JUNIOR  CERTIFICATE                      JEWISH  STUDIES  SECTION  2:    BELIEFS  AND  MORAL  TEACHINGS  DRAFT  DOCUMENT  

Louise  O'Sullivan  IBVM  

  2  

 REVELATION  

 Abridged  from  http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/rs/god/judaismrevelationrev1.shtml  

In  religion  revelation  is  central  to  understanding  G-­d  and  spirituality.    It  is  the   act   whereby   an   unknown   and   hidden   G-­d   makes   himself   known   to  humanity.     This   view   of   revelation   results   unmistakably   from   the  widespread   use   of   the  nifʿal   of   the   verbs   raʿah   ("to   see"),   and   yadaʿ   ("to  know"),   to   express   in   biblical   Hebrew   the   idea   of   revelation.     It   occurs  principally   in  narrative  passages  whose  aim  was  to  explain   the  origin  of  a  holy  place.    There  is,  however,  the  belief,  which  originated  in  ancient  times,  that  it  is  deadly  for  man  to  see  the  Deity  (Ex.  33:20;   Judg.  13:22).  Dreams  and  the  mediation  of  angels  have  no  mitigating  effect,  since  the  dream  gives  a  stronger  vision  and  the  malʾakh  YHWH  ("angel  of   the  Lord")   is   the  revealing  medium  of   the  Lord,  even  the  Lord  Himself   in  self-­‐manifestation.     It   is  only  rarely  and   to  special  persons,  therefore,   that   G-­‐d   makes   Himself   visible,   and   communicates   to   man   His  purposes   and   intentions.   He   does   so   to   Abraham   (Gen.   12:6–7;   17:1–2),   Isaac  (Gen.  26:24),  Jacob  (Gen.  35:9–10;  48:3–4;  cf.  Ex.  6:3),  Moses  (Ex.  3:2ff.,  16–17),  Manoah   (Judg.  13:21–22),   and  Solomon   (I  Kings  3:5ff.;  9:2ff.).  Nevertheless,  He  may  show  Himself  to  the  whole  of  the  people  at  the  Tent  of  Meeting  (Lev.  9:4,  6,  23;  Deut.  31:15;  cf.  31:11),  which  is  "a  kind  of  permanent  image  of  the  revelation  on  Mount  Sinai"  (M.  Haran,  in:  JSS,  5  (1960),  50–65,  esp.  p.  58).  What  the  people  see,   however,   is   the   kavod,   the   "Presence   of   the   Lord"   (Lev.   9:6,   23),   or   the  ʿammud   he-­ʿanan,   the   "pillar   of   cloud"   (Deut.   31:15).   The   latter   indicates   the  Lord's  Presence,  but,  at   the  same   time,  veils  Him   from  sight.  The  kavod,  whose  original   conception   goes   back   to   early   times   (cf.   I   Sam.   4:21;   I   Kings   8:11;   Ps.  24:7–10),   likewise   signifies   a   veiled   appearance   of   God,   an   appearance   in   a  manner   in   which   no   precise   form   can   be   discerned.   It   probably   alludes   to   a  manifestation   by   fire,   light,   and   smoke,   connected   initially   with   the  circumstances  in  which  the  cult  operated.  The  G-­‐d  of  Israel    reveals  Himself  as  acting  in  historical  events.  It  may  reasonably  be  inferred,  therefore,  that,  according  to  the  Bible,  history  is  the  milieu  of  G-­‐d's  revelation.  There  are  two  types  of  revelation:  

General  revelation  is  indirect,  and  available  to  everyone.  Some  truths  about  G-­‐d  can  be  revealed  through  reason,  conscience,  the  natural  world,  or  moral  sense.    Special  revelation   is  direct  revelation  to  an   individual  or  a  group.  This  sort  of  revelation  includes  dreams,  visions,  experience  and  prophecy.        

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TYPES  OF  REVELATION  IN  JUDAISM  

Jews   believe   that   G-­‐d   communicates   with   humans   in   all   of   these   ways,   and  especially  through  scripture  (special  revelation).    The  Jewish  scriptures,  called  the  Tenakh,  consists  of  24  books.  Sometimes  the  Tenakh  is  called  the  Torah,  or  the  Jewish  Bible.    The  first  five  books  of  the  Tenakh  (Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers  and  Deuteronomy)  are  particularly  important.  They  are  also  called  the  Torah  or  the  Five  Books  of  Moses.  Jewish  scripture  

Genesis,   the   first   book   of   the   Jewish   scriptures   (the   Tenakh),   begins   with   an  account  of  G-­d  creating  the  world:  In  the  beginning  of  G-­‐d’s  creating  the  heavens  and  the  earth  -­‐  when  the  earth  was  astonishingly  empty,  with  darkness  upon  the  surface  of  the  deep,  and  the  Divine  Presence  hovered  upon  the  surface  of  the  waters  -­‐  G-­‐d  said,   'Let  there  be  light,'  and  there  was  light.  Genesis  1:1-­2  G-­d's  name  

G-­‐d  speaks  to  Moses  through  a  burning  bush  and  Moses  asks  G-­d’s  name:  Hashem  answered  Moses,  'I  Shall  Be  As  I  Shall  Be.'  Exodus  3:14  This  is  the  first  time  that  G-­‐d’s  name  is  given  but  it  is  not  very  clear.  In  the  Jewish  scriptures  G-­‐d’s  name  is  spelt  with  four  consonants:  YHWH.  Jewish  teaching   says   that   the   name   is   so   holy   that   only   the  High   Priest   knew   how   to  pronounce  it.  When  they  see  these  four  letters  Jews  usually  say  the  name  Adonai  which  means  'Lord'.  In  some  parts  of  the  Jewish  scriptures  the  word  Hashem  is  used  to  avoid  writing  or  saying  the  name  of  G-­‐d.  The  Jewish  Scriptures  say  that  Moses  spoke  to  G-­‐d:  As  Moses  would  arrive  at  the  Tent,  the  pillar  of  cloud  would  descend  and  stand  at  the  entrance  of  the  Tent,  and  He  would  speak  with  Moses…  Hashem  would  speak  to  Moses  face  to  face,  as  a  man  would  speak  with  his  fellow.  Exodus  33:9,  11  Although   G-­‐d   does   appear   in   the   scriptures   it   is   only   in   the  Garden   of   Eden  where  G-­‐d  seems  to  appear  in  human  form.  This  is  called  an  anthropomorphism.  So  G-­‐d  created  Man  in  His  image,  in  the  image  of  G-­‐d  He  created  him;  male  and  female  He  created  them.      Genesis  1:27  They  heard  the  sound  of  Hashem  G-­‐d  manifesting  itself  in  the  garden  toward  the  evening.  Genesis  3:8  Sometimes   G-­‐d   is   a   pillar   of   cloud   or   flame,   and   sometimes   just   a   voice.  Sometimes  he  appears  as  a  powerful  king.  …I   saw   the   Lord   sitting   upon   a   high   and   lofty   throne,   and   its   legs   filled   the  Temple.  Seraphim  were  standing  above,  at  His  service.  Each  one  had  six  wings…  

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And  one  would  call  to  another…  Isaiah  6:1-­2    Beliefs  about  G-­d  intervening  in  the  world  

Many  miracles  are  described  in  the  Tenakh.  For  example:   the  account  of  Aaron  and  his  stick  which  turned  into  a  snake  (Exodus  7:8-­‐10)   the  plagues  of  Egypt  (Exodus  7:  14-­‐11:10);   the  parting  of  the  Sea  of  Reeds  (Exodus  14)   the  manna  and  quails   the   Israelites  were  given   for   food  by  G-­‐d   in   the  desert  (Exodus  16)  

Elisha  helps  a  poor  widow  (2  Kings  4:  1-­‐7)    The   Tenakh   does   not   explain   the   details   of   how   these  miracles   happen,   but   it  does  attribute  them  to  G-­‐d.  Some   Jews   accept   these   accounts   literally.   Others  will   regard   the   accounts   as  allegory,  or  using  figures  of  speech,  believing  that  the  ‘miracle’  was  not  intended  to  be  taken  literally.  However  these  stories  are  regarded,  they  are  accepted  as  accounts  of  times  when  G-­d  taught  the  people,  and  looked  after  them.    

REVELATION  IN  THE  BRANCHES  OF  JUDAISM    Rabbi  Allen  Selis,  abridged  from    http://www.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Jewish_Holidays/Shavuot/Themes_and_Theology/Denominations_on_Revelation.shtml    REFORM  JUDAISM  For  Reform   Judaism,   "Sinai"   takes  place   every   time  a   Jew  makes   a   serious   and  conscientious   choice.   Reform   Judaism’s   Centenary   Platform,   adopted   in   San  Francisco   (1976),  makes   this   simple   and   clear   statement   of   Reform   theology:    "Jewish   obligation   begins   with   the   informed   will   of   every   individual."     The  individual  might  consider  all   the  dicta  of   Jewish  tradition  that  has  come  before  her,  but  in  the  moment  of  deciding  whether  to  order  tuna  or  bacon  for  lunch,  the  choice   is   still   hers   and   hers   alone.   That   moment   of   individual   conscience,  regardless  of  outcome,  is  sacred  to  Reform  Judaism.    The   Reform   Movement’s   1937   Columbus   Platform   suggests   that   the   written  Torah  is  a  "depository"  of  Biblical  Israel’s  consciousness  of  God—a  record  of  past  revelation—but   certainly   not   the   last  word   in   our   ongoing   dialogue  with   God.  Instead,  "revelation  is  a  continuous  process,  confined  to  no  one  group  and  to  no  one  age."    Indeed,  according  to  Reform  Judaism,  God  can  "change  Her  mind."    As  such,  Sinai  is  constantly  taking  place,  and  it  is  the  role  of  the  individual  to  listen  closely  to  what  God  is  saying.        

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ORTHODOX  JUDAISM  The  Orthodox   tradition  maintains   that  God   taught  everything  which   the   Jewish  people   needed   to   know   at  Mount   Sinai.   This   belief   draws   upon   early   Rabbinic  literature.  In  Midrash  Tanhuma  (Buber-­‐Ki  Tisa  17),  the  Midrash  relates:      "When  the   Holy-­‐One-­‐Blessed-­‐Be-­‐God   came   to   give   Torah,   He   related   it   to   Moshe   in  order.   First   Bible,   then   Mishnah,   Aggadah   and   Talmud…even   those   future  questions   that  a  seasoned  student  would  one  day  ask  of  his   teacher.  The  Holy-­‐One-­‐Blessed-­‐Be-­‐God  related  even  these  things  to  Moshe  at  that  time,  as  we  find  in  the  Torah:    And  God  spoke  of  all  these  things…"  

This  Midrash  effectively  communicates   the  most   significant  aspect  of  Orthodox  thought:     God   is   the   only   legitimate   source   of   knowledge   and   truth.   No  community   or   individual   can   take   up   this   role.   For   the   Orthodox   Jew,   all  authority  ultimately  goes  back  to  God  and  Sinai.  

Rabbi  Norman  Lamm,  chancellor  of  the  modern  orthodox  Yeshiva  University,  put  forth   in   an   article   in   Commentary  magazine   that   God   most   certainly   had   the  ability  to  communicate  whatever  He  wanted  to  convey  at  Mount  Sinai,  and  that  it  would   be   absurd   to   "impose   upon   (God)   a   limitation   of   dumbness   that  would  insult  the  least  of  His  human  creatures."      CONSERVATIVE  JUDAISM  While  mainstream  Conservative  Jews  envision  a  personal  God  most  Conservative  rabbis  do  not  believe  that  God  actually  gave  the  Torah,  letter  by  letter,  at  Mount  Sinai.  So  what  did  happen?  Rabbi  Abraham  Joshua  Heschel,  in  his  God  in  Search  of  Man,   argues   that   the   chronological   details   of   Sinai   are   irrelevant—since   the  Torah   is   a   moral,   not   a   chronological   text.   Rabbi   Neil   Gillman,   in   Sacred  Fragments,   argues   from  Franz  Rosenzweig’s  position   that  God  merely   revealed  Himself   at   Sinai—the   people   of   Israel   then   recorded   their   response   to   God’s  presence  in  the  form  of  Torah.  While  God  might  have  initiated  the  revelation  at  Sinai,  it  was  the  human  community  which  preserved  that  encounter.  

RECONSTRUCTIONIST  JUDAISM  As   the  Conservative  position  disputes   the  historicity   of   the   Sinai   revelation,   so  the  Reconstructionist  stance  disavows  its  divinity—but  not  its  sanctity.  Founder  Mordechai   Kaplan’s   program   for   the   reconstruction   of   Judaism   rejected   the  notion  of   a   supernatural  God.   For  him,  God  was  not  heavenly  being  but   rather  "…the   process   [in   the   world]   that   makes   for   creativity,   integration,   love   and  justice."     This   stance,   by   definition,   denies   the   possibility   of   a   Sinai,   an   event  which  Kaplan   regarded  as  a  mere   legend.  After  all,   if   there   is  no  personal  God,  then  what’s  to  reveal?    Kaplan  identifies  the  content  of  Torah  as  a  set  of  "folk-­‐ways"  that  the  people  of  Israel   constructed   and   continuously   adapted   to   fit   the   spirit   of   their   age.   The  tradition   would   always   have   "a   voice,   but   not   a   veto,"   as   the   entire   body   of  tradition   was   always   meant   to   be   in   flux.   For   Kaplan,   there   could   never   be   a  Sinai—instead,   the   folk-­‐ways  of  each  new  generation  would  reflect   the  current  needs  of  the  Jewish  soul.  Each  new  tradition  would  be  sacred—until  its  time  had  passed.  

