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FM 5-134 List of Tables

FM 5-134 Preface

FM 5-134 Chapter 1

FM 5-134 Chapter 2

FM 5-134 Chapter 3

FM 5-134 Chapter 4

FM 5-134 Chapter 5

FM 5-134 Chapter 6

FM 5-134 Chapter 7

FM 5-134 Chapter 8

FM 5-134 Appendix

FM 5-134 Glossary

FM 5-134 References

FM 5-134 Index

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Field M anu al No. 5-134 *FM 5-134

Headq uarters, Department of the ArmyWashington , DC, 18 April 1985

P I L E

C O N S T R U C T I O N

*This field manual supersedes TM 5-258, 18 June 1963.

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Preface

P-1. Purp ose and scope. This manu al is organized to be used as a fieldreference. Chapter 1 through 4 discuss piles, equipm ent, and installation.Information concerning design (less that of sheet piling structures) isprovided in chapters 5 through 7 for use w hen tactical and logisticalsituations dictate original design. These chapters are of primary interest toengineer staff officers p lanning pile construction w hen the stand ardinstallations, facilities, equipmen t and sup plies of the Arm y FacilitiesComp onent System (AFCS) are not used . The append ix presents infor-mation on piling materials not currently available through military sup ply.The glossary contains terms frequently used in pile design and construction,

acronyms, and abbreviations used in this manual.P-2. User inform ation. The propon ent agency of this publication is theUS Army Engineer School. Submit changes for improving this publicationon DA Form 2028 (Recomm ended Changes to Publications and BlankForms) and forward to US Army Engineer School, ATTN: ATZA-TD-P, FortBelvoir, Virginia 22080-5291.
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C H A P T E R 2

MATERIALS

Section I. SELECTION OF MATERIALS

2-1. Considerations.

The varied factors to be consid ered inselecting piles is covered in chapter 1, sectionII Chapter 2 discusses selection of pilesbased on the typ e of construction and theavailability and physical properties of thematerials.

a. Hasty construction. In hasty con-struction, full use is made of any readilyavailable materials for p ile found ationscapable of supporting the superstructure and

maximum load during a short term. Thetactical situation, available time, andeconomy of construction effort dictateconstruction.

b. Deliberate construction. In a theater ofoperations, timber piles are normally avail-able in lengths of 30 to 70 feet. They are alsorelatively easy to transport and manipu late.Steel piling is next in imp ortance, especiallywhere deliberate construction is planned toaccomm odate heavy loads or wh ere thefoundation is expected to be used for a longtime. Small d isplacement steel H-piles are

particularly suited to p enetrating d eep layersof course gravel, boulders, or soft rock such ascoral. Such p iles also reduce heave of ad jacent

structures.

2-2. Army Facilities ComponentsSystem (AFCS) materials.

Complete bills of m aterials for facilities andinstallations of the AFCS are in TM 5-303.These detailed listings, identified by facilitynu mber an d description, provide stocknum ber, nomenclature, un it, and quantityrequired. For ad ditional information con-cerning AFCS installations involving p ile

foundations, consult TM 5-301 and TM 5-302.

Section II. TIMBER PILES

2-3. Classification.

The American Society for Testing andMaterials (ASTM) classifies timber pilesaccording to their intended use (table 2-l).Class A and class B piles are identical inquality, but differ in size. Class C piles (notlisted) normally are not treated w ith pre-

servatives. Timber piles are further classifiedin terms of marine and nonm arine use.

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a. Marine use. (2) Type II. Type II piles, pressure treatedwith creosote, are suitable for use in marinewaters of severe borer hazard .

(1) Type I. Type I piles, pressure treatedwith w aterborne preservatives and creo- (3) Type III. Type III piles, pressure treated

sote (dual treatment), are suitable for use with creosote, are suitable for use in marinein marine w aters of extreme borer hazard. waters of moderate borer hazard.

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b. Nonmarine use.

(1) Type I. Type I piles are untreated.

(2) Type II. Type II piles are treated.

2-4. Character istics.

A good timber pile has the followingcharacteristics.

Free of sharp bends, large or loose knots,shakes, splits, and decay.

A straight core between the butt and tipwithin the body of the pile.

Uniform taper from butt to tip.

2-5. Source.

Usually, timber piles are straight tree trunkscut off above ground swell, with branchesclosely trimm ed and bark removed (figure2-l). Occasionally, sawed timber may be usedas bearing piles.

2-6. Strength.

The allowable load on timber piles is basedon pile size, allowable w orking stress, soilconditions, and available driving equipment.These factors are discussed in chapters 5

through 7. The customary allowable load ontimber piles is between 10 and 30 tons. Higherloads generally require verification bypile load tests. For piles designed as columns,working stresses (compression parallel to thegrain) for various types of timber are listed intable 2-2.

2-7. Du rab ility.

A principal disad vantage of timber p iles islack of du rability un der certain conditions.Piles are subject to fungi (decay), insects, and

marine borers. Design life depends on thespecies and condition of the wood, the amount

and type of preservative treatment, the degreeof exposure, and other factors. Chapter 8discusses maintenance and rehabilitation.

2-8. Availability.

Timber suitable for piling is abundant inmany parts of the world (see appendix).Timber piling may be obtained from localstocks or cut from stand ing timber. Thenative stock may be used untreated, or apreservative may be app lied as discussed inchapter 8.

2-9. Maintenance.

Because of deterioration, considerabletreatment and maintenance is required on

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timber piles. Maintenance is discussed inchapter 8.

2-10. Other p roperties.

a. Length . Length m aybe adjusted by simplecarpentry (sawing). Timber p iles may be cut

off if they do not penetrate as far as esti-mated. Piles dr iven into water substrata canbe adjusted by sawing off the pile tops abovewater level. They can also be sawed u nd er-water using a saw supported by a frameworkabove the water level. Short piles may beeasily spliced.

b. Flexibility. Timber piles are more flexibilethan steel or concrete piles wh ich makesthem useful in fenders, dolphins, small piers,and similar structures. They will deflectconsiderably, offer lateral resistance, and

spring back into position absorbing the shockof a docking ship or other impact.

c. Fire susceptib ility. Timber p iles ex-tending above the water line, as in trestles orw aterfront structur es, are susceptible todamage or destruction by fire.

2-11. Shippin g and hand ling.

Timber piles are easy to handle and shipbecause they are relatively light and strong.Because th ey float, they can be transportedby rafting particularly for waterfront struc-tures. They can be pulled, cleaned, and reusedfor supplementary construction such as false-work, trestles, and work platforms.

Section III. STEEL PILES

2-12. Class ification .

Steel piles are u sually rolled H-sections orpipe piles; although wide-flange (WF) beamsare sometimes used. In the H-pile, the flanges

and web are of equal thickness. The standardWF shapes have a thinner web than flange.

The 14-inch H-pile section weighing 73 poundsper linear foot and the 12-inch H-pile sectionweighing 53 pound s per linear foot are usedmost frequently in military construction.

a. H-piles. Steel H-piles are widely usedwhen conditions call for hard driving, great

lengths, or high working loads per pile. Theypenetrate into the ground m ore readily thanother types, partly because they d isplacerelatively little ma terial. They are p ar-ticularly suitable, therefore, when the bearingstratum is at great dep th. Steel piles areadjustable in length by cutting, splicing, orwelding.

b. Pipe piles. Pipe piles are either w elded orseamless steel pipes which may be drivenopen-ended or closed-ended.

c. Railroad-rail p iles. Railroad r ails can beformed into piles as shown in figure 2-2. Thisis useful when other sources of piles are notavailable.

d. Other. Stru ctured steel such as I-beams,channels, and steel pipe are often availablefrom captured, salvaged, or local sources.With resourceful design and installation, theycan be used as piles wh en other, moreconventional piles are not available.

