4118 SRM Introductory
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SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFICSCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCHRESEARCH-- An IntroductionAn Introduction
To understand science and scientificTo understand science and scientific
approach one must understand the scientificapproach one must understand the scientificlanguages and the approach the scientists use.languages and the approach the scientists use.
For Example: Economic Development,For Example: Economic Development,
Independent and Dependent variable,Independent and Dependent variable,
Randomization , Stratification, Parameter andRandomization , Stratification, Parameter and
Statistics, Scaling of Attributes etc.Statistics, Scaling of Attributes etc.
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Commonsense and scientific approachCommonsense and scientific approach
A common man and the scientist both fix upA common man and the scientist both fix up
beliefs and test hypotheses relating to behaviorbeliefs and test hypotheses relating to behavior
of phenomena: Consider the following:of phenomena: Consider the following:
Women are more religious than men in IndiaWomen are more religious than men in India
Advertisement should have gender consideration forAdvertisement should have gender consideration for
better impact.better impact.
People from a caste or ethnic group are enterprising.People from a caste or ethnic group are enterprising.
Investment in company X is profitable.Investment in company X is profitable.
Sales and advertizing expenditures are +Sales and advertizing expenditures are +lyly relatedrelated
These could be beliefs based on commonsense.These could be beliefs based on commonsense.
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ButScience and commonsense differ in aButScience and commonsense differ in a
variety of ways in fixing beliefs.variety of ways in fixing beliefs.
Commonsense observes and relatesCommonsense observes and relates
variables in an unsystematic i.e.variables in an unsystematic i.e.
unorganized & unplanned way.unorganized & unplanned way.It often generalizes behavior ofIt often generalizes behavior of
phenomena in an uncontrolled way.phenomena in an uncontrolled way.
It tests hypotheses in a selective wayIt tests hypotheses in a selective way i.ei.e .it.it
selects evidences and gives explanationselects evidences and gives explanation
simply because it is consistent with hissimply because it is consistent with his
hypothesis.hypothesis.
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The Scientist's approach is different.The Scientist's approach is different.
Scientific approach is a systematically builtScientific approach is a systematically built
theoretical structure ( with a structured designtheoretical structure ( with a structured design
and a plan of investigation).and a plan of investigation).
It tests beliefs/theories empirically and in aIt tests beliefs/theories empirically and in a
controlled condition, where ever necessary.controlled condition, where ever necessary.
A scientist knowing the selection tendency to beA scientist knowing the selection tendency to be
a common psychological phenomenon, carefullya common psychological phenomenon, carefullyguards his research against his ownguards his research against his own
preconception and predilections (liking).preconception and predilections (liking).
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The Scientist's approachThe Scientist's approach
Obvious relationshipsObvious relationships are empiricallyare empirically
tested and established. e.g.tested and established. e.g.
Demand is inversely related to price. AdvertisingDemand is inversely related to price. Advertisingexpenditure & sale volume are positively related,expenditure & sale volume are positively related,
brand loyalty & economic status are relatedbrand loyalty & economic status are related
Metaphysical explanations are ruled out inMetaphysical explanations are ruled out in
scientific approach which lack empirical support.scientific approach which lack empirical support.
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Methods of fixing belief or generalizingMethods of fixing belief or generalizing
behavior of phenomenabehavior of phenomena
Method of Tenacity.Method of Tenacity.
Holding a belief since " people believe it to be true"Holding a belief since " people believe it to be true"
-- Not trying to negateNot trying to negate
Method of authority:Method of authority:
If religious book says it to be trueIf religious book says it to be true
If a physicist of repute says it to be trueIf a physicist of repute says it to be true
A priori method or Method of intuitionA priori method or Method of intuition
Beliefs/relationships between variables based onBeliefs/relationships between variables based on
reasons or a priori argument.reasons or a priori argument.
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Methods for fixing belief..Methods for fixing belief..ContdContd
Method of Science:Method of Science:
Fixing beliefs is based on built in checks, selfFixing beliefs is based on built in checks, self
correction all along the way of highlightingcorrection all along the way of highlighting
behavior and analysis of relationship betweenbehavior and analysis of relationship between
phenomena.phenomena.
