4th Year Philosophy – Rockbrook Park School · 2013-05-21 · 4th Year Philosophy – Rockbrook...

4th Year Philosophy – Rockbrook Park School

Possible course outline:

1. What is Philosophy? What are the different ways of knowing/learning about things? Scientific, Mathematical/Logical, Sapiential. What does philosophy study?

2. What is man? Senses (external & internal), Intellect, Reason (logic), Will, Emotions, Passions.

3. Types of knowledge: experiential, deductive, analytical, intuitive, reflective. How do we know?: senses, abstraction, intellect/judgment, reason, deduction.

4. Is truth possible? Different states of mind: doubt, error, opinion, certainty, belief. Skepticism & Relativism.

5. The things we know. Metaphysics: how can things be one (stable) and many (changeable)? how is change possible? Causality: what is the connection between things and events?

6. Origins of the World. Where do we come from? Evolutionism v Creationism. Finality & purpose.

7. Freedom. What is it? Is it possible? How do our contemporaries understand it?

8. Language and meaning. How is communication possible.

9. Ethics: Good & Evil. How can we establish the morality of a human act? Determinants of morality: act, intention and circumstances.

10. Friendship. Love. Social costs of pornography.

11. Dignity of man. Man as person. Human Rights: where do they come from? How can we establish them and who inherits them?

12. Happiness. Meaning of Life. Death, Pain & Sorrow. How can we explain evil in the world?

13. Man in Society. The Common Good. Origins of Authority. Forms of Government. Subsidiarity

14. Law. Justice. Solidarity. Violence & War. Human Rights.

15. Philosophy of God: existence, nature, etc. God & man: Religion

16. Aesthetics: Philosophy of Art. Why do we consider some things to be beautiful and not others?

17. Logic. The art of rational thinking.

Text book: “Philosophy: The Quest for Truth & Meaning” by Andrew Beards, Liturgical Press, 2010

Reading Books:

Victor Frankl, “Man's Search for Meaning”, Rider, 2004George Orwell, “Animal Farm”, Signet Classics,1946 Plato, “Five Dialogues”, Hackett Pub, 2002

©Rockbrook Park School 1

1. What is Philosophy? What are the different ways of knowing/learning about things? Science (empirical), Mathematical/Logical (deductive) v other forms.

Key questions:

> Do I ever wonder about the power of the mind and the big mysteries of the universe: its origin, its end, man, society, life, death, etc?>Am I satisfied with a shallow, superficial and unquestioning attitude to life?> Is it possible to dig deeper and look for reasons and answers to abstract general questions?> What does it all mean? Can I find meaning in the things and happenings around me? Main points (objectives):

> Philosophy is a way of knowing reality at a deeper level that science or common sense: it translates into “The love (philos) of wisdom (sophia)”> It begins with a sense of awe and wonder about so many questions – starting with WHY> One should not be satisfied with easy answers> Philosophy branches out into specialised studies depending on its object: man, world, knowledge, art, human acts, society, science, history> Even though there are disagreements, philosophy can lead to a proper understanding of these realities if one is careful, honest and bows to the possibility of truth

Philosopher: Socrates (lived in the 5th century BC; he was sentenced to death by the Athenian courts for 'corrupting youths' with his philosophical theories)

Thought Experiment:

There is a difference between asking 'what' & 'how' from asking 'why?' (or 'how is it possible?', 'what's the purpose?'). In science we study WHAT is a goldfish (animal species and type; colour; size; description; etc) and HOW it is born, grows, swims, gets fed, communicates, reproduces and dies. In philosophy we ask WHY there are goldfish at all; how do 'we' know they are goldfish; how can they be alive; what is the meaning of 'being alive'; is the life of a goldfish identical to the life of a plant or of a rock or of an elephant or of a child; why do they communicate; what is 'communication' and why is it needed; etc. These are more abstract and general questions. The look for ultimate causes and deep answers providing meaning. Sciences provide 'facts'; philosophy seeks 'meaning'.

