4-H FORESTRY PROGRAM –– UNIT B

FORESTS

member’s manual

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ContentsThe 4-H Forestry Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3I. B-1 Introduction To Forest Values . . . . . . . . . 3Meeting:

1. Finding out About Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2. Why Forests are Valuable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

II. B-2 The Forest Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Meeting:

3. What Forests Do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

4. How Climate, the Land and Soil Affect ForestGrowth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

5. How Animals and Insects and Plant FactorsAffect Forest Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

III. B-3 Forest Development andForests Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Meeting:

6. How Forests Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

7. Forest Regions and Cover Types . . . . . . . . 14

IV. B-4 Forest Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Meeting:

8. Gathering the Facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

9. Management Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

V. B-5 The Dollar Value of Forests . . . . . . . . . . 21Meeting:

10.Forests Employ People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

11.Earning Money from the Forest . . . . . . . . . 22Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

AcknowledgmentsThis educational material has been prepared for 4-H use

by the National 4-H Forestry Committee composed ofrepresentatives of SEA—Extension, U.S. Department ofAgriculture and the Caoperative Extension Service of the StateLand-Grant Universities. Special thanks are extended to theInternational Paper Company for financial and technicalassistance. This material is published by the National 4-HCouncil, 7100 Connecticut Avenue, Chevy Chase, MD 20815.

Special appreciation for technical assistance is extendedto Michael Bolin, Joseph Buhaly, Vernon H. Burlison, Clyde D.Chesney, Dr. Pete W. Jacoby, Dr. John F. Kundt, Dr. R. T.Marks, Dr. Cecil Mayfield, Will A. McElfresh, Dr. Kemp L.Swiney and George D. Walker, all of the CooperativeExtension Service and to Herman Hossfeld, InternationalPaper Company. Special recognition also is given to Dr.Barbara M. Parramore, Raleigh, North Carolina for editorialassistance.

The Principal Authors

Joseph Buhaly, State Extension Forester at WashingtonState University, is director of Forest Management and SalesAssociation, Inc., a forest cooperative. He is also director ofthe Washington Resources Council. Mr. Buhaly is a 1950graduate of Washington State University, with post-graduatestudies at the University of Puget Sound, Pacific LutheranUniversity and Oregon State University.

John F. Kundt, Extension Forestry specialist at the Universityof Maryland, holds the rank of Associate Professor in theDepartment of Horticulture. Dr. Kundt is a 1952 forestrygraduate of West Virginia University, and holds a Doctor ofPhilosophy degree from North Carolina State University. Hehas worked extensively with the Cooperative ForestManagement Program in Southeastern Virginia, and with theUnion-Camp Corporation as a forest manager.

Will A. McElfresh, 4-H Specialist with Virginia PolytechnicInstitute and State University, has worked for federal and stateforestry organizations in the West, the Great Lakes states, andthe Southeast. He did his undergraduate (1955) and graduate(1966) work in forestry at the University of Michigan. He hasalso done graduate work in adult education at North CarolinaState University.

George "Ted" Walker, Extension Forester at the Universityof Georgia, holds a Masters degree in Forestry from thatuniversity (1956). He has served as both Junior and SeniorDirector of the Georgia Association of 4-H Agents, and wasGroup Chairman of the Society of American Foresters in 1978.

Programs and educational materials of National 4-H Council; SEA-Extension, United States Departmentof Agriculture; and all Cooperative Extension Services of the State Land-Grant Universities are available toall persons regardless of race, color, sex, age, religion, national origin or handicap. All are equal opportunityemployers.

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The 4-HForestry Program

Educational Aids in the National 4-H ForestryProgram consist of three parts. Unit A—Trees—explains what trees are, how they grow, why theyare important and what characteristics identifythem. Unit B—Forests—is about trees as part ofthe forest ecosystem, what values people hold forthem, and how they are managed. UnitC—Forestry—is concerned with how peoplemanage trees and other forest resources whichprovide wildlife shelter, recreational areas andwood for soil and water supplies. The most logicalway to use this program is to start with Unit A andtake the sections in order through Unit B. Thenselect those subunits of Unit C in which you havethe most interest. More advanced members maystart with Unit B—Forests—and refer to Unit A—Trees—as necessary.

Be sure to complete all sections of Unit Bbefore you attempt to advance in the program. Donot try to crowd all the material in this manual intoone year's time. Rather, work at a pace that willenable you to fully understand the basic conceptsof forests as they are presented here. There arefive natural divisions within the text —theIntroduction plus the four major topic areas. Thesedivisions will allow you to take a break at the end ofthe year and then resume with another topic areanext year. If you do this, you will find that the studyof forests will be more interesting, and you will bebetter prepared to advance into the various subjectareas within Unit C.

B-1 Introduction toForest ValuesMeeting 1Finding Out About Forests

Have you ever walked into a forest, stopped fora moment and looked around? If so, you probablysensed that forests are wonderful places. Youdidn't have to read about forests to realize this.Now, however, you may want to study forests inmore detail to find out why they are so wonderful.

In Unit B you will observe things that happen ina forest. You will find out why forests are valuableand why people are glad we have them.

We sometimes think of the forest as simply agroup of trees and other plants covering a givenarea of land. As you work in this unit, you will beginto think about the forest as something more thanjust trees growing together. You will see the

interaction of plants, animals, soil and other thingsin the forest. You will learn why this interaction is soimportant to people. So begin thinking about allthat a forest contains.

The workings of the forest are complex andrequire careful study. But there are fun ways to findout how a forest works. Get a notebook, and keepa neat and accurate record of all that you do inyour 4-H forestry project. Write down the dateswhen you begin, what you do and how your tasksturn out. Become a scientist and investigate how aforest works!

Make plans to visit a forest. Find a woodedarea that you like and begin to spend some time init. The area does not have to be large. It can be apark, state or national forest, a farmer's woodlot, afew trees near a stream or even a grove of trees inthe city. Try to visit this area at least once duringyour study. If possible, go again in a differentseason of the year. You will see some amazingchanges!

Use this manual to help you think about what tolook for in the forest. Before you go, make a list ofthings that you would like to study. Then take afriend along and talk about what has happenedand what is happening in your forest.

Begin asking questions about how your forestgrows. Think as a real scientist would. Use theglossary in the back of this manual to help you withwords or phrases that are not clear. Checkreferences in handouts, books and encyclopedias,too. Since one forest can be very different fromanother, facts you gather about your forest mayvary from the information on other forests that youfind in references. In your scientific work you canexamine and describe what exists at the time ofyour visit. These bits of information will become theinformation that you will work with. Each of the"Things You Can Do" covers some important partof the study of forests. Complete as many as youcan. You may work as an individual or as a teammember. Remember to write down what you havelearned after you make your observation. You maywant to repeat some activities at different timesand places. Your results may show surprisingdifferences. Any scientific measurements orobservations made at different times and placesmay produce new results that differ from youroriginal results.

Things You Can Do1. Find a forested area that you can study. The

area does not have to be large. Just make sure tofind one that you will be able to visit several timesduring the course of your participation in Unit B ofthe 4-H Forestry Program.

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Meeting 2Why Forests Are Valuable

In Unit A you learned that trees, whether smallor large, have value. When they group together toform the basis of a forest, trees have special value.Forests provide us with watershed protection,oxygen, recreational opportunities, windbreaks,noise and vision buffers, and forest products.Some forests are valued simply for their beauty.

We are lucky to live in a land with such vastforest resources. Although most countries haveforests, few compare to those of North Americaeither in size or value. The forests in Eastern NorthAmerica were used by the early settlers for homes,heat and transportation. Forests were used by thesettlers to build our country's cities, railroads, farmsand factories. Forests have played an importantpart in our nation's history.

Here are some reasons why forests arevaluable to us today.