In doing so, one goes outside himself, hisIn doing so, one goes outside himself, his
tradition & authority ,his beliefs biases, valuestradition & authority ,his beliefs biases, valuesattitude and emotions.attitude and emotions.
Subjective beliefs are checked against objectiveSubjective beliefs are checked against objective
reality.reality.
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SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHSCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
-- A DEFINITIONA DEFINITION
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IS DEFINEDSCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IS DEFINEDAS AAS A SYSTEMATIC, CONTROLLED,SYSTEMATIC, CONTROLLED,EMPIRICAL AND CRITICALEMPIRICAL AND CRITICAL
INVESTIGATIONINVESTIGATION OF HYPOTHETICALOF HYPOTHETICALPROPOSITIONS ABOUT PRESUMEDPROPOSITIONS ABOUT PRESUMEDRELATIONS AMONGST OBSERVEDRELATIONS AMONGST OBSERVEDPHENOMENA.PHENOMENA.
SUBJECTIVE BELIEFS ARE CHECKEDSUBJECTIVE BELIEFS ARE CHECKEDAGAINST OBJECTIVE REALITYAGAINST OBJECTIVE REALITY
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Aim of Scientific ResearchAim of Scientific Research
Aim of scientific research is basicallyAim of scientific research is basically
theorizing thetheorizing the behaviourbehaviour/relationship/relationship
between variables/phenomena.between variables/phenomena.
Scientific Research establishes generalScientific Research establishes general
laws covering the behavior of empiricallaws covering the behavior of empirical
events and enables us to connect togetherevents and enables us to connect together
our knowledge of separately known eventsour knowledge of separately known eventsor explain the relationship betweenor explain the relationship between
variables and make reliable predictions.variables and make reliable predictions.
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SCIENTIFIC STATUS OF A SCIENCESCIENTIFIC STATUS OF A SCIENCE
IT DEPENDS ON THE DEGREE ANDIT DEPENDS ON THE DEGREE AND
ACCURACY OF THE FOUR ASPECTSACCURACY OF THE FOUR ASPECTS
MENTIONED IN THE DEFINITION OFMENTIONED IN THE DEFINITION OF
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.
THIS FIXES UP LIMITS WITH RESPECT TOTHIS FIXES UP LIMITS WITH RESPECT TO
PHYSICAL SCIENCES AND SOCIALPHYSICAL SCIENCES AND SOCIAL
SCIENCES (EXACT AND INEXACTSCIENCES (EXACT AND INEXACT
SCIENCES).SCIENCES).
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SESSION IISESSION II
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCESSCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCES
IN SOCIAL SCIENCE WE STUDY THEIN SOCIAL SCIENCE WE STUDY THE
BEHAVIOUR OF SOCIAL PHENOMENA.BEHAVIOUR OF SOCIAL PHENOMENA.
QUESTIONS ARISES HERE IS CAN HUMANQUESTIONS ARISES HERE IS CAN HUMAN
BEHAVIOR BE SUBJECTED TO SCIENTIFICBEHAVIOR BE SUBJECTED TO SCIENTIFICENQUIRY ?ENQUIRY ?
THE ANSWER TO THIS DEPENDS ON THETHE ANSWER TO THIS DEPENDS ON THE
DEGREE OF THE FOUR ASPECTSDEGREE OF THE FOUR ASPECTSMENTIONED IN THE DEFINITION OFMENTIONED IN THE DEFINITION OF
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.