Quotes:

“It is because of their wonder that men now and at first began to philosophise” (Aristotle, Metaphysics, I, 2)

“The unexamined life is not worth living” (Socrates, Apology, 38)

Recommended Reading:

Nagel, Thomas: What does it all mean?, p. 5

Sullivan, Daniel: An Introduction to Philosophy, p. 2-5


Homework:

1. Come up with 20 questions from a philosophical point of view about things that bother you or that you would like to know more about (e.g. is there anything 'real' outside my mind?, how come we understand each other when we communicate?, why do we need governments?).

2. Explain in your own words (between 200 and 300 words) why you think people: always agree to mathematical statements (e.g. 2 + 2 is 4; Triangles have three sides and three angles; If A = B and C = B then A = C), they often agree on scientific statements (e.g. The Earth is larger than the Moon; Penicillin kills bacteria; When you combine blue with yellow you get green; From conkers you get chestnut trees not sycamores), but they often disagree on philosophical statements (e.g. Man's purpose in life is to seek pleasure and avoid pain at all costs; Governments should not interfere in people's private lives; it is never OK to kill another human being; I am that same person who was born at my birth).

Reference material:

> Beards, Andrew: Philosophy, Ch. 1

> Nagel, Thomas: What does it all mean?, Ch. 1

> Fernandez Burillo, Santiago: Curso de Filosofía Elemental, Ch. 1, arvo.net

> Sullivan, Daniel: An Introduction to Philosophy, Ch. 31

> Scruton, Roger: Modern Philosophy, pp. 6-10


Topic 1.b: Types of Knowledge

Main points:

> Scientific point of view: works on empirical data trying to explain proximate causes; follows analytical method (divide complex entities into simpler components) and aims to make general rules and laws (synthesis)

> Logical/Mathematical point of view: tries to find relationships between abstract concepts of a quantitative (numeric) nature and relationships between judgments. Its method is deductive (from the top down).

> Philosophy's point of view: searching for ultimate causes; trying to find inner structure of being; works on common sense and natural life experiences;

> Faith point of view: incorporates believe in a revealed message into its method of inquiry.


Beards, A., p 78

Thought experiment:

There are some aspects of knowledge that cannot be known by scientific (analytical) method. Can a scientist determine what the life of a cow is by dissecting it into smaller pieces? Will a butcher manage to bring the cow to life by putting all the pieces together?Science cannot find answers to questions like: “what is science?”, “what is life?”, “what can I know?”, “what ought I to do?”, “what can I hope for?”. These questions are beyond the scope of science and they require a different kind of inquiry: the philosophical method. Homework:

> Read Plato's dialogue “Apology” and write summary in your own words (300-500 words) pointing out those attributes/qualities of Socrates that you found most impressive and those you found less likeable. Do you think the Athenians were right to condemn him to death? Justify your answers.

> What does Socrates mean when he says the wisest man is he who admits to knowing nothing. Do you agree with him? Explain why or why not (300 words).


2. What is man? A living Body with Intelligence, Will, Emotions, Passions. Man as a person.

Key questions:

> How is man different from other animals?> Am I the same person I was since I was born?> Why do I cry sometimes and other times I'm happy?> What am I doing when I'm talking to myself in my mind?

Main points (objectives):

> Man is a composite being: it is rooted in material being but it also has some immaterial faculties

> Every living organism has a life-principle that keeps it alive: in man it is his soul (intelligence and will) – a corpse is not a human body: it is a lump of decomposing matter.

> Avoid two extreme explanations of what man is: • dualism (body and soul are two distinct and separate entities that are 'united' in man by

a process that needs explanation; the spiritual soul is a 'prisoner' in the material body)• materialism (man is only a material body: all intellectual faculties can be explained as

material processes)

> Man can enter in contact with reality through his intellectual faculties and he can act on reality through his will, passions and emotions. The intellect allows man see beyond the immediate and temporal sensations received by his senses and grasp a deeper reality with which to infer universal knowledge. This deeper universal knowledge lies beyond the reach of other animals.

> The emotions are inner feelings. They are good and instrumental to move us to action, but they need to be controlled by reason and the will to prevent them from misguiding us (e.g. anorexia).

> The passions are changes in man when he becomes aware of good or bad situations for the body.Some examples are: Love, Desire, Joy (towards good sense experience) and Hate, Aversion, Sorrow (towards bad sense experiences).