1. Water: Forests have spongy surfaces thatsoak up water and help to control soil erosion andwater runoff. They help supply our water needs,especially in the critical summer months. Forestshelp to slow the melting of snow in winter andstream runoff in warmer months.

2. Oxygen: Growing forests produce oxygen,which we need to live. Also, they remove carbondioxide from the air, which is harmful at too high alevel. An acre of a vigorous young forest canproduce three tons of oxygen each year. This isenough for the requirements of 18 people.

3. Recreation: Most people en joy the beautyand sense of peace that a forest offers. As a result,the forest serves as a recreation area for hiking,camping, hunting, studying or resting.

4. Forage: Livestock may find grass and othernutritious vegetation in a few forest types. Althoughovergrazing can be bad, moderate grazing mayremove plants that compete with trees in the forestunderstory.

5. Windbreaks and Shelterbreaks: Theseslow down the force of the wind on buildings andland. They are planted in three or more rows atright angles to the direction of the prevailing wind,they protect land from wind erosion and topsoilloss. The leaves of forest trees intercept dustparticles in the air, and so reduce air pollution.

6. Noise and Vision Buffer: Forests andgroves absorb noise made by automobiles andother sources, especially in the city. They alsoscreen out unpleasant views from roadways and inresidential areas.

7. Forest Products: Forests provide manyproducts, including lumber, plywood, pulp and

paper. They also provide seed cones, floralgreenery, fuelwood, resin and turpentine, berriesand bark. Some of these products can beharvested each year while the trees are growing.

Things You Can Do1. Try to remember the last time you visited a

forest or wooded area. Write down what you saw,heard, smelled and touched. Make a record of whatyou liked and disliked in the forest. Draw a pictureor find a photograph of what you think were themost interesting plants and animals. As youproceed through this manual find out why yourfavorite plants grow where they do, and where yourfavorite animals live. Make a drawing or take aphotograph of what you see.

2. Make your own list of reasons why theforests around you are valuable. Is there now moreor less land in your area in forests than 10 yearsago?

3. Start making a list of what your forest areacontains, such as forms of wildlife and insects. Alsolist things like trails, fences and other objects thatpeople have put into the forest. Begin making adivision between what is natural to the forest andwhat has been done by people. Keep adding tothis list each time you think of something else thatshould be included. By the time you finish thismanual you should have a long list.

4. Consider starting work on an exhibit of citylandscapes showing how trees and shrubs areplanted to provide shade and beauty whilereducing air and noise pollution.

B-2 The ForestEcosystemMeeting 3What Forests Do

Forests, grasslands, oceans, rivers, lakes anddeserts are the major ecosystems in the world. Theword "eco" is from a Greek word meaning "house",or place to live. An ecosystem is an environmentwhere different plants and animals interact witheach other and with other parts of nature. In aforest, trees interact with other plants, the soil,wildlife, the air, water courses, micro-organismsand other animals. All of these things interactingtogether make up the forest ecosystem.

Trees play a major role in the forest ecosystem.They affect how well all other organisms in theforest live. Trees give food and shelter to manywildlife species. Trees bring minerals from thesubsoil, and change them into useful fertilizer that

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is left on the forest floor for other plants. Treessuch as the alder and locust help to change thenitrogen in the air into a form that plants andanimals can use. They give oxygen, food andshelter to many wildlife species.

On the other hand some trees can limit thegrowth of plant and animal populations. Forexample, a natural chemical from the roots of theeucalyptus and black walnut trees limits the growthof other tree species nearby. Some trees haveleaves or fruit that are poisonous. Trees use thesefeatures to compete with other plants for survival.

Many relationships exist between tree speciesand other forms of life in the forest. Although weare continuing to learn more about theserelationships through scientific research, many ofthem are still unknown to us. Since we still have alot to learn about forests, we must be very carefulwhenever we change the forest ecosystem.

If a forest contains many types of plant andanimal species, it is more complex. One smallchange does not change the whole forest. But inany forest where most of the trees are the samespecies, a small change can have a huge effect. Aforest of mostly jack pines can be seriouslydamaged by insects called sawflies. These insectseat the needles of the jack pines. If a few extrawarm days come in the spring when the insectshatch, their numbers greatly increase. Their effect

on the jack pine is then drastic, and a large part ofthe forest can be destroyed due to those few extradays of warm weather.

Food ChainsWe hear a lot these days about people

recycling glass, tin, aluminum and other materials.In the past we threw such things away. The forestdoes not throw anything away. In the forest all theorganisms are interconnected, and everything isrecycled.

We know from Unit A that plants in the forestget their food though photosynthesis. They use thesun's energy to make food from water, soilnutrients and carbon dioxide. Meanwhile animalsand insects feed from the plants. These includeherbivores like the deer and rabbit, and insectssuch as the gypsy moth, ladybug and sawfly.These animals and insects in turn provide food forother animals and insects. Carnivores such as thewolf and the mountain lion hunt the deer, andpredator insects eat the leaf feeding insects. Apredator may become prey for other predators. Aninsect-eating bird may be eaten by a hawk, or a foxby a bobcat. Some animals, such as foxes andbears, as well as people, eat both plants andanimals, and so are called omnivores. This processof organism feeding upon another organism iscalled a grazing food chain.

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Another food chain is called the food chain ofdecay. All dead organic matter returns to the soil tochange into simpler matter. A dead tree on theforest floor rots, or decomposes. When an animaldies, its flesh and bones become part of the soil.Animal and plant material is broken down by tinybacteria, fungi and small animals in the soil. Theseorganisms, called decomposers, change the deadorganic matter into substances that plants can useagain as food. In the meantime, the carbon dioxideheld in the tissues of the decomposers is releasedinto the air. To complete the cycle, plants use theminerals, nutrients and carbohydrates for food.

In drier climates where the ground is not somoist, fire often takes the place of decompositionin returning dead material to the soil.

The Water CycleAnother cycle that takes place in the forest is

the water (or hydrologic) cycle. When rain or snowfalls in the forest, what happens to it? We alreadyknow that some of it is used by plant leaves inphotosynthesis. More is lost as it goes back intothe air though evaporation. Another part becomesrunoff into streams or rivers above the ground.Some of the water soaks into the soil and headstoward the water table, the level of waterunderneath the ground. And some is taken fromthe soil by the plants.

How much water does a forest hold? In heavyrainfalls or deep snow, a forest has a lot of water.If one inch of rain would reach the forest floor at atime, the forest would have 27,000 gallons of waterfor each acre, or 250,000 liters per hectare. Treesbuild about 50 pounds (21½ kilograms) of waterinto 100 pounds (43 kilograms) of wood. At thesame time about 1,000 times that amount is lostthrough their leaves into the atmosphere.

All of this moisture raises the humidity level inthe forest. The water that has passed back to theatmosphere through evaporation can be used tobring more rain and snow, and again the cycle iscompleted and ready to repeat.

At what time of the year does the forest floorreceive most of its water? In what season do treesin the forest grow the most, and why?

Things You Can Do1. Learn more about the Food Chain of Decay.

Find a piece of rotting wood in your forest. Look atit carefully. What is happening to it? Turn it over soyou can see underneath. Do you see any soilanimals or other creatures at work? Feel the woodas it is being broken down into soil. How does itfeel?

2. Tracking the "Wild Raindrop". Most peopledon't realize all the things that happen to a raindropfrom the time it lands on a plant until it reaches astream. Go out on a rainy day. En joy the differentcolors, sounds, smells and feelings. Try tracking a"wild raindrop". To be comfortable, wear a goodraincoat, rainhat and boots. Take along paper anda pencil in a clear plastic bag to record where theraindrop goes.Find the answer to the following questions:

a. What is the raindrop's trail downhill throughthe stands of different tree species?

b. Where does the raindrop go after it reachesthe leaves on the forest floor?

c. Are any raindrops lost through evaporationalong the trail?

