4 октября 1957 года Начало космической эры what was and still is the...

4 октября 1957 годаНачало космической эры

SPACE:THE FIRST STEPMOSCOW2007

IntrOduCtIOn

Ray BRadBuRythe fIrSt lIght Of IMMOrtalIty…

Boris CheRtokthe fIrSt artIfICIal SatellIte Of the earth

Georgy GReChkothe fIrSt SputnIk: InSertIOn tO OrbIt

Wesley t. huntRess, JR.a date that WIll lIve In faMe

Georgy uspenskythe SputnIk: tWO dayS befOre the launCh

Viktor FaVoRskythe begInnIng Of SpaCe era: eventS, reSultS, and prOSpeCtS

IGoR BazhInoVthe early WOrkS On the Study Of praCtICal prObleMS In the develOpMent Of ballIStIC rOCketS and the artIfICIal earth SatellIteS

Vladimir GuBaReVthe vOICe Of ‘pS’, Or What haS the hOrn Sung at the OCtOber daWn In 1957?

alexander alexandRoVS.p. kOrOlev — SpaCe rOCket and the fIrSt SatellIte Of the earth

timur eneeVM.v. keldySh —ChIef theOretICIan Of the natIOnal COSMOnautICS

yuri RyzhoVMy refleCtIOnSOn the SputnIk-1 launCh

Roger-Maurice BonnetWhat dId SputnIk-1 dO uS and tO Me

alla MaseVIChfIrSt SputnIk, early yearS Of ObServIng artIfICIal earth SatellIteS, early reSult

Jacques BlaMontfrOM SputnIk–1 tO Where?

yuri BatuRInfIrSt SputnIk: frOM rIvalry tO hIStOrIC gaIn

Vladlen VeResChetInfOr the benefIt and In the IntereStS Of all MankInd

Buzz aldRInthOughtS On the annIverSary Of SputnIk

Janusz Bronisław ZielińskiMy perSOnal COnSequenCeS Of the SputnIk-1

Gurbax s. lakhInahOW Sputnikc hanged My vIeW Of lIfe

Marcio BaRBosathe launChIng Of SputnIk-1 and ItS IMpaCt In develOpIng COuntrIeS

Jose Francisco Valdes GalICIaOCtOber 4, fIfty yearS after

Marcos e. MaChadofrOM SputnIk-1 tO COnStellatIOnSOf SatellIteSв

atsuhiro nIshIdalegaCy Of the SputnIk-1: a vIeW by a JapaneSe SCIentISt

Risto Juhani pellInenSputnIk ShOWS the neW Way

Grigory CheRnyaVskyretrOSpeCtIve lOOk at the launCh Of the fIrSt artIfICIal earth SatellIte

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TheBasicspuTnik

aROunDTheWORLDin1,5hOuR

©SPACERESEARCHINSTITUTEOFRUSSIANACADEMYOFSCIENCES

©Baburova A.,Burova V.,Litvinova O.,Muravyov M.,Ivanova T.,Englishtranslation

©ООО‘Регион-Инвест’,2007©DavydovV.,design,2007©ZakharovA.,KomarovaN.,computerprocessing,2007

УДК 629.78:92(092)ББК В70гISBN978-5-902533-03-0

SCIENCEEDITORA.V.Zakharov

EDITORV.S.Kornilenko

Collectionofessaysdevotedtothe50thAnniversaryofFirstArtificialEarthSatellite—Sputniklaunch.Prominentscientists,engineers,expertsinspaceexploration,writersandpublicfiguresreflectuponthesignificanceofSputnikandit’sconsequencesindifferentareasofsociety.

Articlesandillustrationsareprovidedbyauthorsunlessotherwisestated.

Reliabilityoftheinformationinthearticlesareprovidedbyauthors.

EditorialBoardmaynotbeconcordantwithauthors’opinion.

EditorialBoardwouldliketoexpressourspecialgratitudetoRussianStatearchiveofscientificandtechnicaldocumentation(РГАНТД),Statehistorypubliclibrary,BonestellSpaceArts,TheHerbBlockFoundationandalsotoEuropeanSpaceAgency(www.esa.int)andUSNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(www.nasa.gov)forusedillustrations.

ILLUSTRATIONS

©BonestellSpaceArt(P.28,157)

©РГАНТД,ф.211,оп.7,д.551.LaunchofR-7rocketlauncherwithAES-1(p.29)

©ESA/NASA/JPL/UniversityofArizona.FirstcolourviewofTitan’ssurface(p.31)

©NASA.OneofthefirststepstakenontheMoon,animageofBuzzAldrin’sbootprintfromtheApollo11mission(p.32)

©TheHerbBlockFoundation(p.106)

©FinnishMeteorologicalInstitute(p.158,160,162,165)

©HelsinkiUniversityofTechnologyRadioLaboratory(p.162)

©NASA.Mars’ssurfaceviewtakenbySpiritrover(p.163)

©RohandeSilva.PortraitofSirArthurClarke(p.273)

©A.Zaitsev.PortraitofS.Eisenhower(p.290)

©РГАНТД.К.244,ч.1,п.13(p.9)©РГАНТД.Ф.211,оп.7,д.561(p.10)©РГАНТД.Ф.204,оп.1,д.47(p.10)©РГАНТД.Ф.211,оп.7,д.616(p.97)©РГАНТД.0-16776(p.97)©РГАНТД.Ф.24,оп.1,д.59,л.11(p.98)©РГАНТД.1-19657(p.98)©РГАНТД.К.244,ч.1,п.8(p.177)©РГАНТД.Ф.24,оп.1,д.59,л.12(p.178)©РГАНТД.Ф.24,оп.1,д.59,л.13(p.178)©РГАНТД.Ф.107,оп.4,д.1(p.178)©РГАНТД.Ф.211,оп.7,д.548(p.178)©РГАНТД.1-11079(p.271)©РГАНТД.1-24946(p.272)

spacein-siTu

eVenThORiZOnT

emmanuel t. saRRIsSputnIk: OpenIng the Stage fOr SpaCe In-SItu

Roald saGdeeVdISCOvery Of a neW WOrld

lev zeleny‘fIztekh’ – IkI – further On, tO the Outer SpaCe

Mikhail panasyukradIatIOn refleCtIOnS

stamatios M. kRIMIGIsyearS Of reMark able aChIeveMentS

anatoly CheRepasChukSternberg aStrOnOMICal InStItute and the begInnIng Of SpaCe explOratIOn era

s. Fred sInGeRthe pre-SputnIk yearS and early SputnIk dISCOverIeS

yuri loGaCheVthe begInnIng Of SpaCe era at the SkObeltSyn InStItute Of nuClear phySICS