> The will (voluntas) is the power of rational desire in man: it leads man to choose what is good (as presented by the intellect) and reject what is evil.

> Man is different to animals in that he can: override his biological instincts (not eat or drink voluntarily even when starving) relate to other objects independently of his instincts (e.g. for study or contemplation) choose the means to satisfy his instincts (cook to drink; be married to reproduce) aim to achieve ends that go beyond biological and organic processes (music, art,

learning, language, friendship, law, etc): activities that are universal and immaterial develop habits by way of regular practice and overcoming obstacles be able to abstract universal and stable ideas from ever-changing empirical realities be conscious of his own identity and able to reflect on his experiences

> Man is a person: it has potential for rational activity, freedom of action, intimacy, awareness of identity, inter-subjectivity. The dignity of man comes from his being a person.


Philosopher: Plato (lived in Athens from 427 to 327 BC; he wrote mostly dialogues about many different topics in which Socrates is the main character. He founded the first philosophical school: the Academy).

Thought Experiment:

If you break a stone or chalk into pieces you still have stone and chalk (a few pieces rather than just one piece). Stone and chalk are purely material entities: they are not living organisms.If you cut down a pine tree you no longer have a tree but a dead log. Likewise if you kill a living dog you cease to have a dog: you're left with lumps of tissue, fur, guts, fluid, etc.

Likewise when a person dies his corpse is not a body, though it might look like a human body: it is a lump of tissue, hair, fluids, bone, etc. A body without an animating principle (what we call a soul) is not a body: it's a corpse. “Without a soul there is no body”

Quotes:

“It has been said that man is a rational animal. All my life I have been searching for evidence which could support this.” (Bertrand Russell)

“Man is but a reed, the most feeble thing in nature, but he is a thinking reed.” (Blaise Pascal, Penseés)


Sullivan, Daniel: An Introduction to Philosophy, p. 94-97

Adler, Mortimer: The Question about Man, Introduction

Homework:

For Monday 17/9/2012 > Read the handouts (Adler's introduction to The Question about Man; G.K Chesterton's “How is man exceptional” and “What distinguishes Humans from other Animals”). Explain in 300-500 words the difference between man and non-human animals as a difference of degree or of kind. Discuss which type of difference do you think is more likely to be the case in your opinion, and give three good reasons why you take that view. For Monday 24/9/2012> Read Plato's dialogues “Meno” (especially pages 70 to 78) and “Phaedo” (especially pages 102 to 117). Discuss in 300-500 words whether you agree that knowledge is recollecting from experiences of the world of ideas that we had in a previous life of the soul. Reference material:

Sullivan, Daniel: An Introduction to Philosophy, Ch. 10, 14, 17

Yepes, R: Fundamentos de Antropologia, Ch. 1 & 2

Nagel, Thomas: What does it all mean?, Ch 4


3. How do we know?: senses, perception, abstraction, intellect/judgment, reason.

Key questions:

> Can I trust what I perceive through the senses?> Do the things I know exist inside my mind as well as outside it? How?> How does the mind work (from a non-scientific point of view)? Is the brain the same as the mind?> Why do we understand each other when we refer to things in general: trees, houses, dogs? > How does the mind move from the particular (the individual things we experience through the senses) to the universal (the ideas in our mind)?


Plato's theory of Ideas/Forms (quotes from the Phaedo):

> Ideas are permanent and do not change therefore cannot belong to sensual reality. They exist in a world separate from ours. (78 d, 79 d)> In order to have pure knowledge we must escape from the body (66 d). No thought comes to us through the body. (66 c)> When the body dies the soul remains in existence. (70 b, 72 a)> To know things is to recognise in them the Forms that the soul had contemplated before birth: theory of Recollection. (73a, 75e) > Therefore the soul preexisted the body and contemplated the Forms until it was born into a body. (76 c)

Aristotle's theory of Abstraction:

> Material reality can be perceived by our senses. Our mind is open to the material objects around us through the senses. But our mind is empty: we don't have ideas in the mind about material things before we experience things through our senses. > The objects of our sense-experience are not only perceived but also understood. e.g. We perceive (with our senses) an object with a wooden trunk and branches and leaves, which our intellect identifies as a 'tree'.