2-13.Characteristicsa. Resilience. A steel pile is not as r esilientas a timber pile; nevertheless, it is strong andelastic. Large lateral load s may causeoverstressing and p ermanent deformation ofthe steel, although the pile probably will notbreak. A steel pile may be bent and evenkinked to some degree and still supp ort alarge load.

b. Penetration.

(1)H-piles. A steel H-pile will drive easilyin clay soils. The static load generally will

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be greater than the driving resistance pile and be carried d own with it. The coreindicates because the skin friction in- of soil trapped on each side of the web will

creases after rest. In stiffer clays, the p ile cause the pile to act as a large disp lacementmay h ave the soil compacted between the pile.flanges in d riving. The clay may grip the

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(2) Pipe piles. Pipe piles dr iven open-endpermit greater driving depths, as less soildisplacement occurs. Pipe piles can bereadily inspected after driving. If smallboulders are encountered d uring d riving,they may be broken by a chopp ing bit or

blasting. Pipe piles are often filled withconcrete after d riving.

2-14. Source.

a. AFCS. Steel piles can be obtained fromAFCS as described in paragrap h 2-2.

b. Local sup ply. In combat, piles or materialto constru ct them can be obtained fromcaptured enemy stock or from the localeconomy within a th eater of operations. Full

use should be mad e of such captured,salvaged, or local materials by substitutingthem for the standard steel bearing pilingindicated by AFCS. Old or new rail sectionsmay be available from military supplychannels, captured stocks, or u nused rails incaptured territory. Figure 2-2 shows methodsof welding steel rails to form expedient piles.Such expedient piles are usually fabricated inlength s of 30 feet.

2-15. Strength.

The strength ofperm itting long

steel piles is high, thu slengths to be hand led.

Lengths up to 100 feet are not uncommon,although piles greater than 60 feet requirecareful handling to avoid excessive bendingstresses. Pipe p iles are somew hat stiffer thanrolled steel sections. The allowable load onsteel piles is based on the cross-sectionalarea, the allowable working stress, soilconditions, and available driving equipment.The maximum allowable stress is generallytaken as 0.35 to 0.50 times the yield strength

with a value of 12,000 pounds per square inch(psi) used frequently. Allowable loads onsteel piles vary between 50 and 200 tons.

2-16. Du rability.

Although deterioration is not a matter ofgreat concern in military structures, steelbearing piles are subject to corrosion anddeterioration. The effects of corrosion,

preventive measures taken to protect steelpiles, and remed ial measures to correctprevious damage are discussed in chapter 8.

2-17. Ship ping and handlin g.

a. Transporting. Although qu ite heavy,steel piles are easy to hand le and ship . Theycan be transported by rail, water, or truck.Precautions should be taken during shippingand handling to prevent kinking of flanges orperman ent d eformation. Steel pipes must bepr operly stored to p revent mechanical

damages.

b. Lifting and stackin g. H-piles can belifted from the transport with a special slipon clamp and a bridle sling from a crane.Clamps are attached at points from one fifthto one fourth of the length from each end toequalize the stress. To make lifting easier, asmall hole may be burned in a flange betweenthe upp er third and quarter points. Then ashackle may be a ttached to lift the p iles intothe leads. Piles should be stacked on timbersso that they are kept reasonably straight.

Section IV. PRECAST CONCRETEPILES

2-18. Classification .

Precast concrete piles are steel-reinforcedmembers (sometimes prestressed) of uniformcircular, square, or octagonal section, with orwithout a taper at the tip (figure 2-3). Precastpiles range up to 40 or 50 feet in lengthalthough longer lengths may be obtained if

the piles are prestressed. Classification isbasically by shape and is covered inparagraph 2-20.

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2-19. Characteri stics. difficulty requ iring both the chiseling of theconcrete and the cutting of the reinforcing

Precast piles are strong, du rable and m ay be rods.cast to the designed shape for the particularapp lication. The process of precasting is not 2-20. Source.available in th e theater of opera tions. They

are difficult to handle unless prestressed, and Precast concrete piles are manufactured in athey d isplace considerable ground du ring casting ya rd , at the job site, or at a centrald riving. Length ad justm ent is a m ajor location. The casting yard is arranged so the

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piles can be lifted from th eir forms andtransported to the pile driver with a minimumof handling (figure 2-4). The casting yardincludes storage space for aggregates andcement, mixing unit, forms, floor area for thecasting operations, and sufficient storagespace for the completed piles. The casting

yard should have a well-drained surface thatis firm enough to prevent warping during the

period between placement and hardening.Cement and aggregates may be handled bywheelbarrows or buggies. Additional storagespace may be needed for the completed p iles.

a. Forms. Forms for piles may be of wood(figure 2-5) or metal. They m ust be tight toprevent leakage, firmly braced, and designedfor assembly and disassembly so that they

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can be reused. Forms m ust be thoroughlycleaned and oiled with a nonstaining oilbefore use.

b. Reinforcement. For precast concrete pilessubjected to axial loadings, steel rein-forcement provides resistance to the stresses

caused by hand ling an d driving. Threemethods of handling concrete piles areillustrat ed in figure 2-6. Depend ing on themethod u sed, the size and n um ber oflongitudinal reinforcement bars aredetermined from design charts in figure 2-7.These charts are based up on an allowablestress of 1,400 psi in the concrete and 20,000psi in the steel, without allowance for impact.Minimum reinforcement cages are assembledas shown in figure 2-4. Adequ ate spiralreinforcing at the pile head and tip isnecessary to reduce the tend ency of the pile tosplit or span d uring dr iving.

c. Placemen t. When concrete is placed inthe forms by han d, it should be of plasticconsistency with a 3-inch to 4-inch slum p.Use a concrete mix having a l-inch to 2-inchslump with concrete vibrators. Reinforcementshould be properly positioned and securedwhile the concrete is placed and vibrated.Details concerning the design of concrete

mixes are contained in TM 5-742.

d. Curing. Forms should not be removed forat least 24 hours after concrete is placed.Following the removal of the forms, the pilesmust be kept wet for at least seven days whenregular portland cement is used, and threedays when high-early strength cement isused. Curing methods are discussed in TM5-742. Pending and saturated straw, sand, orburlap give good results. The p iles should notbe moved or driven until they have acquiredsufficient strength to prevent damage. Each

pile should be marked with a referencenum ber and th e date of casting.

2-21. Stren gth .

Precast concrete piles can be driven to highresistance without damage. They are as-signed greater allowable loads th an timberpiles. As with other p ile types, allowableloads are based on the pile size, soilconditions, and other factors. Customaryallowable loads range from 20 to 60 tons for a10-inch diameter precast concrete pile and 70to 200 tons for an 18-inch square precastconcrete pile.

2-22. Durability.

Under ordinary conditions, concrete piles arenot subject to deterioration. They can be usedabove the water table. Refer to chapter 8 foradditional information on durability.

2-23. Availab ility.

Precast piles are available only when thecasting facility is nearby. See paragraph 2-20.

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2-24. Shippin g and h and ling.

a. Handling. Piles should be handled inaccordance with the p rocedu re selected fordesign (figure 2-6). For placement, piles maybe lifted by cables and hooks looped aroundthe pile at the desired point. To prevent w earto the cable, use short lengths of wood orother cushioning material, Piles designed fortwo-point support (figure 2-6, 3) and lifted bycables require the following arrangement.

A sheave is required at p oint A so that thecable will be continuous from point B overthe sheave at A to point C. This cable is anequalizer cable since the tension in ABmust be the same as that of AC. Unless anequalizer is used, care must be taken inlifting the pile so that tension in the cables

is equal; otherwise, the entire load mayrest on one end.