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 COVENANT  

 ‘An  agreement  between  two  contracting  parties,  originally  sealed  with  blood;  a  bond,   or   a   law;   a   permanent   religious  dispensation.     The  old,   primitive  way  of  concluding  a  covenant  was  for  the  covenanters  to  cut  into  each  other’s  arm  and  suck   the   blood,   the   mixing   of   the   blood   rendering   them   ‘brothers   of   the  covenant’.  (Jewish  Encyclopaedia  online)    

B’rit,  the  Hebrew  word  for  Covenant  appears  270  times  in  the  Hebrew  Bible.       It  means  covenant,  pact  or  treaty   Ancient  covenants  were  made  by  animal  sacrifice  hence  the  phrase  ‘to  cut  a  covenant’  

B’rit  implies  the  shedding  of  blood  in  the  process  of  making  an  agreement.      What  is  a  Covenant?  

A  formal  agreement  between  two  parties   Witnessed  by  both  humans  and  deities/gods   Proclaimed  by  public  reading  and  “deposit”  of  treaty  in  public  place   Shrines  of  witnessing  deities     Sealed  by  an  oath  and  ritual  sacrifice   “If  I  am  not  faithful  to  this  covenant,  may  what  is  done  to  these  animals  be  done  to  me.”    

Three  Kinds  of  Ancient  Near  Eastern  (ANE)  Covenants    

Suzerainty  (or  Vassal)  Treaty:    Agreement  between  two  unequal  parties,  one  of  higher  status  and  one  of  lower  status    

  Parity  Treaty:    Agreement  between  two  parties  of  equal  status  

  Land  Grant:    Agreement  between  two  unequal  parties,  one  of  higher  status  and  one  of  lower  status  

 Suzerainty  (or  Vassal)  Treaty  had  six  parts:  

Preamble   Historical  prologue     Stipulations     Provisions  for  treaty  deposit  &  public  reading   List  of  Divine  witnesses  to  the  treaty   Blessings  &  curses  (for  fidelity  or  infidelity  to  the  treaty)    

A  Suzerainty  Treaty   An  alliance  between  a  great  monarch  and  a  subject  king   The  overlord  is  lauded  for  past  favours,  but  has  no  explicit  duties  under  the  covenant  

The  vassal  pledges  allegiance  to  the  overlord      

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Pay  taxes   Keep  own  borders  secure     Provide  military  support  against  overlord’s  enemies     Make  no  alliances  with  other  great  lords   Marriage  was  the  most  common  “suzerainty  treaty”  in  the  ANE   Husband  has  higher  social  status  than  wife   Husband  is  wife’s  “overlord”  (Ba’al)     Wife  is  to  obey  husband  n  Wife  becomes  chattel  of  husband     Wife  owns  no  property;  it  belongs  to  husband   Wife  cannot  divorce;  only  overlord  can  end  treaty    

Parity  Treaty   Two  parties  of  equal  power  and  social  status   Two  monarchs  forming  an  alliance  for  mutual  aid   Two  merchants  forming  a  trade  agreement   Marriage  contract  (ketubah)  between  the  father  of  the  bride  and  the  groom  (NOTE:  the  bride  herself  is  not  of  equal  status  with  the  groom  in  ANE)    

Land  Grant   Free  gift  of  land  to  faithful  subject  of  a  great  monarch  or  servant  of  a  wealthy  landowner  

Greater  party  binds  self  to  the  treaty   Lesser   party   benefits   from   the   gift,   but   may   not   be   bound   to   any   specific  stipulations,  either  before  or  after  reception  of  the  land  grant  

 Differences  between  Grant  and  Treaty    

GRANT   TREATY  The   giver   of   the   covenant   makes   a  commitment  to  the  vassal  

The   giver   of   the   covenant   imposes   an  obligation  on  the  vassal  

Represents  an  obligation  of  the  master  to  his  vassal  

Represents   an   obligation   of   the   vassal  to  his  master  

Primarily   protects   the   rights   of   the  vassal  

Primarily   protects   the   rights   of   the  master  

No   demands   made   by   the   superior  party  

The   master   promises   to   reward   or  punish   the   vassal   for   obeying   or  disobeying  the  imposed  obligations  

   Look   at   the   following   texts   and   answer   the   following   questions   in   relation   to  them:  

1. What  kind  of  treaty  is  this?  2. What  leads  you  to  think  so,  i.e.,  what  formal  characteristics  of  the  passage  

suggest  that  it  falls  into  this  category?  3. What  source  is  behind  this  story?  4. What  does  identification  of  the  kind  of  treaty  illustrated  here  tell  you  about  

the  source’s  view  of  Israel’s  G-­‐d?  Genesis  2  Genesis  9:1-­‐17  

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Genesis  12:1-­‐4  Genesis  15  Genesis  17:1-­‐14  Exodus  24:1-­‐8  Exodus  34:1-­‐27    

COVENANT  WITH  NOAH    The   relation   of   humanity   to   G-­‐d   was   also   conceived   of   in   Biblical   times   as   a  covenant  concluded  by  G-­‐d  with  certain  people  and  nations,  from  which  all  laws  derived  their  sanctity  and  their  eternal  nature.    G-­‐d,  when  creating  the  heavens  

and   the   earth,  made   a   covenant   with   them   to  observe   the   rules   of   day   and   night,   and  when  the   floods   caused   by   the   sins   of   all   had  interrupted  the  operation  of  the   law,  G-­‐d  hung  the   rainbow   in   the   clouds   as   a   sign   of   the  covenant,   to   assure   people   that   it   would   not  again   be   suspended   on   account   of   humanity’s  sin.     G-­‐d,   therefore,   made   a   special   covenant  with  Noah.    According   to   traditional   Judaism,   G-­‐d   gave  Noah   and   his   family   seven   commandments   to  

observe  when  he  saved  them  from  the  flood.  These  commandments,  referred  to  as  the  Noahic  or  Noahide  commandments,  are  inferred  from  Genesis  Chapter  9,  and  are  as  follows:    

1. to  establish  courts  of  justice;    2. not  to  commit  blasphemy;    3. not  to  commit  idolatry;    4. not  to  commit  incest  and  adultery;    5. not  to  commit  bloodshed;    6. not  to  commit  robbery;  and    7. not  to  eat  flesh  cut  from  a  living  animal.    

These  commandments  are   fairly  simple  and  straightforward,  and  most  of   them  are  recognized  by  most  of  the  world  as  sound  moral  principles.  Any  non-­‐Jew  who  follows  these  laws  has  a  place  in  the  world  to  come.  

The   Noahic   commandments   are   binding   on   all   people,   because   all   people   are  descended  from  Noah  and  his  family.                

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COVENANT  WITH  ABRAHAM    

 (Abridged  from  http://www.ijs.org.au/Abraham-­‐and-­‐the-­‐Covenant/default.aspx)    Genesis   tells   how   G-­‐d   establishes   a   ‘covenant’  with   Abraham   to   be   passed   on   to   future  generations.  The   first   statement  of   this   special  relationship   appears   in   Chapter   12,   in   which  Abraham  promises   to   forego   all   allegiances   to  his   previous   idolatrous   community   and   to  

make  a  new  life  in  the  "Promised  Land":  

And  the  Lord  said  to  Abram,  "Go  forth  from  your  land  and  from  your  birthplace  and  from  your  father's  house,  to  the  land  that  I  will  show  you.    And  I  will  make  you   into   a   great   nation,   and   I   will   bless   you,   and   I   will   make    your   name  great…and  by  you  all  the  families  of  the  earth  shall  bless  themselves."  

The   covenant   is   restated   in   Chapter   15  with   a   dramatic   contractual   ceremony  featuring  a  divine  fire  passing  between  sacrificial  animals,  and  a  promise  that  the  descendants  of  Abraham  will  be  restored  to  their  land  after  four  hundred  years  of  slavery.  

The  covenant  is  sealed  in  Chapter  17,  when  Abraham  agrees  that  the  sign  of  the  covenant   will   appear   on   the   bodies   of   all   his   male   descendants   through  circumcision.  At  the  same  time,  G-­‐d  promises:  

"And  I  will  make  you  exceedingly  fruitful,  and  I  will  make  you  into  nations,  and  kings  will   emerge   from  you.  And   I  will   establish  My  covenant  between  Me  and  between  you  and  between  your  seed  after  you  throughout   their  generations  as  an  everlasting  covenant,  to  be  to  you  for  a  God  and  to  your  seed  after  you.  And  I  will  give  you  and  your  seed  after  you  the  land  of  your  sojournings,  the  entire  land  of  Canaan  for  an  everlasting  possession,  and  I  will  be  to  them  for  a  God."  

Abraham’s  covenant  is  handed  on  to  his  son,  Isaac,  whom  G-­‐d  explicitly  blesses  in   Chapter   26,   and   through   him   to   Jacob   and   his   descendants.   In   Chapter   32,  Jacob  wrestles  with   an   angel.   Henceforth   his   name   becomes   'Israel'   -­‐   'He  who  wrestles  with  G-­‐d'.  His  descendants  become  “The  Children  of  Israel”,  and  the  land  is  known  as  “The  Land  of  Israel”.        Abrahamic  covenant  is  akin  to  a  grant  covenant.                

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 COVENANT  WITH  MOSES  

 In  Exodus  3,  Moses  has  his  first  encounter  with  G-­‐d  in  a  burning  bush.  Moses  sees  a  bush  which  burns  without  being  consumed  -­‐  a  symbol  of  the  presence  of  G-­‐d  which  defies  usual  human  experience  of  things.  And  he  hears  a  voice  which  calls  him  by  his  own  name  (Exodus  3:4)  

The  other  great  face  to  face  encounter  with  G-­‐d  is  three  months  after  the  Israelites  have  left  Egypt  and  Moses  has  returned  with  them  to  Sinai  where  he  first  met  G-­‐d.  The  encounter  is  awesome.  When  G-­‐d  appears  to  the  people  of  Israel,  a  whole  mountain  burns;  for  when  G-­‐d  comes,  Sinai  becomes  like  a  volcano  (not  an  actual  volcano,  but  G-­‐d's  coming  is  so  awesome  that  the  only  way  to  depict  it  is  in  the  language  of  the  most  overwhelming  of  known  phenomena):    G-­‐d  then  gives  the  Ten  Commandments  to  Moses  as  a  kind  of  basic  constitution  or  charter  for  Israel,  together  with  some  more  detailed  laws  (the  mitzvot)  that  apply  the  Commandments  within  everyday  situations.  Israel  responds  by  promising  obedience  (Exodus  24:3-­‐7).  

Moses  then  wrote  the  conditions  of  the  covenant  down,  offered  sacrifices  to  God,  and  then  sprinkled  both  the  book  and  the  people  with  blood  to  seal  the  covenant  (Exo.  24:8).          Mosaic  covenant  is  akin  to  the  suzerain-­‐vassal  treaty.      

COVENANT  WITH  DAVID  (2  SAMUEL  7)    In  his  covenant  with  David,  G-­‐d  presents  David  with  two  categories  of  promises:  those  that  find  realization  during  David’s  lifetime  (2  Sam  7:8-­‐11a)  and  those  that  find  fulfillment  after  his  death  (2  Sam  7:11-­‐17)    

 Promises   that   find   realization   during   David’s  lifetime  (7:9-­11a)  A  Great  Name  (  v.  9;  cf.  8:13):    As  He   had   promised   Abraham   (Gen   12:2),   the   Lord  promises   to   make   David’s   name   great   (2   Sam   7:9).  Although   David’s   accomplishments   as   king   cause   his  reputation  to  grow  (2  Sam  8:13),  G-­‐d  was  the  driving  force   in   making   David’s   name   great.     He   is   the   One  who   orchestrated   David’s   transition   from   being   a  common  shepherd  to  serving  as  the  king  over  Israel  (2  Sam  7:8).    A  Place   for   the  People   (v.   10).   The   establishment   of  

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the   Davidic   Empire   relieved   a   major   concern   involved   in   God’s   providing   a  “place”   for   Israel   (7:9).   The   land   controlled   by   Israel   during   David’s   reign  approached   the   ideal   boundaries   of   the   promised   land   initially   mentioned   in  conjunction  with  God’s  covenant  with  Abram  (Gen  15:18).    Consequently,  during  David’s  reign  the  two  provisions  of  the  Abrahamic  Covenant    that   deal    with  people  and  land  find  initial  fulfillment.    In  addition  to  this  and  more  closely  tied  to   the   immediate   context,   the   “place”   that   G-­‐d  will   appoint   for   Israel   probably  highlights  the  idea  of  permanence  and  security.      

KEY  COVENANT  SUMMARIES    Name   Summary  NOAH  (Genesis  9)    

After  the  flood:  The  Lord  promised  Noah  and  his  descendants   that  He  would  never  destroy  the  world  again  with  a  universal  flood  (Genesis  9:15).      The   Lord   made   an   everlasting   covenant   with   Noah   and   his   descendants,  establishing  the  rainbow  as  the  sign  of  His  promise  (Genesis  9:1-­‐17).    Noahide  Laws    This  covenant  is  with  all  peoples.  

ABRAHAM  (Genesis  12-­25)  

The  Lord  promised  Abraham  that  He  would  make  him  and  his  descendants  a  great  nation  (Genesis12:1-­‐3).      You  shall  be  circumcised  in  the  flesh  of  your  foreskins,  and  it  shall  be  a  sign  of  the  covenant  between  me  and  you.  (Genesis  17)  

Covenant  promise  for  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob.  This  covenant  is  necessary  for  Judaism.    Binding  on  Jews.    