> All objects of our sense-experience have a material dimension (what the senses perceive) and a formal dimension (what the intellectual faculties apprehend). The colours, size, smoothness, etc of the tree are perceived by the senses, but the fact that it is a tree is grasped by the intellect.

> The senses are 'passive' (they receive sensations) whereas the mind is 'active' (it generates ideas).

> The intellectual faculties of the mind (understanding, judgement and reason) are capable to abstracting the formal dimension of material objects to generate concepts/ideas and work with them.


Philosopher: Aristotle

He lived in Macedonia and Athens, Greece, from 384 BC to 322 BC. He was a disciple of Plato, but he did not accept his theory of Forms and Recollection. Aristotle trusted the senses and explained the power of the mind to abstract the intellectual dimension of things. He wrote treatises on biology, physics, politics, metaphysics, ethics and rethoric. He can be considered the most comprehensive philosopher of all times and many philosophers over the centuries have developed theories from Aristotle's insights. Thought Experiment:

When you insert a drinking straw into a glass full of water you get the impression that the straw suddenly kinks/bends. But if you take it out again it looks perfectly straight. How would you explain what's happening here? Are your senses (eye-sight in this case) deceiving you, and therefore you can never trust them, or is there something in our way of knowing things that 'compensates' for what you see?

Quote:

“That the human mind has such powers (sensory and intellectual) does not depend on the size or complexity of the human brain. We do not think with our brains, even though we cannot think without them.” (M. Adler, Ten Philosophical Mistakes, p. 53)

Homework:

Check on encyclopediae (on the web or in books) for the definition of:

> Philosophical Skepticism

> Relativism

and explain them in your own words.


Sullivan, Daniel: An Introduction to Philosophy, Ch. 12

> Adler, Mortimer: Ten Philosophical Mistakes, Ch. 2 (Refutation of any divide between consciousness v physical world of objects)

Reference material:

> Fernandez Burillo, Santiago: Curso de Filosofía Elemental, Ch. 1-II, (On analytical method)


4. Is truth possible? Different states of mind: doubt, error, opinion, certainty, belief. Skepticism & relativism.

Key questions: What is truth? How can I be certain of anything? When can I say I'm in error?


Truth: Conformity (agreement) of a judgement of our mind to the fact or reality to which it refers; exact accordance with that which is, or has been, or shall be. Truth is based on being (on reality) and derives from it.

Error: Lack of conformity between a judgement of the mind and the reality to which it refers. There is a small amount of 'truthfulness' in error (like a 'half truth'), otherwise the mind would not hold on to it.

Doubt: A state of mind arising from lack of knowledge or evidence – the mind is suspended between two contradictory propositions; uncertainty of judgment or mind; unsettled state of opinion concerning the reality of an event, or the truth of an assertion, etc.; hesitation.

Certitude: The state of mind by which it adheres to the truth of a statement without hesitation. There is enough evidence to satisfy the mind about the validity of a statement.

Opinion: The state of mind that holds a proposition to be probably true but without certitide.

Skepticism: The philosophical position that denies the possibility of sure knowldge: we can only doubt and be uncertain about the things we know, because the senses deceive us and are unreliable. Knowledge is not possible: we cannot know anything for certain. We're always in doubt.

Relativism: The philosophical position that denies that truth refers to reality. There is not only one truth (the agreement of thought with reality) but many truths, depending on the person who thinks or the society or the culture or the time. Knowledge is subjective (based on the individual subject or person). Man is the measure of all things: there are no fixed rules or truths. There are no absolutes: only opinions.

Quote: “If the absolute statement 'There are no absolutes' is absolutely right, then it is absolutely wrong”, Three theories of everything

“Mi verdad, no! La Verdad, y ven conmigo a buscarla.La tuya, guárdatela” (Antonio Machado)


> Radical Academy: Philosophy Resource Centre – The Epistemological Question, Section 1

Reference material:

> Fernandez Burillo, Santiago: Curso de Filosofía Elemental, Ch. 5, arvo.net


5. Freedom. What is it? Is it possible? How do our contemporaries understand it?

Key questions:

> Why do I often end up doing what I know could be harmful to me?> What's the difference between 'freedom from' and 'freedom for'?> Could it be that I am not free at all? That my actions are totally pre-determined?> Is freedom an endowment (a gift) or a curse?