When the p ile is raised to a verticalposition, another line, CD, is attached.When d rawn up , the sheave at A shiftstoward C.

An ad ditional line is needed with thiscable arrangement to prevent the pile fromgetting out of control when it is raised to avertical position.

b. Shipping and storage. If piles are to bestacked for storage or shipment, the blocking

between the tiers mu st be in vertical lines sothat a pile in a lower tier will not be subject tobending by the weight of the piles above. Anexample of improper stacking is shown infigure 2-8. A forklift or specially equippedfront-end loader can be used to m ove pilesfrom the storage area to the work area.Whenever possible, locate the casting site asclose as possible to the job site. Trans-portation by barge is the best method, iffeasible.

Section V. CAST-IN-PLACE PILES

2-25. Classification .

Cast-in-place piles are either cased oruncased. Both are made at the site by forming

a hole in the groun d at the required locationand filling it with a properly designed con-crete mix.

a. Cased. The concrete of a cased pile is castinside a metal casing or pipe left in theground. The casing is driven to the requireddep th and cleaned before placement ofconcrete. If the casing is relatively th in, amand rel is used to drive the casing. Manydifferent kinds of shells and mandrels areavailable commercially, but not throughmilitary supp ly channels. Those of foreign

manu facture m ay be available in a theater ofoperation.

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b. Uncased. Uncased concrete piles referredto as drilled piers are frequently used. Variousaugers are used for drilling holes up to 72inches in d iameter with depths up to 60 feet ormore. Auger holes are excavated by the d ryprocess. The bottom of the pier maybe under-reamed at the base, if desired, to provide

greater end-bearing area or resistance againstuplift forces. Drilling mud advancing throu ghsubmerged granular materials keeps the holeopen. The d ry shaft is filled w ith concrete. Atremie pipe is used through the drilling mud.Steel reinforcement may be used in theconcrete.

2-26.Characteristics.

The characteristics of cast-in-place p ilesdepend greatly on the quality of workmanshipand characteristics of the soils and sup portenvironment. Materials for concrete con-struction are readily available in manymilitary situations, thus drilled piers havesome military application. They require largediameter augers. Installation requires betterthan average workmanship. Groundw ater isinfluential in determining the difficulty ofinstallation. Even small inflow quantities ofwater m ay indu ce caving, thus requiring theuse of casing or dr illing mu d. Drilled p ierscan provide a rapid and economical methodof pile installation under many conditions.

2-27. Strength and durability.

Cast-in-place piles are stron g. Large loadscan be carried by cast-in-place piles dependingon the cross-sectional area of the pile. Likeprecast piles, cast-in-place piles are du rable.If the p ile is cased, even thou gh th e casingshould deteriorate, the concrete portion willremain intact.

2-28. Construction.

Construction of cast-in-place piles isdescribed in chapter 4.

Section VI. SHEET PILES

2-29.Classification.

Sheet piles vary in u se and mater ials. Theymay be classified by their uses. They d ifferfrom previously described piles in that they

are not bear ing piles, but ar e retaining p iles.Sheet p iles are special shapes of interlockingpiles mad e of steel, wood , or concrete whichform a continuous wall to resist horizontalpressures resulting from earth or water loads.The term sheet piling is used interchangeablywith sheet piles.

2-30. Uses.

Sheet piles are used to resist earth and waterpressure as a part of a temporary orpermanent structure.

a. Bulk heads. Bulkheads are an integralpart of watefront structures such as wharvesand docks. In retaining structures, the sheetpiles depend on embedm ent supp ort, as incantilever sheet piling, or embedment andanchorage at or near the top, as in anchoredsheet p iling.

b. Cofferdams. Cofferdams exclude waterand earth from an excavation to facilitateconstruction.

c. Trench sheeting. Trench sheeting whenbraced at several points is termed bracedsheeting.

d. Small dams an d cutoff walls.Sheetpiles may be u sed to form sm all dam s andmore frequently cutoff walls beneath water-retaining structures to control seepagethrough the found ations.

e. Bridge piles. Sheet piles are used in theconstruction of bridges an d left in p lace. For

examp le, a p ier may be formed by d rivingsteel sheet piling to create a circular enclosure,

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excavating the material inside to the d esired available sizes and shapes are given indepth, and filling the enclosed space withconcrete.

f. Groin s and sea walls. Sea walls areparallel to the coastline to prevent directwave and erosion damage. Groins or jettiesare perpendicular, or nearly so, to the coast-line to p revent dam age from longshore

currents or tidal erosion of the shore when themotion of the water is parallel, or at an angle,to the shoreline.

2-31. Materials.

a. Steel sheet pilin g. Steel sheet pilingpossesses several advantage over otherma terials. It is resistant to high dr ivingstresses, is relatively lightweight, can beshortened or lengthened readily, and maybereused. It has a long service life, either aboveor below water, with modest protection. Sheet

piling available through military supplychannels is listed in table 2-3. Commercially

TM 5-312. The deep-arch web and Z-piles areused to resist large bending movements(figure 2-9). Sheet pile sections of foreignman ufacture, either steel or concrete, shouldbe used when available. The sizes andproperties may differ appreciably from typescommonly available in the United States.

b. Fabricated timber sheet piling. Timbersheet piling may be fabricated for temporarystructu res when lateral loads ar e relativelylight. Timber used in permanent structuresabove water level requires pr eservativetreatment as described for timber piles(chap ter 8). Various types oftimber sheetpiling are shown in figure 2-10. The heads arenormally chamfered and the foot is cut at a 60degree slope to force piles together du ringdriving.

(1) Wakefield sheet piling. Wake field pilingis used in water and where hard driving is

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c. Rail and plank sheet piling. Railroad d. Concrete sheet piling.Typical concreterails and planking can be used in expedient sheet piling (figure 2-12) may be advan-sheet piling (figure 2-11). The p lanks should tageou s in m ilitary constru ction w henbe leveled along both edges to fit snugly materials for their construction are available.against the adjacent rail. This piling is Due to their strength and du rability, theyinstalled by alternately driving a rail, then a adapt well to bulkhead construction.plank.

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C H A P T E R 3

P I L E - D R I V I N G E Q U I P M E N T

Section I. STANDARD PILE-DRIVINGEQUIPMENT

3-1. Basic driving and installingmethods.

Piles are installed or driven into the groundby a rig which supports the leads, raises thepile, and operates the ham mer. Rigs areusually manufactured, but in the field theymay be expedient, that is, constructed withavailable materials. Modern comm ercial rigsuse vibratory drivers wh ile most older an dexpedient rigs use impact hammers. Theintent is the same, that is to drive the pile intothe ground (strata).

3-2. Rig mounting and attachments.

Pile-dr iving rigs are mou nted in d ifferentways, depending on their use. This includesrailwa y, barge, skid , craw ler, and truck-mou nted d rivers. Specialized machines areavailable for d riving piles. Most pile drivingin the theater of operations is performedusing a steel-frame, skid-mounted pile driveror power cranes, crawlers, or truck-moun tedunits, with standard pile-driving attachment(figure 3-1). The attachm ents av ailable

through military supply channels include

adapters (figure 3-2) used to connect the leadsto the top of the crane boom leads and acatwalk or lead braces used to connect thefoot of the leads to the base of the boom. Theleads and catwalk assembly sup port d rophamm ers weighing u p to 3,000 pound s anddiesel hammers w eighing u p to 13,000 poun ds.

3-3. Steel-frame, skid-mounted piledrivers.