William Ian axFoRdthe begInnIng

Bengt hultqVIstCOnSequenCeS Of SputnIk

Vladimir kuRtthe fIrSt StepS Of Our SpaCe aStrOnOMy

yan zIManhOW the OptICO-phySICal departMent OverCaMe COnSequenCeS Of ‘pereStrOIka’

oleg VaIsBeRGSputnIk and SOMethIng elSe

Mikhail MaRoVthe dISCOvered SpaCe

arthur C. ClaRkefIfty yearS Of the SpaCe age: the beSt IS yet tO COMe!

nikolay anFIMoVSyMbOl Of the SpaCe eratake-Off pOInt

Mikhail VInoGRadoV50th annIverSary Of the artIfICIal earth SatellIte

susan eIsenhoWeRрInternatIOnal reSOurCe avaIlable tO all natIOnS

tobias C. oWenthe WOrld SInCe SputnIk

leonid GoRshkoVSputnIk-1 extendedthe WOrld bOundarIeS

William Vernon JonesfrOM the SpaCe raCe tO the vISIOn fOr SpaCe explOratIOn

karoly szeGoSpaCe, 21St Century: ChOICe Of prIOrItIeS

Gerhard haeRendelfIfty yearS after SputnIk —a vIeW Of a plaSMa phySICISt

eric GalIMoVthe MOSt IMpOrtant InduStrIal Challenge Of the 21St Century

louis FRIedManrefleCtIOnS On the 50th annIverSary Of SputnIk

Gordon G. shepheRdrefleCtIOnS On the 50 yearS Of SpaCe era

yaroslav yatskIVfIrSt StepS Of the InternatIOnal COllabOratIOn In the peaCeful reSearCh and explOratIOn Of SpaCe (1957–1987)

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InTRoduCTIon

RightaftercompletingthefirstrevolutionoftheFirstartificialsatelliteTASSnewsagencyannounced‘...The first sputnik was suc-cessfully launched in the ussRon October 4, 1957. By preliminary data, the rocket vehicle has provided sputnik with necessary orbital speed, about 8000 metres per second. Now sputnik gyrates on elliptic trajecto-ries round the earth, and its flight can be observed at dawn and sunset by means of elementary optical instruments (field-glasses, telescopes, etc.)…’ Itseemedthattheentireworldobservedsmallbrightpoint,floating inthenight skyfifty years ago, listened to simple signals ‘beep-beep’, knowing that thosesoundsweresentbyanewcelestialbody.Itwasextremelyamazingthatthisceles-tialbodywasartificial,thatiscreatedbyhandsofhumans.Then,inthebeginningofOctober,1957billionsofpeoplesuddenlyfeltthemselvesapartofmankind,citizensoftheplanetEarthstandingonthethresholdofvast,butalreadybecomingaccessibleUniverse.

not everybody understood then the implica-tionsofthisevent,butthefeelingthatsomethingenormouswashappening,aneventofreally‘cosmic’scale,stayedwiththealmostallthepeopleonearth.Activityofthemankindalwaysstrivingtonewdiscoveries,conqueringnewfrontiersdeveloped‘newdegree of freedom’, ‘newdimension’.This event enabled to create anew science—spaceresearchandtopavethewaytounthinkableopportunities,i.e.tolookbehinddensecurtainofterrestrialatmosphereandtorevealbasicknowledgeabouttheUni-verse,tosendrobotstothebodiesoftheSolarsystem,totakeawalkonthesurfaceoftheMoonandtobuildfeasibleplansofmannedflightstoneighborplanet inthenearestdecades.UndoubtedlyandatthesametimesurprisinglyenoughthelaunchofSputnikintheframeofInternationalGeophysicalYear1957–1958acquiredgreatmeaningnotonlyfora limitedcommunityofscientists,butalso,withoutexaggera-tion,forallmankind.Thatwastheeventwhichgaverisetonewbranchesofindustryandusageofspacepracticallyinallthefieldsofhumanactivity.SurprisingaspectoftheSputnikstorywasthatspaceraceoftheGreatPowerswasapeaceful,‘cold’battle,givingconfidencetothenations,involvedinthisconfrontation,thatthethirdworldwarwas impossible.It tookhalfacenturyafter thefirstSputnik—an instant fromthehistoricalpointofview—fordozensofcountries tobecomemembersof ‘spaceclub’,andspaceexplorationtobecomeday-to-dayroutine.

SowhatwasandstillisthefirstSputnikforallEarthlingsandforeachhumaninparticular?Hastheestimationoftheeventchangedhalfacenturylater?Thesespeculationsservedthebasisoftheconceptofthebookinfrontofyou.Authorsofthearticlesare50outstandingscientists,engineers,cosmo-nauts,writers,publicfigures fromdifferent countrieswhose lifeandworkare con-nectedwith space. These articles arememoirs, impressions, reflections on the roleofthefirstSputnik,theplaceofspaceresearchinthemodernworld,thewayeventaffected theirpersonaldestinyand thedestinyofmankind.Wedidnotconfine theauthorstospecificformorstyle,sothearticlesarediverse,behindeachofthemistheauthorandhis/herestimationofthisoutstandingevent.

The Space Research Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences has initiated thepreparationofthisbook,andweareverygratefultotheauthorsfortheircontribu-tiontothiscollection.Wehopeitgivesmultidimensionalrepresentationofhowtheworldandournotionsofitchangedthroughoutfirst50yearsofaspaceera.

DirectorSpaceResearchInstitute ChiefScientistSpaceResearchInstitute SpaceResearchInstitute

LevZeleny AlexanderZakharov

TheBasicspuTnik

Separationofthelaststageandtheheadoftherocket

fromAES-1.1957(modeling)

TheBasicspuTnik

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Ray BRadBuRyUSARay Bradbury (Raimond Douglas Bradbury) is a world-renownedauthorofscience-fictionshortstories,novels,screenplays,playsandalsopoetry.Hehaspublishedmorethan600shortstoriesoverape-riodofsixtyyears.

Hewasborn1920,livesinLos-Angeles.