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STATUS OF SOCIAL SCIENCESTATUS OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
FOR THIS WE MAY EXMINE THE SEVERALFOR THIS WE MAY EXMINE THE SEVERAL
SIMILARITIES AND DISSIMILARITIESSIMILARITIES AND DISSIMILARITIES
BETWEEN SOCIAL SCIENCES ANDBETWEEN SOCIAL SCIENCES AND
PHYSICAL/NARURAL SCIENCES WITHPHYSICAL/NARURAL SCIENCES WITHSPECIAL REFERENCE TO CONDUCTINGSPECIAL REFERENCE TO CONDUCTING
RESEARCH IN THESE SCIENCESRESEARCH IN THESE SCIENCES
THUS, THE CHARACIERISTICS OF SOCIALTHUS, THE CHARACIERISTICS OF SOCIAL
SCIENCES MAY BE HIGHLIGHTEDSCIENCES MAY BE HIGHLIGHTED
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1. SOCIAL SCIENTISTS LIKE THE PHYSICAL
SCIENTISTS SEEK TO DISCOVER REGULARITY AND
ORDER IN SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
THIS IS DONE THROUGHTHIS IS DONE THROUGH
ii)) OBSERVATION AND MEASUREMENTOBSERVATION AND MEASUREMENT OF SOCIALOF SOCIAL
BEHAVIOUR / VARIABLES.BEHAVIOUR / VARIABLES.QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE VARIABLESQUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES
COULD BE MEASUREDCOULD BE MEASURED
A SYSTEMATIC MEASUREMENT MUST BE JUDGEDA SYSTEMATIC MEASUREMENT MUST BE JUDGED
ON THE BASIS OF ITS UTILITY RATHER THANON THE BASIS OF ITS UTILITY RATHER THANABSOLUTE TRUTH IN SOCIAL SCIENCES.ABSOLUTE TRUTH IN SOCIAL SCIENCES.
e.g. Intelligence, brand loyalty etce.g. Intelligence, brand loyalty etc
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ii) DISCOVERING REGULARITIESii) DISCOVERING REGULARITIES
AND FRAMING THEORIES IN SOCIAL SIENCES.AND FRAMING THEORIES IN SOCIAL SIENCES.
CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING REGULARITIES IN BOTH THECONSIDER THE FOLLOWING REGULARITIES IN BOTH THE
SCIENCES.SCIENCES.
An object falling to earth, water flowing downstream,HAn object falling to earth, water flowing downstream,H22 O isO is
water, application of fertilizer results in a good crop.water, application of fertilizer results in a good crop.
Women are more religious than men, higher income houseWomen are more religious than men, higher income house
holds have luxury cars/CD players etc., buying a share ofholds have luxury cars/CD players etc., buying a share of
company X is profitable.company X is profitable.
REGULARITIES IN SOCIAL SCIENCE REPRESENTREGULARITIES IN SOCIAL SCIENCE REPRESENT
PROBABILISTIC PATTERN.PROBABILISTIC PATTERN.
FIXES LIMITS FOR SUBJECTIVITY ANDFIXES LIMITS FOR SUBJECTIVITY AND
OBJECTIVITYY(POSITIVISM) IN BOTH THE SCIENCESOBJECTIVITYY(POSITIVISM) IN BOTH THE SCIENCES
PHYSICAL SCIENCES ARE MORE REGULAR THAN SOCIALPHYSICAL SCIENCES ARE MORE REGULAR THAN SOCIAL
SCIENCES:SCIENCES:
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2. LOGICAL REASONING IN PHYSIACAL AND2. LOGICAL REASONING IN PHYSIACAL AND
SOCIAL SCIENCES.SOCIAL SCIENCES.
REASONING: DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVEREASONING: DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE
DEDUCTIVE REASONING IS A PROCESS FROM GENERALDEDUCTIVE REASONING IS A PROCESS FROM GENERAL
PRINCIPLE TO SPECIFIC INSTANCES.PRINCIPLE TO SPECIFIC INSTANCES.
INDUCTIVE REASONING IS A PROCESS FROM SPECIFICINDUCTIVE REASONING IS A PROCESS FROM SPECIFICOBSERVATIONS TO GENERAL PRINCIPLESOBSERVATIONS TO GENERAL PRINCIPLES
DEDUCTIVE METHOD IS STRONGER IN HAVING THEORITICALDEDUCTIVE METHOD IS STRONGER IN HAVING THEORITICAL
SUPPORT WHEREAS, INDUCTIVE METHOD IS STRONGER INSUPPORT WHEREAS, INDUCTIVE METHOD IS STRONGER IN
EMPIRICAL SUPPORT.EMPIRICAL SUPPORT.
A CYCLICAL PROCESS OF INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION AREA CYCLICAL PROCESS OF INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION ARE
FOLLOWED IN BOTH THE CIENCES WITH RESPECT TOFOLLOWED IN BOTH THE CIENCES WITH RESPECT TO
THEORISING BEHAVIOUR/PHENOMENA.THEORISING BEHAVIOUR/PHENOMENA.