A steel-frame, skid-mounted pile driver witha gasoline-driven engine is a class IV item(figure 3-3). This pile dr iver may be u sed onthe ground or on any permanent structure orsturd y transp ort. It can dr ive vertical or

batter p iles. The reach from the base of theboom to the front of the leads dep ends up onthe weight of the hammer and power units.Reach may be increased by ballasting theback of the skid frame, or by securing it to thedeck on which it rests to counterbalance theweight of the equipment. The skid-mountedpile driver consists of the followingcomponents.

a. Skid frame. The skid frame is two steelI-beams 40 feet long, crose-braced 8 feet apartat the front of the frame and 12 feet apart at

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the rear of the frame. A platform at the rear of c. Leads. Leads stand ard to the u nit are onethe frame supports the winch.

b. Boom. A 45-foot boom is anchoredskid frame 16 feet from the front end .

3-2

8-foot top section, one 17-foot reversiblesection, one 10-foot exten sion, one 15-foot

to the intermediate section, and one 15-foot bottomsection, totaling 65 feet. The length of the


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lead may be reduced to 55 or 47 feet by leaving hand les the hammer and pile lines. The leadsout sections. The length of the lead is to the skid-mounted pile driver can be tilteddetermined by the length of the pile to be transversely, longitud inally, or in a com-driven. The boom is attached to the midp oint bination of these as well as fore and aft of theof the top 20-foot section. A d ouble-sheave vertical by adjusting the guides.bracket, attached at the top of the leads.

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d. Guides. Two types of guides permit the frame to the leads. It fixes the positionversatile aligning of the leads. of the base of the leads and holds them

(1) Fore-batter guide. The fore-batter guidevertically or at a fore-batter in the p lane of

(figure 3-3), referred to as a spotter, is athe longitud inal axis of the equipment

beam extend ing from the forward end of(figure 3-4, 2).

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(2) Moon beam. The moon beam (figure 3-3)is a curved beam placed transversely at theforward end of the skid frame to regulateside batter.

e. Drive un it. The drive unit (not providedas par t of the p ile-driver rig) is a 2-dru mwinch driven by a gasoline, diesel, or steamengine. The drive unit is mounted on theplatform at the rear of the skid frame.

f. Hammer. A 5,000-pound, double-acting

steam or pneumatic hammer; a 1,800-pound

or 3,000-poun d d rop h amm er; or an 8,000-foot-pound or 18,000-foot-pound dieselhammer may be used.

3-4. Driving devices (hammer andvibratory d river).

There are three impact hamm ers used forpile-driving: the drop hammer, the pneumaticor steam hamm er, and the diesel ham mer.Drop ham mers and diesel hammers arestandard engineering equipment. Table 3-1

provides data on selected types of

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commercially available ham mers. Vibratoryd rivers/ extractors are not classified asham mers and do not requ ire pile caps forprotection against impact stresses. They areclamp ed to the p ile to vibrate as a unit.

a. D rop hamm ers. The drop h ammer (figure3-5) is a simple pile-driving hammerconsisting of a block of metal raised in theleads by the drive unit, then permitted todrop, striking the pile cap. Drop hammers arecumbersome, and their driving action is slowcompared to other hammers. Velocities at

impact are high and d amage the top of a pile.Two standard drop hammers are available in

3-6

military supply channels: size one weighs1,800 pounds; size two weighs 3,000 pounds.The maximum height of fall should be limitedto six feet. For most efficient driving, theweight of a hammer twice that of the pile willgive the best results. As an exped ient, a loghammer (figure 3-6) may be fabricated andused. Drop hamm ers should be used only inremote sites or for a small number of pilings.

b. Air or steam ham mers . The air or steamhammers (figu re 3-7) consist of stationarycylinders and moving rams which include a

piston and a striking head. The piston israised by compressed air or steam pressure. If


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the fall is gravity, the ham mer is simp leacting. In double-acting hammers, the air or

steam pressure works on the u pstroke anddownstroke. Because they provide a high rateof blows (90 to 150 blows p er minute), theykeep the pile moving and prevent the buildingof friction th us enabling faster d riving. Thedifferential-acting hammer uses higherpressures and lower volumes of air or steam.After being raised, the ram is valved to beused for the downstroke.

c. Diesel hamm ers.Diesel hamm ers areself-contained and need no air or steam lines.Fuel tanks are a part of the rig. Diesel

ham mers are w ell suited for military

operations. Table 3-2 contains a list of d ieselhammers available through military

channels and the types and sizes of pileswhich can be driven by each hammer. Sizes Aand D are suitable for use with 10-ton an d20-ton d rivers. Heavier ham mers are m oresuitable for use with 30-ton to 40-ton cranes.Diesel hammers may be either open-ended orclosed-ended as shown in figure 3-8.

Diesel hammers function as follows.

The ram is lifted by combustion of fueland compressed gas in a chamber betweenthe bottom of the ram and an anvil block in

the base of the housing.

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The crane-load line raises the ram for the

initial stroke, and an autom atic tripmechanism allows the ram to drop .

3-8

During this fall, fuel is injected into the

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Continuing its fall, the ram blocks the magnitude and du ration of the drivingexhaust ports located in the cylinder and force.compresses the airlfuel mixture trappedbelow it to ignition temperature. As the ram rises, the exhaust and intake

ports are uncovered, combu stion gasesWhen the ram hits the anvil, it delivers escape, and air enters. In the closed-ended

its energy through the anvil to the pile. At type, the housing extends over the cylinderthe same time, combustion occurs which to form a bounce chamber in which air isdrives the ram upward . The pressure of the compressed by the rising ram. Air trappedbu rning ga ses acts on the anv il for a and comp ressed above the piston helps

significant time, thus increasing the

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stop the ram piston on its upward stroke 3-5. Caps an d cushions.and accelerates it on its downward stroke.

The cycle is repeated .

d. Vibratory dr ivers /extractors .Vibratory drivers are a recent developmentin p ile-driving equipment. They are used in

commercial pile construction, especially indriving sheet p iling. They are not part of themilitary inventory. Vibratory drivers usuallyrequire either an auxiliary hydraulic orelectric power supply. They consist of thevibrating unit which includes the rotatingeccentric weights, the suspension system thatisolates the vibratory forces from the liftingdevice, and the clamping system whichconnects the vibratory driver to the pile.Vibratory d rivers have short strokes, lessthan tw o inches, and high impu lse rates, upto 2,000 pulses per minute. Their driving

ability derives from the vibrations and theweight of driver and pile.

Caps and cushions protect the top of the pileand reduce the damage caused by the impactof the hammer. Although they serve the samepurpose, they vary for different types ofhammers.

a. Drop hammers. A standard driving capfor timber piles used with a d rop hammer is acast block. Its lower face is recessed to fit overthe top of the pile, and its upp er face isrecessed to receive an expand able block ofhardwood in end-grained position to act as awasher (figure 3-5). The cap is fitted with awire rope sling so that the cap, as well as thehammer, may be raised to the top of the leadswhen positioning a pile in the leads.

b. Air and steam hammers. The ram of aVulcan hammer strikes a cap block positioned

in the base of the hammer. In other hammers,such as the MKT type, the rams str ike directly

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on the base or an vil. The top of the p ile isprotected by a driving cap suspended fromthe base of the ham mer and fitted to th edimensions of the p ile. Driving caps for steelH-piles are shown in figure 3-9. The tops ofconcrete piles are usu ally p rotected fromlocal overstress by a pile cushion insertedbetween the drive head and the pile. The capblock an d cushion serve several pu rposes;however, their primary function is to limit

impact stresses in both the pile and hammer.