3. There are other cycles operating in the forestbesides food chains and the water cycle. As aforest scientist you will want to know about them aswell. Ask your leader or other forest authority aboutthe carbon, nitrogen and oxygen cycles. You maywant to draw pictures of these cycles, completewith arrows showing the interconnecting parts.

4. Begin thinking of your own imaginary forest.Give it a name, and place in it your favorite animalsand plants. You will be making more use of thisforest in later meetings.

Meeting 4How Climate, the Land and SoilAffect Forest Growth.

Imagine a forest thousands of years old, or atree growing so high that you could not see itscrown. Or imagine a cool pine grove in the desert.These are very unlikely, with a few importantexceptions. Most forests are prevented fromgrowing so old, to such heights or in such harshplaces. Their growth is controlled by ways that wecall limiting factors. The main limiting factors forforest growth are climate, soil and land forms,animals, insects and plant factors.

ClimateClimate is the most important factor in

determining where trees can grow. Climate controlshow much warmth and moisture a forest receives.Most trees need at least 16 inches of rainfall (40centimeters) a year to grow. Certain trees growbest in climates with heavy rainfall. Others grow inclimates with many days of bright sunlight. Sometrees grow in climates where few other plants congrow, because they have adapted to conditions insuch places as along windy seacoasts or high inthe mountains where the air is colder.

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Within the forest are a variety of microclimatesor "mini-climates." These can change the localconditions. In different places within the sameforest you may find a difference in temperature,sunlight and moisture. For example, review whathappened in Unit A when you took temperaturereadings in the sun and the shade, and at differentheights above ground level.

The ancestors of all our trees were tropicalplants. Most tropical plants are evergreens. Theygrow whenever there is enough moisture, andwhere they are not easily damaged by coldweather. Trees that live in the temperate zones hadto adapt to the seasons. They had to begin newgrowth in the spring and to spread their seeds toreproduce. This process took many generationsbefore the trees that we are familiar with todayfinally evolved.

Trees are accustomed to grow best in certainclimatic zones. If a tree species is moved from onezone to another, it may not be able to grow in itsnew location. Trees that grow inland may not beable to grow on the seacoast. Trees that grow in awarm valley may not be able to grow at higherelevations where the air is cooler.

If the climate should change suddenly, manytrees in the forest could suffer. Think what wouldhappen if there were two or three years of droughtin the Western forests, or if the Southern forestswere struck by a tremendous ice storm in thespring. What might happen to forest growth in theNorthern forests if many warm sunny daysoccurred in late summer and early fall? Would thebroadleaf trees still "shut down" for the winter asthey usually do? Remember our example of how afew extra warm days in the spring produced

How Much Rain Do Forest Areas Receive?

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enough sawflies to eat up much of the foliage ofthe jack pine forests?

One example of extreme climatic conditions inthe forest is fire. Although many forest fires arestarted due to people's carelessness, fire alsooccurs naturally. When the forest floor is very dryin times of drought, or when a lightning stormstrikes, fire can start and spread very quickly in theforest. Uncontrolled fire can cause muchdestruction within hours. But controlled fires areactually helpful in some forests. Control led fire caneliminate unwanted tree species, or allow anotherspecies to reproduce. Some trees, such as thelodgepole pine and the jack pine, need fire toreproduce. Their seed cones will open only underintense heat. Fire also does some of the workinvolved with the food chain of decay. Althoughwildfire is a horrible event to much of the forest, itis one of nature's ways to produce changes thatmay be needed in the forest ecosystem. Later inthe manual we will see how controlled fire can bea useful management tool.

Land and SoilThe "lay of the land" and its soil structure also

affect forest growth. Some lands are naturallybetter for growing a forest than for other uses.

Their climates and soils are right for what forestplants and animals need. For instance, the NorthWoods of Minnesota and Wisconsin are muchmore suitable for coniferous forests than foragriculture or for cities. The shape of the land's sur-face, or its topography, helps to determine whereand how well trees grow. Forests in mountainousareas high above sea level are different from thosethat grow in flat areas with low elevation. The landforms are different and the soil types are different.

The soil is the medium for plant growth, andholds many of the nutrients that trees need. Itbecomes like a natural sponge made up of fourlayers. The top layer is litter, made of undecayedleaves or twigs. The layer of decaying leaves underthe litter is called duff. The next layer is humus,made of further decayed duff and mineral soil. Inthis layer the remains of the leaves can no longerbe identified. The color is dark. Below this is theparent soil, which holds or anchors the roots.Parent soil contains most of the minerals thatplants use. In this layer are holes made by oldroots, animals and insects. The holes allow waterto sink deeper into the soil. Forest litter, humus androots allow the forest soil to hold more water and toresist being broken apart by erosion. Well de-veloped forest soil is usually crumbly and porous.

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If soil is rich in nutrients, it has a lot ofdecomposers—the earthworms, bacteria, fungi andmicro-organisms that help break down decayingorganic matter. Some soils hold the right amount ofwater and enough of the nutrients that plants needin the topsoil. Other soils hold either too much ornot enough moisture and therefore limit plantgrowth.

Over a period of time trees have adaptedthemselves to particular types of soil. Many treesgrow on very specific soils. The longleaf pine of theSouth needs little water and grows best in sandysoil. But most species need fairly deep and well-drained soil. The baldcypress trees likes the heavymucky soils of swamps. The red maple of theEastern forests can grow in dry clay soils or inswampy peat bogs. This tree has a better chanceof adapting to future changes in soil content thantrees that need a specific soil type. To see therelationship between soil moisture and forest covertypes, turn ahead to Table 1 on page ??.

Things You Can Do1. Find examples of micro-climates in your

forest. Look around for changes in moisture andtemperature. If you did not measure foresttemperature in Unit A, take a thermometer with youto record the temperature at different places on theforest floor. Take readings in a sunny spot betweenthe trees, in a meadow or other open area, thenunder a thick canopy of high trees. Also measurethe temperature at different heights off the ground.If your results are different, explain why.

2. Draw a picture of what your forest areawould look like if an ice age came and there wasnever any summer. Think about what tree specieswould become extinct and which ones would adapt.How could the ice age affect other life forms in theforest?

3. Visit a spot that was once damaged by fire.List what plants grew in the spot before the fire andwhat grows there now. Make a display of thedifferent effects of fire, both good and bad. If a firetower is located nearby, visit with the lookout tolearn how fires are spotted.

4. Find a tree identification book for your stateor region. Identify trees and other plants that growin your forest area. Which trees grow on flat landand which grow on hills? Which ones grow onmineral soils without litter, duff or humus?

5. What happens to the soil in your back yardor park after it rains? In your notebook describe aplace where plants are growing and a spot that isbare. Compare the two places. In which spot is thesoil being washed away? Find a place in yourforest where the same thing is happening.

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Meeting 5How Animals, Insects and PlantFactors Affect Forest Growth

Other main factors affectingforest growth are. . .Animals and Insects

In a forest, wildlife and plant communitiesdepend upon each other for survival. The animalsand insects benefit from living in the forest in manyways. The forest provides them with food andshelter and a place to raise their young.

Some animals live only in certain trees. InNorthern Michigan a bird called the Kirtland warblernests only in jack pine. Lately the number of jackpines in the forest has decreased because of fewerfires. (Remember how the jack pine needs fire toreproduce?) With fewer places to nest, this bird isnow on the endangered species list. It may becomeextinct.

Animals and insects affect how plants grow.They help trees in some ways and hurt them inothers. Some plants rely on wildlife to carry theirseeds or pollen so that they can reproduce in otherareas of the forest. Plants obviously cannot walkaround to do this for themselves. Birds such as thewoodpecker, the pine marten and the owl helptrees by eating insects or animals that may harmthe trees.

