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4. Coastal and Marine resourCes and loCal livelihoods

SoCIal ISSueS.. About. 1. million. coastal.residents.and. their. families—about.5.percent.of.the. nation’s. labor. force—earn. a. living. directly.from. fisheries. (Barut. et. al.. 2004).. Of. the. total.number. of. individuals. who. rely. on. fish. for.their. livelihood,. 69. percent. are. municipal.fisherfolk,.25.percent.are.engaged.in.aquaculture,.and. the. remaining. 6. percent. are. involved. in.commercial.fisheries.(Box.4.1)..

In. many. coastal. communities,. the. majority. of.households. depend. directly. on. fish. and. other.coastal.resources.for.their. livelihood..Several.of.the. important. fishing. bays. often. have. mor..than.70.fisherfolk.per.kilometer.of.coastline..Such.areas.include.Manila.Bay,.Carigara.Bay,.and.San.Miguel.Bay..

Municipal. fisherfolk. are. among. the. poorest. in.Philippine. society,. with. an. annual. average.household.income.of.PhP.70,000.($1,400),.which.is.about.half.the.national.average.of.PhP.144,000.($2,820)..Other.studies.report.even. lower. levels.of. income. among. fisherfolk.. In. Palawan,. for.example,.fisherfolk.households.have.an.average.net. income. of. no. more. than. PhP. 2,000. ($40).per.month,.or.PhP.24,000.($480).per.year.(Rivera-Guieb.and.Jarabejo.2001)..

Among. fishing. families,. household. sizes. are.generally.larger.than.the.national.average.and.a.greater. proportion. of. their. income. is. spent.on. food.. The. level. of. education. of. fisherfolk.household. heads. is. lower. than. average.. In.terms. of. access. to. basic. services,. fisherfolk.households.have.lower.rates.of.access.

Within. the. coastal. zone,. near-shore. fisheries.are. the. most. heavily. exploited.. An. increasing.number. of. small. fisher. families. compete. with.each.other,.as.well.as.with.commercial.fishermen.(Box. 4.2). for. fishery. resources. that. have.experienced. serious. declines. in. productivity. in.the.last.10.to.15.years..

The. average. annual. catch. of. a. municipal.fisherperson.today.has.probably.decreased.to.less.than. 30. percent. of. 1991. levels.. It. is. thus. not.surprising. that. coastal. communities. are. among.the.most. impoverished.in.the.country,.with.the.poor.fisherfolk,. in.most.cases,.suffering.the.dire.effects.of.deteriorating.fishery.yields.

Poverty. among. fisherfolk. is. exacerbated. by.high. losses. and. spoilage. due. to. improper.handling. of. fish. catch,. possibly. affecting. as.much.as.25.to.30.percent.of.total.catch..There.is.an. even. higher. level. of. discards,. possibly. 40.percent. of. all. marine. landings,. due. to. the. lack.of. a. post-harvest. infrastructure. in. many. areas.of. the. country.. Inadequate. cold. storage. and.poor. roads. contribute. to. inefficient. marketing.

Box 4.1 Employment and Food Security.

A multitude of stakeholders depend on fisheries, including municipal and commercial fisherpeople, canneries, fish markets, and various industries. In terms of employment, the sector annually generates an average of PhP 4,000 ($80) per household per month, or over PhP 62 billion ($1.24 billion) worth of employment per year. As a source of food, fish is indispensable; other natural animal or vegetable protein sources are poor substitutes in terms of nutrition and cost. Fish provides protein, essential fatty acids, and vitamins A, B-1, B-2, B-12, and D. It is also a source of minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and iron, as well as trace elements and micronutrients like iodine and zinc.

In the Philippines, fish remains a major component of the diet, accounting for over 50 percent of the total animal protein consumed in the country. At present, an average of 28.5 kilograms of fish per person per year is consumed in the Philippines. But with the population increasing and marine capture fisheries remaining steady, the future does not look good for the food security of the country, particularly for low-income families.