Comm on typ es of cushion m aterials aresheets of Micarta with sheets of aluminum orlarge oak blocks in end -grained position.

c. Diesel hammers. Military dieselhamm ers are supp lied w ith cushion blocksinserted between the anvil and the drive cap.The cushion blocks consist of laminatedplastic and aluminum or cast nylon. Ad-d itional cushioning is required between

concrete piles and th e pile cushion.

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3-6. Pile-drivin g lead s.

Pile-driving leads (figure 3-10) are tracks forsliding the ham mer and guides to positionand steady the pile during the first part of thedriving. Standard steel leads are supplied inl-foot an d 15-foot lengths. The 15-foot length

is the top section. Leads must be ap-proximately 20 feet longer than the pile toprovid e space for the ham m er and ac-cessories. There are three types of leads.

a. Swin ging leads. Sw inging leads arehung from the crane boom by a crane line.The bottoms of the leads are held in placewhile the boom is positioned so that the pile isplumb or at the desired batter. Swingingleads are the lightest, simplest, and leastexpensive. They permit driving piles in a holeor over th e edge of an excavation. Swinging

leads require a three-line crane (leads,hammer, and pile). Precise positioning of theleads is slow and difficult.

b. Fixed, und erhun g leads. A spotter easilyand rapidly helps connect fixed, und erhungleads to the boom point and to the front of thecrane. The leads are positioned by adjustingthe boom angle and spotter. A two-line craneis adequate to accurately locate the leads invarious positions. The length of the leads islimited by the boom length. Military standardleads are u nd erhung from the crane boom

and fixed to the crane by a catwalk. They arecomprised of a 15-foot top section and therequ ired n um ber of 10-foot lower sections tomake up the required length (see figure 3-l).

c. Fixed, extended leads. Fixed, extendedleads extend above the boom p oint. They areattached with a swivel connection whichallows movement in all directions. A spotterconnects the bottom of the leads to the frontof the crane. A two-line crane is required. Aheadblock directs the crane lines over the topof the leads. Once the leads are set up, they

can be positioned qu ickly and accurately;however, initial setup time is extensive. Side

to-side as well as fore-and-aft adjustment ispossible. The military standard skid-mountedpile-dr iving rig has fixed, extended leadswith capabilities of side-to-side and fore-and-aft batter.

3-7. Spotters and lead b races.

The spotter connects the bottom of fixedleads (und erhung or extended) to the front ofthe crane. With military standard lead s usedwith a crane, the catwalk connects betweenthe bottom of the leads an d the front of the

cranes revolving up per m achinery deck. Ittelescopes for fore-and-aft batter. The front of

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the spotter is moved for and aft for batterpiles, and side to side to plumb p iles eitherhydraulically or manually. Special bottombraces are ava ilable wh ich perm it thisoperation (figure 3-11).

3-8. Follow ers.

Followers are fabricated pile extensionsplaced between the top of a pile and the

hamm er. They are used when driving pilingbelow the water surface, especially with adrop hamm er (wh ich operates with reducedefficiency underwater) and with the dieselhammer (which cannot operate underwater).Followers are u sed u nd er fixed or swingingleads an d in tight spaces w here there is no

room for the leads an d th e hamm er, as in aclose pile grouping. When followers are used,the compu tation of the bearing value of the

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pile using a dynamic formula is uncertain.Followers must be rugged and constructed totransmit the full impact of the hammer andto hold the hammer and the pile in positivealignment. Followers can be fabricated fortimber, steel, and sheet piling.

a. Timber pile follower. The follower is

made from around timber of hardwood 10-to20-feet long. The bottom of the timber isinserted into, and bolted to, a follower capwhich is recessed at the bottom the same as apile cap. The top is trimmed to fit into the p ilecap or hammer. If there is insufficient drivingspace for a follower cap, a flared w rou ght-steel band is bolted to the bottom of thetimber follower.

b. Steel pile follower. For a steel p ilefollower , a section of the d riven p ile isreinforced by welding steel plates at the headto lessen damage from repeated use. Ex-tension plates that fit snugly against the pileto be driven are welded to the base.

c. Sheet p ile follower. Projecting platesare riveted on each side of the sheet pile beingdriven. These riveted plates are shaped to fitthe form of the pile.

Section II. EXPEDIENT ANDFLOATING PILE-DRIVINGEQUIPMENT

3-9. Expedient pile drivers.

When standard pile drivers are not available,expedient pile drivers may be constructed.

a. Wood-frame, skid-mounted piledriver. A skid frame is made of two 12-inch x17-inch timbers 44 feet long. The frame iscross braced with 8-inch x 8-inch and 12-inchx 12-inch timbers and stiffened on both sideswith a king p ost and king-post cables. Theleads are standard or expedient. Figure 3-12

shows expedient leads, 66 feet high made of

timber with the bearing surfaces faced withsteel plates to reduce wear and friction. Thefixed leads are supported by gu ys run to therear of the frame and by an A-frame from themidp oint of the leads to the midp oint of theframe. The rig can be skidded into placeusing a 2-drum winch. The rig is anchored,using n atural anchors in the vicinity of the

site. Any pile-driver hammers discussed inparagrap h 3-4 can be used.

b. Timber pile driver. Figure 3-13 shows arig w ith a 12-inch x 12-inch timber base andan A-frame using a section of standard leads.Cross braces are 3-inch x 12-inch members.The leads must be securely fastened to the tipof the A-frame and guyed at the base. Anotherdesign, using smaller dimensioned lumber, isshown in figure 3-14.

c. Tripod pile driver. Figure 3-15 shows a

han d -operated rig constructed of local

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the head of the pile. Guying the pile helps four-wheel-drive truck or the front wheels ofposition the guide rod. any front-wheel-drive truck.

d. Welded-angle construction p ile driver. 3-10. Power for exped ient pile drivers.A piledriving rig can be built using fourheavy steel angles as leads and a laminated To raise the pile into position and operate thesteel plate cap of welded and bolted hammer in driving the pile, power is required.construction. The leads should be heavily When available, the power unit for a standard

braced and guyed (figure 3-17). The hamm er skid-moun ted p ile driver should be used. Incan be operated by the rear w heels of any

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other cases a truck, truck motor, or manpowercan be used.

a. Truck. The hamm er line can be snubbedto a truck bumper and the truck backed awayun til the hamm er is raised. The line is thenfreed allowing the hamm er to fall (figure3-13). The wheels of a truck can be jacked andused as hoist d rums (figure 3-17). The truckwinch should not be used except in emer-gencies since heavy use will cause excessivewear to the winch motor.

b. Truck motor. A truck m otor can bemounted on the base frame of the rig. A drumis mounted on the drive shaft and controlledby the clutch. The hammer line is attached tothe drum.

c. Manp ower. Hammers weighing up to1,200 pounds can be operated by 15-personcrews if there is sufficient pulling distance atthe site. Normally, a soldier hauling a linecan pull 50 to 80 pounds. When steel hammers

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are fabricated in laminated sections, they areeasier to hand -carry over difficult terrain.

3-11. Floatin g p ile d rivers.

a. Floating cranes. Barge-mounted cranescan be ad apted for p ile-driving operating byusing boom-point ad apters and pile-drivingattachments. If standard leads are notavailable, they shou ld be improvised fromdimensioned lum ber faced w ith steel plateand adequately braced. For pile driving, afloating crane m ay be m aneuvered with its

own lead lines, and spuds put down beforedriving begins.

b. Barges or rafts . Crane-shovel units orskid-mounted pile drivers may be mounted onbarges or rafts for work afloat. Driving maybe off the end or side of the raft, depending onproblems of current and maneu verability.Sandbags can counterbalance a raft to enablethe pile driver to be positioned close to the endof the raft to extend its reach. A stand ard4-foot x 7-foot barge assembly is adequate tosupp ort a p ile driver adapted from a 12 -toncrane (figure 3-18). A pile driver adapted froma skid-mounted pile driver can be mounted ona 5-foot x 12-foot barge assembly (figure 3-19).