Some wildlife species may limit forest growth.Bear and elk can damage trees by rubbingthemselves against the bark. Deer eat seedlingsand also feed on the leaves and twigs of oldertrees. Porcupines feed on the inner bark of bothconifers and broadleaf trees. Smaller animals likerabbits, mice and chipmunks eat seeds and veryyoung trees. Farm animals, such as cattle andsheep, eat away the low vegetation. They alsotrample the ground with their hooves, and make thesoil of the forest floor so hard that water cannotsoak in easily. Birds such as the yellow-belliedsapsucker damage trees by pecking into thesapwood. This leaves the trees more open todiseases and weakens the future timber taken fromthem.

But when these animals leave their wastebehind, or when they die, they actually help tofertilize the soil. Better soil makes for better trees.This is another example of the balance in theecosystem that we studied earlier.

Harmful insects may eat away forests. Thegypsy moth larvae feed on the leaves or needles oftrees in our eastern forests. Blown by the wind,these insects can actually eat away many treeleaves for miles around. Sometimes the only treesto survive are those least tasty to the insects.

All plant eaters have enemies called naturalpredators. The plant eaters rarely destroy an entireforest, because the natural predators limit theirnumbers when they are present. Some of thesepredators are animals. Some are insects I ike thewasp and the praying mantis, who may eat theadults or the larvae of the plant-eating insectpopulation. In well managed forests a variety ofnatural predators exist to keep the ecosystemworking well. (Some harmful insects recentlybrought into our country, including the gypsy moth,still do not have natural enemies here and so mustbe fought in other ways. Scientists have developedchemical pesticides and, more recently, havediscovered bacteria, fungi and viruses to help fightthese harmful insects.)

Remember how the food chain works when youthink about how wildlife affects forest growth. Howcould an increase in the-number of foxes helpforest growth? What changes might occur in theforest if the hunting season on animals lastedlonger than it does now? These changes may behelpful in some forests and harmful in others.

Plant FactorsHow is it that the giant redwood tree in

California can grow as high as 360 feet or more?How can the bristlecone pine grow to be over 5,000years old? The trees around them remain muchsmaller or die much younger, even though theyhave the same climate, land form, soil and wildlifespecies. Why can't they grow as tall or live as longas the redwoods and the bristlecone pine?

Forest growth also depends upon the needs ofthe individual species. Different trees needdifferent amounts of water, sunlight, warmth andnutrients to grow. Some trees have more growthpower or hormones to help them to grow long plantshoots. Some plants are more likely than others tosuffer from the attack of certain kinds of insects orcertain kinds of disease. Some trees have bettermethods of spreading their seeds than others. Forexample, compare the way the jack pine spreadsits seeds with the way of the dogwood.

Foresters call these traits silviculturalcharacteristics. The word "silviculture" comes fromLatin. "Silva" means forest and "culture" comesfrom a word meaning to cultivate, or to prepare theground for growing plants. Each species has itsown silvicultural characteristics which makes itdifferent from all other tree species. Foresters usethe known silvicultural characteristics of varioustree species in their management practices.

Plants in the forest must compete with eachother for survival. Trees that need ful I sum ight togrow are called intolerant species, because they

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cannot survive in the shade. the Douglas-fir is oneexample of an intolerant species. Trees such asthe red alder, which can grow more quickly thanthe Douglas-fir in early years, have an advantageover the Douglas-fir in the fight for light and space.

Things You Can Do1. When you visit your forest, think more about

the different influences upon it. Look for thefollowing . . .

a. a place where animals or insects have eatenplant growth

b. a place where insects have laid their eggsc. some plant or animal matter in the process of

decaying2. Find at least one example each of organisms

that live in the forest soil, on the forest floor, in theundergrowth and in the trees. Record thisinformation in your notebook.

3. Describe what evidence of animal activitiesyou find in and around trees. Look especially foranimal tracks, and learn how to make a plastercasting. In your notebook, list the animal, the kindof tree affected and what the animal did. You maywant to use a camera to record some of yourfindings.

4. Construct an exhibit or display on forestinsects. Show how natural predator insects arebeneficial to the forest ecosystem and to humans,and show how harmful insects destroy forestgrowth.

5. Make an exhibit of common forest treediseases (such as Dutch Elm disease) includingtheir effects on forests and methods of treatment.

B-3 ForestDevelopment andForest Regions Meeting 6How Forests Age

Just as an individual tree has a history, so doesa forest. At some point in time your forest startedon bare ground. The bare ground may have beena natural opening, or one made by humans,without any plant cover. But then lichens andsimilar plants started growing on bare rock or soil.Slowly moss began to grow, too. Ferns and thenshort grasses and shrubs probably followed,growing on the soil. Gradually a mixed plant lifegrew. Large shrubs became intermixed with thefirst trees, called pioneer species. If there was

enough water, these trees grew quickly, and shutout sunlight from the smaller plants. Thisdeveloping tree community may have lastedthousands of years if natural forces like fire orstorms did not change it.

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SuccessionIf the forest reaches the stage where the

vegetation stays the same over a long period oftime, it is then called a climax forest. The processof long term changes in the forest as it movestoward climax growth is called succession. Forinstance, an area that was once a climax forestmay now be in farmland or another use. If it is leftabandoned, nature may reclaim this land and moveagain toward climax growth.

A forest made up of pioneer tree species is atemporary stage in nature's movementtoward aclimax forest. Let's look at an example of this kindof growth. Loblolly pine is a conifer—a cone-bearing tree. After it is harvested, the land may notgrow another conifer but rather some hardwoodtree. The hardwood tree has an advantage overthe conifer because it is tolerant of shade. Thishardwood may have been Iying in the understoryuntil the pine died or was harvested. The hardwoodcan still grow with less light, and can "shut down"its growth process during the winter season. Ahardwood tree, like the beech, might adapt itselfbetter to conditions than the pine tree. The Loblollypine in this case is called a sub-climax species andeventually would be replaced by the climaxspecies, the beech, if it is not quickly replanted byforesters.

Climax forest ecosystems are very resistant towidespread change. Insect attacks, diseases andother disturbances generally do not hurt theseforests as much as they do sub-climax forests.Climax forests are also less affected by the loss ofa single plant or animal species, because there areenough other species to take their place. Butclimax forests contain timber that is sometimes lessvaluable in a commercial sense. It takes longer forthe trees in a climax forest to grow a mature stand.Some of the trees may be very old and decayed.Sub-climax forests may grow more usable timber,but are more likely to be heavily damaged by theforces of nature because the trees are usuallyeven-aged (meaning all the same age).

Ground fires may keep a forest in a sub-climaxstage for a long time. A few years back, fires sweptthrough the Blue Mountains of Oregon. Each timeafter they were finally controlled, the white fir, aclimax species that is tolerant to shade, slowlybegan to take over many areas of ponderosa pineforest, which is a sub-climax species. Theponderosa pine needs full sunlight to grow well. Itwas "shaded out" by the white fir. But as new firesflared up across the land every 10 years or so, thewhite fir trees were burned. The ponderosa pineskept growing because they were not destroyed byfire, and won out over the white fir. So, because offire the forest remained in a sub-climax stage.

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Forest LevelsJust as the soil has several layers on the forest

floor, forest trees can be grouped into severallevels. The trees that grow largest in a stand arecalled dominant. They receive full sunlight fromabove and partial light from the side. Their crownsare larger than those of other trees. The co-dominant trees, or medium-sized trees that receivesunlight from the top but not very much from theside, grow in between the dominant trees. Thesetrees form the canopy, or the "roof" of the forest.Intermediate and suppressed trees make up theunderstory. These trees are shorter andovertopped because the dominant trees block mostof the light. Below the understory is the shrub level,including grasses and ferns. Nearest the forestfloor are the mosses, lichens and other smallplants.