Sources: Green et al. (2003); Kurien (2002); and ADB (2001).

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Box 4.2 Conflicts Among Fisherfolk.

Commercial (35 percent) and municipal (29 percent) fish production on average account for an almost equal share of production in terms of volume. This is, however, a far cry from the production figures of the 1950s, when 70 percent of the country’s fish supplies came from municipal fisherfolk.

Furthermore, of the seven top species caught by both sectors, 67 percent are harvested by commercial fishing companies, while only 33 percent are caught by municipal fisherfolk. Although these are two distinct sectors, they are in fact competing directly with each other. With weak law enforcement, a further expansion of commercial fisheries could mean the decline of municipal fisheries.

Despite evidence of overcapacity in the commercial fishing fleet, the country is still encouraging investments in the industry, as shown by the increase in total tonnage of the commercial fishing fleet over the years. The fleet’s total tonnage increased from 150,260 tons in 1988 to 270,281 tons in 2000—almost a 70 percent increase.

Within the commercial fishing sector itself, there are questionable policies in place. The delineation of municipal waters that extend up to 15 kilometers from the shoreline has actually worked against a substantial number of small-scale commercial fishing concerns, who make up the majority of commercial fishing boats. Many of these are not capable of operating beyond 15 km.

Furthermore, the most common commercial fishing gear (trawl, ring net, and purse-seine) are unsuitable for water depths found beyond 15 km.

All this, coupled with weak law enforcement, has resulted in rampant encroachment of commercial fishing concerns into municipal fishing grounds, causing municipal fisherfolk to be further marginalized.

Source: Authors.

and.a. reduction. in. the.value.of. . fish..Estimates.have.shown.that.saving.post-harvest.losses.may.even.wipe.out. the. fish.supply.deficiency.of. the.country,.allowing.self-sufficiency.to.be.attained.(Mendoza.2004)..

Understanding. and. taking. into. account. food.security. and. poverty. alleviation. for. fisherfolk.households.is.crucial.to.the.success.of.any.coastal.resources.and.fisheries.management.program.

Because. of. the. link. between. resource.management. and. poverty,. coastal. management.strategies. could. benefit. from. addressing.poverty. issues. through. a. dual. objective:.(1). enabling. the. recovery. of. the. local. resource.base,.and.(2).promoting.economic.development.activities.that.will.either.compensate.for.a.reduced.level. of. extraction. of. a. particular. resource. or.produce. parallel. incomes. through. the. rational.utilization.of.other.resources..

Gender and coastal resources management..Traditionally,. women. and. men. fulfill. different.roles. in. the.management.of.marine.and.coastal.resources.. Women,. for. example,. with. the.exception of coastal communities in Davao.where. they. join. their. husbands. on. fishing.expeditions. (Siason. 2004)—tend. to. have.little.direct.involvement.in.fish.capture.

Small fish traps in Dumaguete. These traps are often used in sea-grass beds to catch rabbit fish.Photo: Alan White.

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Instead,. they. assist. with. maintaining. gear,.process.and.sell. the.catch.after. the.men.return,.and,. often. together. with. their. children,. catch.small. fish. and. fry. in. shallow. waters. or. collect.edible. shellfish. for. household. consumption. or.sale.at.local.markets.

Box 4.3 Indigenous Peoples.

Indigenous groups or ethnic minorities account for more than 20 percent of the population. Many of these groups live in coastal lowlands where they practice agriculture, fish and shellfish gathering, and trade in locally manufactured items.

The indigenous communities have strong attachments to their land and resources; most see themselves as the caretakers of their resources. To varying degrees, these communities have indigenous natural resources management regimes in place within their territory.

To protect the rights and customary claims of indigenous peoples, the concept of “ancestral waters” has now been included in national legislation. The term refers to all marine areas exclusively and actually possessed, occupied, or utilized by indigenous cultural communities by themselves or through their ancestors in accordance with their customs and traditions since time immemorial, and as may be defined and delineated by law.