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c. Pneumatic floats. Cranes or skid-mounted pile drivers may be mounted onrafts assembled from pneumatic floats whichserve as platforms. Driving off the end or sideof the float u sing counterba lances (such assand bags) app lies to this type of rig.

d. Anchoring of rafts. The raft mu st beheld securely to position the pile accuratelyand to hold the leads and hamm er in linewith the pile during driving. For the first pileof an isolated off-shore structure, such as adolphin, two transverse lines on capstans at

bow and stern and one longitudinal line on adeck capstan will hold the craft if the floating

3-22

rig is not furnished with spuds. The first piledr iven may be used as one of the anchors. It ispossible to run th e steadying lines fromanchorages onshore. More control of the raftcan be obtained if the lines are run like springlines from a berthed ship, so that they crosseach other diagonally.

Section III. OTHER PILE-DRIVINGEQUIPMENT

3-12. Accessory equipm ent .

a. Sup port equipm ent. Equipment mu st beavailable for handling stockpiled piling and


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for straightening, cutting, splicing, capping, couplings. The pipes and fittings are mad eand bracing piles. into a jetting assembly, and the water hoses

and couplings are used to connect the jettingb. Jetting equipment. Jetting is a method assembly to a water pump (figure 3-20).of forcing water around and und er a pile toloosen and displace the surrou nding soils. (1)Jett ing pip es. Jetting pipes are usuallyJetting operations are d iscussed in chapter 4, from 2 to 3 inches in diameter. The

section II. The equipment consists of steel pipes are redu ced to about half theirpipes, pipe fittings, water hoses, and

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diameter to form nozzles at the point ofdischarge.

(2)Jett ing pum p. The jetting pump must becapable of delivering 500 gallons perminu te (gpm) at a p ressure of 150 to 200pounds per square inch (psi). Gasoline or

diesel-powered centrifugal p um ps h avingfrom tw o to four stages and developingfrom 100 to 300 psi are normally u sed. Foruse in gravelly soils, water pressure shouldrange from 100 to 150 psi. For sands, waterpressure from 50 to 60 psi is generallyadequate.

(3)Jett ing siz es. Jet sizes are normally 2 inches for 250 gpm , 3 inches for 250 to 500gpm, and 3 inches for 500 to 750 gpm.

(4)Jetting with air. Air may be used forjetting either alone or w ith w ater. Aircompressors are required.

c. Sleeve. A sleeve is a 4-foot section of steelpipe bolted to the jaws of the hamm er to holdthe pile in p lace for d riving wh en leadscannot be used. A three-point suspensionkeeps the ham mer fixed a t the desired anglewhen driving batter piles (figure 3-21, 1).

d. Pants. Pants consist of parallel platesbolted to the hammer body. These fit over the

top of sheet piling that is being driven withoutthe use of leads and serve to guide the hammer(figure 3-21, 2).

3-13. Equipment selection.

In military pile construction, little op-portunity exists for selecting the equipmentused in a given operation. Redu ction instandard military equ ipment items availablefrom the table of organization and equipment

(TOE) and class IV equipment has simplifiedthis problem. When selection is possible,consider the following factors.

a. Ground conditions. Stable soil con.ditions permit the use of truck-mountedcranes, while boggy areas require crawler-mounted u nits.

b. Piles. The number, size, and length ofpiles affect the choice of equipment. Diesel,air, or steam hammers are used to drivebatter piles. Long piles require a large rigwith long leads. It is better to drive a long pileas a continuous section than to d rive shortsections since alignmen t is controlled.

c. Ham mers. Selection of the type and size ofhammer w ill depend on availability, the typeof pile, and the anticipated loadings.

For air and steam hammers (singleacting or dou ble-acting) the r atio of ram

weight to pile weight should fall between1:1 and 1:2. For d iesel hammers, the r atioshould fall between 1:1 and 1:4.

All types of air, steam, and dieselhammers can be used to drive timber pilesprovided they have energy ratings between15,000 and 20,000 foot-poun ds. H amm erswith a rated energy up to 26,000 foot-poun ds can be used for timber piles withbutt diameters of 15 inches or more. Specificguid ance for selecting the size of dieselhammers is provided in table 3-1.

Except for diesel hammers, the size of thehamm er selected shou ld be one in w hichthe desired energy is developed by heavyrams striking at low velocity. A highvelocity impact wastes a large amount ofthe striking energy. It also deforms the pilehead leaving less energy available for theuseful purp ose of driving a p ile.

The energy of a diesel ham mer isdeveloped by a combination of the fallingof the ram, compression of the air in thecombustion chamber, and the firing of thediesel fuel. This combination elimina tes

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the need for a heavy ram at a low velocityand depend s only on sufficient energy toproperly move the pile.

With air or steam h amm ers, a dou ble-acting or differential-acting hammer ispreferred when piles mu st be driven to

considerable depth where penetration perblow is small. The greater frequency ofblows give faster penetration.

The simple-acting hammer can be usedwh ere the soil above the bearing stratumcan be penetrated rap idly und er easydriving conditions.

For driving precast concrete piles, aheavy ram with low impact velocity isrecomm ended . When d riving is easy,hammer blows should be minimized untilresistance develops. This may avoid stresswaves that might cause cracking.

3-14. Equipment assembly.

Skill and caution are requ ired in the erectionof pile-driving equipment. Assembly in-formation is not w ithin the scope of thismanual. For comprehensive assembly in-structions, consu lt the operators manu al forthe pile-driving equipment to be used.

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C H A P T E R 4

PILE INSTALLATION

Section I. PREPARATION OF PILESFOR DRIVING

4-1. Preparation of timb er p iles.

Timber piles selected for a structure should belong enough so that the butts are 2 or 3 feethigher than the finished elevation after thepiles are driven to the d esired p enetration.(Methods ofpredeterm ining pile lengths aredescribed in chapter 5.) Timber p iles requ irelittle preparation or special handling;however, they are susceptible to damagedu ring driving, particularly und er harddriving conditions. To protect the pile against

damage, the following precautions should betaken.

a. Fresh h eading. When hard driving isexpected, the p ile should be fresh h eaded byremoving 2 to 6 inches of the butt. Removinga short end section allows the ham mer totransmit energy m ore readily to the lowersections of the piles. Butts of piles that havebeen fresh headed shou ld be field treatedwith creosote and coal tar pitch (chapter 8),after the pile has been d riven to the d esiredpenetration.

OPERATIONS

b. Fitting. Proper fit between th e butt of thepile and the driving cap of the hammer is themost important factor in protecting the pile

from damage during hard driving. The buttof the pile must be square cut, shaped to fitthe contour of the driving cap, and a littlelarger than the d imensions of the cap so thewood will be compressed into the driving cap.Und er most dr iving cond itions the tip of atimber pile should be left square w ithoutpointing. The following points should be keptin mind w hen fitting timber piles.

Pointing timber piles does little to in-crease the rate of penetration.

Piles with square tips are more easilykept in line du ring driving and p rovidebetter end bearing.