MOSES  (Exodus  and  Deuteronomy)  

Mt  Sinai    .if   you   will   obey   my   voice   and   keep   my   covenant,   you   shall   be   my   own  possession  among  all  peoples;  for  all  the  earth  is  mine,  and  you  shall  be  to  me  a  kingdom  of  priests  and  a  holy  nation...  (Exodus  19:5)    Commandments:    Exodus  20:1-­‐17  and  Deuteronomy  5:4-­‐21).    Binding  on  Jews  and  has  obligations.  It  is  mutual  reciprocal.    

DAVID    (2  Samuel  7)  

   

David’s  name  will  be  made  great    ‘And  I  will  appoint  a  place  for  My  people  Israel,  and  will  plant  them,  that  they  may  dwell   in   their  own  place,  and  be  disquieted  no  more;  neither  shall   the  children   of  wickedness   afflict   them  any  more,   as   at   the   first’   (2   Sam  7:10).    Allusion  to  greater  permanence  and  security  of  place.  

 

 

 

 

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COVENANT:    SUMMARY  BOX   A  Covenant  is  an  agreement,  bargain  or  contract  between  G-­‐d  and  Jews.     B’rit  is  the  Hebrew  word  meaning  Covenant.   To  cut  a  covenant   Originated  with  Noah,  than  Abraham/Isaac/Jacob  and  Moses.     Contains  613  mitzvot.     G-­‐d   promises   to   protect   his   chosen   people   and   give   them   the   Promised   Land.   Today   the  Covenant  is  still  kept  strictly  by  Orthodox  Jews  but  less  strictly  by  Reform  Jews.    

It  is  the  foundation  of  Jewish  faith.     The  implications  of  the  Covenant  are  that  Messiah/messianic  Age  will  come  and  Jerusalem  will  be  rebuild/peace  on  earth.    

After  this  Jews  will  be  judged  on  how  they  have  kept  the  mitzvoth.     Zionists  say  covenant  is  already  fulfilled  –  State  of  Israel  1948.  Some  say  it  is  a  privilege  to  be  chosen  by  G-­‐d.    

Big   responsibility   to   follow   laws,   they   have   been   persecuted   and   exiled   and   to   lead   other  nations  to  G-­‐d.    

Covenant  is  the  heart  of  Judaism;  others  say  communities,  festivals  and  rites  of  passage  are,  along  with  synagogues.    

Chosenness  can  sometimes  be  confused  with  superiority.     There   is  diversity  of   beliefs,  Modern  Orthodox   thinkers   as  well   as  Reform   Jews   reject   this  idea  of  superiority.  

 

THE  TEN  COMMANDMENTS/ASERET  HA-­DIBROT  

(Abridged  from  http://www.jewfaq.org/10.htm)  

According   to   Jewish   tradition,   G-­‐d   gave   the   Jewish   people   613   mitzvot  (commandments).   All   613  of   those  mitzvot   are   equally   sacred,   equally   binding  and   equally   the   word   of   G-­‐d.   All   of   these   mitzvot   are   treated   as   equally  important,   because   human   beings,   with   our   limited   understanding   of   the  universe,  have  no  way  of  knowing  which  mitzvot  are  more  important  in  the  eyes  of  the  Creator.    

But   what   about   the   so-­‐called   "Ten   Commandments,"   the   words   recorded   in  Exodus  20,   the  words   that   the  Creator  Himself  wrote  on   the   two   stone   tablets  that  Moses  brought  down  from  Mount  Sinai   (Ex.  31:18),  which  Moses  smashed  

upon   seeing   the   idolatry   of   the   golden  calf   (Ex.   32:19)?   In   the   Torah,   these  words   are  never   referred   to   as   the  Ten  Commandments.   In   the   Torah,   they   are  called   Aseret   ha-­‐D'varim   (Ex.   34:28,  Deut.  4:13  and  Deut.  10:4).  In  rabbinical  texts,   they  are  referred   to  as  Aseret  ha-­‐Dibrot.   The   words   d'varim   and   dibrot  come   from   the  Hebrew   root  Dalet-­‐Beit-­‐Reish,   meaning   word,   speak   or   thing;  thus,  the  phrase  is  accurately  translated  

as  the  Ten  Sayings,  the  Ten  Statements,  the  Ten  Declarations,  the  Ten  Words  or  even  the  Ten  Things,  but  not  as  the  Ten  Commandments,  which  would  be  Aseret  ha-­‐Mitzvot.  

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The  Aseret  ha-­‐Dibrot  are  not  understood  as  individual  mitzvot;  rather,  they  are  categories  or  classifications  of  mitzvot.  Each  of  the  613  mitzvot  can  be  subsumed  under  one  of  these  ten  categories,  some  in  more  obvious  ways  than  others.  For  example,   the  mitzvah  not   to  work  on  Shabbat   rather  obviously   falls  within   the  category  of   remembering   the   Sabbath  day   and  keeping   it   holy.   The  mitzvah   to  fast  on  Yom  Kippur  fits  into  that  category  somewhat  less  obviously:  all  holidays  are  in  some  sense  a  Sabbath,  and  the  category  encompasses  any  mitzvah  related  to  sacred  time.  The  mitzvah  not  to  stand  aside  while  a  person's  life  is  in  danger  fits  somewhat  obviously  into  the  category  against  murder.    

List  of  the  Aseret  ha-­Dibrot  

According  to  Judaism,  the  Aseret  ha-­‐Dibrot  identify  the  following  ten  categories  of   mitzvot.   Other   religions   divide   this   passage   differently.   See   The   "Ten  Commandments"  Controversy  below.    

 

Please  remember  that  these  are  categories  of  the  613  mitzvot,  which  according  to   Jewish   tradition  are  binding  only  upon   Jews.  The  only  mitzvot  binding  upon  gentiles  are  the  seven  Noahic  commandments.  

1.  Belief  in  G-­d  This  category  is  derived  from  the  declaration  in  Ex.  20:2  beginning,  "I  am  the  L-­‐rd,  your  G-­‐d..."    2.  Prohibition  of  Improper  Worship  This   category   is   derived   from  Ex.   20:3-­‐6,   beginning,   "You   shall   not   have   other  gods..."   It   encompasses   within   it   the   prohibition   against   the   worship   of   other  gods  as  well  as  the  prohibition  of  improper  forms  of  worship  of  the  one  true  G-­‐d,  

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such  as  worshiping  G-­‐d  through  an  idol.    3.  Prohibition  of  Oaths  This  category  is  derived  from  Ex.  20:7,  beginning,  "You  shall  not  take  the  name  of  the  L-­‐rd  your  G-­‐d  in  vain..."  This  includes  prohibitions  against  perjury,  breaking  or  delaying   the  performance  of  vows  or  promises,   and  speaking  G-­‐d's  name  or  swearing  unnecessarily.    4.  Observance  of  Sacred  Times  This   category   is   derived   from   Ex.   20:8-­‐11,   beginning,   "Remember   the   Sabbath  day..."   It   encompasses   all  mitzvot   related   to   Shabbat,   holidays,   or   other   sacred  time.    5.  Respect  for  Parents  and  Teachers  This   category   is   derived   from   Ex.   20:12,   beginning,   "Honor   your   father   and  mother..."    6.  Prohibition  of  Physically  Harming  a  Person  This  category  is  derived  from  Ex.  20:13,  saying,  "You  shall  not  murder."    7.  Prohibition  of  Sexual  Immorality  This  category  is  derived  from  Ex.  20:13,  saying,  "You  shall  not  commit  adultery."    8.  Prohibition  of  Theft  This  category  is  derived  from  Ex.  20:13,  saying,  "You  shall  not  steal."  It  includes  within  it  both  outright  robbery  as  well  as  various  forms  of  theft  by  deception  and  unethical   business   practices.   It   also   includes   kidnapping,   which   is   essentially  "stealing"  a  person.    9.  Prohibition  of  Harming  a  Person  through  Speech  This  category  is  derived  from  Ex.  20:13,  saying,  "You  shall  not  bear  false  witness  against   your   neighbor."   It   includes   all   forms   of   lashon   ha-­‐ra   (sins   relating   to  speech).    10.  Prohibition  of  Coveting  This   category   is   derived   from   Ex.   20:14,   beginning,   "You   shall   not   covet   your  neighbor's  house..."      The  Two  Tablets:  Duties  to  G-­d  and  Duties  to  People  

Judaism   teaches   that   the   first   tablet,   containing   the   first   five   declarations,  identifies   duties   regarding   our   relationship   with   G-­‐d,   while   the   second   tablet,  containing  the  last  five  declarations,  identifies  duties  regarding  our  relationship  with  other  people.  

You  may  have  noticed,  however,  that  the  fifth  category,  which  is  included  in  the  first   tablet,   is   the   category   to   honor   father   and  mother,   which  would   seem   to  concern  relationships  between  people.  The  rabbis  teach  that  our  parents  are  our  

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creators  and  stand  in  a  relationship  to  us  akin  to  our  relationship  to  the  Divine.  Throughout   Jewish   liturgy,   the   Creator   is   referred   to   as   Avinu   Malkeinu,   our  Father,  our  King.  Disrespect  to  our  biological  creators  is  not  merely  an  affront  to  them;   it   is   also   an   insult   to   the   Creator   of   the  Universe.   Accordingly,   honor   of  father  and  mother  is  included  on  the  tablet  of  duties  to  G-­‐d.  

These   two  tablets  are  parallel  and  equal:  duties   to  G-­‐d  are  not  more   important  than  duties  to  people,  nor  are  duties  to  people  more  important  than  duties  to  G-­‐d.   However,   if   one   must   choose   between   fulfilling   an   obligation   to   G-­‐d   and  fulfilling   an   obligation   to   a   person,   or   if   one   must   prioritize   them,   Judaism  teaches  that  the  obligation  to  a  person  should  be  fulfilled  first.  This  principle   is  supported  by   the   story   in  Genesis   18,  where  Abraham   is   communing  with  G-­‐d  and   interrupts   this   meeting   to   fulfill   the   mitzvah   of   providing   hospitality   to  strangers   (the   three   men   who   appear).   The   Talmud   gives   another   example,  disapproving   of   a   man   who,   engrossed   in   prayer,   would   ignore   the   cries   of   a  drowning  man.  When  forced  to  choose  between  our  duties  to  a  person  and  our  duties  to  G-­‐d,  we  must  pursue  our  duties  to  the  person,  because  the  person  needs  our  help,  but  G-­‐d  does  not  need  our  help.  

The  "Ten  Commandments"  Controversy  

In   the  United  States,   a   controversy  has  persisted   for  many  years   regarding   the  placement  of   the   "Ten  Commandments"   in  public   schools  and  public  buildings.  But  one  critical  question  seems  to  have  escaped  most  of  the  public  dialog  on  the  subject:  Whose  "Ten  Commandments"  should  we  post?  

The  general  perception  in  this  country  is  that  the  "Ten  Commandments"  are  part  of  the  common  religious  heritage  of  Judaism,  Catholicism  and  Protestantism,  part  of   the  sacred  scriptures   that  we  all   share,  and  should  not  be  controversial.  But  most  people  involved  in  the  debate  seem  to  have  missed  the  fact  that  these  three  religions   divide   up   the   commandments   in   different   ways!   Judaism,   unlike  Catholicism  and  Protestantism,  considers  "I  am  the  L-­‐rd,  your  G-­‐d"  to  be  the  first  "commandment."   Catholicism,   unlike   Judaism   and   Protestantism,   considers  coveting  property   to  be  separate   from  coveting  a  spouse.  Protestantism,  unlike  Judaism   and   Catholicism,   considers   the   prohibition   against   idolatry   to   be  separate  from  the  prohibition  against  worshipping  other  gods.  No  two  religions  agree  on  a  single  list.  So  whose  list  should  we  post?  

And  once  we  decide  on  a  list,  what  translation  should  we  post?  Should  Judaism's  sixth   declaration   be   rendered   as   "Thou   shalt   not   kill"   as   in   the   popular   KJV  translation,   or   as   "Thou   shalt   not   murder,"   which   is   a   bit   closer   to   the  connotations  of  the  original  Hebrew  though  still  not  entirely  accurate?  

These  may   seem   like   trivial  differences   to   some,  but   they  are   serious   issues   to  those  of  us  who  take  these  words  seriously.  When  a  government  agency  chooses  one   version   over   another,   it   implicitly   chooses   one   religion   over   another,  something   that   the   First   Amendment   prohibits.   This   is   the   heart   of   the  controversy.  

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But   there   is   an   additional   aspect   of   this   controversy   that   is   of   concern   from   a  Jewish  perspective.  In  Talmudic  times,  the  rabbis  consciously  made  a  decision  to  exclude   daily   recitation   of   the   Aseret   ha-­‐Dibrot   from   the   liturgy   because  excessive  emphasis  on  these  statements  might  lead  people  to  mistakenly  believe  that  these  were  the  only  mitzvot  or  the  most  important  mitzvot,  and  neglect  the  full   613   (Talmud   Berakhot   12a).   By   posting   these   words   prominently   and  referring  to  them  as  "The  Ten  Commandments,"  (as  if  there  weren't  any  others,  which  is  what  many  people  think)  schools  and  public  buildings  may  be  teaching  a  message  that  Judaism  specifically  and  consciously  rejected.        