Freedom 'From' v Freedom 'To':

Freedom from: Negative freedom. Escaping from present or future constrains, demands of others, duties, and any other form of imposition. Negative freedom is freedom from external interference that prevents you from doing what you want, when you want to do it. These restrictions are placed on you by other people. The more negative freedom you have, the less obstacles that exist between you and doing whatever it is you desire.

Freedom to/for: Positive freedom. Building the capacity to fulfil one's highest meaning and purpose. It seeks to focus and commit towards a goal, and does not see these activities as impositions but ingredients to success. Positive freedom is the freedom to control and direct one’s own life. Positive freedom allows a man to consciously make his own choices, create his own purpose, and shape his own life; he acts instead of being acted upon.

Example:My parents are not at home tonight, so I am free to play the Xbox as long as I wish – I have no constrains or obstacles (freedom from anti-Xbox obstacles).I have an exam tomorrow, so though I am free to play the Xbox, I choose to study instead (freedom to replace playing the Xbox for studying)

Want v Choice

We should choose what we really want, not based on immediate desires of gratification, but on deeper, enduring goals about the kind of person we want to be and things we want to do.

I really want to play the Xbox tonight but I shouldn't because I have an exam tomorrow which I must pass – therefore I cannot do what I want.


6. Dignity of man. Man as person. Human Rights: where do they come from? How can we establish them and who inherits them?

Key questions:

> Are all human persons equal? Why?> Where does the dignity of the human person come from?> What are Human Rights? Where do they come from? Do we always agree to the same rights?> If you claim that man is no more than a bunch of cells and physical-chemical processes, how can you justifiy any basis for human rights? How could canibalism and homocide be wrong then?

Animal Farm: “All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others” (Ch X, p 134)

In Orwell's book, all animals become aware of their intrinsic rights and rebel against the human oppersors. As life in the farm developes after the revolution, and the pigs turn Animal Farm into a tiranic state, the animals only acquire the rights that are given to them by the authority (Napoleon) as it suits his wishes.

Definitions:

Human Rights are obligations of the State or other individuals towards the individual person.

Types of rights: Natural (intrinsic): belong to the individual by nature. Not given by the State (e.g.

Right to life, to liberty, to property, to freedom of expression, to bodily integrity, etc) Positive (extrinsic): given by law by the State (e.g. Smoke in public places, bear arms,

vote at 16, etc)

All rights are: Interdependent: rights are related among themselves (e.g. right to vote is dependent on

right to education and freedom of speech). Hierarchical: Some rights are more fundamental than other rights, because they are

necessary conditions for the possibility of lesser rights (e.g. the right to life is necessary for someone to have a right to property, etc).

Natural rights are also: Inalienable: they cannot be taken away from the person Universal: apply to all cultures at all times

Origin of Human Rights:

a. Established, declared and granted by the authority (e.g. the State's Constitution)b. Broadest political consensus (e.g. UN Declaration of Human Rights)c. All men have the same nature from which these human rights can be derived

The legitimacy of the State is grounded on the inalienable natural rights of the citizens, who acquire them simply by being human persons: these rights are not given to the citizens by the State, and the State cannot take them away from citizens.

Reference material: Spitzer, R: Ten Universal Principles, Ch. 3

Homework: Read the article on the Dred Scott Decision on Slavery and answer the 3 questions.


7. Man in Society. The Common Good. Origins of Authority. Forms of Government. Subsidiarity.

Key questions:

> Why do we form societies? What binds us together?> Why do we surrender our lives to Governments and authority?> What is the purpose of society? What is the common good?> What's wrong with Totalitarian forms of Government?