For very hard driving, steel shoes protectthe tips of piles (figure 4-1, 1). Steel platesnailed to blunt tips (figure 4-1, 2) offerexcellent protection.

c. Wrapp ing. If a driving cap is not used, orif crush ing or splitting of the pile occurs, thetop end of the pile should be wrapped tightlywith 12-gage steel wire to forma 4-inch band.The steel wire should be stapled firmly in

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place. This is a simple method of protectingpile butte during hard driving. Steel strappingabout 1 inches wide will also provideadequate protection. Strapping should en-circle the pile twice, be tensioned as tightly aspossible, and be located ap proximately tw ofeet from the but t.

d. Splicing. Piles can be spliced if singlesections of the requ ired length a re notavailable or if long sections cannot behandled by available pile drivers. Generally,

decreasing pile spacing or increasing thenumber of piles is preferable to splicing.Except in very soft soils or in water, thediameter of the complete splice should not begreater than the diameter of the pile (figure4-2). The ends of the piles mu st be squared,and the diameter trimmed to fit snugly in the8-inch or 10-inch steel pipe. Steel splice platesare also used (figure 4-2).

e. Lagging. Lagging a friction p ile with steelor timber plates, planks, or rope w rapp ing

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can be used to increase the piles load-carryingcapabilities.

4-2. Preparation of steel piles.

a. Reinforcing. Point reinforcement isseldom needed for H-piles; however, if drivingis hard and the overburden contains ob-

structions, boulders, or coarse gravels, theflanges are likely to be damaged and the piles

may twist or bend. In such cases H-piles(figure 4-3) and pipe piles (figure 4-4) shouldbe reinforced.

b. Cleaning. Pipe piles driven open-ended,must be cleaned out before they are filledwith concrete. Ordinarily they are closedat the lower end , usually with a flat plate

(figure 4-4). In a few soils, such as stiff plasticclays, the overhang of the plate should be

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eliminated . Such p ipe p iles can be inspectedafter driving. Damaged piles should be iden-tified an d rejected if not repairable.

c. Splicing. H -piles can be spliced anddesigned to develop the full strength of thepile both in bearing and bending. This isdone most economically with butt-weldedsplices (figure 4-5). This method requires that

the pile be turned over several times during

the welding operation. Various types of plateand sleeve splices can be used (figu re 4-6).Splicing is often performed before the pilesare p laced in the leads so p ile-d rivingoperations are not delayed.

d. Lagging. Lagging is of questionable valueand if attached near the bottom of the pile,will actually red uce the capacity of the pile.

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4-3. Preparation of concrete piles.

Precast concrete piles shou ld be straight andnot cambered by un even prestress or poorconcrete placement during casting.

a. Reinforcing. Reinforcing of p recastconcrete piles is done in the manufacturing.The top of the pile must be square orperpend icular to the longitudinal axis of thepile. The ends of prestressing or reinforcingsteel should be cut flush w ith the end of thepile head to p revent direct loading by the ramstroke. Poured concrete piles may be re-inforced with steel reinforcing rods.

b. Splicing or cutting. Precast concretepiles are seldom, if ever, spliced. If the drivinglength has been u nderestimated, the pile canbe extended only with considerable d ifficulty.The piles are expensive to cut if the lengthhas been over estimated. Poured concretepiles should not require splicing as length ispredetermined in the planning stages.

Section II. CONSTRUCTIONPROCEDURES

4-4. Positioning piles.

When piles are driven on land, for example abuilding foundation, the position of each pilemust be carefully established, using availablesurveying equipment. A simple template can

be constructed to insure proper positioning ofthe piles. Piles generally should not be drivenmore than three inches from their designlocation. Greater tolerances are allowed forpiles driven in w ater and for batter p iles.

4-6. General driving p rocedures.

Piles are set and driven in four basic steps(figure 4-7).

a. Positioning. The pile driver is broughtinto position with the hammer and cap at the

top of the leads (figure 4-7, 1).

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b. Lashin g. Generally, the pile line is lashedabout one third of the distance from the top ofthe pile, the pile is swung into the helmet, andthe tip is positioned into the leads (figure 4-7,2). A member of the handling crew can climbthe leads and, u sing a tugline, help align thepile in the leads.

c. Centerin g. The pile is centered u nder thepile cap, and the pile cap an d hamm er arelowered to the top of the pile. If a drophammer is used, the cap is unhooked from thehammer (figure 4-7, 3).

d. Driving. The hamm er is raised an ddropped to drive the pile (figure4-7, 4). Drivingshould be started slowly, raising the hammeronly a few inches until the p ile is firmly set.The height of fall is increased grad ually to amaximum of 6 feet. Blows should be appliedas rapid ly as possible to keep the pile moving.Repeated long drops should be avoided sincethey tend to damage the top of the pile.

4-6. Driving requirements.

Careful watch mu st be kept during driving toavoid d amage to the p ile, pile hamm er, orboth. Precautions and danger signs includethe following

a. Support. The pile driver mu st be securelysupported, guyed, or otherwise fastened toprevent movement during driving.

b. Refusal. Refusal is reached w hen theenergy of the hammer blow no longer causespenetration. At this point, the pile has reachedrock or its required embedment in the bearingstratum . It is not always necessary to dr ivepiles to refusal. Friction piles frequently mustbe driven only far enough to develop thedesired load bearing capacity. In certaintypes of soils, such as a very soft organic soilor deep marsh deposit, a considerable lengthof pile may be necessary to develop adequateload capacity. Driving in such soils is

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feet und er a single hamm er blow. It isimportant that driving be a continuousprocedu re. An interruption of even severalminutes can cause a condition of temporaryrefusal in some typ es of soils, thu s requiringmany blows to get the pile moving again.

c. Timb er piles. Timber piles are frequentlyoverdriven when th ey are driven to endbearing on rock (figure 4-3). If the pile hits afirm stratum , depth m ay be checked bydriving other piles nearby. If the piles stop atthe same elevation, indications are that afirm stratum has been reached. Followingare items to be watched for when drivingtimber piles.

(1)Breaking or splitting below ground.Ifthe d riving sud denly becomes easier, or ifthe pile suddenly changes direction, the

pile has probably broken or split. Furtherdriving is useless as bearing capacity isunreliable. Anew pile must be driven closeto the broken one, or the broken one pulledand a new one driven in its place.

(2) Pile spring or hammer bounce. The pilemay spring or the hammer may boun cewhen the hammer is too light. This usuallyoccurs when the butt of the pile has beencrushed or broomed, when the pile has metan obstruction, or wh en it has p enetratedto a solid footing.

(3)Double-acting hammer bounce. When adouble-acting hammer is being used, toomuch steam or air pressure may causebouncing. When using a closed-ended dieselham mer, lifting of the ham mer on theupstroke of the ram piston can causebouncing. This is caused by too high athrottle setting or too small a hammer.Throttle controls should be backed off justenough to avoid this lifting action.

(4) Crushed or broomed butt. If the butt of atimber pile has been crushed or broomed

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for approximately 1 inch, it should be cutback to sound w ood before driving iscontinued. There should be no m ore thanthree or four final blows per inch for timberpiles driven with a diesel, steam, or airhammer. Further driving may fracture thepile or cause brooming.

d. Steel piles. In driving steel piles, par-ticular care must be taken to see that thehammer strikes the top of the pile squarely,with the center of the hammer directly overthe center of the p ile. Watch for the following.

(1) Slack lines. A hammer suspend ed froma slack line may buckle the top section andrequire the pile be trimm ed w ith a torchbefore driving can proceed. Driving caps(previously described) will prevent thistype of damage to H-piles.

(2)Alignment. When a steel pile is drivenwith a flying hammer (free-swing hammer),the pile should be aligned with guys (figure4-9). Hooks, shackles, or cable slings canbe used to attach guy lines. A pile should beconsidered dr iven to refusal wh en fiveblows of an adequate hammer are requiredto prod uce a total penetra tion of inch orless.

e. Concrete p iles. Required d riving re-sistances for p restressed concrete piles areessentially the same as for steel piles. Drivingstresses should be redu ced to prevent p iledamage. The ram velocity or stroke should bereduced during initial driving when soilresistance is low. Particular atten tion shouldbe paid to the following.