HisbestknownworksareTheMartianChronicles,TheIllustratedMan,SomethingWickedThisWayComes,andinits50thanniver-saryyear,Fahrenheit451.

A new novel, Farewell Summer,which is the sequel toDandelionWine,waspublishedinOctober2006.2007willseethereleaseofadoubleofferingfromBradbury,SomewhereaBand isPlayingandLeviathan’99.

In 2001 The National Book Award was given to Bradbury for hiscontributiontoAmericanliteratureandin2004hewasawardedtheNationalMedalofArtsbyPresidentBushandtheNationalEndow-mentfortheArts.

IwasoutinPalmDesert,California,atafriendshousethefirstnightthatSputnikflewoverinthesky.Ilookedupandthoughtthatthe future of mankind was ensured. That little light that swiftly passed from onedirectiontotheotherintheskywasthefutureofmankindbecausetheRussiansmayverywellhavebeenleadingtheway,butIknewthatwesoonwouldfollowandthatwe’dbeensuredaplace in theair and thenon theMoonandfinallyonMars.Theimmortality ofmankindwas ensured by that light in the sky.We couldn’t stay onEarthbecausesomeday theEarthmightdie fromcoldor toomuchheat.Mankindwasdestinedtobecomeimmortalandthatlightintheskyabovemewasthefirstlightofimmortality.

Iblessed theRussians for their endeavorand I looked forward toPresidentEisen-howerformingNASAshortlythereafter.

THE FIRST lIgHT oF ImmoRTAlITy…

S.P.Korolev,I.V.Kurchatov,M.V.Keldysh,V.M.Mishin.Moscow,1959

ParticipantsofdevelopmentoffirstintercontinentalmissileandAES-1.NotionsbyG.Yu.Maximov

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TheBasicspuTnik TheBasicspuTnik

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Boris CheRtokRUSSIARocketandspacetechnologyengineer.Researchfellowinthedevel-opmentofthefirstintercontinentalballisticmissileR-7andfirstin-terplanetarystations.AcademicianofRussianAcademyofSciencesand International Academy of Astronautics. Teaching experienceover50years.

Bornin1912inLodz,Poland.GraduatedfromMoscowEnergyInsti-tutein1940.In1974–1992wastheDeputyChiefDesignerspecializedinoperationsystems, in theNPOEnergia.Scienceadvisor toChiefDesignerintheS.P.KorolevRocketandSpaceCorporationEnergiasince1993.

HeroofSocialistLabour.WasawardedOrderofLenintwice(1956,1961),OrderofOctoberRevolution,OrderofRedStar,OrderofRedBannerofLabour,NationalOrder(IVlevel)andPetrovgoldmedaloftheRussianAcademyofSciences.

THE FIRST ARTIFICIAl SATEllITE oF THE EARTHThefirstAESwaslaunchedintheSovietUnion

onOctober4,1957at10:28:34p.m.Moscowtime.

Forthefirsttimeinthehistoryofmankind,hundredsofmillionsofpeoplewereabletoobserveanartificialstar,createdbyhuman’sratherthangods’hands,translatingalongthedarkdomeoftheskyintheraysoftherisingorsettingsun.

TheworldcommunitytreatedtheappearanceofthefirstintheworldAES-Sputnicasagreatestscientificachievement.Thiswasindeedagreatestengineeringachievementfromtheviewpointofitshistoricalsignificance.

* * *The history of creating the First Sputnic is the

historyofa rocket.Therocketengineering in theSovietUnionwasofaGermanorigin.

InviewoftheVersaillesTreatybanimposedondevelopmentofnewtypesofartilleryarmamentandconstructionofcombatplanes,theGermanmilitarypaidattentiontotheprospectsoflong-rangemissiles,sincenobanwasenvisagedonthemwithintheVersaillesTreaty.

Particularlyactiveworkwas initiated inGermanyafter1933whenHitlercameintopower.Asmallteamofmissileenthusiasts, ledbyayounggiftedengineerWernhervon Braun, gained support from the army. Soon its activity became a high prioritystateprogramofarmament.

In1936,constructionofa full-scalescientific,productionandtestingmissilecenterPenemündewasundertakeninGermany.Sixyearsafter,in1943,thefirstsuccessfullaunchofacombatballisticlong-rangemissileA4wasperformed,laterpopularizedasV-2(Vergeltungswaffe).Itwasthefirstunmannedautomaticallycontrolledballis-ticlong-rangemissile.Themaximumshootingrangeamountedto270…300km.Theinitialmissilemasswasupto13500kg.Themassofthewarheadwas1075kg.Themassofthe‘raw’missilestructureamountedto4030kg.Liquidoxygen—anoxidizerandethylalcohol—afuelwereusedaspropellantcomponents.Thethrustofthepro-pulsionsystemneartheEarthwas27000kg.

Acannonbarrelwasusedasanactivesectionofflight.Astand-alonecontrolsystem,usingbroadsideradiocorrection,ensuredastableflightinthissection.

Thedevelopment of technology for batchproduction of powerful liquid-fuel rocketenginesandflightcontrolsystemwereamongthemainachievementsofGermanspe-cialists.IdeasofKonstantinTsiolkovsky,GermanObert,RobertGoddardandothertalentedindividualistsweretransformedintoreal-lifeengineeringsystemsbyteamsofpowerfulworldrenownedcompaniesofSiemens,Telefunken,Lorenzandothers.Thebest universities carried research executing the tasks fromPenemünde. In thePenemündeitself,hundredsofspecialistscombinedthesedevelopmentsandcreatedaunifiedmissile system.By learning from theGerman expertise inGermany itselffor a year and a half, we made sure that a missile is neither a shell nor a cannon,butalargeandcomplicatedsystem,requiringtheuseoftheup-to-dateachievementsinthefieldofaerogasodynamics,radioelectronics,thermalengineering,materialsci-enceandhighproductionstandards.

OnMay13,1946,J.V.StalinsignedaDecreetoestablishrocketscienceandindustryintheSovietUnion.FollowingthisDecree,SergeyPavlovichKorolevwasappointedtobetheChiefDesigneroflong-rangeballisticmissilesinAugust,1946.

Back in 1946, none of us anticipated that by collaboratingwithKorolev,wewouldbecomeparticipantsofthelaunchofthefirstintheworldAESand,soonthereafter,ofthatofthefirstman.