RAMBAM  (MAIMONIDES):      Rabbi    Moshe  ben  Maimon    (1135-­1204)  

 

   

 Salaam  aleikum!    (That’s  the  Arabic  equivalent  of  ‘Shalom  aleikum!’)        My  name  is  Moshe  ben  Maimon.    I’m  also  known  as  Maimonides  or  the  RaMBaM,  Rabbi  Moshe  ben  Maimon.     I  was  born   in  Spain  but   I  don’t   speak  Spanish.    My  birthplace,  Cordoba,  in  the  south  of  the  country,  is  part  of  the  Muslim  Empire,  so  I   speak   Arabic.     The   Muslims   crossed   the   Straits   of   Gibraltar   from   Northern  Africa  a   few  hundred  years  ago  and  conquered  the  southern  half  of   the  Iberian  Peninsula.        Life  for  the  Jews  took  a  turn  for  the  better  after  the  Muslims  took  over.    Whilst  the   Christians   discriminated   against   us   in   just   about   every   possible   way   –  because  of   their  hatred  of  us  –   the  Muslims  viewed  and   treated  us  much  more  favourably,   even   as   equals.     Under  Muslim   rule,   Jewish   life   flourished   in   all   its  aspects:     scholarship,  music,   science,  art,  and  many  other  areas.     Jewish  people  held  positions  in  all  levels  of  society,  including  at  the  royal  court.        Lately,   however,   a   different   group   of   Muslims   has   taken   control   Al   Andalus  (Spain).    They’re  much  stricter  in  their  interpretation  of  Islam  than  the  previous  rulers   and  have  made   it   difficult   to   live  here   as   Jews.     I   overheard  my  parents  

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discussing  the  situation  and  we  had  to  leave.  We’ve  had  to  move  a  few  times:    to  Morocco,  Israel  and  Egypt.        I’m  a  physician  to  princes  and  Sultans  and  I  find  time  passes  very  quickly  when  I’m   attending   to   the  medical   needs   of   so  many.     In   between  my   busy   work,   I  manage   to   get   time   to   write   extensively   on   matters   of   medicine,   science,  philosophy   and   ethics.     Sometimes   I   can   be   really   exhausted   and  my   health   is  poor.  Others  tell  me  that  I  need  to  take  it  easy.    One  of  the  most  significant  things  I  have  written   (so   they   tell  me  anyway!)   is   the  Mishneh  Torah  which,  mainly,  has  to  do  with  Jewish  Law  and  Ethics.      Also,   I’ve  written  a  commentary  on  the  Mishnah  which  contains  the  13  Principles  of  Faith,  that  is,  what  I  consider  the  required  beliefs  of  Judaism.    It’s  a  handy  way  to  be  able  to  explain  briefly  what  is  most   important   in   Judaism   because,   as   you   know,   there   are   many   volumes  written  on  the  subject.    And  I’m  a  philosopher,  too;  that  comes  from  my  interest  in  the  Greek  philosophical  thinkers  like  Aristotle.    My  philosophical  work  ‘Guide  to  the  Perplexed’  is  one  that  would  be  fairly  well  known.        For   a   time,   my   brother,   David,   supported   me   so   I   could   concentrate   on   my  writings.     But   he   was   killed   tragically   in   a   drowning   accident   off   the   coast   of  India.    I  felt  his  loss  so  much,  I  was  paralysed  with  grief.        So,  as  you  can  see,  my  interests  are  wide  and  varied…  Woops!  there’s  a  knock  at  the  door…  I’m  going   to  have   to   leave.  Another  patient  needs  medical  attention.    Excuse  me  for  now!      It’s  been  nice  to  be  able  to  tell  you  a  little  about  me.      

 THIRTEEN  PRINCIPLES  OF  FAITH:    MAIMONIDES  

 Maimonides,  in  his  commentary  on  the  Mishnah,  compiles  what  he  refers  to  as  the  Shloshah-­Asar  Ikkarim,  the  Thirteen  Articles  of  Faith,  compiled  from  Judaism's  613  commandments  found  in  the  Torah.  

Source: Rabbi Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides or Rambam) 1135-1204 CE; in his commentary on the Mishnah (tractate Sanhedrin, chapter 10).  

1. I  believe  with  complete  faith  that  G-­‐d,  Blessed  be  His  Name,  is  the  Creator  and  Guide  of  everything  that  has  been  created;  He  alone  has  made,  does  make,  and  will  make  all  things.  

 2. I   believe  with   complete   faith   G-­‐d,   Blessed   be   His   Name,   is   One,   and   that  

there   is  no  unity   in  any  manner   like  His,  and  that  He  alone   is  our  G-­‐d,  who  was,  is,  and  will  be.  

 3. I  believe  with  complete   faith   that  G-­‐d,  Blessed  be  His  Name,  has  no  body,  

and  that  He  does  not  have  the  properties  of  living  creatures,  and  that  he  has  no  form  whatsoever.  

 4. I  believe  with  complete  faith  that  G-­‐d,  Blessed  be  His  Name,  is  the  first  and  

the  last.    

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5. I  believe  with  complete  faith  that  G-­‐d,  Blessed  be  His  Name,  is  the  only  one  to  whom  it  is  right  to  pray,  and  that  it  is  not  right  to  pray  to  any  being  besides  Him.  

 6. I  believe  with  complete  faith  that  all  the  words  of  the  prophets  are  true.  

 7. I  believe  with  complete  faith  that  the  prophecy  of  Moses  our  teacher,  peace  

be  upon  him,  was  true,  and  that  he  was  the  chief  of  the  prophets,  both  of  those  who  preceded  and  of  those  who  followed  him.  

 8. I  believe  with  complete   faith   that   the  entirety  of   the  Torah   that   is  now   in  

our  possession  is  the  same  that  was  given  to  Moses  our  teacher,  peace  be  upon  him.  

 9. I  believe  with  complete  faith  that  this  Torah  will  not  be  exchanged,  and  that  

there  will   never   be   any   other   Torah   from   the   Creator,   Blessed   be  His  Name.  

 10. 10.I  believe  with  complete   faith   that  G-­‐d,  Blessed  be  His  Name,  knows  

all  the  deeds  of  human  beings  and  all  their  thoughts,  as  it  is  written,  "It  is  He  who   fashioned   the  hearts  of   them  all,  Who  understands  all   their  actions".  

 11. 11.I  believe  with  complete  faith  that  G-­‐d,  Blessed  be  His  Name,  rewards  

those  who  keep  His  commandments  and  punishes  those  who  transgress  them.  

 12. 12.I   believe   with   complete   faith   in   the   coming   of   the   Moshiach  

(Messiah);  and  even  though  he  may  tarry,  nonetheless,   I  wait  daily   for  his  coming.  

 13. 13.I  believe  with  complete  faith  that  there  will  be  a  revival  of  the  dead  

at   the   time  when   it  shall  please   the  Creator,  Blessed  be  His  name,  and  His  mention  shall  be  exalted  for  ever  and  ever.  

It  is  the  custom  of  many  congregations  to  recite  the  Thirteen  Articles,  in  a  slightly  more  poetic  form,  beginning  with  the  words  Ani  Maamin  -­‐  "I  believe"  -­‐  every  day  after  the  morning  prayers  in  the  synagogue.  

In  his  commentary  on  the  Mishnah  (Sanhedrin,  chap.  10),  Maimonides  refers  to  these  thirteen  principles  of  faith  as  "the  fundamental  truths  of  our  religion  and  its  very  foundations."              

 

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KEY  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  G-­D    

http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/g-­‐d.html    The  nature  of  G-­‐d   is  one  of   the   few  areas  of  abstract   Jewish  belief  where   there  are   a   number   of   clear-­‐cut   ideas   about   which   there   is   little   dispute   or  disagreement.  

G-­d  Exists  

The   fact   of   G-­‐d's   existence   is   accepted   almost   without   question.   Proof   is   not  needed,  and  is  rarely  offered.  The  Torah  begins  by  stating  "In  the  beginning,  G-­‐d  created..."  It  does  not  tell  who  G-­‐d  is  or  how  He  was  created.  

In  general,  Judaism  views  the  existence  of  G-­‐d  as  a  necessary  prerequisite  for  the  existence  of  the  universe.  The  existence  of  the  universe  is  sufficient  proof  of  the  existence  of  G-­‐d.  

G-­d  is  One  

One  of   the  primary  expressions  of   Jewish   faith,   recited   twice  daily   in  prayer,   is  the  Shema,  (Deut  6)  which  begins  "Hear,  Israel:  The  L-­‐rd  is  our  G-­‐d,  The  L-­‐rd  is  one."  This  simple  statement  encompasses  several  different  ideas:  

1. There  is  only  one  G-­‐d.  No  other  being  participated  in  the  work  of  creation.  2. G-­‐d  is  a  unity.  He  is  a  single,  whole,  complete   indivisible  entity.  He  cannot  be  

divided   into   parts   or   described   by   attributes.   Any   attempt   to   ascribe  attributes   to   G-­‐d   is   merely   man's   imperfect   attempt   to   understand   the  infinite.  

3. G-­‐d  is  the  only  being  to  whom  we  should  offer  praise.  The  Shema  can  also  be  translated  as  "The  L-­‐rd  is  our  G-­‐d,  The  L-­‐rd  alone,"  meaning  that  no  other  is  our  G-­‐d,  and  we  should  not  pray  to  any  other.    

G-­d  is  the  Creator  of  Everything  

Everything   in   the   universe   was   created   by   G-­‐d   and   only   by   G-­‐d.   Judaism  completely   rejects   the   dualistic   notion   that   evil  was   created   by   Satan   or   some  other  deity.  All  comes  from  G-­‐d.  As  Isaiah  said,  "I  am  the  L-­‐rd,  and  there  is  none  else.  I  form  the  light  and  create  darkness,  I  make  peace  and  create  evil.  I  am  the  L-­‐rd,  that  does  all  these  things."  (Is.  45:6-­‐7).  

G-­d  is  Incorporeal  

Although  many  places   in   scripture   and  Talmud   speak  of   various  parts   of  G-­‐d's  body   (the   Hand   of   G-­‐d,   G-­‐d's  wings,   etc.)   or   speak   of   G-­‐d   in   anthropomorphic  terms  (G-­‐d  walking  in  the  garden  of  Eden,  G-­‐d  laying  tefillin,  etc.),  Judaism  firmly  

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maintains  that  G-­‐d  has  no  body.  Any  reference  to  G-­‐d's  body  is  simply  a  figure  of  speech,  a  means  of  making  G-­‐d's  actions  more  comprehensible  to  beings  living  in  a   material   world.   Much   of   Maimonides'   Guide   for   the   Perplexed   is   devoted   to  explaining   each   of   these   anthropomorphic   references   and   proving   that   they  should  be  understood  figuratively.  

We  are  forbidden  to  represent  G-­‐d  in  a  physical  form.  That  is  considered  idolatry.  The  sin  of  the  Golden  Calf  incident  was  not  that  the  people  chose  another  deity,  but  that  they  tried  to  represent  G-­‐d  in  a  physical  form.  

G-­d  is  Neither  Male  nor  Female  

This  followed  directly  from  the  fact  that  G-­‐d  has  no  physical  form.  As  one  rabbi  explained  it  to  me,  G-­‐d  has  no  body,  no  genitalia,  therefore  the  very  idea  that  G-­‐d  is   male   or   female   is   patently   absurd.   We   refer   to   G-­‐d   using   masculine   terms  simply  for  convenience's  sake,  because  Hebrew  has  no  neutral  gender;  G-­‐d  is  no  more  male  than  a  table  is.  

Although  we  usually  speak  of  G-­‐d  in  masculine  terms,  there  are  times  when  we  refer   to   G-­‐d   using   feminine   terms.   The   Shechinah,   the   manifestation   of   G-­‐d's  presence  that  fills  the  universe,  is  conceived  of  in  feminine  terms,  and  the  word  Shechinah  is  a  feminine  word.  

G-­d  is  Omnipresent  

G-­‐d  is  in  all  places  at  all  times.  He  fills  the  universe  and  exceeds  its  scope.  He  is  always  near  for  us  to  call  upon  in  need,  and  He  sees  all  that  we  do.  Closely  tied  in  with  this  idea  is  the  fact  that  G-­‐d  is  universal.  He  is  not  just  the  G-­‐d  of  the  Jews;  He  is  the  G-­‐d  of  all  nations.  

G-­d  is  Omnipotent  

G-­‐d  can  do  anything.  It  is  said  that  the  only  thing  that  is  beyond  His  power  is  the  fear  of  Him;   that   is,  we  have   free  will,   and  He  cannot  compel  us   to  do  His  will.  This   belief   in   G-­‐d's   omnipotence   has   been   sorely   tested   during   the   many  persecutions  of   Jews,  but  we  have  always  maintained  that  G-­‐d  has  a  reason  for  allowing   these   things,   even   if  we   in   our   limited   perception   and   understanding  cannot  see  the  reason.  

G-­d  is  Omniscient  

G-­‐d  knows  all  things,  past,  present  and  future.  He  knows  our  thoughts.  

G-­d  is  Eternal  

G-­‐d  transcends  time.  He  has  no  beginning  and  no  end.  He  will  always  be  there  to  

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fulfill  his  promises.  When  Moses  asked  for  G-­‐d's  name,  He  replied,  "Ehyeh  asher  ehyeh."   That   phrase   is   generally   translated   as,   "I   am   that   I   am,"   but   the  word  "ehyeh"  can  be  present  or  future  tense,  meaning  "I  am  what  I  will  be"  or  "I  will  be  what  I  will  be."  The  ambiguity  of  the  phrase  is  often  interpreted  as  a  reference  to  G-­‐d's  eternal  nature.  