Animal Farm (Ch. I to V)Animals in Manor Farm rebel because their individual actions are not contributing to the common good of the farm. They expel their oppressor (society based on fear) and establish new rules of engagement for their society (the 7 commandments, p. 24). The origin of society (and so the justification of power and authority) is either:

a contract out of fear to defend ourselves from each other: “man is a wolf to man” (Hobbes) a social contract to benefit more from each other's potential (Rousseau) the outcome of man's proper nature: “man is a social animal” (Aristotle)

The Common GoodHuman actions produce individual goods (the good of the action) but those actions also contribute to a common good (which is more than just the sum of individual goods). e.g. Well educated population is the outcome of individual people having learned stuff: so they can vote, they can build infrastructure, they can cure deceases. A safe environment is more than just an enforced martial law: it's the general good behaviour of most people.

The purpose of societies is to facilitate individual goods, and so contribute to the common good.

The Common Good is not the same as Public Goods (e.g. Waste-disposal, motorways or street lighting).

There are many levels of human society: families, clubs, bands, schools, towns, counties, regions, nations (Estates), supra-national organizations, etc.

Authority should take into account other levels of autonomous societies: e.g. National government should not decide matters that apply to local authorities; local councils should not decide what goes on in families or in schools.

Forms of political authority:In modern democratic societies, the authority (power) of the Estate is distributed according to the principle of “distribution of powers”

Legislative (Parliament) – they design and approve the lawsExecutive (Government) & Administrative (Civil Service) – implement the laws in practical waysJudiciary (Judges and Police) – enforce the laws

In totalitarian systems, the three powers are in the hands of the same people, so it lends itself to abuses because the judiciary (the judges) cannot enforce the laws over the Government.


Where does authority come from?

> the people directly – electing their representative (e.g. Republic)> the people indirectly – agreeing to a handing-on of authority by tradition (e.g. Monarchy)> God directly – appointing the rulers> God indirectly – authority is an essential aspect of how man and societies function

What is the difference between 'formal' and 'moral' authority?

LEADERSHIP AS…

POSITION (FORMAL AUTHORITY)

CHOICE (MORAL AUTHORITY)

COMMAND & CONTROL SERVICE & MODELING

MIGHT MAKES RIGHT RIGHT MAKES MIGHT

THE “WRONG” IS IN GETTING CAUGHT THE “WRONG” IS IN DOING WRONG

TO GET ALONG, GO ALONG STUBBORN REFUSAL

LOYALTY ABOVE INTEGRITY INTEGRITY IS LOYALTY

SCARCITY MENTALITY ABUNDANCE MENTALITY

Homework:Give at least 2 examples of people who have (or had, if they are no longer alive):

no formal authority but plenty of moral authority

a)

b)

formal authority but no moral authority

a)

b)

both formal and moral authority

a)

b)Recommended Reading: Animal Farm, by George Orwell


8. Law & Justice. Violence & War.

Key questions:

> Why do we need laws to live normal lives?> Does the Law have moral force by itself or only when it is imposed by the Police?> Can laws be unjust? Is it always wrong to break the law? why do we get punished when we break it?> Who can make laws? What different types of laws are there?> Who are the subjects of laws? Who is guaranteed protection under the law?

Main points:

What is law? The concept of law is very rich: it is more than just a set of prohibitions imposed by an

external authority(“Thou shalt not smoke in public”) It is also more than a set of restrictive rules that protect human beings against violence and

abuse of their human rights (“If you steal someone else's property you go to jail”) It is primarily an expression of the order & harmony that exists in nature, especially in

human nature. There is a harmonious order between parts and whole in every aspect of the universe, and this harmony can be expressed in law by human reason. (e.g. Scientific laws like: “law of gravity”, “Archemides law of fluids”, and Human laws like: “parents have a duty to nurture and educate their children”; “everyone is entitled to express their opinion as long as they don't offend other people”)

Absence of law leads to chaos (lack of order and harmony), and to violence.

Types of Human Laws: non-written law (also called Moral or Natural law): which man finds written in his heart

and is expressed by his conscience at the time of acting. It helps man follow what is good and necessary for him to achieve his ultimate purpose/destiny and the common good.

written law (also called Juridical or Positive law): it is all the laws that regulate society; it needs to be defined and promulgated (published) by the legislator, and it must be followed by the citizens to which it applies (it has compulsory obligation)

The binding power or force of a written law comes from its following after the Natural law. Justice is “to give to each person what is due to him/her”, and it is the foundation of human rights and natural/moral laws. Only if a law follows the natural law of man can it be called a just law.