Some forests feature all of these levels, butmany forests do not. Your forest area may haveonly tall trees, and no shrub level. In other forestsyou may find it difficult to tell the difference be-tween levels. Have your leader help you with this.

Things You Can Do1. Agricultural crops are one example of

subclimax growth. If we do not re-plant each year,another plant community begins to grow. Find afield near your home that was once used to growcrops but which now grows wild. Describe in yournotebook what plants are growing there now.Compare them to what was growing there before.

2. Find what you think to be the oldest tree inyour forest. Estimate its age, and write down howyou figured the tree to be this old.

3. Visit a section of the forest that has beenharvested. Estimate the year of the cutting byfiguring the age of the trees that have grown up inplace of the trees that were cut.

4. Make a list of "sudden" changes that youhave seen in your forest that were made by naturalforces or by people. These could be changescaused by fire, storms, insect attack, disease,logging practices or agricultural use.

Tree Crown Classes:D, Dominant; CD, Co-Dominant

I, Intermediate: and S, Suppressed

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Meeting 7Forest Regions and Cover Types

Forest Regions in Eastern ForestsIn the eastern part of the United States there

are three major forest regions. These are thenorthern, central hardwood, and southern forest.This classification has been determined accordingto the kinds of trees and the number of each kindfound on the land. Florida and Texas have smallareas of tropical forest. Large unbroken forestareas still exist in some parts of the eastern half ofour nation. These are in northern New England,northeastern New York, parts of the Great Lakesstates, central Pennsylvania, and the Appalachianregion of the South Atlantic and Gulf states. Otherforest lands are mainly in small tracts on farms andother small properties. These small forests makeup two-thirds of the total forest land in the UnitedStates.

The eastern regions contain only about one-third of the nation's standing sawtimber, meaningthose trees large enough to saw into boards. Yet,over half of the annual harvest comes from theseforested areas. About one-fourth of all sawtimber

in the eastern forests is southern yellow pine. Theyellow pine forests have enough moisture, goodsoils and favorable temperatures to provide for arapid growth rate.

There are more than 150 different commerciallyimportant tree species in the eastern forest.Foresters plan pine regeneration on pine sites andhardwood regeneration on hardwood sites. Newstands of pine are started by planting nursery-grown seedlings or by direct seeding with aircraft orground equipment. Some hardwood tree seedlingsare also planted to make sure that there will beenough of that kind of timber for the next harvest,and to control the natural dominance of otherspecies.

There are about 5,000 wood products madefrom eastern forests. The best markets for forestproducts are the urban areas of the eastern part ofour country. Cities such as Boston, New York City,Baltimore, Norfolk, Washington D.C. and Atlantause many wood products. A few of the many woodproducts from the eastern forest are lumber,plywood, furniture, turpentine, paper, utility poles,piling, rayon, baseball bats, firewood, charcoal,railroad ties, pine oil, musical instruments, caskets,cellophane, solid alcohol, paints and varnishes.You may want to add other products to this list.

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The Northern Region of the eastern forestscovers most of New England and New York. Itextends southward over the Appalachian Mountainhighlands to northern Georgia and westward intothe Great Lakes state, including most of Michigan,Wisconsin and Minnesota.

The Central Region covers a large part of thecentral portion of the eastern half of the UnitedStates. It extends almost to the Atlantic Coast. Itstarts in Southern Minnesota and extends eastwardto Connecticut. Excluding the southernAppalachian Mountain Highlands, the CentralRegion extends south through the CumberlandPlateau to the northern parts of the southernstates.

The Southern Region provides the mostimportant source of softwood (pine) sawtimber inthe eastern United States. This region extendsalong the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain fromeastern Maryland to eastern Texas. It includesparts of Missouri, Arkansas and Oklahoma.

The Tropical Region covers a very small area.This region includes the Florida Keys, the southerntip of Florida and a 200 mile coastal strip in Texasfrom the Mexican border to Corpus Christi.

Western ForestsThe main forest regions of the western forests

are the Rocky Mountain, Sierra Nevada, Cascadeand Pacific Coast. Here, there are large bod ies ofti m ber extend i ng over the main mountain rangesof the west. Large areas of the dry foothills arecovered with low forests of juniper and pine.

Heavy stands of Douglas-fir, spruce andhemlock grow in the Pacific Coast Forest region. Inthe southern part of the region, the timbered landsare surrounded with narrow margins of lowhardwood trees or chaparral. About two-thirds ofthe nation's sawtimber is in the West. One-fourth ofthis total is Douglas-fir.

TABLE 1Soil Moisture

Dry

Average

Wet

RegionNortheastern Forest RegionJack pineNorthern pin oakAspenGray birch – red mapleBlack spruceBlack ash – American elm – red maple

Major Uses

pulp, sawtimber, wildlifelumber, pulp, aesthetics, recreationboxes, pulp, aestheticsfurniture, lumber, aestheticspulplumber, pulp, aesthetics

Dry

Average

Wet

Central Forest RegionPost oak – black oakPitch pineWhite oakyellow-poplar – hemlockAtlantic white-cedar

railroad ties, pulp, lumberlumber, pulpFurniture, barrels, lumber, wildlifeFurniture, lumber, pulpfences, lumber, small boats

Dry

Average

Wet

Southern Forest RegionSand pineLongleaf pine – scrub oakSwamp chestnut oak – cherrybark oakSweetgum – yellow-poplarPond pineBaldcypress – water tupelo

pulppoles, piling, lumber, pulppulp, lumber, veneer, furniturefurniture, lumber, pulplumber, pulplumber, pulp

DryWet

Tropical Forest RegionMahoganyMangrove

wildlife, aestheticsprevent soil erosion, aesthetics, wildlife

Dry

Average

Wet

Rocky Mountain Forest RegionPonderosa pineRocky Mountain juniperWestern white pineWestern larchGrand firEngelmann spruce – subalpine fir

lumber, panelingwildlife, aesthetics, postslumber, paneling, veneerlumber, plywood, poleslumber, pulplumber, aesthetics, watershed

Dry

Average

Wet

Pacific Coast Forest RegionArizona cypressAspen and cottonwoodsSitka spruceWestern red cedarDouglas-fir and western hemlockRed alder

posts, stakes, corral polesboxes, crates, pulpfurniture, doors, sash, pulpshingles, lumber, posts, poleslumber, plywood, pulpfurniture

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The western forests have been supplyingnearly half of the timber cut each year for lumber,pulp, piling, veneer, plywood, laminated timber,particleboard and chemicals. However, anincreasing share of the total volume of timber beingcut is now shifting to the eastern forests, especiallyas the use of wood as an energy source isincreasing.

The timber growth rates vary greatly. Moisture,elevation, slope and soil types affect how treesgrow. The drier and higher elevations produce thepoorest growth conditions, especially on shallow orrocky soils. The best growing places are on deepwell drained soils at middle elevations. Most of thecommercially important trees in the West areconifers.

Markets for western forest products includesuch western cities as Seattle, San Francisco, LosAngeles, Phoenix, Denver, as well as many centraland eastern urban centers.

The Rocky Mountain Region of the westernforests is spreod over a vast expanse of mountainsand high plateaus. The Rocky Mountain forestregion is in the centralwestern part of the countryreaching from Canada to Mexico, a length of about1,300 miles. It stretches from the Great Plains tothe great basin of Nevada and eastern parts ofOregon and Washington, a width of about 800miles.