Thepowerfulsupportrenderedbythestatetotherocketindustry,headedbyremark-ablescientists,beingenthusiastsandorganizers,usingmobilizationeconomymeth-ods,wasaprerequisiteconditionbutstillnotasufficientoneforthefirstsatellitetoappear.Alreadyduringthecoldwar time,a tendency toarmmissileswithanucle-ar—atomicbombratherthanwithaconventionalexplosiveturnedouttobeadriv-ingforcefordevelopmentofamissilecapableoflaunchingasatelliteintospace.

IntheSovietUnion,the‘coldwar’broughtaboutanintensiveaccelerationofcreationofanewweapon,i.e.long-rangeballisticmissiles.

AfterthesurrenderofGermany,IwasamongtheorganizersofrestorationoftheGer-manmissileengineeringreconstructionsontheterritoryofGermanyitself.Alreadyatthattime,wemadesurethattherewasnoneedfordiscoveringanynewphysicallawstocreatepowerfullong-rangemissilesflyingintheouterspace.In1947,byflighttestsofmissilesV-2,assembled inGermany, theworkonactual implementationofmissileengineeringwasbegunintheUSSR.

Missiles R-1, a replica of the German V-2, butmanufactured using solely Russianmaterials,weretestedonthefirstcentralmissilerangeinKapustinYarin1948.

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In 1948, the government publisheddecrees about the development andflight testsof themissileR-2 fora rangeof600kmand thedesignofamissile fora rangeof3000kmwiththewarheadmassof3tons.

In 1949,a seriesof experimentalhigh-altitude launchesofmissilesR-1wasunder-takentoexploretheouterspace.

ThemissilesR-2for therangeofflightof600kmbegantoflyalready in1950andwere added to arsenal in 1951. ThemissilesR-1 andR-2were those using theV-2engineeringtoagreatextent.ThemissileR-5fortherangeof1200kmmarkedthebeginningofbreakingawayfromtheGermanheritage.Itsflighttestsbeganin1953.

Joint research, undertaken together with atomic scientists, on the use of the R-5missileasanatomicbombcarrierwas initiated in 1953.Following thegovernmentdecree, Chief Designer Korolev together with Chief Designer Khariton studied theoptionof installinganatomicbombon themedium-rangemissileR-5M.The ‘coldwar’wasstarted.TheSovietUnionwassurroundedbymilitarybasesof theUSAirForce,fromwhichplanescarryingatomicbombswerecapableofhittingchiefpoliti-calandeconomiccentersofthecountry.OurplanescarryingatomicbombswerenotabletoreachtheUSAterritory.ThatwasanundisputableadvantageenjoyedbytheAmericans.Theresponsibilityfordevelopinganintercontinentalmissilecarrierwasimposedonmissilespecialists.

On February 13, 1953, the Chief Designers’ Council initiated the first governmentdecree,whichmadeitobligatorytoundertakethedevelopmentofatwo-stageinter-continentalmissilefortherangeof7…8thousandkilometers.Itwasanticipatedthatthemissilewouldcarryanatomicbombof the samedimensionsas thatdevelopedforthesingle-stagemissileR-5Mwiththerangeof1200km.Butnuclearengineeringactivelyinterferedintothemissileengineering.

OnAugust12,1953,thefirstthermonuclearbombtestswerecarriedout.Judgingbytop-secrethintsmadebyatomicscientists,togetherwithwhomwearrangedthewar-headpart of themissileR-5M for the atomicbomb,we,missile specialists, under-stoodthatthemassandoveralldimensionsofthethermonuclearbombweresolargethat itwouldbeunrealistic todevelopamissilecarrier forahydrogenbombinthenearestyears.

Theactivitiesoncombiningtheautomaticsystemofanatomicbombwithamissile,developmentofmultiplesafetysystemsofinterlocks,upgradeoftheR-5Mmissiletosubstantiallyincreaseitsreliabilitywereveryinteresting.Thedevelopmentofatwo-stagemissilefortherangeofupto8000kmwasthemoresofascinating.Ascalculat-edbythedesigners,itslaunchingmassreached180tons.Thisrequiredtheuseofapropulsionsystemwiththethrustonthegroundofnolessthan250tons.Thefiguresthemselveswerestriking.Finally,wewouldgetridoftheGermanbirthmarks.

InNovember,1953,Korolevconvenedatop-secretmeetingforhisclosestdeputies.Hesaid:‘IwasunexpectedlyvisitedbytheMinisteroftheMediumEngineeringIndustry,alsobeingtheDeputyoftheChairmanoftheCouncilofMinisters,VyacheslavAlexandrovichMalyshev.Heflatlysuggestedthatwe‘forgetaboutanatomicbombfortheintercontinentalmissile’.Hesaidthatthedesignersofthehydrogenbombpromisedhimtoreduceitsmasssothatitwoulddropdownto3,5tonsforthemissileoption.Therefore,wemustdeveloptheintercontinentalmis-sileproceedingfromthe‘payload’of3.5tons,whileretainingtherangeof8000km’.

OurChiefProjectDeveloper,SergeyKryukov,saidthat‘wemustbegineverythinganew’.

Asmallprojectteamwascreated,commissionedbyKorolevtopreliminarilydeveloptheparametersofanewmissiletobediscussedattheChiefDesigners’Council.

InJanuary1954,ahistoricalconferenceofChiefDesignersKorolev,Barmin,Glush-ko,Kuznetsov,Pilyugin,Ryazanskytookplacewiththeparticipationofchiefdeputiesandchiefdevelopersofradiosystemsofmonitoringandcontrol,Konoplev,Borisen-koandBogomolov.Themaindecisionofthatmeetingwasarejectionoftheuseofatraditionallaunchpad.Youngdesignersproposedtocreateasystemofgroundequip-mentwithmissilesuspensiononspecialrejectiongirders.Thisallowedthelowerpartof themissilenot tobe loadedand, thus, itsmass tobedecreased.Thesolutionofsettingupamissileoffiveunitswithunifiedpropulsionsystemswasunconventional.Thecentralunitplayedthepartofthesecondstage.Buttheenginesofalltheunitswereactivatedonthegroundsimultaneously.Themassofthewarheadwithahydro-gen bomb was preliminarily estimated at 5500kg. To ensure a preset accuracy ofcontrolinrange,itwasrequiredtostrictlyregulatetheengineaftereffectmomentum.However,ChiefDesignerGlushkoproved that the control specialists’ requirementswereunrealistic.Forthefirsttime,itwasproposedtodowithoutthegas-jetgraphitesteeringwheels,whichweretraditionalsincethetimesofV-2,andtodevelopspecialmissilecontrolthrusters.Thesamethrusterswereintendedto‘holdout’themissilesecondstagetotherequiredparametersinspeedandcoordinatesduringthelastsec-ondsofitsflight.Todecreasethepropellantmass,itwasproposedtodevelopasys-temregulatingthedischargeoftanks,measurementandcontrolofapparentvelocity.