A written/juridical law which contradicts the Natural law loses all its power/force (it's an unjust law), and can be disobeyed/broken without leading to moral wrong (although it might lead the person who breaks it to be punished by the authority imposing that unjust law).

If there is no natural/moral law (if there is no universal good order & harmony for man) then the power of juridical laws comes only from brute force (by “law enforcement” units: i.e. the police).

Quote: At his best, man is the noblest of all animals; separated from law and justice he is the worst. (Aristotle, The Politics)

Reference material:Yepes, R: Fundamentos de Antropologia, Ch. 1 & 2


9. Can Computers Think? The Turing Test and its critics

> Is processing data the same as being 'intelligent' or is there more to the human way of thinking?> How can we test if computers actually 'think'?> What does it take for a computer to be said to be 'intelligent'?> Will we be ever able to make 'thinking' computers?

The Turing Test

In 1950 Alan Turing (a British mathematician who not only cracked the Nazi codes, the Enigma, during World War II, but also laid much of the groundwork for the creation of modern digital computers) came up with an elegant theory. He constructed the simple proposition that if human beings are intelligent, and if a machine can imitate a human, then the machine, too, would have to be considered intelligent.

In Turing's proposal, a human interrogator sits in a room opposite a teletype or computer terminal. Hidden from the interrogator is a computer and another human being. The interrogator interviews both and tries to determine which is human and which is a computer. If the computer can fool the interrogator, it is deemed intelligent.

Turing called this the "imitation game," although it is now universally known as the Turing Test.

John Searle in 1980 came up with a strong criticism of the Turing Test. The Chinese Room argument is an argument against the possibility of true Artificial Intelligence (AI). The argument centers on a thought experiment in which someone who knows only English sits alone in a room following English instructions for manipulating strings of Chinese characters, such that to those outside the room it appears as if someone in the room understands Chinese. The argument is intended to show that while suitably programmed computers may appear to converse in natural language, they are not capable of understanding language, even in principle. They are not 'thinking' but simply following instructions placed into them by the human programmer.

The Turing Test is not a good way of testing whether computers actually 'think' because it is a test of 'imitation': whether computers produce the same 'ouput' as humans. Imitation is not 'thinking'. There is a difference between 'processing data' and 'understanding'.

Elements involved in Human Thinking/Understanding

Consciousness: we are aware of our identity and of the fact that we are alive and thinking Self-reflection: we are capable of thinking about ourselves and about what we are thinking Intentionality: thoughts are always about something else. There is a thinking 'subject'

directing its thoughts towards an 'object' being thought about. Psycho(mind)-Somatic(body) combination: Understanding is the product of mind and

body. We do not think with our brain alone, even though we cannot think without it. Emotions, feelings, senses, will and passions also play a role in our intelligence.

Opinions, Doubt & Certitude: computers do not suffer the uncertainty associated with human understanding.

Humour: to be amused by jokes and appreciate irony is deeper and more complex than mere data processing.

Transcendence and freedom: human understanding can contradict and act against every 'input' processed by the mind. Humans often do what they see as unsuitable and inapropriate, going against their own intelligence.


10. What is Time. Different theories.

Key questions:

> What does it mean to say that Time is the 4th Dymension? > Would Time exist if there weren't any objects in the Universe?> Is Time real or is it just a concept of the mind?> Does Time exist for ever (it is eternal) or does it have a begining and an end?> Can we travel in Time?

Main points:

What is Time? Three types of theories that try to explain Time:

Objective theory: Time has a real nature of its own. It is like a 'container' into which things exist and change happens. Time exists independently

Subjective theory: Time does not exist. It is an illusion and a construction of the mind. We perceive objects always 'in' time. It has no reality of its own or even in things.

Middle-ground Theory: Time is both subjective (in the mind) and objective (in things). It is a property (attribute, dymension or 'accident') of matter: it is the process whereby change and movement can take place. Times does not exist independently from matterial objects. It is a measurement of movement and change, according to anteriority and posteriority.

Properties of Time:

Succession: there is past events, present and future, and they cannot be simultaneous. Only the present is real – it is infinitesimal, instantaneous. Things do not exist in the past or in the future: they only exist in the present. That's why Time Travel is not possible: physically, metaphysically or logicaly.