There are many kinds of soils and climatesacross the United States. These give us over 1,000different native species of trees. For variousreasons many more species have been importedfrom other countries. There are 106 forest types inthe eastern forest regions and 50 in the westernregions. A few examples of forest types and theiruses to people are given in Table 1 on page 15.

Things You Can Do1. Using the map of U.S. forest regions, locate

and trace the borders of the six regions of theeastern and western forests. Make a I ist of statesthat have little or no forest land. Make a list ofstates with only one type of forest land and a list ofstates with two or more forest types. You shouldhave three lists, each labeled clearly.

2. Make an exhibit of the more common timbertypes of your state or region. Use photos, sketchesor wood products that correspond with each timbertype. Name the species, and if possible, make amap that shows their distribution. (Refer to Unit Afor instructions on getting specimens and preparingexhibits of a tree's foliage, fruit and bark.)

3. Select one forest type you have identified inyour forest. Write a description of the plant cover

as you saw it on the ground or the understory ofthe forest. Include a drawing if you wish.

4. Learn the difference between a nationalforest and national park. Write down two or threecharacteristics of each. Find out from a historybook the efforts of President Theodore Rooseveltto establ ish these systems and report to the group.

5. Read about the giant redwood or the sequoiatrees and make a report to club members. Illustratethe report so that the age and size of these treesare shown in comparison with other trees orobjects.

B-4 ForestManagementMeeting 8Gathering the Facts

In Unit B-2 we discussed various influences onforest growth. These were climate, topography, soilfactors, animals and insects and silviculturalcharacteristics. Many times people themselves area very important influence on how forests grow.The amount of land changed somehow by peopleincreases each year. We should consider thesechanges to be important in the future managementof our forests.

(Before going on you may wish to go back tothe introduction to review forest values.) The forestmanager has to make plans and choices indeciding which values to seek in a particular forest.This unit's meetings will help you learn how we getthe most value from our forests.

At one time forests covered much more of ourcountry than they do today. For hundreds of yearsnature was the only manager of our NorthAmerican forests. North American Indians usedsome management practices such as agricultureand prescribed burning. They set fires for warfare,to open up travel routes, to allow more small plantsto grow for game animals to eat and to run heseanimals out of hiding for a richer hunting area. Butoverall they changed very little of the vast amountof forest land on our continent.

When the European settlers arrived, theychanged the forest quickly. They harvested timberfor fuel, ship building and homes. They sent woodback to Europe, too. Some of these people addifferent beliefs about forests than we do today. Tothe early settlers, trees were in the way ofprogress. They had to be removed as quickly aspossible for homesteading and farming. Manytimes the settlers simply set fire to the trees and let

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them burn. At that time there was plenty of forestland, and not enough open land, so they did notfeel wrong in doing this. In time more forests werecut down, and homesteads became settlements.

Our country came to realize that as cities grew,our forests were decreasing both in size andquality. About a century ago the federalgovernment passed a law to set aside specialvested areas to be owned by the people. Theseareas became the basis of the National Forestsystem.

We still do not fully understand how naturemanages the forest ecosystem. Therefore manytimes people can spoil resources without realizingwhat they are doing. But through careful scientificresearch we have learned how to change the forestfor the better. For example, a well managed forestwill actually provide more water and wildlife thanmost climax forests. But to be successful managersof our different uses of the forest, people mustwork in harmony with nature.

Management And Land UseManagement is planned, orderly ways to

reaching goals. Forest management isn't just forlarge forest-industry holdings or publicly ownedforests. It is needed on even the smallest of farmwoodlots. When the area is small, the managermay not have as many goals. The opportunities formanagement may be few, but the need remains.

Owners of private woodland are becoming noremindful of community values. Nevertheless, manyforest owners still have the idea that land is theirsto do with as they please without consideration forothers. For example, one landowner may controlthe watershed for a whole community. This ownermay decide to graze goats or sheep on the land. Ifthe owner is not careful, over-grazing can kill theplant cover. Then rainfall runs off rapidly, carryingalong ,oil and causing floods. Meanwhile during dryperiods, very little water will soak into the ground tofeed springs and streams. SiIting damages streamsand reservoirs. Actions such as hese have animpact on not just the owner, but he entirecomunity.

The future use of the land involves not just oneperson but many people. Good forest managersonsider community needs and proper use. Theasiest plan for a landowner is a single use. Thisnay mean harvesting, setting aside the land for

aesthetic purposes or using it for recreation. Onprivate land a single practice may allow some otheruse in the future. For example, the owner whoused his land to harvest some fine oak timber mayfind increased hunting for rabbits, quail and othergame animals. A new plant cover replaces theharvested oak, and different food is available fordifferent wildlife.

A more difficult plan is multiple use of land.Thisattempts to take into account many needs andvalues over the same period of time. The samegeneral forest area may produce water, wildife,wood and other forest products and receation. Forinstance, let's say the manager of a city watershedis interested in maintaining the water supply. Themanager may harvest some of the trees so thatmore rainfall will reach the surface of thewatershed. As a result of more openings in thetrees, some wildlife habitats are sacrificed but otherkinds are gained.

In multiple-use forestry all the uses have to bewell-managed over the entire forest for themaximum benefit of the people. Some uses, ifimproperly managed, may conflict. such as poorlogging practices and recreation or horsback trailsand motorized bike trails. Foresters and landplanners must be careful to prevent conflictsbetween different users of the forest. One specialuse of specific areas of our national forests iswilderness. By its very definition, a wilderness doesnot permit any non-recreational uses.

To gather facts needed to make decisionsabout forest trees, managers often use the cruisemethod. This is a plan for gathering information ontimber volume and growth, as well as otherimportant facts about the forest. A complete cruiseis a listing of all the facts known about a givenforest. Some cruises are made from measurementsof sample plots or strips through the forest. Someare made from aerial photographs.

The forest manager must think of costs andbenefits. The manager must think economics. Heor she must ask such questions as how much thestand is worth now, as compared with the future, orwhat will be the future dollar vaioe of the increasedtree growth as a result of thinning the trees. A landmanager's job grows more difficult when othervalues must be considered, such as natural beauty,recreation and keeping the forest ecosystem intact.

Kinds of Information Obtained in a Forest CruiseLand

soil qualitytopography

location

Treeskinds

qualityquantity

Communityrecreation

watershed protectionnatural beauty

Economicsmarkets

pricecost

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Timber is a term applied to trees that have acertain size and quality. This wood is used formaking lumber, plywood and beams for buildingand construction. What is left over in the making ofthe lumber is then made into chips for paper andfiberboard. The commercial values of a standingtree may differ greatly. Its value in dollars dependson the species, quality and location of the tree. (Alocal forester can explain to you how thecommercial value of a tree is decided.)

For example, consider the following case. Astand of 24-inch diameter trees 100 feet tall maycontain thousands of board feet. If the stand is soldto a timber buyer while it is standing in the forest,its lumber could be made to build valuable woodproducts. This same stand may be worth muchmore if it forms a shady grove on a street or in acity park. We look on this stand then as valuablenot for timber but for shade and beauty. It is muchmore difficult to put a dollar value on a stand oftrees that is appreciated more for its beauty thanfor its timber.

Things You Can Do1 . Construct a map showing the extent of

North American forests in the years 1600 and 1900as compared with today. Use your encyclopedia forhelp.

2. How would you show the person who overgrazes that the forest ecosystem may be upset?Think of the different natural cycles taking place inthe forest, and how plants and soil rely on eachother. Draw an example of this interdependenceand label the different parts.

3. Name the three best trees in your area forstreet or park planting. Give several reasons whyeach is considered best. Visit your city planingcommission to find out what trees they suggest forplanting on city streets and in parks.

4. How can we determine the value of forestrecreation benefits? Is it fair to charge campers,picnickers, horse riders, hikers, vehicle drivers,fishermen, hunters, wilderness seekers and othersfor their recreational use of forests?