(1) Cap or helmet. The pile-dr iving cap orhelmet should fit loosely around the piletop so the pile may rotate slightly withoutbinding within the driving head.

(2) Cushioning. An adequate cushioning

material mu st be provided between thehelmet or driving cap an d the pile head.


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c. Aligning with b lock and tackle. Duringdriving, a pile may be brough t into proper

H -piles, this procedu re may ind uce un-desirable twisting and should be avoided if

alignment by using block and tackle (figure4-11). The imp act of the ham mer will tend to

possible. Jetting either alone or w ith th epreceding method, may be used.

jar the pile back into line. In the case of steel

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4-8. Obstructions.

Obstructions below the ground surface areoften encountered during pile-drivingoperations. Obstructions m ay resu lt fromfilling operations in the area or from oldstumps or tree trunks buried by later deposits.Obstructions are frequently encounteredwh en p iles are driven in indu strial andcommercial areas of older cities or alongwaterfronts. They are a matter of concernsince they can prevent a pile from penetratingenough to provide ad equate load-carryingcapacity. Piles are frequently forced ou t ofline by obstructions and m ay be bad lydamaged by continued d riving in an effort tobreak through the obstruction.

a. Driving. When an obstruction such as arotten log or timber is encountered, 10 or 15extra blows of the hammer may cause the pileto breakthrough (figure 4-12, 1). With steel orprecast concrete bearing p iles, extra blows ofthe hammer may break or dislodge a boulder(figure 4-12, 2); how ever, care mu st be takenthat blows do not damage the pile. Pilealignment shou ld be watched carefully duringthis operation to insure that the lower portionof the pile is not being deflected out of line.

b. Using explosives . If the obstru ctioncannot be breached by d riving, the pile shouldbe withdraw n an d an explosive charge

lowered to the bottom of the hole to blast theobstruction ou t of the way (figure 4-12, 3). Ifusing explosives is not practical, the pile canbe left in place, and the foundation plan canbe changed to use other p iles.

c. Jettin g. Jetting is particularly valuable insoils which will settle firmly around the pile.Sands, silty sands, and some gravels provideconditions su itable for jetting as d rivingthrou gh these materials in a dense stateresults in pile damage. Displacement piles incohesionless soils are frequ ently p laced by

jetting.

(1) Hose and pip e jetting. Jetting isperformed by inserting the jet pipe to thedesired depth, forcing water through thepile to loosen the soil, then dr opp ing thepile into the jetted hole and driving the pileto its resistance. If the p ile freezes beforefinal embedment, jetting can be resumed.Jetting should not be d eeper than 4 or 5 feetabove final grade.

(2) Attached jetting pipes and hoses.Jetting for timber, steel, or standardprecast concrete piles is usually done by anarrangement of jetting pipes and hoses.The jet pipe is connected with a flexiblehose and hung from the boom or the piledr iver leads. When possible, two jet pipesare lashed to op posite sides of the p ile.Usually the pile is placed into positionwith the ham mer resting on it to give

increased weight, and the jet is operated sothat the soil is loosened and displacedevenly from und er the tip of the pile (figure4-13). A single jet, however, is not workedup and dow n along the side of the pile, asthe pile will drift in that d irection. Properuse of jet pipes is shown in figure 4-14.

(3) Special precast concrete jetting. Tofacilitate jetting, jet p ipes can be embeddedinto precast concrete piles, Jetting ar-rangements for precast concrete piles areshown in figure 4-15.

(4) Precautions. Where piles must be drivento great dep ths, the dou ble water jets maybe insufficient. Add itional comp ressed aircan be effective. For combined water andair jetting, the simplest method is to tack-weld a sm all air pipe to the ou tside of thewater-jet pipe. In any jetting operation, thealignment of the p ile is critical. Jetting is auseful method to correct the alignment oftimber piles in a pile bent (figure 4-16).Jetting arou nd a p ile wh ile it is beingdriven is undesirable as the pile will drift

off line and location. Pile tips must be well

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seated w ith reasonable soil resistance 4-9. Predrillin g.before full driving energy is used. Theultimate bearing capacity of the pile is It may be necessary to predrill pilot holes ifgenerally not significantly affected by the soils above the bearing stratum are

jetting. However, jetting will greatly re- un usu ally stiff or hard . Predrilling keeps thedu ce the up lift capacity of a pile. preservative shell of treated timber p iles

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intact. Predrilling also reduces underwaterheave and lateral displacement of previouslydriven adjacent piles. Holes are drilledslightly smaller than the d iameter of the pileand to w ithin a few feet of the bearingstratum. The pile is inserted, and the weightof the hammer forces the pile down near thebottom of the drill hole displacing any slurry.

The pile is then d riven to the requ iredpenetration or resistance.

a. Rotary equ ipm ent. Predrilling should bedone with wet rotary equipment which leavesthe hole filled with a slurry of mud. Themethod employs a fishtail bit that contains awater jet within the drill stem. The water anddr ill cuttings form a slurry wh ich lines thewalls and stops sloughing of unstable soillayers. Additives (such as bentonite) can also

be used to stabilize the walls of the drill hole.

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b. Augers. Augers which remove all materialfrom the hole can cause a quicksand action.Sand or soil may flow into the d rilled holebelow the water table. Augers should be usedonly above ground water tables and in soilswh ere a drill hole will stand open w ithoutcollapsing.

4-10. Special placement techniques.

a . Spud ding. Spu ds can p enetrate debris orhard strata so the pile can reach the bearingstratum. Spuds consist of heavy pile sections,usually with special end reinforcement. Whenheavy piles (such as steel or precast concretepiles) are driven, the pile may be raised anddropped to break through a layer of hardm aterial or an obstru ction. In a similaroperation, a pilot pile is withdraw n, and thefinal p ile is driven in the hole.

b. Jackin g. A pile may be jacked intoposition. This method is usually used when itis necessary to underpin the foundation of astructure and h eadroom is limited or w henvibration from conventional driving coulddamage an existing structure. The pile is

jacked in sections using a mechanical orhydraulic screw jack reacting against theweight of the structure. The pile is selected forthe specific situation, and it is built up inshort, convenient lengths.

c. Vibrating. High-amplitude vibrators areused for dr iving p iles in saturated sand an dgravels, Vibratory hammers are particularlyadvantageous for driving sheet piling.

4-11. Driving piles in water.

a. Positioning piles. When p iles are drivenin water, different methods m ay mark th edesired p ile positions. When a number ofbents are to be constructed, a stake is p lacedat each abutm ent app roximately 6 inches

from the pile centerline (figure 4-17). A wirerope is stretched between the two stakes, and

a p iece of tape or cable clip is fastened to therope a t each pile bent position. Piles are thendr iven at each tape or cable clip.

b. Using floating p ile drivers. When afloating p ile d river is used , a fram e forpositioning piles may be fastened to the hull.

A floating template is sometimes used toposition piles in each ben t (figure 4-18).Battens are spaced along the centerlinedesired for each pile. The batten s are p lacedfar enough apart so that, as the pile is driven,the larger-diameter butt end will not bind onthe template and carry it und erwater. If thepiles are d riven und er tidal water, a chain orcollar permits the template to rise and fallwith th e tide. If the ends of the battens arehinged and brought up vertically, thetemplate may be withdrawn from betweenthe bents and floated into position for the

next bent provided the pile spacing is uniform.

c. Using floatin g rigs. If a floating rig isavailable, it can be used to drive the piles foran entire structure before the rest of the work.In general, more

487741 FM 5134 Pile Construction

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Transcript of 487741 FM 5134 Pile Construction