Lateritwasdecidedtodevelopanewandmoreinformativesystemoftelemetrymea-surements.

AGovernmentDecree about thedesignof a two-stage intercontinentalmissileR-7wasissuedonMay20,1954.Andonlyaweeklater,onMay27,Korolevsentamemo-randumtoUstinov,theDefenseIndustryMinister,whichhadbeenpreparedbyTik-honravovaboutthedevelopmentofanAESanditspossiblelaunchbythemissileR-7beingdesigned.

Itshouldbenotedthat,exceptKorolevhimself,neitherchiefdesignersoftheChiefDesigners’CouncilnorKorolev’sdeputies treatedhis enthusiasmabout the ideaoflaunchingtheAESasaseriousthing.

A preliminary design of a missile having a new unusual layout was developed andapprovedbytheCouncilofMinistersoftheUSSRonNovember20,1954.Therocketdesign,approvedbytheExpertCommission,isnowwell-knowntoalltherocketspe-cialiststhroughouttheworld.Itconsistsoffoursimilarsiderocketunits,whicharefastenedto thecentralunit.As faras their internal layout isconcerned, thecentralandthesideunitsaresimilartothesingle-stagemissileswiththeoxidizertankfrontlocation. Fuel tanks of all the units are bearing. The engines of all the units beginoperating from the ground. When the stages get separated, the side engines shutdown,whilethecentralonecontinuestooperate.Aunifiedfour-chamberliquid-fuelrocketengine,withthethrustregulatedwithinthelimitsof80-90tons,wasinstalledoneachunit.Thecontrolequipmentwaslocatedintheinter-tanksectionofthecen-tralunit.Thecontrolsystemincludedastabilizerautomaticunit,regulatorsofnor-malandlateralstabilization,apparentvelocityregulationsystem,andaradiosystemforrangecontrolandcorrectioninthelateraldirection.Theheadpartoftherocketsentered the atmosphere at a speedof 7800m/s.The total lengthof the separatingwarheadamountedto7.3m,withthemassof5500kg.

ThereweremanynewproblemstobesolvedASAP.Themainproblemwere:

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• Tochoosealocationforanewtestpad,tobuildauniquelaunchingstructureandtocommissionalltherequiredservices.

• To build and to commission a test benches for firing tests of the units and thepackageasawhole.

• Tocreatetestbenchesfortheoperationsystemverification,simulatingthedynam-icsofmotionwithalargenumberofdegreesoffreedom,takingintoaccountthestructureresilienceandliquidfillingagent.

• Tofindandverifynewthermalinsulationmaterialstoprotecttheheadpartinteg-rityasitenterstheatmosphere.

• Todevelopanewtelemetrysystem:accordingtopreliminarydata,itwasrequiredtocontrolupto700parametersatthefirststageofflighttests.

• Tocreateanewsystemofradiocontrolandflighttrajectorycontrol.

• Tobuildacommandandmeasuringcomplex,comprisingmeasuringstations,fol-lowingarocketandreceivingtelemetrydataalongthewholeoftherouteuptothePacificOcean.

In1955,designersgeneratingthedesignandproductiondocumentationformanufac-turingoftheR-7missilewerejokingthattheirdrawingboardsweresmokingbecauseof their round-the-clockwork.Computer technologywasnon-existent at that time.‘Pipinghot’drawingswentdirectlytotheworkshopsofthepilotplant.

Butin1955Korolevwasveryenthusiasticaboutinstallationandflighttestsofamis-sileonasubmarine.Inthefallof1955,KorolevandImadeanunforgettablecruiseonthefirstsubmarine,equippedwithballisticmissiles.Weparticipatedinapilotlaunchofamissilefromadiesel-enginesubmarine.

A Government Decree on the design of a non-oriented AES, secretly encoded asan ‘Object ‘D’,waspreparedduringJanuary, 1956and signedonJanuary30.ThisDecreeenvisagedthedesignofanon-orientedAES(the‘Object‘D’)in1957–1958anditslaunchbytheR-7missile,theAESmassamountingto1000…1400kgwiththesci-encepayloadmassof200…300kg.

TheUSSRAcademyofScienceswasresponsibleforprovidingoverallscientificleader-ship and hardware for scientific exploration of the outer space, while the DesignBureauOKB-1of theMinistryofDefense Industrywas todesign thesatellite itself,andtheMinistryofDefensewastocarryoutthepilotlaunches.

WhenthisDecreewassigned,Korolevandhismaindeputies,includingmyself,wereat the Kapustin Yar range. Together with atomic specialists we were preparing themissileR-5Mwitharealnuclearchargefortesting.

Thefirst in theworld launch of amissile equippedwith an atomic bombwasper-formedonFebruary2,1956.Atomicexplosiontookplaceinanuninhibitedsteppeatadistanceof1200kmfromthelaunchpad.

SoonthemissileR-5Mwiththeatomicwarheadwasaddedtothearsenal.

ThedraftdesignofthefirstAESwascompletedbyJuly,1956.Alistofscientifictaskswasspecified,includingmeasurementsofspaceioncontent,corpuscularradiationofthe Sun,magnetic fields, space rays, thermalmode of the satellite, its decelerationin the upper layers of the atmosphere, duration of its orbit life, accuracy of deter-

miningthecoordinatesandparametersoftheorbit,etc.Commandradiolinkequip-ment,usedtocontrolinstrumentationfromtheground,wasinstalledonthesatellite,aswell asanonboardsystemof commandprocessing for connecting the scientificequipmentanddownlinkingthemeasurementresultsviathetelemetrychannel.

Asystemofmeansensuringreceiptofinformationdownlinkedfromthesatellitewascreatedontheground.Provisionwasmadeforbuilding15specialscientificmeasure-mentgroundstationsontheterritoryoftheUSSR.