The Tagbanwa People on Coron Island, Palawan achieved their Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title (CADT) in 1998. Their ancestral domain was the first to include both terrestrial and marine components, and covers a total area of 22,284 hectares.

Under the IPRA Law (RA 7942), no ancestral land or waters can be opened for mining operations without the prior consent of the indigenous cultural community concerned. In the event of an agreement with an indigenous cultural community, the royalty payment for the utilization of minerals must be agreed upon by the parties and form part of a trust fund for the socioeconomic well-being of the indigenous cultural community.

Source: Authors.

Despite their lack of involvement in the directcatch. of. fish,. studies. of. coastal. communities.show.that.women.are.important.stakeholders.in.coastal. resources. management.. Women. are.naturally. responsible. in. the. values. formation.and. transformation. of. the. family,. and. thus. can.be. effective. in. education. and. advocacy. and.influence. decisions.. In. addition,. many. of. the.LGU. officials. in. the. MAO,. MEnRO,. and. LGU.extension. offices. are. women,. who. play. very.critical. roles. in. CRM. implementation.. Many.CRM. champion. Mayors. or. local. legislators. are.also.women.

Future. support. for. local. l ivelihood.improvement. and. CRM. could. benefit. from.incorporating.gender.concerns.into.the.planning.and. design. of. activities;. currently,. few. projects.include. a. gender. dimension.. Training. for.entrepreneurship. would. be. a. priority,. as.women. already. are. involved. in. small-scale.trading.activities.

In. addition. to. taking. gender. into. account,. it. is.also. important. to. involve. the. local. youth,. an.example.of.which.is.described.in.Box.4.4..Box.4.5.provides. examples. of. successful. community-based.ecotourism..

Aeta family collecting shellfish during the rainy season on a coast in Northern Luzon (See box 4.3). Photo: Finn Danielsen.

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opportunities and lessons learned: Improving local livelihoods.. A. number. of. programs. in.recent. years. have. sought. to. improve. the.livelihoods. of. fishing. families. in. coastal.communities.. Some. of. the. main. lessons. from.these.livelihood.programs.are:

•. The. design. of. livelihood. improvement.activities. needs. to. be. based. on. a. strong participatory process. with. a. thorough.understanding. of. the. many. social. and.economic. factors. at. play.. Participation. of.women. and. community. youth. in. the.process.is.vital.for.long-term.sustainability.

•. Livelihood. improvement. activities. need.to.involve.a.community organization..Capacity.building. and. organizational. strengthening.are.also.important.elements.

•. Good quality technical assistance . is.fundamental. to. the. identification. and.creation. of. economically. viable. enterprises.at. a. micro. level.. The. technical. assistance.should. be. attuned. to. and. familiar. with. the.capabilities.of.the.recipients.

•. A. credit element. is. important,. as. productive.enterprises. in. agriculture,. fisheries,. and.aquaculture. normally. entail. relatively. high.start-up. costs.. Poor. fisherfolk. organizations.often. lack. the. collateral. needed. to. receive.credit,.so.different.options.should.be.assessed,.including. savings-and-credit,. revolving.funds,.and.village.banks.

•. It. is. important. to. have. a. coherent land use plan and coastal waters zoning.. In. recent.years,. mariculture. enterprises. have. become.

Box 4.4 Involving Young People in Coastal Resource Management.

The Port Barton Marine Park, set up in 1997 and 1998 with help of the local community, is now regarded as a model for marine conservation in Palawan. Each year, tourists from all over the world, drawn by the area’s natural attractions, visit Port Barton. Apart from the white sand beach on the main cove of the village, there are coral reefs and unpolluted beaches in the outlying islands, two waterfalls, and a forest that remains heavily wooded despite years of intensive logging.