Continuity: there cannot ba gaps in time. Time does not stop because the succession cannot be broken.

The continuity of succession is always about something. Time does not exist in a vacuum.

Does Time have a Begining and/or an End?

If time is only an attribute of material things, time would begin with the start/creation/origin of a material universe, and it would end only when things cease to exist.


Man's Search for Meaning (by Viktor Frankl)

Key ideas from the book:

Life includes suffering. If there is meaning in life there must be meaning in suffering. It's up to each one to find that meaning (p. 9)

Last of human freedoms: to choose one's attitude; to be worthy of suffering and raise above awful conditions (p. 9)

Who were the survivors? (p. 18)

• Capos: selected from most brutal and loyal

• self-selected survivors who would do anything against others to stay alive

survival at all cost? Ready to dessert your post at battle, surrender, hand over your loved onses, break promises, tell lies, go against your conscience?

Three phases of prisoners psychological development (p. 22)

Phase 1: reactions of those arriving at the camp (p. 22 to 32):

• shock (p. 22)

• delusion of reprieve (p. 23)

• everything taken away: nakedness all they were left with (p. 28)

• loss of naivity (p. 29)

• curiousity: wondering what will happen next

• discovering amazing endurance capabilities (p. 30)

• pointless thoughts of suicide due to short life expectancy (p. 31)

• need to look fit enough for work to survive execution

• abnormal reactions (smile) to abnormal situations (death sentence) (p. 32)

Phase 2a: develop into apathy and emotional death (p. 33 to 60)

• insensitive to horrors, beatings, cruelty, even death

• all emotions centered on survival (p. 40)

• dreams (even nightmares) were better than reality

• over preocupation with food; why is it dangerous? (p. 41f)

• absence of sexual urges and perversion (p. 44)

• cultural hibernations, except for politics and religion (p 45)

• kept himself awake writing notes about his thesis

• deepening spiritual life: better chance of survival (p. 47)

• contemplation of the beloved is the highest goal of man (p. 49)

• intensification of inner life: growth in beauty and art (p. 50)

• sense of humor for self-presevation (p. 54)


suffering fills the whole human soul (p. 55)

do not judge people in extreme circumstances

Phase 2b: loss of sense of dignity and human values (p. 60 to 90)

• loss of self-respect led to forgetting he was a unique individual and he became part of a crowd (p. 60)

• prisoners were just numbers; their life did not matter: it was irrelevant (p. 63)

• afraid to make decisions: total apathy; let fate drive one's life (p. 66)

• inferiority complex (p. 72)

Phase 2c: Is man the product of his surroundings? Is there any spiritual freedom? (p. 74-85)

• Ultimate freedom: to choose one's attitude (p.75)

• the sort of person prisoners became was his own inner choice, not the result of camp circumstances.

• Man can decide what he becomes mentally and spiritually

• Not only creative and enjoyment are meaningful: also suffering and death (p. 76)

Phase 2d: Meaning of life is based on having goals for the future (p. 78-87)

• If one cannot see the end of “provisional existence” one stops having an ultimate goal in life: ceased living for the future (p. 79)

• Without aims for the future prisoners remained in the past. Life became meaningless. Man can only live by looking to the future. The prisoner who lost faith in the future was doomed (p. 80-82)

• He who has a why to live can survive any how; we need goals for the future (p. 84)

• Man's destiny is unique, and so is the meaning of life for each person; responsibility to find answers to one's challenges (p. 85)

• Embrace suffering to understand the meaning of life (p. 86)

• A person is ireplaceable, so is his contribution to life (p. 87)

Phase 3: The psychology of the prisoner who has been released (p. 91 to 100)

• Psychology of the camp guards: four types of guards (p. 92)

• There are only two races of people: the decent and the undecent (p. 94)

• Eating and talking non-stop (p 96)

• Vengance: Became oppresors rather than oppressed, unjustly (p. 97)

• No one has a right to do wrong (p. 98)

• Unhappiness and disillusioment


4th Year Philosophy – Rockbrook Park School · 2013-05-21 · 4th Year Philosophy – Rockbrook...

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