Bytheendof1956,itbecameclearthattheschedulefordesigningthesatellitewillberuinedbecauseofdifficultiesencounteredinmanufacturingreliablescientificequip-mentforthesatellite.Nevertheless,the‘Object‘D’projectwasapprovedbyaspecialcommitteeoftheCouncilofMinisters.

IncompliancewiththeGovernmentDecree,datedFebruary12,1955,constructionofscientific-researchandtestrangeNo.5wasundertakeninasemi-desert,intheregionoftheTyura-Tamstation(since1961,thisplaceiscalledtheBaikonurcosmodrome).

Itwasbuiltbythemilitary.GeneralShubnikovwastheChiefBuilder.AftertheSec-ondWorldWar he headed the construction of the well-knownmonument for theTreptow-ParkMemorialinBerlin.

ThemanufacturingofthefirstengineeringcomplexoftheR-7missilewascompletedanditstestswereperformedattheLeningradMetalWorksjointlywithareallaunchsystemduring1955–1956.Firingtestsofindividualunitsofthemissilewereunder-takenatthefiringtestbenchesnearthetownofZagorsk(Moscowregione).

Simulationandcomplexadjustmentofthecontrolsystemwasperformedatthesci-entificresearchinstituteofChiefDesignerPilyugin.

In 1956, together with the chief designers of autonomous and radio control sys-tems,wecarriedoutpilotlaunchesofmediumrangemissilesM5RDandR-5RattheKapustinYar range to verify the autonomous and radio control systemsof theR-7missileunderrealflightconditions.

TheCouncilofMinistersoftheUSSRapprovedtheprogramofflighttestsoftheR-7missileonJanuary14, 1957.Thefirstengineering ‘pilot’missilewas transported toTyura-TamtothelaunchingpadalreadyinJanuary.

Ispentmanydaysandnightsat the test facilityofourplant.Weperformedstand-aloneandintegratedelectrictestsofthefirstflightmissileR-7.Atfirst,wetesteditunitbyunit,thenassembledinapackageandcarriedoutintegratedtests.

Wefoundmanymistakesinthedocumentationandcomplicatedelectricalschematiccircuitdiagrams.Therewerefivepropulsionsystemsinsteadoftheusualone!Onlysteeringjetsnumbered12.Thatmeant12steeringengines.Therewere20maincom-bustionchambersand12steeringones.Thetotalof32chambers.

Themissilelookedlikeafantasticstructurestandingintheassemblyworkshopoftheplant.KorolevinvitedNikitaKhruschevtovisittheplant.HecameaccompaniedbythechiefmembersofthePolitburo.Theywereamazedbythemissile.Andtheywerenotalone.AndreySakharov,beingthemainideologistofourhydrogenbomb,wroteinhismemoirs:‘Webelievedthatweworkedonalargescalebutwhatwesawtherewasbyanorderofmagnitudegreater.Wewereamazedbygreat,megascopicengi-neering culture, coordinatedworkof hundreds of highly qualifiedpeople and theiralmosthabitualbutverybusiness-likeattitudetothosefantasticthingstheydealtwith…’

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Thefirstmissileandafter it thesecondonewerepreparedtobetransportedtothelaunchingpad.Korolev,havingmadesureoftheruinedmanufacturingscheduleforthefirstAES as a space laboratory, turned to theGovernmentwith anunexpectedproposal.

‘TherearenewsreportstotheeffectthattheUSAintendtolaunchaAESin1958inconnectionwiththeInternationalGeophysicalYear.Wearerunningtheriskofloos-ingpriority.Isuggestthatthesimplestsatellitebelaunchedintospaceinsteadofthecomplicatedlaboratoryofthe‘Object‘D’.

Korolev’sproposalwasacceptedandtheCouncilofMinistersissuedaDecreeaboutmanufacturingandlaunchofthesimplestsatellite‘PS’�onFebruary15.

Korolevdelegatedmeandotherdeputies,VoskresenskyandAbramov,totherangetomeetthefirstmissileandtoprepareforthelaunch.

InFebruary,1957theupgradeof the launchpadwas infullswing.ResidentialareawasbeingbuiltonthebankoftheSyr-DaryaRiver.Theconstructionofthemountingand test facility forpreparationofmissileswasalmostcompleted– itwasanengi-neeringpad.Butthehugeststructure–thelaunchpadNo.1–wasnotfinishedyet.

Aconcreteroadwasbeinglaidfromtherailroadstation,arailroadbranchlinewasunder construction, high-voltage line towers were being installed. Lines of dumptrucksloadedwithliquidconcrete,truckswithbuildingmaterials,coveredcaravanswithsoldiers-buildersweregoingtothebuildersworkingonthelaunchpad.

I recollectedwarroads in thenearest rearof thearmybeforea full-scaleoffensive.Therewasthesameheavy-workbuzzingofhundredsoftrucks,eachhurryingwithitsownload.Heretherewasnorumblingoftanksandcannonsbutthereweresoldiersatthesteering-wheelsandinthebodiesofallthevehicles.

Ourautomobilewasalsodrivenbyasoldier.Iexpectedtoresideforalongtimeunderthose,aswebelieved,next-to-thefrontconditions.WhileI,otherKorolev’sdeputies,hundredsofcivilandmilitaryspecialists,whomovedtothepad,weremounting,test-ingandpreparingthefirstmissileforlaunch,aswellasdozensofcomplicatedgroundsupportsystems,KorolevorganizedthedesignandsubsequentmanufacturingofthefirstsimplestsatelliteatthedesignbureauOKB-1.

ThefirstmissileR-7withtheserialnumberM1-5arrivedtotheengineeringpadtestfacilityatthebeginningofMarch,1957.Thatwasthebeginningoflong-termtestsoftheunits,correctionsoffoundfaults,upgradesofon-boardandgroundsystems,veri-ficationofoperationaldocumentation.InApril,firetestsoftheunitsandthepackageasawholeweresuccessfullycompletedatthetestfacility.

At themeeting of theStateCommission,Korolev reported about theworkdone inpreparationofthemissileandtheparametersofthefirstmissileforflighttests.