Through the marine park initiative, the local community is increasingly involved in protecting its marine resources, and the local youth organization also pitches in. “We organize coastal cleanup activities and help in waste management,” says Marvin Ballesteros, chairman of Port Barton’s youth council.

The mayor is banking on the young people of his town. “We must show and teach them the importance of our environment, and that they are responsible for its protection.”

Barangay Captain Romeo Garganta Sr., (see image), says he wants the Port Barton Marine Park to succeed. “We know it will be good for the community,” he says.

Port Barton is also the site of an LGU-led Barangay Environmental Sanitation project, which is supported by theWorld Bank. The project seeks to preserve the water quality of the beaches from domestic sewage and other household wastes.

Source: Over Seas, The Online Magazine for Sustainable Seas, January 2000, Vol.3, No. 1.

Barangay Captain Romeo Garganta Sr., shown with youth leader Marvin Ballesteros (right) and Boatmen’s Association chairman Wilfredo Ruiz. Source: Authors.

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one. of. the. most. viable. and. attractive.income-generating. activities. in. coastal.municipalities.. Experiences. in. Lingayen.Gulf,. Taal. Lake,. and. Bolinao,. however,.point. to. the. fact. that. mariculture. viability.runs.the.risk.of.being.threatened.irreversibly.by. unmanaged. growth. of. investments..Defining the extent of mariculture areas.and.putting.management.control.mechanisms.in. place. to. check. overcrowding. and.environmentally. unsustainable. operations.should.be.part.of.the.underlying.framework.for.mariculture.micro-enterprise.development.

•. Proactive.efforts.are.needed. to.demonstrate.the. link between income-generating options and conservation.. The. sustainability. of.popular. participation. in. natural. resource.management. initiatives. is. largely. influenced.by. the. economic. benefits. derived. from. the.

efforts. to. protect. and. conserve. forest. and.coastal. habitats. and. resources.. Community.stewardship. of. mangroves. and. coral. reef.areas,. river. estuaries,. and. artificial. reef.complexes. can. thus. be. associated. with.livelihood. opportunities. such. as. agro-.orestry,. fruit. processing,. mud. crab. culture,.seaweed. farming,. milkfish. culture. in.cages,.and.ecotourism..The.economic.viability.of. such.projects.will.depend.on. the.healthy.condition.of.habitats.that.serve.as.infrastructure.for.these.economic.activities..

•. A. need. for. public sector investments in support facilities.such.as.seedling..propagation.and. certification. facilities,. fish. nurseries,.brood.stock,.and.feed.development.

In. terms. of. the. economic. improvement. of.coastal. communities,. it. is. important. to. move.beyond. the. development. of. traditional. small-.

Box 4.5 Successful Community-Based Coastal Tourism Experiences.

Olango IslandOlango Island Wildlife Sanctuary, situated 5.5 kilometers east of Mactan Island near Cebu, is a protected wetland of international importance because of its high number of migratory bird species. With the assistance of the Coastal Resource Management Project (CRMP) of DENR, Olango Island Bird and Seascape Tour was developed in 1997 as a community-based tourism project that provides alternative livelihoods for island residents.

Tubbataha ReefOne of the best destinations for scuba diving in the country, the famous Tubbataha Reef National Marine Park, is a World Heritage Site. Attracting international markets, Tubbataha generated around PhP 3 million ($60,000) in fees and permits in 2005 during its three-month dive season. Alongside protection efforts, affected communities are provided with seed funding for local livelihoods and training on coastal resource management.

Donsol Whale Shark EncountersWhale sharks are the largest fish in the world and grow up to 20m long. Congregating in the coastal

waters of Donsol in Sorsogon, whale sharks are threatened because of the strong demand for their meat and fins. Ecotourism activities in Donsol have created an awareness of whale shark conservation among the local community and contributed to a national conservation strategy. (See also Box 2.3.)