G-­d  is  Both  Just  and  Merciful  

Judaism  has  always  maintained  that  G-­‐d's  justice  is  tempered  by  mercy,  the  two  qualities   perfectly   balanced.   Of   the   two  Names   of   G-­‐d  most   commonly   used   in  scripture,  one  refers  to  his  quality  of  justice  and  the  other  to  his  quality  of  mercy.  The   two   names  were   used   together   in   the   story   of   Creation,   showing   that   the  world  was  created  with  both  justice  and  mercy.  

G-­d  is  Holy  and  Perfect  

One  of  the  most  common  names  applied  to  G-­‐d  in  the  post-­‐Biblical  period  is  "Ha-­Kadosh,  Baruch  Hu,"  The  Holy  One,  Blessed  be  He.  

G-­d  is  our  Father  

Judaism  maintains  that  G-­‐d  has  billions  of  sons  and  daughters.  We  are  all  G-­‐d's  children.  The  Talmud  teaches  that  there  are  three  participants  in  the  formation  of   every   human   being:   the  mother   and   father,  who   provide   the   physical   form,  and  G-­‐d,  who  provides   the   soul,   the   personality,   and   the   intelligence.   It   is   said  that   one   of   G-­‐d's   greatest   gifts   to   humanity   is   the   knowledge   that   we   are   His  children  and  created  in  His  image.      CHARACTERISTICS  OF  G-­D:    SUMMARY  BOX  

G-­‐d  exists   G-­‐d  is  one   G-­‐d  is  the  creator  of  everything   G-­‐d  is  incorporeal  (without  a  bodily  form)   G-­‐d  is  neither  male  nor  female   G-­‐d  is  omnipresent  (present  everywhere)   G-­‐d  is  omnipotent  (all-­‐powerful)   G-­‐d  is  omniscient  (all-­‐knowing)   G-­‐d  is  eternal   G-­‐d  is  both  just  and  merciful   G-­‐d  is  our  Father   G-­‐d  is  holy  and  perfect  

     

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ETHICAL  MONOTHEISM  

Any word which has the word theist‘ as part of it comes from the Greek root ‚Theos i.e. related to G-ds or G-d. We speak of a theist as one who believes in a G-d. We speak of atheist as one who does not believe in any G-d. Ancient near eastern religions were almost all polytheistic. The prefix ‘poly‘ means many‘. Polytheistic means that they worshipped many G-ds and had cults and practices associated with this. The prefix ‚mono‘ means one; monotheistic means the worship of one G-d. There were pagan monotheists and they were often pantheistic which means that G-d was equated with the world, not separate from it i.e. the sun was G-d, the moon was G-d, etc. Not that G-d created the sun or the moon. We speak of ethical monotheism in relation to Judaism because biblical faith arrives at the oneess of G-d because of ethical considerations and through a direct insight into the absolute character of moral law. There is a difference also not so much in how many gods are involved but what kind of a god is involved. For example, the gods of paganim even monothistic pagan gods the G-d of ethical monotheism is G-d who is invites people into personal relationship and the people’s response to that invitation is expressed in the observance of certain practices and an ethical way of life.

Central to Ethical Monotheism in Judaism are the following:

Abridged from http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/mono.html

1.  There  is  one  G-­‐d  from  whom  emanates  one  morality  for  all  humanity.  

2.  G-­‐d's  primary  demand  of  people  is  that  they  act  decently  toward  one  another.  

If  all  people  subscribed   to   this   simple  belief—which  does  not  entail   leaving,  or  joining,  any  specific  religion,  or  giving  up  any  national  identity—the  world  would  experience  far  less  evil.  

The   G-­‐d   of   ethical   monotheism   is   the   G-­‐d   first   revealed   to   the   world   in   the  Hebrew  Bible.  Through  it,  we  can  establish  G-­‐d's  four  primary  characteristics:  

1.  G-­‐d  is  supranatural.    

2.  G-­‐d  is  personal.    

3.  G-­‐d  is  good.    

4.  G-­‐d  is  holy.    

Dropping  any  one  of  the  first  three  attributes  invalidates  ethical  monotheism  (it  is  possible,  though  difficult,  to  ignore  holiness  and  still  lead  an  ethical  life).  

G-­‐d  is  supranatural,  meaning  "above  nature"  This  is  why  Genesis,  the  Bible's  first  

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book,  opens  with,  "In  the  beginning,  G-­‐d  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth"  in  a  world  in  which  nearly  all  people  worshipped  nature,  the  Bible's  intention  was  to  emphasize   that   nature   is   utterly   subservient   to   G-­‐d   who   made   it.   Obviously,  therefore,  G-­‐d  is  not  a  part  of  nature,  and  nature  is  not  G-­‐d.  

The  second  essential  characteristic  is  that  G-­‐d  is  personal.  

The  G-­‐d  of  ethical  monotheism  is  not  some  depersonalized  force:  G-­‐d  cares  about  His  creations.  G-­‐d  knows  each  of  us.  We  are,  after  all,  "created  in  His  image."  This  is  not  merely  wishful  thinking  why  would  G-­‐d  create  a  being  capable  of  knowing  Him,  yet  choose  not  to  know  that  being?  

This   does   not   mean   that   G-­‐d   necessarily   answers   prayers   or   even   that   G-­‐d  intervenes   in  all  or  even  any  of  our   lives.   It  means  that  He  knows  us  and  cares  about  us.  Caring  beings  are  not  created  by  an  uncaring  being.    The  whole  point  of  ethical   monotheism   is   that   G-­‐d's   greatest   desire   is   that   we   act   toward   one  another  with  justice  and  mercy.    

A  third  characteristic  of  G-­‐d  is  goodness.    

A  god  who  is  not  good  cannot  demand  goodness.  Unlike  all  other  gods  believed  in  prior   to  monotheism,   the  biblical  G-­‐d   rules  by  moral   standards.  Thus,   in   the  Babylonian   version   of   the   flood   story,   the   gods,   led   by   Enlil,   sent   a   flood   to  destroy  mankind,  saving  only  Utnapishtim  and  his  wife  -­‐  because  Enlil  personally  liked  Utnapishtim.   It   is  an  act  of   impulse  not  morality.   In  the  biblical  story,  G-­‐d  also   sends   a   flood,   saving   only   Noah   and   his   wife   and   family.   The   stories   are  almost   identical   except   for   one   overwhelming   difference:   the   entire   Hebrew  story  is  animated  by  ethical/moral  concerns.  G-­‐d  brings  the  flood  solely  because  people  treat  one  another,  not  G-­‐d,  badly,  and  G-­‐d  saves  Noah  solely  because  he  was  "the  most  righteous  person  in  his  generation."  

Words   cannot   convey   the   magnitude   of   the   change   wrought   by   the   Hebrew  Bible's  introduction  into  the  world  of  a  G-­‐d  who  rules  the  universe  morally.  

Holiness  

As   primary   as   ethics   are,   man   cannot   live   by   morality   alone.   We   are   also  instructed  to  lead  holy  lives:  "You  shall  be  holy  because  I  the  Lord  your  G-­‐d  am  holy"  (Leviticus  19:2).  G-­‐d  is  more  than  the  source  of  morality,  He  is  the  source  of  holiness.  

Ethics  enables   life;  holiness  ennobles   it.  Holiness   is   the  elevation  of   the  human  being  from  his  animal  nature  to  his  being  created  in  the  image  of  G-­‐d.  To  cite  a  simple  example,  we  can  eat  like  an  animal—with  our  fingers,  belching,  from  the  floor,   while   relieving   ourselves   or   elevate   ourselves   to   eat   from   a   table,   with  utensils   and   napkins,   keeping   our   digestive   sounds   quiet.   It   is,   however,   very  important   to   note   that   a   person   who   eats   like   an   animal   is   doing   something  unholy,   not   immoral.   The   distinction,   lost   upon   many   religious   people,   is   an  

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important  one.  

One  G-­d  and  One  Morality  

The  oneness  of  G-­‐d  is  an  indispensable  component  of  ethical  monotheism.    

Only   if   there   is  one  G-­‐d   is   there  one  morality.  Two  or  more  gods  mean   two  or  more  divine  wills,   and   therefore   two  or  more  moral   codes.  That   is  why  ethical  polytheism  is  unlikely.  Once  G-­‐d  told  Abraham  that  human  sacrifice  is  wrong,  it  was  wrong.  There  was  no  competing  G-­‐d  to  teach  otherwise.  

One   morality   also   means   one   moral   code   for   all   humanity.   "Thou   shall   not  murder"  means  that  murder  is  wrong  for  everyone,  not  just  for  one  culture.  .  

One  Humanity  

One  G-­‐d  who  created  human  beings  of  all   races  means   that  all  of  humanity  are  related.  Only  if  there  is  one  Father  are  all  of  us  brothers  and  sisters.  

Human  Life  is  Sacred  

Another   critical   moral   ramification   of   ethical   monotheism   is   the   sanctity   of  human   life.  Only   if   there   is   a  G-­‐d   in  whose   image  human  beings   are   created   is  human  life  sacred.  If  human  beings  do  not  contain  an  element  of  the  divine,  they  are  merely  intelligent  animals.  

G-­d's  Primary  Demand  Is  Goodness  

Of   course,   the   clearest   teaching   of   ethical   monotheism   is   that   G-­‐d   demands  ethical  behavior.    

As  Ernest  van  den  Haag  described  it:  "[The  Jews']  invisible  G-­‐d  not  only  insisted  on  being  the  only  and  all  powerful  G-­‐d  .  .  .  He  also  developed  into  a  moral  G-­‐d."  

But  ethical  monotheism  suggests  more  than  that  G-­‐d  demands  ethical  behavior;  it  means  that  G-­‐ds  primary  demand  is  ethical  behavior.   It  means  that  G-­‐d  cares  about  how  we  treat  one  another  more  than  He  cares  about  anything  else.  

Jews  and  Ethical  Monotheism  

Since   Judaism  gave   the  world  ethical  monotheism,  one  would  expect   that   Jews  would  come  closest   to  holding   its  values.   In   some   important  ways,   this   is   true.  Jews  do  hold   that  G-­‐d   judges   everyone,   Jew  or  Gentile,   by   his   or   her   behavior.  This  is  a  major  reason  that  Jews  do  not  proselytize  (though  it  is  not  an  argument  against   Jews   proselytizing;   indeed,   they   ought   to):   Judaism   has   never   believed  that  non  Jews  have  to  embrace  Judaism  to  attain  salvation  or  any  other  reward  in  the  afterlife.  

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But  within  Jewish  religious  life,  the  picture  changes.  The  more  observant  a  Jew  is,  the  more  he  or  she  is  likely  to  assume  that  G-­‐d  considers  ritual  observances  to  be  at  least  as  important  as  G-­‐d's  ethical  demands.  

This  erroneous  belief   is  as  old  as   the   Jewish  people,  and  one  against  which  the  prophets  passionately  railed:   "Do   I   [G-­‐d]  need  your  many  sacrifices?"  cried  out  Isaiah  (Isaiah  1:11).  The  question  is  rhetorical.  What  G-­‐d  does  demand  is  justice  and  goodness  based  on   faith   in  G-­‐d:   "Oh,  man,"   taught   the  prophet  Micah,   "G-­‐d  has  told  you  what  is  good  and  what  G-­‐d  requires  of  you  only  that  you  act  justly,  love  goodness  and  walk  humbly  with  your  G-­‐d"  (Micah  6:8,  emphasis  added).  

In   Judaism,   the   commandments   between  human  beings   and  G-­‐d   are   extremely  significant.   But   they   are   not   as   important   as   ethical   behavior.   The   prophets,  Judaism's  most  direct  messengers  of  G-­‐d,  affirmed  this  view  repeatedly,  and  the  Talmudic  rabbis   later  echoed  it.  "Love  your  neighbor  as  yourself   is  the  greatest  principle  in  the  Torah,"  said  Rabbi  Akiva  (Palestinian  Talmud,  Nedarim  9:4).  

That  is  why  when  the  great  Rabbi  Hillel  was  asked  by  a  pagan  to  summarize  all  of  Judaism  "while  standing  on  one  leg,  he  was  able  to  do  so:  "What  is  hateful  to  you,  do   not   do   to   others;   the   rest   is   commentary   now   go   and   study"   (Babylonian  Talmud,  Shabbat  31a).  Hillel  could  have  said,   "Keep  the  613  commandments  of  the   Torah;   now   go   and   do   them,"   but   he   didn't.   In   fact,   he  went   further.   After  enunciating   his   ethical   principle,   he   concluded,   "The   rest   is   commentary."   In  other  words,  the  rest  of  Judaism  is  essentially  a  commentary  on  how  to  lead  an  ethical  life.  

Unfortunately,   with   no   more   direct   messages   from   G-­‐d,   and   few   Hillels,   the  notion   that   the   laws   between  man   and   G-­‐d   and   the   laws   between   people   are  equally  important  gained  ever  wider  acceptance  in  religious  Jewish  life.  

Perhaps  there  are  three  reasons  for  this:  

1.   It   is  much  more  difficult   to  be  completely  ethical   than  to  completely  observe  the  ritual  laws.  While  one  can  master  the  laws  between  people  and  G-­‐d,  no  one  can  fully  master  human  decency.  

2.  While  ethical  principles  are  more  or   less  universal,   the   laws  between  people  and  G-­‐d  are  uniquely  Jewish.  Therefore,  that  which  most  distinguishes  observant  Jews  from  non-­‐observant  Jews  and  from  non  Jews  are  Judaism's  ritual  laws,  not  its  ethical  laws.  Thus  it  was  easy  for  a  mindset  to  develop  which  held  that  what  ever   is   most   distinctively   Jewish—i.e.,   the   laws   between   people   and   G-­‐d—is  more  Jewishly  important  than  whatever  is  universal.  