THEORIES ARE TESTED AND RESTATEDTHEORIES ARE TESTED AND RESTATED
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3.DETERMINISM IN SOCIAL SCIENCE3.DETERMINISM IN SOCIAL SCIENCE
CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING PHENOMENACONSIDER THE FOLLOWING PHENOMENAIN THE ECONOMYIN THE ECONOMY..
There is a steady growth of FDI in IndiaThere is a steady growth of FDI in India
after 1990s, BSEafter 1990s, BSE sensexsensex is falling overis falling overthe last few months, cost of production ofthe last few months, cost of production ofX is increasing, increase in advX is increasing, increase in advexpenditure has not resulted in increase inexpenditure has not resulted in increase in
the market share of a product, price rise ofthe market share of a product, price rise ofcar over the last few years has not beencar over the last few years has not beenassociated with a decline in demand etc.associated with a decline in demand etc.
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NOTHING JUST HAPPENS. ALL EVENTS HAVENOTHING JUST HAPPENS. ALL EVENTS HAVE
ANTECEDENT CAUSES ORANTECEDENT CAUSES ORA PRIORIA PRIORI
REASONSREASONS(THE THEORY OF CAUSATION(THE THEORY OF CAUSATION ))THERE COULD BE SINGLE OR MULTIPLETHERE COULD BE SINGLE OR MULTIPLE
CAUSES FOR ALL THE PHENOMENA.CAUSES FOR ALL THE PHENOMENA.
VERY OFTEN THE CAUSES LEADING TOVERY OFTEN THE CAUSES LEADING TOTHE OCCURANCE OF AN EVENT/THE OCCURANCE OF AN EVENT/
PHENOMENON ARE KNOWN ASPHENOMENON ARE KNOWN AS
DETERMINANTS .DETERMINANTS .
THERE IS A PROBABILISTIC DETERMINISMTHERE IS A PROBABILISTIC DETERMINISMIN THE BEHAVIOUR OF SOCIOEIN THE BEHAVIOUR OF SOCIOE--CONOMICCONOMIC
PHENOMENA.PHENOMENA.
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4. GENERALISATION4. GENERALISATION
A SOCIAL SCIENTIST BEGINS TO EXPLAIN AA SOCIAL SCIENTIST BEGINS TO EXPLAIN ALIMITED RANGE OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR ORLIMITED RANGE OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR ORBEHAVIOUR OF A LIMITED SUBBEHAVIOUR OF A LIMITED SUB--SET OFSET OFPOPULATION AND THEN NORMALLYPOPULATION AND THEN NORMALLY
EXPANDS HIS FINDINGS TO EXPLAIN THEEXPANDS HIS FINDINGS TO EXPLAIN THEBEHAVIOUR OF OTHER SUBBEHAVIOUR OF OTHER SUB--SETS (i.e. S/heSETS (i.e. S/hegeneralizes the behavior of variables )generalizes the behavior of variables )
THE PROCESS OF INDUCTION IS USEFUL INTHE PROCESS OF INDUCTION IS USEFUL INGENERALIZATION, BUT THE SCIENTIST ISGENERALIZATION, BUT THE SCIENTIST ISNOT INTERESTED IN SPECIFICNOT INTERESTED IN SPECIFICOBSERVATIONOBSERVATION
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For example:For example:
A RESEARCHER IS LESS INTERESTED IN THEA RESEARCHER IS LESS INTERESTED IN THEINDIVIDUAL RESPONSE TO A PRICE CHANGE;INDIVIDUAL RESPONSE TO A PRICE CHANGE;RATHER HE IS INTERESTED IN THE GENERALRATHER HE IS INTERESTED IN THE GENERALBEHAVIOUR OF THE CONSUMERS.BEHAVIOUR OF THE CONSUMERS.
A DISCOVERY OF A CERTAIN BEHAVIOUR OF AA DISCOVERY OF A CERTAIN BEHAVIOUR OF AGROUP OF PEOPLE IS LESS USEFUL THAN THATGROUP OF PEOPLE IS LESS USEFUL THAN THATHAS UNIVERSAL APPLICATION.HAS UNIVERSAL APPLICATION.