Bais Dolphin and Whale Watching ToursThe Bais dolphin and whale watching tours organized by Bais City LGU in the Tañon Strait have successfully brought revenue to local communities. In 2000, the operation handled a total of nearly 7,000 tourists, including 251 foreigners. Gross revenue in 2000 was PhP 1.8 million ($36,000).

El Nido ResortsLarge-scale resort developments that adhere to principles of ecotourism can be an effective and sustainable means of providing continuous benefits to the community. The El Nido Foundation helps local communities develop a variety of business and development opportunities.

Source: Over Seas, The Online Magazine for Sustainable Seas, January 2000, Vol.3, No. 1.

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scale. “alternative. livelihoods”. and. attempt. to.expand. proven. livelihood. projects. into. micro-enterprises. that. are. capable. of. bringing. the.profit.margins.and.employment.potential.up.to.higher.economic.levels.

One. approach. is. the. development. of.entrepreneurial.businesses.with.better. technical.systems. that. aim. for. more. stable. and. bigger.returns.. noteworthy. examples. of. such. an.enterprise.process.are.Mountain.Fresh. jams.and.jellies. of. the. Ikalahans;. the. Olango. Seascape.Tour. (see. Box. 4.5);. sardine. production. in. San.vicente,. Palawan;. the. milkfish. cage. culture.industry. in. the. shallow. areas. of. the. open. sea;.and.seaweed.farming..

The. key. success. factors. behind. such. micro-enterprises. were. the. availability. of. a. lucrative.and.firm.market.and.the.assistance.of.experienced.and. competent. institutions. and. project.implementers.brokering.with.the.private.sector..From. these. tie-ins,. post-harvest. and. product.distribution. networks. emanated,. stepping.production. up. to. a. higher. gear. and. more.competitive.market.standards.

The. objectives. of. any. potential. livelihood/microenterprise. program. could. be. along. the.following.lines:

•. To. provide. opportunities. for. more. stable.incomes. and. a. wider. range. of. benefits.among.members.of.the.recipient.organization.and. other. members. of. the. community.who. will. eventually. benefit. from. the.expansion.of.the.enterprise;

•. To. intensify. popular. participation. in.natural. resource. management. by. showing.that. significant. economic. benefits. can. be.derived. when. resources. and. habitats. are.conserved.and.protected;

•. To. develop. a. broad. support. base. for.upland. and. coastal. zoning. systems. and.the.management.of.protected.areas.

From. a. microenterprise. development.perspective,. we. need. to. look. at. the. following.essential. ingredients. when. preparing. and.implementing.coastal.microenterprise.projects:

1. Economic viability and potential for business expansion•. Product.marketability.and.demand•. Project. site. suitability.and.access. to.cash.

economy•. Production.costs.and.profit.margin•. Potential.for.expanding.production•. Income.stability•. Potential. for. tie-ins. with. other. funding.

windows.and.private.business

2. Credit assessment•. Capacity.to.manage.business•. Organization’s. collective. will. and.

confidence•. Overall.track.record

3. Impact and correlation with wise coastal management practices•. Presence.of.successful.coastal.management.

initiatives.such.as.Marine.Protected.Areas.and.mangrove.reforestation.projects

•. Firmness. of. institutional. commitment.to.Coastal.Resources.Management.

4. Counterpart funding from other institutions•. Microenterprise. acceptability. to. other.

funding.institutions.to.be.tapped.•. “Buy-in”. by. other. institutional. services/.

donors

5. The People’s Organization as micro-enterprise development cooperator and recipient•. Organizations. of. fisherfolk. that. are.

actively. and. consistently. participating.in. coastal. resources. management. and.protection. could. be. the. focus. of.livelihood.development.assistance

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Box 4.6 Seaweed Farming in Port Barton, Palawan.