Theinitialmassofthefullyfilledmissileamountedto280tons.Themassoftheheadpartwithapayloadsimulatorwas5.5t.Themassofcomponentstobefilled—liquidoxygen,kerosene,hydrogenperoxide,compressednitrogen—253t.Thespeedatthemomentofsecond-stageenginesshutdownwas6385m/sincaseoffull-rangefiring.However,the launchwastobeperformedfortherangeof6314kmtohitthefiringgroundonKamchatka.Oneofthemaintaskswastocheckthemutualdynamicsof

� PS—shortfor‘prosteishysputnik’(‘thesimplestsatellite’).Theword‘prosteishy’inRussianalsohasthemeaning‘protozoa’.

themissileandthelaunchingfacility,tocheckthestabilityofmotion.Theratedpre-setaccuracyof±8kmwasnotguaranteedforthefirstlaunches.

OnMay5,1957,themissilewasrolledouttothelauncher–padNo.1.Takingintoaccountitsnovelty,theworkonpreparationforthelaunchlastedoneweek.Thefill-ingbeganonlyonthe8thday.

The launch datewas set onMay 15. After the end of all the tests at the launcher,Idescendedintoanundergroundsheltertothedepthof8matadistanceof200mfromthelaunchpad.Thelastoperationsandlaunchwerecontrolledfromthemaincontrol panel room, equippedwith two sea periscopes. A separate large roomwasintendedforthemembersoftheStateCommissionandanotherone,forengineers-consultants—an ‘engineeringemergencyteam’.Onemoreroomwasusedtohousethemonitoringequipmenttocontrolthefilling,andlaunchmechanisms.Informationaboutthestatusoftheon-boardsystemswasdisplayedontheindicatorsofthemaincontrolpanelroomandtransmittedtothecommunicationbunkerfromthetrackingstationIP-1,whichreceiveddatafromthreeon-boardtelemetrysystems,installedonthemissile.LeonidVoskresensky,Korolev’sdeputy,andLieutenantColonelEvgenyOstashov,theHeadofthetestdepartmentofthelaunchpad,werelocatednexttothecombatperiscopes.EvgenyOstashovwasgivingthelastlaunchcommands.

Thelaunchtookplaceat7p.m.localtime.Judgingbyvisualobservationsandsubse-quentprocessingofthetelemetrydata,themissileleftthelaunchpadnormally.

‘Itwasastunningsight’,–waslatersaidbythosewhoobservedthelaunch,hidinginthetrenchesatadistanceof1km.Theroarthatreachedthebunkerwasweakenedconsiderably.Thecontrolledflightcontinueduptothe98thsecond.Thenthethrustofthelateral‘D’unitenginedroppedanditseparatedfromthemissilewithoutacom-mand.Themissileloststabilityandatthe103rdsecondacommandwasgeneratedtoshutdownalltheenginesbecauseoflargedeviations.Themissilefellatadistanceof300kmfromthelaunchpad.

Korolevwascongratulatedthatthelaunchingsystemsurvivedandthatthestabilityofflightofthewholepackagewasprovedatthemostcrucialfirstsection.Buthewasthemostupsetpersonoutofalltheparticipantsofthefirstlaunch.

Procession of the telemetry data and investigation of the remaining unit remnantsshowedthattheflightcrashwascausedbyfireinitiatedbyleakinghigh-pressureker-osenelinesofthepropulsionsystem.

ThesecondmissileR-7No.6Lwaspreparedtakingintoaccountlessonslearnt.

Multipleattemptsat launchingweremadeonJune10–11buttheautomatic launchcontrolsystem‘resetthesetup’atthelastseconds.Themissileneverleftthelaunchpad.Thereasonforthatwasfreezingofthemainoxygenvalveonthe‘C’unitandanerrorinsettingthevalveofnitrogenpurge.Thecomponentsweredrained;themis-silewastakenofffromthelaunchpadandreturnedtotheengineeringpad.

ThethirdmissileNo.M1-7hadalreadybeenwaitingforitsturnontheengineeringpadforamonthandthelaunchtookplaceonJuly12,1957.

Themissilewaslaunchednormallybutbegantodeflectaroundthelongitudinalaxis,havingexceededtheallowed7˚.Theautomaticsystemperformedanemergencyshut-downofalltheengines.Thepackagedisintegratedatthe32.9thsecond.Theunitsfellandwereburningoutatadistanceof7kmfromthelaunchpad.

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As shownby analysis, itwas causedby a contact-to-frame fault in anewdevice ofthecontrolsystem,which,asintendedbydynamicalopsspecialists,wastoimprovetherotationstability.Afalsecommandwassenttothecontrolmissileengines,which‘twisted’themissile.

Finally,thefourthlaunchtookplaceonAugust21.ThemissileNo.8Loperatednor-mallythroughoutthetrajectoryactivesection.TheexternalmonitoringdatashowedthattheheadpartreachedthepresetregionofKamchatka,enteredtheatmospherebut no traces of the missile were found on the ground. Thermal loads exceeded allexpectations.Thethermalblanketdidnothelp.

Despiteanotherfailure,thistimewiththestructure,intendedtohousethe5-mega-tonthermonuclearbomb,theTASSnewsagencyoftheUSSRpublishedanawesomestatement.

‘Asuper long-range intercontinentalmulti-stageballisticmissilehasbeen launchedintheSovietUnion.Missilescanbelaunchedtoanyregionoftheglobe’.

The next launch of the R-7 missile No.M1-9 took place on September 7, 1957.Throughout the active part, all the units operated nominally. But the head partburnedagainduringthere-entry.Thistimeafewburntpiecesoftheheadpartstruc-turewerefoundwithagreatdifficulty.

So,byresultsoftheflighttestsoffivemissiles,itwasevidentthatthismissilecanflybuttheheadpartneededradicalupgrade.Byoptimisticestimates,thiswouldrequirenot less than half a year. The disintegration of the head parts allowed the simplestsatellitetobelaunched,sincetherewasnoneedforittoperformre-entry.

KorolevobtainedN.S.Khrushchev’sconsenttousetwomissilesforapilotlaunchofthesimplestsatellite.

On September 17, 1957, SergeyKorolev, an almost unknownCorrespondingMem-beroftheUSSRAcademyofSciences,madeapresentationataceremonialmeetingdevotedto the100thanniversaryofK.E.Tsiolkovsky.Hesaidthatpilot launchesofartificialEarthsatelliteswillbeperformedinthenearestfuture.

Amissile carrier 8K71PS (a vehicleM1-PS) arrived to the launch pad on Septem-ber22.