3.  Observance  of  many  laws  between  people  and  G-­‐d  is  public  and  obvious.  Other  Jews  can  see  how  you  pray,  how  diligently  you   learn  Talmud  and  Torah,  and   if  you  dress  in  the  modest  manner  dictated  by  Jewish  law.  Few  people  know  how  you  conduct  your  business  affairs,  how  you  treat  your  employees,  how  you  talk  behind  others'  backs,  or  how  you  treat  your  spouse.  Therefore,  the  easiest  way  to  

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demonstrate   the   depth   of   your   religiosity   is   through   observance   of   the   laws  between  man  and  G-­‐d,  especially  the  ones  that  are  most  public.  

Yet,   while   observant   Jews   may   overstress   the   "monotheism"   in   "ethical  "monotheism,"  the  fact  is  that  they  believe  the  entire  doctrine  to  be  true.  Secular  Jews,   on   the   other   hand,   believe   that   ethics   can   be   separated   from   G-­‐d   and  religion.  The  results  have  not  been  positive.  The  ethical  record  of  Jews  and  non  Jews   involved   in   causes   that   abandoned   ethical   monotheism   has   included  involvement  in  moral  relativism,  Marxism,  and  the  worship  of  art,  education,  law,  etc.  

The  lessons  for  religious  Jews  are  never  to  forget  the  primacy  of  ethics  and  not  to  abandon  the  ethical  monotheist  mission  of  Judaism.  The  lesson  for  secular  Jews  is  to  realize  that  ethics  cannot  long  survive  the  death  of  monotheism.      ETHICAL  MONOTHEISM:    SUMMARY  BOX  

One  G-­‐d   One  morality   One  humanity   Sacredness  of  human  life  because  we  are  created  in  G-­‐d’s  image   G-­‐d  demands  ethical  behaviour;  that  we  treat  other  people  justly   G-­‐d  is  the  source  of  holiness  in  the  living  out  of  our  lives   G-­‐d  enters  into  personal  relationship  with  humanity   G-­‐d  is  above  nature  

       

UNITED  NATIONS  DECLARATION  ON  HUMAN  RIGHTS    

     

From  http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/history.shtml    BACKGROUND    The   Universal   Declaration   of   Human   Rights,   which   was   adopted   by   the   UN  General  Assembly  on  10  December  1948,  was  the  result  of  the  experience  of  the  

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Second  World  War.   With   the   end   of   that   war,   and   the   creation   of   the   United  Nations,  the  international  community  vowed  never  again  to  allow  atrocities  like  those  of  that  conflict  happen  again.  World  leaders  decided  to  complement  the  UN  Charter  with  a  road  map  to  guarantee  the  rights  of  every  individual  everywhere.  The   document   they   considered,   and   which   would   later   become   the   Universal  Declaration   of   Human   Rights,   was   taken   up   at   the   first   session   of   the   General  Assembly   in   1946.     The   Assembly   reviewed   this   draft   Declaration   on  Fundamental  Human  Rights   and  Freedoms  and   transmitted   it   to   the  Economic  and   Social   Council   "for   reference   to   the   Commission   on   Human   Rights   for  consideration   .   .   .   in   its   preparation   of   an   international   bill   of   rights."   The  Commission,   at   its   first   session   early   in   1947,   authorized   its   members   to  formulate   what   it   termed   "a   preliminary   draft   International   Bill   of   Human  Rights".   Later   the   work   was   taken   over   by   a   formal   drafting   committee,  consisting  of  members   of   the  Commission   from  eight   States,   selected  with  due  regard  for  geographical  distribution.    The   Commission   on  Human  Rights  was  made   up   of   18  members   from   various  political,   cultural   and   religious   backgrounds.   Eleanor   Roosevelt,   widow   of  American  President  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt,  chaired  the  UDHR  drafting  committee.  With   her   were   René   Cassin   of   France,   who   composed   the   first   draft   of   the  Declaration,   the   Committee   Rapporteur   Charles   Malik   of   Lebanon,   Vice-­‐Chairman  Peng  Chung  Chang  of  China,  and  John  Humphrey  of  Canada,  Director  of  the  UN’s  Human  Rights  Division,  who  prepared  the  Declaration’s  blueprint.  But  Mrs.   Roosevelt   was   recognized   as   the   driving   force   for   the   Declaration’s  adoption.  

The   Commission   met   for   the   first   time   in   1947.   In   her   memoirs,   Eleanor  Roosevelt  recalled:    “Dr.  Chang  was  a  pluralist  and  held  forth  in  charming  fashion  on   the   proposition   that   there   is   more   than   one   kind   of   ultimate   reality.     The  Declaration,   he   said,   should   reflect   more   than   simply   Werstern   ideas   and   Dr.  Humphrey   would   have   to   be   eclectic   in   his   approach.     His   remark,   though  addressed  to  Dr.  Humprhey,  was  really  directed  at  Dr.  Malik,  from  whom  it  drew  a   prompt   retort   as   he   expounded   at   some   length   the   philosophy   of   Thomas  Aquinas.     Dr.   Humphrey   joined   enthusiastically   in   the   discussion,   and   I  remember  that  at  one  point  Dr.  Chang  suggested  that  the  Secretariat  might  well  spend  a  few  months  studying  the  fundamentals  of  Confucianism!”  

The  final  draft  by  Cassin  was  handed  to  the  Commission  on  Human  Rights,  which  was  being  held  in  Geneva.  The  draft  declaration  sent  out  to  all  UN  member  States  for  comments  became  known  as  the  Geneva  draft.  

The  first  draft  of  the  Declaration  was  proposed  in  September  1948  with  over  50  Member  States  participating  in  the  final  drafting.  By  its  resolution  217  A  (III)  of  10   December   1948,   the   General   Assembly,   meeting   in   Paris,   adopted   the  Universal   Declaration   of   Human  Rights  with   eight   nations   abstaining   from   the  vote   but   none   dissenting.   Hernán   Santa   Cruz   of   Chile,  member   of   the   drafting  sub-­‐Committee,   wrote:    “I   perceived   clearly   that   I   was   participating   in   a   truly  significant   historic   event   in   which   a   consensus   had   been   reached   as   to   the  supreme  value  of  the  human  person,  a  value  that  did  not  originate  in  the  decision  

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of   a   worldly   power,   but   rather   in   the   fact   of   existing—which   gave   rise   to   the  inalienable  right  to  live  free  from  want  and  oppression  and  to  fully  develop  one’s  personality.     In   the   Great   Hall…there  was   an   atmosphere   of   genuine   solidarity  and  brotherhood  among  men  and  women  from  all   latitudes,   the   like  of  which   I  have  not   seen   again   in   any   international   setting.”    The   entire   text   of   the  UDHR  was  composed  in  less  than  two  years.  At  a  time  when  the  world  was  divided  into  Eastern  and  Western  blocks,  finding  a  common  ground  on  what  should  make  the  essence  of  the  document  proved  to  be  a  colossal  task.  

 United  Nations  Universal  Declaration  of  Human  Rights  Plain  Language  Version  (From  http://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/humanrights/resources/plain.asp)  

   1   When  children  are  born,  they  are  free  and  each  should  be  treated  in  the  same  way.  They  have  reason  and  conscience  and  should  act  towards  one  another  in  a  friendly  manner.  

2     Everyone  can  claim  the  following  rights,  despite  -­‐  a  different  sex  -­‐  a  different  skin  colour  -­‐  speaking  a  different  language  -­‐  thinking  different  things  -­‐  believing  in  another  religion  -­‐  owning  more  or  less  -­‐  being  born  in  another  social  group  -­‐  coming  from  another  country  It  also  makes  no  difference  whether  the  country  you  live  in  is  independent  or  not.  

3     You  have  the  right  to  live,  and  to  live  in  freedom  and  safety.  4     Nobody  has  the  right  to  treat  you  as  his  or  her  slave  and  you  should  not  

make  anyone  your  slave.  5     Nobody  has  the  right  to  torture  you.  6     You  should  be  legally  protected  in  the  same  way  everywhere,  and  like  

everyone  else.  7     The  law  is  the  same  for  everyone;  it  should  be  applied  in  the  same  way  to  

all.  8     You  should  be  able  to  ask  for  legal  help  when  the  rights  your  country  

grants  you  are  not  respected.  9     Nobody  has  the  right  to  put  you  in  prison,  to  keep  you  there,  or  to  send  you  

away  from  your  country  unjustly,  or  without  good  reason.  10     If  you  go  on  trial  this  should  be  done  in  public.  The  people  who  try  you  

should  not  let  themselves  be  influenced  by  others.  11     You  should  be  considered  innocent  until  it  can  be  proved  that  you  are  

guilty.  If  you  are  accused  of  a  crime,  you  should  always  have  the  right  to  defend  yourself.  Nobody  has  the  right  to  condemn  you  and  punish  you  for  something  you  have  not  done.  

12     You  have  the  right  to  ask  to  be  protected  if  someone  tries  to  harm  your  good  name,  enter  your  house,  open  your  letters,  or  bother  you  or  your  family  without  a  good  reason.  

13     You  have  the  right  to  come  and  go  as  you  wish  within  your  country.  You  

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have  the  right  to  leave  your  country  to  go  to  another  one;  and  you  should  be  able  to  return  to  your  country  if  you  want.  

14     If  someone  hurts  you,  you  have  the  right  to  go  to  another  country  and  ask  it  to  protect  you.  You  lose  this  right  if  you  have  killed  someone  and  if  you,  yourself,  do  not  respect  what  is  written  here.  

15     You  have  the  right  to  belong  to  a  country  and  nobody  can  prevent  you,  without  a  good  reason,  from  belonging  to  a  country  if  you  wish.  

16     As  soon  as  a  person  is  legally  entitled,  he  or  she  has  the  right  to  marry  and  have  a  family.  In  doing  this,  neither  the  colour  of  your  skin,  the  country  you  come  from  nor  your  religion  should  be  impediments.  Men  and  women  have  the  same  rights  when  they  are  married  and  also  when  they  are  separated.  Nobody  should  force  a  person  to  marry.  The  government  of  your  country  should  protect  you  and  the  members  of  your  family.  

17     You  have  the  right  to  own  things  and  nobody  has  the  right  to  take  these  from  you  without  a  good  reason.  

18     You  have  the  right  to  profess  your  religion  freely,  to  change  it,  and  to  practise  it  either  on  your  own  or  with  other  people.  

19     You  have  the  right  to  think  what  you  want,  to  say  what  you  like,  and  nobody  should  forbid  you  from  doing  so.  You  should  be  able  to  share  your  ideas  also—with  people  from  any  other  country.  

20     You  have  the  right  to  organize  peaceful  meetings  or  to  take  part  in  meetings  in  a  peaceful  way.  It  is  wrong  to  force  someone  to  belong  to  a  group.  

21     You  have  the  right  to  take  part  in  your  country's  political  affairs  either  by  belonging  to  the  government  yourself  or  by  choosing  politicians  who  have  the  same  ideas  as  you.  Governments  should  be  voted  for  regularly  and  voting  should  be  secret.  You  should  get  a  vote  and  all  votes  should  be  equal.  You  also  have  the  same  right  to  join  the  public  service  as  anyone  else.  

22     The  society  in  which  you  live  should  help  you  to  develop  and  to  make  the  most  of  all  the  advantages  (culture,  work,  social  welfare)  which  are  offered  to  you  and  to  all  the  men  and  women  in  your  country.  

23     You  have  the  right  to  work,  to  be  free  to  choose  your  work,  to  get  a  salary  which  allows  you  to  support  your  family.  If  a  man  and  a  woman  do  the  same  work,  they  should  get  the  same  pay.  All  people  who  work  have  the  right  to  join  together  to  defend  their  interests.  

24     Each  work  day  should  not  be  too  long,  since  everyone  has  the  right  to  rest  and  should  be  able  to  take  regular  paid  holidays.  

25     You  have  the  right  to  have  whatever  you  need  so  that  you  and  your  family:  do  not  fall  ill  or  go  hungry;  have  clothes  and  a  house;  and  are  helped  if  you  are  out  of  work,  if  you  are  ill,  if  you  are  old,  if  your  wife  or  husband  is  dead,  or  if  you  do  not  earn  a  living  for  any  other  reason  you  cannot  help.  Mothers  and  their  children  are  entitled  to  special  care.  All  children  have  the  same  rights  to  be  protected,  whether  or  not  their  mother  was  married  when  they  were  born.  

26     You  have  the  right  to  go  to  school  and  everyone  should  go  to  school.  Primary  schooling  should  be  free.  You  should  be  able  to  learn  a  profession  

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or  continue  your  studies  as  far  as  wish.  At  school,  you  should  be  able  to  develop  all  your  talents  and  you  should  be  taught  to  get  on  with  others,  whatever  their  race,  religion  or  the  country  they  come  from.  Your  parents  have  the  right  to  choose  how  and  what  you  will  be  taught  at  school.  

27     You  have  the  right  to  share  in  your  community's  arts  and  sciences,  and  any  good  they  do.  Your  works  as  an  artist,  writer,  or  a  scientist  should  be  protected,  and  you  should  be  able  to  benefit  from  them.  

28     So  that  your  rights  will  be  respected,  there  must  be  an  'order'  which  can  protect  them.  This  ‘order’  should  be  local  and  worldwide.  

29     You  have  duties  towards  the  community  within  which  your  personality  can  only  fully  develop.  The  law  should  guarantee  human  rights.  It  should  allow  everyone  to  respect  others  and  to  be  respected.  