One seaweed farmer, Florencia Alimodin, has shown a tenacity that promises well for the future of Port Barton. A single mother with two school-age children, Alimodin set up her farm with help from the Coastal Resource Management Project in 1998. She toiled under the sun for months, only to see a strong typhoon wipe out all her efforts. Undeterred, she started over. “The others in my group lost interest, but the thought of giving up never occurred to me, even when I had to use my own money to start up a new farm,” she says. Today, her seaweed farm serves as a model for the rest of her community.

Wilfredo Ruiz, chairman of the boatmen’s association, had their group accredited last year so they could obtain government financing for seaweed farming. He explains, “The tourist season and therefore our boat operations last only four months each year (November-February). Seaweed farming will allow us to earn income during the off-season. We are also told it will not harm the marine environment, which is important to us who depend on tourism, because it is our marine ecological destinations that the tourists come to Port Barton for.”

Sources: Over Seas, The Online Magazine for Sustainable Seas, January 2000, Vol.3, No. 1; Authors.

6. Business Plan

•. The. management. of. microenterprise.development.could.be.based.on.a.business.plan. developed. from. proactive. and.thorough. planning. sessions. with. the.community.

Box. 4.6. provides. an. example. of. a. successful.small-scale. enterprise. established. by. a. woman,.and. Table. 4.1. provides. some. potential.microenterprise. options. that. could. help.improve.livelihoods.in.poor.coastal.communities..Several. of. these. options. are. well-suited. to.women.and.young.people.

Seaweed farming near Olango Island, Cebu provides a steady income to island residents.Photo: Alan White.

Seaweed farming offers an economically promising alternative source of income that is also environmentally sound.

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Table 4.1 Micro-enterprise Options for Livelihood Improvements in Poor Coastal Communities.Livelihood Option Advantages Disadvantages Requirements

Community-based ecotourism

• Local control spreads the wealth from tourism

• Communities become active participants instead of tourism objects

• Tourists bring garbage• Tourists may not be culturally

sensitive or may have a negative cultural impact

• Needs strong link-up with travel and transport groups, DOT, LGU

• Site: natural attraction (reef, forest, wildlife); good transportation and accommodation facilities; clean, modern sanitary facilities; clean drinking water

Non-marine based crafts/ souvenirs (wooden shells, T-shirts, mats, carving, artwork, food, etc.)

• Can be long lasting• Lucrative and rewarding to

pride of workmanship• Can raise awareness of

marine conservation/ advocacy for conservation, protection, sustainable development

• Needs training, skills, and dedication

• Needs market• Can overexploit certain

resources (e.g., wood)

• Skills for making a craft • Good ideas• Capital to buy materials• Training• Tourist or local market

available • Quality Control

Fish cage culture • Income may be expected within 6 months

• Capital investment may be low

• Technology may be simple and ecologically sound

• Potential for live market

• Grazing by fish may be high• Market may demand high

quality• Some buyers only take large

lots• Fluctuating price of some

species

• Appropriate conditions (protected cove) in site selection

• Brackish water for some species

• Tenure/access rights to area• Availability of feeds• Knowledge and skills in

managing projectSeaweed culture • Short growth cycle

• Seed for next cycle can be gathered from harvest

• Enhances local fish resources

• Boat anchoring• Recreational activities• Increasing runoff• Sewage and, wastewater

discharge

• Good water flow• Brackish to full seawater• No history of disease in site

Mud crab fattening • High market price• Short cycle

• Collecting stock may deplete supply

• Difficult to find stable sources of crablets

• Availability of feed

• Brackish water site • Muddy bottom or cages• Stable supply of crablets

Fermented fish processing

• Increases shelf life• Makes use of local materials• Value-added product• Good for home consumption

• Seasonal • Quality control• Processing plant or kitchen• Storage facility• Skilled labor• Hygienic environment

Drying/salting of fish

• Reduces perishability• Good fish processing

alternative during peak season of fish catch

• Also good for home consumption

• May promote an unsustainable fishery

• Knowledge/skills in drying/salting

• Constant supply of fish

Source: Authors.

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