Meeting 9Forest Management Practices

Once a forest manager gathers the facts andsets his priorities, the manager must decide whichpractices will best meet the community's goals. Toproduce a steady supply of wood products, wildlife,water and recreational sites, foresters must usevarious practices to manage forest resources, suchas:

a. Insect and disease controlb. Fire control and prescribed burningc. Harvesting practicesd. Thinning and pruninge. Reforestation

We already know the effects that insects,disease and fire can have on forests, and a littleabout how they can be prevented or controlled.Below you will read about ways forest managersharvest and regenerate the forest. Foresters canuse certain harvesting practices that not onlyprovide timber, but which meet other goals as well.For instance, planned tree cuttings and othermanagement practices can improve food supplyand cover for wildlife. Often wildlife can beencouraged without giving up other goals.

In some cases sacrifices must be made.Management is needed to help the endangeredred-cockaded woodpecker. This bird needs oldliving pines with decaying heartwood. This is whereit builds its nests. To provide trees for nesting, theforester must keep some older trees which will notbe sold. This is a sacrifice. Besides loss of money,this practice can result in tree snags which may bestruck by lightning or blown over. In this case, theforest manager must decide which value is moreimportant, and then choose one or the other.

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ClearcuttingClearcutting is a harvest system that removes

all the trees in a stand at the same time. The sizeof the stand may vary greatly. A few clearcuts areas little five acres. Large clearcuts of 40 to 200acres are called patchcuts. In order to make surethat the area continues to produce desirable trees,foresters usually re-plant or reseed soon aftercutting.

People disagree over the use of clearcutting insome forest areas, especially where a largeacreage is involved. Clearcutting allows higherwood production of intolerant species. It also a Ilows those trees that need much sunlight (such asthe Douglas fir) to grow more quickly withoutcompetition from other tree species. These kinds oftrees are important to some forms of wildlife. Butlarge patch cuts without proper care bringincreased danger of soil erosion. The great changein tree species during harvest and re-planting cangreatly change the habitat for various forms ofwildlife. The ecosystem is much simpler, and theforest is more likely to be harmed by disease orinsects.

Selective CuttingIn this type of harvesting, individual trees or

groups of trees are harvested from time to time ona regular basis over a longer period of time. Timberharvesters make a number of light cuttings as thetrees mature. In selective cutting the forest keepstrees of different ages. This is cal led an all-agedforest. An all-aged forest supports more varieties ofwildlife and can better resist natural attacks ofdisease and insects.

Most softwood varieties of trees, such as pine,fir and redwood, do not regenerate as well underthis system. They are naturally replaced by climaxspecies that are more tolerant to shade. Anotherproblem is that wind and ice storms can damagethe open stands that are left behind after cutting. Ingeneral, timber production is less under this systemthan under clearcutting.

Both clearcutting and selective cutting are goodforms of harvesting in certain areas. The forestmanager must decide when to use which system ofharvesting.

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Seedtree andShelterwood Regeneration

Seedtree regeneration is one of the oldestways to start new crops on a harvested area. It canonly be used with those tree species thatregenerate by releasing lightweight seeds to thewind. When loggers harvest they leave behindenough of the best trees in each acre so that theforest can reseed itself. This is an inexpensive wayto produce a new stand of trees, with littledisruption of the ecosystem. But seedtreeregeneration is not always efficient. The forestmanager has no control over how the seed isspread or how many trees of what species will growas a result. There could be up to a seven-year waitfor enough seedfall to begin a new crop.

Shelterwood regeneration is like seedtreeregeneration, but allows more trees to stand toreseed the area and to protect the new seedlings.It still takes a long time to reforest an area with thismethod, because two or more cuttings are needed.

Planting and SeedingTree seedlings may be planted by machine or

by hand. The advantage of this method is that themost desirable species will be present and willhave proper spacing to allow the best growthconditions. Forests areas can also be seeded,either by hand, machine or aircraft.

Seeding is used often in areas that are toorough to machine-plant. This is a good methodwhen large areas need to be reforested quickly,such as after large forest fires. Geneticallyimproved seeds that are resistant to harmfulinsects and diseases may be used to give bettergrowth. Seeding costs more than direct planting,but the results are often worth the extra expense.But with this method the number of trees growingin the same area cannot be controlled as easily.

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ThinningForest managers can increase growth in young

timber stands by thinning. They remove the poorquality and slow-growing trees and allow the mostdesirable trees more space for their crowns androots to grow. This improves the quality of thestand and reduces crowding. The remaining treesbecome stronger, produce more usable wood fiberand are less likely to be damaged by insects ordiseases.

Things You Can DoSelect one or more forest management

practices, such as clearcutting or thinning, and findout as much as you can about it. If possible, visitone or more areas that have received thistreatment and make your own observations. Reportyour findings to your 4-H group. Be sure to includedisadvantages as welI as advantages. TelI underwhat conditions the practice should be used andunder which conditions it should not.

2. Management objectives. Select a forest areaor a park and interview the manager of the area tofind outa. what objectives and practices are followed andb. if people disagree on proper managementpractices.

You may wish to mail a questionnaire to themanager if you cannot arrange an interview inperson. When you have gathered the information,prepare a report on the results.

3. Make a model section of the forest out ofsticks or twigs. Label them with the names ofdifferent trees. Make a plan for multiple use of theforest, including recreation, watershed protectionand timber harvesting.

4. Make an exhibit on the history of advancesin logging technology, or on the various stagesinvolved in making lumber in a modern sawmill.

B-5 The Dollar Valueof ForestsMeeting 10Forests Employ People

Not every member of the 4-H Forestry Programwill be able to manage a whole forest in the future.However, there are millions of people in the UnitedStates who have forestrelated work. Besides thosethat manage and protect our forest, there are manyothers who either harvest or sell forest crops orwho manufacture wood products. Thousands ofcommunities are directly dependent on our foreststo provide jobs for their citizens. They rely uponforest industries and forest recreation to earn aliving.

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Find out if your community has any of thebusinesses or other locations listed below. Thenadd to the list other places that you may knowabout. Consider touring at least one of thesebusinesses either as an individual or as a group.

Cabinet shop Logging operationCity watershed Lumber yard Certified tree farm Paper plant Office of Public Forestry Agency Pole treating plantChristmas tree farm Plywood plant Fence posts plant PulpmillFiberboard plant Sawmill Forest nursery Shingle or shake plantFurniture factory Veneer plant Greenery plant Wood building supply storeHouse under construction Wood novelties factory Laminated wood products plant Wooden toys factory

Things You Can Do1. Identify five people in your community who

make a living from the care, management and/ orharvest of trees. What are their titles and what kindof work does each do?

2. Visit one or more forest-based places of workwith your parent or club leader. Write in yournotebook what you learned about product values,salary, jobs and why trees are important to thosepeople and to the community.

3. Using an almanac or encyclopedia, selectfive countries and make a list of each country'sproducts. Indicate which of these products comefrom trees and forests. How many did you find?Next, prepare an exhibit that compares ourcountry's wood products with those of anothercountry. Display your exhibit in a public place.

4. If you are interested in carpentry, build alumber framework house display to show how thehome building industry depends upon trees. Obtainsome scrap lumber from a nearby lumber yard touse as the wood.

Meeting 11Earning Money from the Forest

If you live near a forest area, you can have funand earn extra money by working with and sellingforest products. Remember to ask the propertyowner or manager before you take any productsout of the forest. Meanwhile, consider these waysof making money for yourself or for your group:

1. Cones or Seeds During good seed-producing years, forest cones or tree seeds areoften in demand. Nurseries need seeds forproduction of tree seedlings.

2. Floral Greenery Commercial florists willoften pay you to harvest floral greenery in certainparts of the forest. Greenery may be sold withChristmas trees.

