good for the greatest number. While Bentham used the calculus in a quantitative sense, Mill used this calculus in a qualitative sense. He believed, for example, that some pleasures were of higher quality than others.Utilitarianism: John Stuart Mill.He criticized Bentham on the meaning of happiness. According to Bentham, happiness is the same as pleasure which depends on intensity, duration, time, fecundity, and the number of people who experience the happiness. .According to Mill, the real pleasure depend on the qualitative features which comes from higher faculties (intellectual, imagination, feeling etc) and it is not a lower faculties (bodily pleasure, sensual etc). That is why, he said, "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied" (Mill, 1863, p. 20). Utilitarianism: John Stuart MillUtilitarianism is famous?.Why utilitarianism is so famous?.First, it is a relatively simple ethical system to apply. To determine whether an action is moral you merely have to calculate the good and bad consequences that will result from a particular action. If the good outweighs the bad, then the action is moral..Second, utilitarianism avoids the need to appeal to divine revelation. Many adherents to this ethical system are looking for a way to live a moral life apart from the Scripture and a belief in God. The system replaces revelation with reason. Logic rather than an adherence to scriptural principles guides the ethical decision-making of a utilitarian.Utilitarianism is famous?.Third, most people already use a form of utilitarianism in their daily decisions. We make lots of non-moral decisions every day based upon consequences. At the checkout line, we try to find the shortest line so we can get out the door more quickly. We make most of our financial decisions (writing checks, buying merchandise, etc.) on a utilitarian calculus of cost and benefits. So making moral decisions using utilitarianism seems like a natural extension of our daily decision-making procedures. Influence of Utilitarianism.The Utilitarian theory of the justification of punishment stands in opposition to the retributive theory, according to which punishment is intended to make the criminal pay for his crime. According to the Utilitarian, the rationale of punishment is entirely to prevent further crime by either reforming the criminal or protecting society from him and to deter others from crime through fear of punishment.Influence of Utilitarianism.Classical economics received some of its most important statements from Utilitarian writers, especially Ricardo and John Stuart Mill. Ironically, its theory of economic value was framed primarily in terms of the cost of labour in production rather than in terms of the use value, or utility, of commodities. Later developments more clearly reflected the Utilitarian philosophy. .Peter J. Hammond mengatakan, "The whole study of welfare economics is founded more or less explicitly on utilitarian ideas," Further he said that the principles of social welfare are function, efficiency, dan effectiveness (Hammond, 1982, p. 85).Influence of Utilitarianism.Utilitarians supports democracyas a way of making the interest of government coincide with the general interest; they have argued for the greatest individual liberty compatible with an equal liberty for others on the ground that each individual is generally the best judge of his own welfare. .Context of the emerging utilitarianism is renewal of social institution. It related to the changes of policy: utilitarianism..In order to arrive at a welfare state, it need to redistribution of income tax, allocation of scarce resources with the criteria of cost-benefit, cost effective or risk benefit. Influence of Utilitarianism.Medical ethics: Most of medical ethics based on the utilitarianism in which medical doctor will evaluate their medical intervention based on cost benefit. In more serious medical intervention, medical doctors intervention will base on QALY (the quality-adjusted life year). It is a comparison between:1.life expectancy 2.quality of life3.cost.If medical intervention gives longer life expectancy and good quality of life, so it is good to makeLOGOCriticism of Utilitarianism.Stealing: although the widespread practice of lying and stealing would have bad consequences, resulting in a loss of trustworthiness and security, it is not certain that an occasional lie to avoid embarrassment or an occasional theft from a rich man would not have good consequences, and thus be permissible or even required by Utilitarianism. .No universal moral standard..Hedonistic value theory held by Bentham, holds that the value of life is more than a balance of pleasure over pain. Mill, in contrast to Bentham, discerned differences in the quality of pleasures that made some intrinsically preferable to others independently of intensity and duration (the quantitative dimensions recognized by Bentham). LOGOCriticism of UtilitarianismSome philosophers in the Utilitarian tradition have recognized certain wholly nonhedonistic values without losing their Utilitarian credentials such as British philosopher, G.E. Moore (1873 1958) which regarded many kinds of consciousness including love, knowledge, and the experience of beauty as intrinsically valuable independently of pleasure, a position labeled ideal Utilitarianism.LOGOCriticism of Utilitarianism.Utilitarianism cannot protect the rights of minorities if the goal is the greatest good for the greatest number. Americans in the eighteenth century could justify slavery on the basis that it provided a good consequence for a majority of Americans. Certainly the majority benefited from cheap slave labor even though the lives of black slaves were much worse..There is tendency to uses human being as a tool to arrive at the greatest happiness for the greatest number. It will degrade the human dignity and put human being not as the most important.LOGOCriticism of Utilitarianism.Utilitarianism is predicting the future consequences. If morality is based on results, then we would have to have omniscience in order to accurately predict the consequence of any action. But at best we can only guess at the future, and often these educated guesses are wrong..Consequences themselves must be judged. When results occur, we must still ask whether they are good or bad results. Utilitarianism provides no objective and consistent foundation to judge results because results are the mechanism used to judge the action itself. .Utilitarianism do not make any distinction between:.Foreseen bad consequences, and .Unpredicted bad consequences. Both have different value.LOGOCriticism of Utilitarianism.Utilitarianism leads to an end justifies the means mentality. If any worthwhile end can justify the means to attain it, a true ethical foundation is lost. But we all know that the end does notjustify the means. If that were so, then Hitler could justify the Holocaust because the end was to purify the human race. Stalin could justify his slaughter of millions because he was trying to achieve a communist utopia..Certainly, the end cannot justify the meansbecause in order to have a good behavior/action, there are 3 elements should be considered together:1.Intention2.The way (method)3.EnvironmentLOGOCriticism of Utilitarianism.All of the e elements play important role in determining the goodness of the action. If one of them is not good, the action is not goo either..Although it is true that the intention plays important role, but if only the intention is good but means (methods) to achieve it is not good, the action is not good.environment can reduce or increase the goodness or the wrongness of the action..We have to distinguish also between:.intrinsic evil action, and .indifferent actionBoth have different valueD:\nicks computer\new global series again!!!\blue globe template\global01_title.jpg