30     In  all  parts  of  the  world,  no  society,  no  human  being,  should  take  it  upon  her  or  himself  to  act  in  such  a  way  as  to  destroy  the  rights  which  you  have  just  been  reading  about.  

   

EXTRACTS  FROM  BUNREACHT  NA  HEIREANN/IRISH  CONSTITUTION  

 From  http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/attached_files/html%20files/Constitution%20of%20Ireland%20(Eng)Nov2004.htm    THE  NATION  Article  1  The   Irish   nation   hereby   affirms   its   inalienable,  indefeasible,   and   sovereign   right   to   choose   its  own   form   of   Government,   to   determine   its  relations   with   other   nations,   and   to   develop   its  life,   political,   economic   and   cultural,   in  accordance  with  its  own  genius  and  traditions.  

Article  2  

It  is  the  entitlement  and  birthright  of  every  person  born  in  the  island  of  Ireland,  which  includes  its  islands  and  seas,  to  be  part  of  the  Irish  Nation.  That  is  also  the  entitlement   of   all   persons   otherwise   qualified   in   accordance   with   law   to   be  citizens   of   Ireland.   Furthermore,   the   Irish   nation   cherishes   its   special   affinity  with   people   of   Irish   ancestry   living   abroad  who   share   its   cultural   identity   and  heritage.  

Article  3  

1.        It  is  the  firm  will  of  the  Irish  Nation,  in  harmony  and  friendship,  to  unite  all  the  people  who  share  the  territory  of  the  island  of  Ireland,  in  all  the  diversity  of  their  identities  and  traditions,  recognising  that  a  united  Ireland  shall  be  brought  about   only   by   peaceful   means   with   the   consent   of   a   majority   of   the   people,  democratically  expressed,  in  both  jurisdictions  in  the  island.    

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 INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  Article  29    1.  Ireland   affirms   its   devotion   to   the   ideal   of   peace   and   friendly   co-­‐operation  amongst  nations  founded  on  international  justice  and  morality.  

2.         Ireland   affirms   its   adherence   to   the   principle   of   the   pacific   settlement   of  international  disputes  by  international  arbitration  or  judicial  determination.  

3.        Ireland  accepts  the  generally  recognised  principles  of  international  law  as  its  rule  of  conduct  in  its  relations  with  other  States.  

 FUNDAMENTAL  RIGHTS  Personal  Rights  Article  40  

1.        All  citizens  shall,  as  human  persons,  be  held  equal  before  the  law.  

This  shall  not  be  held  to  mean  that  the  State  shall  not  in  its  enactments  have  due  regard  to  differences  of  capacity,  physical  and  moral,  and  of  social  function.    

4. 1°  The  State  guarantees  in  its  laws  to  respect,  and,  as  far  as  practicable,  by  its  laws  to  defend  and  vindicate  the  personal  rights  of  the  citizen.  

 2°  The  State  shall,  in  particular,  by  its  laws  protect  as  best  it  may  from  unjust  attack  and,  in  the  case  of  injustice  done,  vindicate  the  life,  person,  good  name,  and  property  rights  of  every  citizen.    3°  The  State  acknowledges  the  right  to  life  of  the  unborn  and,  with  due  regard  to  the  equal  right  to  life  of  the  mother,  guarantees  in  its  laws  to  respect,  and,  as  far  as  practicable,  by  its  laws  to  defend  and  vindicate  that  right.  

 6.        1°  The  State  guarantees  liberty  for  the  exercise  of  the  following  rights,  subject  to  public  order  and  morality:  i.    The  right  of  the  citizens  to  express  freely  their  convictions  and  opinions.  The  education  of  public  opinion  being,  however,  a  matter  of  such  grave  import  to  the   common   good,   the   State   shall   endeavour   to   ensure   that   organs   of   public  opinion,  such  as  the  radio,   the  press,   the  cinema,  while  preserving  their  rightful  liberty  of  expression,  including  criticism  of  Government  policy,  shall  not  be  used  to  undermine  public  order  or  morality  or  the  authority  of  the  State.  The  publication  or  utterance  of  blasphemous,  seditious,  or  indecent  matter  is  an  offence  which  shall  be  punishable  in  accordance  with  law.    ii.    The  right  of  the  citizens  to  assemble  peaceably  and  without  arms.  Provision   may   be   made   by   law   to   prevent   or   control   meetings   which   are  determined  in  accordance  with  law  to  be  calculated  to  cause  a  breach  of  the  peace  

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or   to   be   a   danger   or   nuisance   to   the   general   public   and   to   prevent   or   control  meetings  in  the  vicinity  of  either  House  of  the  Oireachtas.  iii.    The  right  of  the  citizens  to  form  associations  and  unions.    The  Family  Article  41    1.        1°  The  State  recognises  the  Family  as  the  natural  primary  and  fundamental  unit   group   of   Society,   and   as   a   moral   institution   possessing   inalienable   and  imprescriptible  rights,  antecedent  and  superior  to  all  positive  law.  2°   The   State,   therefore,   guarantees   to   protect   the   Family   in   its  constitution  and  authority,  as  the  necessary  basis  of  social  order  and  as  indispensable  to  the  welfare  of  the  Nation  and  the  State.  2.        1°  In  particular,  the  State  recognises  that  by  her  life  within  the  home,  woman  gives  to  the  State  a  support  without  which  the  common  good  cannot  be  achieved.  2°   The   State   shall,   therefore,   endeavour   to   ensure   that  mothers   shall  not  be  obliged  by  economic  necessity  to  engage  in  labour  to  the  neglect  of  their  duties  in  the  home.    3.         1°   The   State   pledges   itself   to   guard   with   special   care   the   institution   of  Marriage,  on  which  the  Family  is  founded,  and  to  protect  it  against  attack.  

Religion  Article  44    1.         The   State   acknowledges   that   the   homage   of   public   worship   is   due   to  Almighty  God.  It  shall  hold  His  Name  in  reverence,  and  shall  respect  and  honour  religion.  

2.        1°  Freedom  of  conscience  and  the  free  profession  and  practice  of  religion  are,  subject  to  public  order  and  morality,  guaranteed  to  every  citizen.  

2°  The  State  guarantees  not  to  endow  any  religion.  

3°  The  State  shall  not  impose  any  disabilities  or  make  any  discrimination  on  the  ground  of  religious  profession,  belief  or  status.      DIRECTIVE  PRINCIPLES  OF  SOCIAL  POLICY  

Article  45  

1.        The  State  shall  strive  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  whole  people  by  securing  and  protecting  as  effectively  as  it  may  a  social  order  in  which  justice  and  charity  shall  inform  all  the  institutions  of  the  national  life.  

2.        The  State  shall,  in  particular,  direct  its  policy  towards  securing:  i.    That   the  citizens  (all  of  whom,  men  and  women  equally,  have  the  right   to  an  

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adequate  means  of  livelihood)  may  through  their  occupations  find  the  means  of  making  reasonable  provision  for  their  domestic  needs.  

 ii.    That   the  ownership  and  control  of   the  material   resources  of   the  community  may   be   so   distributed   amongst   private   individuals   and   the   various   classes   as  best  to  subserve  the  common  good.        

TIKKUN  OLAM    From  http://www.myjewishlearning.com/practices/Ethics/Caring_For_Others/Tikkun_Olam_Repairing_the_World_.shtml  

 "Tikkun  olam"   (literally,   "world   repair")  has   come  to   connote   social   action   and   the   pursuit   of   social  justice.  The  phrase  has  origins  in  classical  rabbinic  literature  and  in  Lurianic  kabbalah,  a  major  strand  of   Jewish  mysticism   originating  with   the  work   of  the  16th-­‐century  kabbalist  Isaac  Luria.  

The   term   "mipnei   tikkun   ha-­olam"   (perhaps   best  translated   in   this   context   as   "in   the   interest   of  public  policy")  is  used  in  the  Mishnah  (the  body  of  

classical   rabbinic   teachings   codified   circa   200   C.E.).   There,   it   refers   to   social  policy   legislation   providing   extra   protection   to   those   potentially   at   a  disadvantage  -­‐  governing,  for  example,  just  conditions  for  the  writing  of  divorce  decrees  and  for  the  freeing  of  slaves.  

In   reference   to   individual   acts   of   repair,   the   phrase   "tikkun   olam"   figures  prominently   in   the   Lurianic   account   of   creation   and   its   implications:   God  contracted   the   divine   self   to   make   room   for   creation.   Divine   light   became  contained   in   special   vessels,   or   kelim,   some   of   which   shattered   and   scattered.  While  most  of  the  light  returned  to  its  divine  source,  some  light  attached  itself  to  the  broken  shards.  These  shards  constitute  evil  and  are  the  basis  for  the  material  world;  their  trapped  sparks  of  light  give  them  power.  

 The  first  man,  Adam,  was  intended  to  restore  the  divine  sparks  through  mystical  exercises,  but  his  sin  interfered.  As  a  result,  good  and  evil  remained  thoroughly  mixed   in   the   created   world,   and   human   souls   (previously   contained   within  Adam's)  also  became  imprisoned  within  the  shards.  

The  "repair,"  that   is  needed,  therefore,   is  two-­‐fold:  the  gathering  of   light  and  of  souls,   to  be  achieved  by  human  beings  through  the  contemplative  performance  of  religious  acts.  The  goal  of  such  repair,  which  can  only  be  effected  by  humans,  is   to  separate  what   is  holy   from  the  created  world,   thus  depriving   the  physical  world   of   its   very   existence—and   causing   all   things   return   to   a   world   before  

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disaster  within  the  Godhead  and  before  human  sin,  thus  ending  history.  

While  contemporary  activists  also  use  the  term  "tikkun  olam"  to  refer  to  acts  of  repair  by  human  beings,  they  do  not  necessarily  believe  in  or  have  a  familiarity  with   the   term’s   cosmological   associations.   Their   emphasis   is   on   acts   of   social  responsibility,  not  the  larger  realm  of  sacred  acts-­‐-­‐and  on  fixing,  not  undoing,  the  world  as  we  know  it.  

The   phrase   "tikkun   olam"   was   first   used   to   refer   to   social   action   work   in   the  1950s.  In  subsequent  decades,  many  other  organizations  and  thinkers  have  used  the   term   to   refer   to   social   action   programs;   tzedakah   (charitable   giving)   and  gemilut  hasadim  (acts  of  kindness);  and  progressive  Jewish  approaches  to  social  issues.  It  eventually  became  re-­‐associated  with  kabbalah,  and  thus  for  some  with  deeper  theological  meaning.  

 Thus,  over  time  tikkun  olam  went  from  being  part  of  the  religious  technology  of  medieval  mystics   to   a   standard   part   of   the   vocabulary   of   contemporary  North  American   Jews.   Its  goal   shifted   from  dissolving  history   to  advancing   it.  But   the  phrase   “tikkun   olam”   remains   connected   with   human   responsibility   for   fixing  what  is  wrong  with  the  world.  It  also  appears  to  respond  to  a  profound  sense  of  deep  rupture  in  the  universe,  which  speaks  as  much  to  the  post-­‐Holocaust  era  as  it   did   in   the   wake   of   the   expulsion   from   Spain   and   other   medieval   Jewish  disasters.  

Contemporary  usage  of   the  phrase  shares  with  the  rabbinic  concept  of  "mipnei  tikkun  ha-­‐olam"  a  concern  with  public  policy  and  societal  change,  and  with  the  kabbalistic  notion  of  "tikkun"  the   idea  that  the  world   is  profoundly  broken  and  can  be  fixed  only  by  human  activity.  

However,   except   within   traditionalist   Hasidic   communities,   the   use   of   "tikkun  olam"  rarely  reflects  the  belief  that  acts  outside  the  realm  of  social  responsibility  (for  example,  making  a  blessing  before  eating)  effect  cosmic  repair;   that  tikkun  repairs  the  Divine  self;  or  that  the  goal  of  "tikkun"  is  the  complete  undoing  of  the  created  world  itself.  

Tikkun   olam,   once   associated   with   a   mystical   approach   to   all   mitzvot,   now   is  most  often  used  to  refer  to  a  specific  category  of  mitzvot  involving  work  for  the  improvement  of  society—a  usage  perhaps  closer  to  the  term’s  classical  rabbinic  origins  than  to  its  longstanding  mystical  connotations.  