3. Christmas Trees If you have good qualitytrees and a good display area you can sell them atChristmas time.

4. Decorative Wreaths Decorative wreathsmade from evergreen trees are often used duringthe Christmas holidays. Small corsages fashionedfrom cones, wood and artificial red berriessometimes can be sold all year-round.

5. Firewood People with stoves and fireplaceswill buy forest thinnings or logs from dying trees.The biggest demand is during cold weather, sostockpile the dry wood in pleasant weather for falland winter.

6. Kindling Bundles Sawmill or trimmingsprovide bundles of kindling for people who havefire places in their homes.

7. Birdhouses You can use sawmill trimmingsor slabs to make bird houses.

8. Moss Sometimes florists buy moss for floraldisplays. People sometimes pack things with moss,too.

9. Shrubs And Ferns Homeowners valuedifferent species for landscape plantings. Takeplants only with the landowner's permission andonly from abundant areas. Always leave an amplesupply of plants for continued growth. Note that theU.S. Fish and Wildlife Services has placed 800plants in the continental United States on the en-dangered species list. Individual states sometimeshave their own list of endangered species. If indoubt whether or not a plant is on the list, checkwith a local botanist or forester for guidance.

10. Seedlings Raised From Collected SeedsSeedlings are always needed by personsreforesting the land and by homeowners wantingtree seedlings.

11. Wild Berries Huckleberries, blackberriesand others can be sold during the season.

12. Medicinal Products The drug trade seeksto purchase a number of forest products, includingcertain barks, seeds, roots and herbs. Cascarabark is an example. In the Northwest, it is bestharvested in May and June when the bark is"slipping". Herbs and many medicinal plants comefrom forests. Check with a local forester aboutother possible products in your area that may havea market value.

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13. Forest Novelties or Souvenirs Woodenknick-knacks, cypress "knees", table centerpieces,decorative yule logs, pine owls, candle holders andother novelties may be made from materials thatcan be gathered in many forested areas. If they arefinished with a good level of handicraft skill, suchitems will enjoy a high market demand at a fairprice.

14. Maple Syrup Many people extract sap tomake maple syrup, especially in the northeasternUnited States and Great Lakes states. The sugarmaple species is the best producer of sap.

Things You Can Do1. Try to list all the things you have touched or

used today that came from trees.2. Listed below are products that are used in

the United States. Which kinds of trees in yourforest could be used for one or more of thesepurposes? The products area. brown paper bagsb. construction plywoodc. fence postsd. industrial charcoale. railroad tiesf. siding on homesWould you be in favor of growing trees in yourforest for these purposes? Why or why not?

3. Consider planting a tree on the next "4-HTree Farm Day" in cooperation with a local gardenclub or community organization, or with your localpark board. Also, help "Clean up America" bypicking up litter and improving a recreation area orpark.

4. Organize a "Big Tree Contest" in yourcommunity. Do you have a big tree around whereyou live? Persons may nominate trees for theAmerican Forestry Association's National Registerof Big Trees by sending the tree's measurementsalong with the name of the owner, date the treewas measured and a photograph of the specimento:

National Register of Big TreesAmerican Forestry Association1319 18th Street N.W.Washington D.C. 20036

Trees may also be nominated for state lists of "BigTree Champions".

5. Hold a "Forestry Fair" where you can holdvarious forestry competitions or a poster contest.Display your exhibits and crafts items, and sellsome of your forest items!

ConclusionCongratulations upon completing Program B!

By this time you should be well into the 4-HForestry Program. You now know some importantthings about trees not only as individual species,but also as part of a forest ecosystem. You learnedwhy forests are valuable, what forests do, and whatthings affect where and how well forests grow. Youfound out that forests grow old just like other livingthings, and that we have many different types offorest land in our country.

You can now speak with some authority onimportant things to consider in managing a forest,and how you can actually earn money for yourselfor your club with forest products.

That's a lot of activity for one manual! Butthere's more to come. During the course of Unit Byou may have become involved with an activity thatparticularly interests you. No matter what yourinterest is, chances are that one of the subunits ofUnit C will be covering it. Here are the eightseparate subject areas planned for Unit C.! Tree Farming! Water, Wildlife and Forage

Management! Careers in Forestry! Timber Harvesting! Forest Recreation! Urban Forests and the Environment! The Dollar Value of Forestry! Great Plains Forestry

24

GlossaryForest scientists and managers must learn new

terms. When you use new words in talking aboutthe forest, you are actually learning a newlanguage. Below are some terms listed for quickreference. Don't try to memorize these words ortheir meanings. Lookateach word and its meaning.Look at the word again when you want to use it.

CARNIVORES - flesh-eating animalsCLIMATE - all air and weather, such as

temperature, moisture, wind and evaporationCLIMAX FOREST - the final stage of a tree and

plan/community which has stabilized itspopulation; this stays the same as long as theclimate and soil remain unchanged by nature orpeople

CRUISE - information about timber volume, growthand other factors used to make decisions aboutthe forest

CYCLE - a period of time in which regularlyrecurring events are completed

DOMINANT - a tree species that grows better andtaller than any other in the forest; dominanttrees rise above the canopy level and grow infull sunlight

DECOMPOSERS - very small bacteria, fungi andmicro-organisms that live in the soil and helpbreak down dead plants and animals

ELEVATION - height above sea level;temperatures at higher elevations are generallycolder than temperatures at lower elevations

EVAPORATION - water vapor passing back intothe atmosphere

FOOD CHAIN - the energy cycle where onespecies feeds on another, fixing or releasingenergy in the process

GRAZING FOOD CHAIN - the process of oneorganism feeding upon another organism

HERBIVORES - animals that feed only on plantsHORMONE - a substance that is formed in a living

cell and that influences the activity of othercells

INTOLERANT - said of trees that need full sunlightto grow well and which cannot live in full shade

LARVA - the feeding form of an immature insectwhich upon hatching from its egg finallyemerges into adult form

LATITUDE - a measure of distance north andsouth of the Equator

LICHEN - any of a number of plants made up ofalgae and fungus growing together on a solidsurface, such as a rock

MICRO-ORGANISMS - microscopic (very small)animals that often live in the soil asdecomposers

MULTIPLE USE - the practice of land managementthat serves two or more forest values

OMNIVORE - an animal that feeds on both plantsand animals

PIONEER SPECIES - the first trees to grow onbare soil

POROUS - said of a substance that allows water orother liquids to flow through it

PRESCRIBED BURNING - the managementpractice of setting controlled fires in selectedforests in order to reduce fire hazard, prepareseedbeds, control hardwood growth and fightdisease

PREDATOR - a species that feeds on anotherspecies

REGENERATION - the beginning of a new tree'slife cycle

RUNOFF - the portion of water from rain, snow andfog that flows over land and eventually reachesstreams

SAWTIMBER - those trees large enough to sawinto boards (usually pine over 10 inches indiameter and hardwoods over 12 inches indiameter)

SILVICULTURE - the study of developing andcaring for forests

SOIL - a natural body developed from weatheredminerals and decaying organic matter coveringthe earth in a thin layer; a natural medium onthe surface of the earth in which plants maygrow

SPECIES - a grouping of similar plants or animalsSTAND - a group of trees in the same areaSUBCLIMAX SPECIES - a species in a temporary

stage in nature's movement toward climaxSUCCESSION - the progressive growth from

pioneer plants to a climax forestTEMPERATE ZONE - either of two climatic zones

(the north or south temperate zone) betweenthe tropics and the polar circles

TOPOGRAPHY - the shape or form of the landsurface, such as flat lands, hills and mountains

WATERSHED - a funnel-like area bounded on theoutside by water parting and draining to aparticular body of water