HOWEVER, GENERALISATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE ISHOWEVER, GENERALISATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE IS
RELATED TO PROBABILISTIC DETERMINISM.RELATED TO PROBABILISTIC DETERMINISM.
Hypothesis testing with F & t statistics.Hypothesis testing with F & t statistics.
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5. PARSIMONY5. PARSIMONY
MULTIPLE CAUSATION SUGGESTS THATMULTIPLE CAUSATION SUGGESTS THATSOCIAL/ECONOMIC PHENOMENA ARE EXPLAINEDSOCIAL/ECONOMIC PHENOMENA ARE EXPLAINEDUSING MULTIVARIATE MODELS WHERE SEVERALUSING MULTIVARIATE MODELS WHERE SEVERALVARIABLES AREVARIABLES ARE USED.USED.
ADDITIONAL VARIABLES INCREASEADDITIONAL VARIABLES INCREASEEXPLANATORY POWER OF A MODEL (IN AEXPLANATORY POWER OF A MODEL (IN ADEPENDENCY RELATIONSHIP), BUT IT ALSODEPENDENCY RELATIONSHIP), BUT IT ALSOCOMPLICATES THE RELATIONSHIP (MODEL) ANDCOMPLICATES THE RELATIONSHIP (MODEL) ANDMAKES ESTIMATION DIFFICULT.MAKES ESTIMATION DIFFICULT.
USE OF MORE VARIABLES DECREASESUSE OF MORE VARIABLES DECREASES
GENERALIZABILITY SINCE DIFFERENT VARIABLESGENERALIZABILITY SINCE DIFFERENT VARIABLESMAY HAVE DIFFERENT IMPACT ON DIFFERENTMAY HAVE DIFFERENT IMPACT ON DIFFERENTPOPULATION SUBPOPULATION SUB--SET.SET.
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Consider the following:Consider the following:
Expenditure of a H.H on a Commodity may depend onExpenditure of a H.H on a Commodity may depend on
the following:the following:
Income of the householdIncome of the household, Family members, Cost of, Family members, Cost of
living, Standard of living,living, Standard of living, Price of the commodityPrice of the commodity,,Location of H.H.. Season, Attitude of a person,Location of H.H.. Season, Attitude of a person,
Demonstration effect, Management of the house hold,Demonstration effect, Management of the house hold,
Durability of the product,Durability of the product, Price of substitutePrice of substitute ,Cultural,Cultural
back ground ,Proximity to market, Sex ration in theback ground ,Proximity to market, Sex ration in the h.hh.h..
Media advertisement for the product, Price ofMedia advertisement for the product, Price ofcomplimentary goods. Quantity of consumption etc.complimentary goods. Quantity of consumption etc.
etc.etc.
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THUS, ONE HAS TO IDENTIFY THE MORE ORTHUS, ONE HAS TO IDENTIFY THE MORE OR
LESS RELEVANT VARIABLES WITH ALESS RELEVANT VARIABLES WITH A
PRIORI REASONING.PRIORI REASONING.
A JUDICIOUS DECISION IS WARRANTED INA JUDICIOUS DECISION IS WARRANTED INEXPLAINING SOCIOEXPLAINING SOCIO--ECONOMICECONOMIC
BEHAVIOUR.BEHAVIOUR.
PARSIMONY IN SOCIAL SCIENCE REFERS TOPARSIMONY IN SOCIAL SCIENCE REFERS TOMORE UNDERSTANDING FROM LEASTMORE UNDERSTANDING FROM LEAST
VARIABLESVARIABLES
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6.6. SPECIFICITYSPECIFICITYIT REFERS TO THE SPECIFICATION OF METHODS OFIT REFERS TO THE SPECIFICATION OF METHODS OF
MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLESMEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES
ConceptualisationConceptualisation of variables and use of proxyof variables and use of proxy
variablesvariables
Conceptualizing and measuring of variablesConceptualizing and measuring of variablesdiffers in physical and social sciences e.g.differs in physical and social sciences e.g.
-- acceleration, force, gravitation.acceleration, force, gravitation.