 Social  Justice  in  the  Jewish  Tradition  Rabbi  David  Rosen    (from  http://www.rabbidavidrosen.net/articles.htm)    The  central  and  historically  revolutionary  concept  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  is  that  of  ethical  monotheism.    Not  only   is   there  One  Power  behind  Creation  and  History  

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but   the   "character"   of   that   Power   is   just   and   righteous   (Genesis   18   v.   23-­‐25,  Psalm  145  v.  9).     Indeed  Jewish  Tradition  understand  the  two  central  names  of  God   in   the   Biblical   text,   the   Tetragrammatton   (YHWH)   and   the   more   generic  "Elohim"  and  its  variants,  to  reflect  the  two  key  Divine  Attributes;  that  of  Mercy  and   Justice.     Recognizing   that   there   is   often   a   tension   between   the   two,   the  Talmud   describes   God   as   having,   as   it   were,   a   daily   prayer   "Let  my   quality   of  compassion  overwhelm  my  quality  of  justice".    In  the  tension  between  the  two,  it  is  mercy  and  compassion  that  must  gain  the  upper  hand.    In  keeping  with  the  Divine  "character",  we  are  called  upon  to  behave  accordingly  (Gen.  18  v.  19;  Micah  6  v.8;  Jeremiah  22  v.  15-­‐16).    Indeed  the  plethora  of  Biblical  injunctions  to  know,  love,  cleave  to,  serve  God  etc,  requiring  humanity  to  walk  in  His   Ways   (Deuteronomy   11   v.   22)   is   understood   in   rabbinic   tradition   as  requiring  us  to  emulate  the  Divine  moral  attributes.    Explains  the  Talmud  (Sotah  14a)  "Just  as  the  Lord  clothes  the  naked  as  He  did  with  Adam,  so  you  clothe  the  naked;   just  as   the  Lord  visits   the  sick  as  He  did  with  Abraham,  so  you  visit   the  sick;  just  as  the  Lord  comforts  the  bereaved  as  He  did  with  Isaac,  so  you  comfort  the  bereaved;  just  as  the  Lord  buries  the  dead  as  he  did  with  Moses,  so  you  bury  the  dead."    Similarly  in  the  Midrash  (homiletical  writings)  we  are  told  by  the  sage  Abba  Shaul,   "Just  as  He   is  gracious  and  compassionate,   so  you  be  gracious  and  compassionate."  (Mechilta,  Canticles,  3).    Indeed  the  imitation  of  God’s  Attributes  is  enjoined  explicitly  in  Leviticus  19  v.  1.        These   expectations   of   us   are   rooted   in   the   Biblical   perception   of   the   human  person  as  created  in  "The  Divine  Image",  the  source  of  inalienable  human  dignity.    Accordingly   the   Mishnah   (the   transcribed   Oral   Tradition   that   explains   and  expands  upon  the  Biblical  revelation)  in  tractate  Sanhedrin,  4:5,  explains  that  the  courts  must   emphasize   before   those   giving   testimony   in   capital   cases   that   the  reason  the  first  human  being  was  created  singly  (as  opposed  to  the  creation  of  all  other   species   as   narrated   in   the   book   of  Genesis)   is   to  make   it   clear   that   each  person  is  a  world  in  him  or  herself  and  "he  who  destroys  one  life,  it  is  as  if  he  has  destroyed  the  whole  world;  and  he  who  saves  one  life,  it  is  as  if  he  has  saved  the  whole  world".    In   the   famous   discussion   in   the   Midrash   on   “the   most   important   principle   in  Scripture”,  Rabbi  Akiva  declares  that  it  is  the  commandment  (Leviticus  19  v.18)  “to   love’s   neighbor   as   oneself”.   (In   so   doing   he   reiterates   the  words   of   Jesus   a  century  before  him  and  those  of   the   Jewish  sage  Hillel   the  Elder   in   the  century  before   Jesus.)     However   his   contemporary   Ben   Azzai  warned   of   the   danger   of  interpreting   that   text   to   mean   that   treating   others   should   be   based   on   one's  subjective   experiences   and   inclinations.    He   accordingly   insisted   that   the  most  important  Biblical  principle  is  precisely  the  teaching  that  every  human  person  is  created   in   the   Divine   Image   with   inalienable   dignity   and   thus   any   act   of  misbehavior  against  another  human  person  is  an  act  of  misbehavior  against  God  Himself  (Genesis  Rabbah  on  Gen.  5  v.  1;  Sifra  on  Lev.  19  v.  18).    Thus  the  foundation  of  the  vision  of  social  justice  in  Judaism  is  predicated  on  the  sanctity   of   all   human   life   and   its   inalienable   dignity.     Each   person   is   a   whole  

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world  and  unique.    Yet  precisely   therefore,   the  Mishnah  emphasizes,  none  may  consider  him  or  herself  to  be  superior  to  another!    Because  God  is  Merciful,  the  Bible  indicates,  He  is  -­‐  as  it  were  -­‐  "biased"  for  the  vulnerable;  and  precisely  because  we  are  called  upon  to  affirm  the  dignity  of  all,  we   are   required   to   pay   special   attention   and   concern   to   those   who   are  marginalized  -­‐  the  poor,  the  stranger,  the  widow  and  orphan.    On  this  point  the  Midrash  has  the  following  comment  on  the  verse  in  Psalm  62  v.  1:    "Let  the  Lord  arise   and   scatter   His   enemies   and   may   those   who   hate   Him   flee   from   before  Him."    Says  the  Midrash:    "in  the  book  of  Psalms  we  find  that)  on  five  occasions  (King)  David  calls  on  God  to   'arise  and  scatter  His  enemies'  and  yet  there   is  no  mention  (in  Psalms)   that  God  arises  (in  response).    When  do  we   find  (mention  of)  God  arising?    "For  the  oppression  of  the  poor  and  the  cry  of  the  needy,  then  will  I  arise,  saith  the  Lord.”    (Psalm  12  v.6).    The  Midrash  is  telling  us  that  even  David,  God's  anointed,  cannot  assume  that  God  is,  as  it  were,  "on  his  side".    When  is   God   "on   our   side"?     When   we   are   on   His!     That   is   when   we   care   for   the  vulnerable  and  marginalized!              However  another  revolutionary  Biblical   idea  has  potential  ramifications  for  our  social  moral  world  view  and  conduct  -­‐  this  is  the  concept  of  Covenant.    There  are  a  number  of  Covenants  referred  to  in  the  Bible.    Jewish  tradition  teaches  that  the  covenant   God   made   with   Noah   after   the   Flood,   is   in   fact   a   covenant   with  humanity   (the   children   of  Noah)   reflecting   both  Divine   love   for   all   people   and  also  the  expectation  of  their  moral  conduct.    The  Covenant  made  with  the  Children  of   Israel  at  Mt.  Sinai   is  confirmation  and  expansion  upon  those  made  with  the  Patriarchs  and  reflects  the  special  duty  of  the  people  of  Israel  to  testify  to  the  Divine  Presence  in  the  world,  both  through  its  history  and  above  all  through  observing  the  Divine  precepts.    While   there   are   covenants   that   God   makes   with   individuals,   such   as   the  aforementioned  with  the  Patriarchs  and  with  David,  these  are  never  exclusively  personal   but   inherently   relate   (their   obligations   and   responsibilities)   to   a  collective  (e.g.  Abraham's  descendants;  David's  household  and  the  obligations  of  royal  leadership  to  the  people  as  a  whole  (see  Deuteronomy  17  v.  14-­‐20).)    The  concept  of  Covenant  thus  reflects  the  intrinsic  value  of  collectives  as  well  as  individuals.    Communal  and  national  identities  are  seen  as  an  intrinsic  part  of  the  blessing  of  human  diversity  through  which  moral  development  and  indeed  social  justice  itself  should  be  pursued.    Moreover   even   the  Messianic   idea   of   an   ideal  world   that   appears   in   prophetic  scripture,  is  not  one  in  which  national  identities  are  eliminated,  but  one  in  which  they  are  vehicles   for  universal  moral   knowledge  and   conduct   accordingly,   (e.g.  "nation   shall   not   lift   up   sword   against   nation   and   they   shall   not   know   war  

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anymore."    "And  many  nations  shall  go  up  into  the  mountain  of  the  Lord",  Micah  4  v.  1-­‐5).    Accordingly,   Jewish   tradition   in   keeping   with   Biblical   teaching   sees   both   the  individual  and  the  collective,  standing  in  relation  to  God.    Inevitably  this  means  finding  a  creative  balance  between  the  two;  of  their  respective  rights  and  duties.    The   expression   of   social   justice   within   a   collective   context   is   particularly  noteworthy   in   the  Biblical   concept   of   the   Sabbatical   year  which   involves   three  central  precepts.    The  first  is  that  on  every  seventh  year,  the  land  is  to  lie  fallow  (Exodus  23:  10)  recuperating  its  natural  vitality.    As  a  result,  ownership  of  land  in  any  sense  of  an  exclusive  utilization  falls  away  for  the  year,  affirming  that  we  are  all  temporary  sojourners  in  God’s  world  (Leviticus  25  v.23),  and  the  land  and  its  natural  produce  are  available  for  all  –  especially  for  the  poor.    Indeed,  as  far  as  the  land  is  concerned  –  and  in  an  agricultural  society  the  land  is  the  very  source  of  status  –  the  Sabbatical  year  emphasizes  that  poor  and  rich  alike  are  the  same  before  God.    This  awareness  that  we  are  all  sojourners  and  vulnerable,  if  you  will;  leads  to  the  recognition  that  sustainable  development   is  only  possible  where   there   is  social  responsibility,   especially   in   relation   to   the  most   vulnerable   in   society.     This   is  reflected  not  only   in   the   land   lying   fallow  and   its  natural   fruits  available   to  all,  rich  and  poor;  but  above  all  in  the  other  precepts  of  the  Sabbatical  year,  notably  the   cancellation   of   debts   (Deuteronomy   15).     Of   course,   this   Scriptural  requirement  needs   to  be  understood   in   the  context  of  Biblical  agrarian  society.    This  was  not  a  commercial  society  in  which  monies  were  commonly  lent  as  part  and   parcel   of   normal   economic   life.     Rather,   loans   were   necessary   when   the  farmer  had  fallen  upon  hard  times  and  had  a  poor  harvest,  or  even  none  at  all;  and  lost  the  resources  available  to  guarantee  his  continued  harvest  cycle.    In  such  a  case,  he  borrowed  from  another.    Indeed,  those  who  have  resources  are  obliged  to  provide  such  loans  for  those  in  such  hardship  (Deuteronomy  15:  8),  and  when  the  disadvantaged  farmer’s  harvest  prospered,  he  could  return  the  loan.    For  this  reason   it   was   prohibited   to   take   advantage   of   his   situation,   through   taking  interest.    However,  if  the  farmer  was  unable  to  overcome  this  setback,  there  was  the  danger  of  his  being  caught  in  a  poverty  trap.    The  Bible  recognizes  that  this  was   not   just   his   problem   but   that   of   society,   and   accordingly   utilized   the  Sabbatical  year  to  free  the  individual  from  this  trap.    The  obligation  concerning  the  release  of  debts  is  not  an  excuse  for  irresponsibility,  but  rather  the  obligation  of   responsibility   for   balanced   and   sustainable   development,   ensuring   a   socio-­‐economic   equilibrium   between   the  more   and   the   less   advantaged   in   society   –  essential  for  the  latter’s  positive  development  and  security.    For   similar   purpose,   the   Sabbatical   year   also   required   the   release   of   slaves  (Exodus  21:  2-­‐6).    As  opposed  to  the  former  precept,  this  may  appear  not  only  to  be  irrelevant  but  archaic.    Yet  within  this  idea  are  certain  profound  messages.    In  ancient   Israel,   a   Hebrew   would   enter   into   slavery   if   he   had   no   means   of  providing   a   livelihood   for   himself   or   for   his   family.     In   this  manner,   he   in   fact  voluntarily   sold   his   own   employment   to   another.     However,   the   requirements  upon   those   who   maintained   such   slaves   were   so   demanding   that   the   Talmud  

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declares  that  “he  who  acquired  a  slave,  (in  fact),  acquired  a  master  over  himself!”    As   indicated   in  the  Book  of  Exodus,  an  unmarried  slave  would  be  provided  not  only  with  all  basic  material  needs,  but  even  with  a  spouse.    Understandably,   in  ancient  Israel,  there  were  not  a  few  such  Hebrew  slaves  who  were  very  content  to  be  in  that  situation.  However,  the  Bible  requires  that  in  the  Sabbatical  year,  all  such  slaves  be  set  free.    But  as  it  states  in  Exodus  21,  “if  the  slave  plainly  says  ‘I  love   my   master,   I   will   not   go   free,’   then   his   master   shall   bring   him   to   the  doorpost  …  and  shall  pierce  his  ear  with  an  awl.”  (Exodus  21:  5-­‐6).  Our  sages  of  old  ask,   “why  should   the  ear  be  pierced  and  why  against   the  doorpost?”    They  answer,   “the  doorpost  which  God  passed  over   in  Egypt  when  He  delivered   the  children  of  Israel  from  slavery  and  the  ear  which  heard  Him  say  at  Sinai  ‘for  unto  me,   the   children  of   Israel   are   slaves’   and  not   that   they   should  be   the   slaves   of  slaves;   let   these   testify   that   the   man   voluntarily   relinquished   his   God-­‐given  freedom!”  Moreover  according  to  Jewish  law,  the  slave  still  had  to  go  free  in  the  Jubilee  year,  even  if  he  still  did  not  want  to!    The  Bible  also  requires  the  erstwhile  master  to  provide  this  man  –  who  now  has  to  enter  the  open  market  –  with  the  material  means  to  establish  himself   in  it  (Deuteronomy  15:  14).  This  obligation  not   only   affirms   the   value   of   the   dignity   of   the   human   individual   and   the  concomitant   value   of   personal   freedom,   but   also   that   the   wellbeing   of   the  collective   depends   on   its   ability   to   provide   the   individual   with   the   means   to  maintain  self  and  family.        We  should  also  note  that  the  model  of  the  Sabbatical  year  as  a  paradigm  for  the  promotion  of  social  justice,  demands  that  we  contend  with  the  dangers  posed  by  human  arrogance  that   justifies  greed,  exploitation,   irresponsibility  and  violence  towards  others.    It  does  so  not  only  through  the  aforementioned  special  focus  on  the  weakest  elements  of  society,  but  above  all  through  emphasizing  that  we  are  all   vulnerable   –  we   are   all   temporary   sojourners   in   God’s  world   (Leviticus   25  v.23).     Such   awareness   may   lead   us   to   live   more   responsibly   towards   our  neighbors,  communities,  nations,  humanity  and  environment.