-- Industrialization, brand preference,Industrialization, brand preference,
spendthriftnessspendthriftness, literacy, Intelligence., literacy, Intelligence.religiocityreligiocity etcetc
We useWe use proxyvariablesproxyvariables in social sciencesin social sciences
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77.EMPIRICAL VERIFICATION.EMPIRICAL VERIFICATION
FORMULATION OF GENERAL LAWS OR MODELSFORMULATION OF GENERAL LAWS OR MODELSARE NOT USEFUL UNLESS THEY CAN BE VERIFIEDARE NOT USEFUL UNLESS THEY CAN BE VERIFIEDTHROUGH COLLECTION AND MANUPULATION OFTHROUGH COLLECTION AND MANUPULATION OFDATA.DATA.
EXPLANATION OF MODELS MUST MAKE SENSEEXPLANATION OF MODELS MUST MAKE SENSEAND THEY MUST CORRESPOND TO WHAT IS BEINGAND THEY MUST CORRESPOND TO WHAT IS BEINGACTUALLY STUDIED/OBSERVED. E.g.ACTUALLY STUDIED/OBSERVED. E.g.
Personal Expenditure = f ( Income)Personal Expenditure = f ( Income)
Brand Pref.= f (Awareness and Economic Status)Brand Pref.= f (Awareness and Economic Status)Economic Development = f (Industrialization)Economic Development = f (Industrialization)
Relationship is meaningless unless variables areRelationship is meaningless unless variables arespecified and data could be collected on them.specified and data could be collected on them.
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8. INTERSUBJECTIVITY8. INTERSUBJECTIVITY
SUBJECTIVITY DIFFERES BETWEENSUBJECTIVITY DIFFERES BETWEENSOCIAL SCIENTISTS.SOCIAL SCIENTISTS.
InterInter--subjectivity refers to situations in whichsubjectivity refers to situations in whichdifferent social scientists will arrive atdifferent social scientists will arrive at
different conclusions using their own ideasdifferent conclusions using their own ideasand perceptions on variables and theirand perceptions on variables and theirrelationships. But when the study isrelationships. But when the study isreplicated using a reported design andreplicated using a reported design andmethodology the ideas may converge.methodology the ideas may converge.
If it is not, then there is a paradigm shift orIf it is not, then there is a paradigm shift orchange in the theory.change in the theory.
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9.OPENNESS TO MODIFICATIONS9.OPENNESS TO MODIFICATIONS
PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES ARE OPEN TOPHYSICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES ARE OPEN TOCOUNTLESS MODIFICATION AND RESTATEMENTCOUNTLESS MODIFICATION AND RESTATEMENTOF THEORIES.OF THEORIES.
THIS IS MORE TRUE WITH SOCIAL SCIENCE SINCETHIS IS MORE TRUE WITH SOCIAL SCIENCE SINCE
SOCIAL PHENOMENA COME UNDER THE PERVIEWSOCIAL PHENOMENA COME UNDER THE PERVIEWOF IDEOLOGY:OF IDEOLOGY:RELIGIOUS,SOCIOPLITICAL,SOCIOECONOMIC ANDRELIGIOUS,SOCIOPLITICAL,SOCIOECONOMIC ANDPHILOSOPHICAL ON THE ONE HAND,HUMANE ANDPHILOSOPHICAL ON THE ONE HAND,HUMANE ANDPSYCHOLOGICAL ON THE OTHER.PSYCHOLOGICAL ON THE OTHER.
E.g. Recent research on Atoms LargeE.g. Recent research on Atoms Large HadronHadron Collider &Collider &and medical research on human brain in physicaland medical research on human brain in physicalsciences and various modifications in social sciences.sciences and various modifications in social sciences.
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A Concluding RemarkA Concluding Remark
The characteristics of social science discussedThe characteristics of social science discussedabove may suggest that scientific research isabove may suggest that scientific research ispossible in the field of social sciences.possible in the field of social sciences.
However, a caveat is in order.However, a caveat is in order.Subjective beliefs are checked against objectiveSubjective beliefs are checked against objective
reality in social science but the process and outreality in social science but the process and outcome are less exact as compared to the physicalcome are less exact as compared to the physical
sciences. The degree of exactness differs withsciences. The degree of exactness differs withrespect to the nature of social sciences.respect to the nature of social sciences.