It was made much lighter as compared with nominal missiles. The mockup headpartwasremovedandreplacedwithanadapter‘fittedtosuitasatellite’.Alltheradiocontrolsystemequipmentwasremovedfromthecentralunit,sincenoaccuracywasneeded.Oneofthetelemetrysystemswasalsotakenoff.Thecentralunitengineshut-downautomaticsystemwassimplified.Ittreatedoneofthecomponentsdifferently.Asaresult,thelaunchingmassofthePSmissilewasmadelighterby7tons,ascom-paredwiththefirstmissiles.

The launchwasperformedonOctober4,10:28:34p.m.Moscowtime.Thesatelliteandthecentralunitoftherocketlauncherreachedtheorbit295,4safterthelaunch.

Itwasjustthethirdsuccessful launchoftheR-7missiledesignedforaninterconti-nentalflightwithathermonuclearbomb.

ForthefirsttimethefirstorbitalvelocitycalculatedbyNewtonwasachieved.ForthefirstAESitamountedto7780m/s.Thesatelliteorbitinclinationamountedto65,1°,the perigee height was 228km, the apogee height— 947km, the orbital period—96,17min.

Afterthefirstenthusiasticreactions,whenthefirst‘beep-beep’signalswerereceivedat the launchpadandafterfinallyprocessing the telemetrydata, it turnedout thatthemissilelaunchwas‘anarrowescape’.

The lateral ‘D’unitenginewasachieving therequiredmodewithadelay.The timewhen the mode is achieved with a delay is very dangerous. The time of going overtothemodeisstrictlycontrolledbytheautomaticsystem.The‘D’unitachievedtherequiredmodelessthanasecondearlierthanthetimewasout.Haditdelayedmore,the setupwouldhave automaticallyperformeda ‘reset’ and the launchwouldhavebeencancelled.

Thetanks’dumpingcontrolsystemfailedatthe16thsecondofflight.Itresultedinanexcessive consumptionof keroseneand the centralunit enginewas shutdownonesecond earlier than the rated value by an emergency signal initiated by rpm of theturbo-driven pump assembly. Had it happened slightly earlier, the orbital velocitymighthavebeenfailedtoachieve.

Butvictorsneedneverexplain!

Thegreateventtookplace!

OnOctober5,theTASSannouncementendedinthefollowing:‘ArtificialEarthsatelliteswillpavethewaytointerplanetaryvoyagesand,apparently,ourcon-temporariesaredestinedtowitnesshowa liberatedandconscientious laborofpeopleof thenewsocialistsocietywillmakethemostdaringdreamsofmankindareality’.

Thefirstsatellitefunctioned92daystillJanuary4,1958andmade1440orbits.Thecentralunit lasted60days. Itwasobservedbyanunaidedeyeasa starof thefirstmagnitude.

ThepoliticalandpublicresponsedisplayedonthenextdayaftertheTASSannounce-mentwasissuedwasunexpectedforus.

Theworldwas literarily astounded! Theworldwas boiling; it looked like the ‘coldwar’would go over into a hot one. The satellite changed the political alignment offorces.TheUSAMinisterofDefensedeclared:‘ItisnolongerpossibletowininthewarwiththeUSSR’.

Having replaced the thermonuclear hydrogenbombwith a small Sputnik,wehaveachievedanenormouspoliticalandpublicvictory.

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Georgy GReChkoRUSSIAFirst-level spacepilot, instructor.Doctorof Science. Spacecraft di-visioncrewmembersince1966.AwardedHeroof theSovietUniontwice(1975,1978).

Madethreespaceflights(1975,1977–1978,1985)toorbitalspacesta-tionsSalyut-4,Salyut-6andSalyut-7.

FullmemberofInternationalAcademyofAstronautics.

Bornin1931.GraduatedfromMilitaryMechanicInstituteinLeningradin1955.EmployedattheNPOEnergiain1966–1986.ChiefResearchScientistinAtmo-sphere Physics Institute, Russian AcademyofSciences,in1986–1997.

AwardedOrderofLenin(3times),Kirty-ChakraMedal(India),Tsi-olkovskyGoldenMedal(1975).

From1979wasDeputyChairmanoftheSovietPeaceCommittee.

THE FIRST SPuTnIk: InSERTIon To oRbITIn1955IstartedtoworkasanengineerinOKB-

1 (DevelopmentDesignOffice-1)headedbySergeyPavlovichKorolevandmerely ayearorayearandahalflaterIwasentrustedtocalculatetheinsertiontrajectoryofthefirstSputnik (Satellite). Itwas requested itparticular, todevelop thepitchandrelativevelocitycontrolprogramsinsuchawaythattherocketwouldreachtheEarthorbitalvelocitywithzeroinclinationwithrespecttolocalhorizon.

BythattimeAmericanshavealreadydone,probably,twoattemptstolaunchthefirstsatellite.Thoughtheyturnedoutinfailures,still,werealizedthatthethirdonewillfollowanytimesoon,andthuswehadtorevup.

Directedbyme,thatprogramwascalculatedbytheteamofcalculators—‘thegirls’asweused to call them.Sure thingwas that ‘thegirls’wereabout thirtyandmoreyearsofage,butthatwascustomarywaytoconverse.Thefirstshiftofcalculatorswasworkingninetofive,then,theyhandedovertothesecondshiftandtheywerecalcu-latingfromsixintheeveningtillmidnight.WhenallofthemweregonehomeIcouldgettomyrest.However,afreshshiftofcalculatorswastocomeagainbynineinthemorning,therefore,nottomakefarcommutingends,Istayedtosleepattheoffice:donnedinmyovercoat,stretchingontheworkingtable.Newmorningwasbringinganewcycle.

Oncean interestingthinghappened inthecourseofourwork.It isverydifficult tosortoutsuchspecificpitchandrelativevelocitycontrolprogramsthatwilldirecttherocketwithzeroinclinationtohorizoninthegivenlocationpoint,sotherocketwasflyingover thehorizon inour calculationeither toplus sideor tominus side, thus

wehadtoproceedbyiterationsorsequentialapproximationsmethod.Themachineswewereusingcouldnotcalculatetrigonometricalfunctions.Andthan,ofasudden,thefactgotrevealedthatwhilewewereusingtrigonometricalfunctionsfromBradistableswithfourdigitsafterdecimal,trajectorycalculationsforinsertionregionspe-cificallyareconsiderablyinfluencedbythefourthdigit.

ThusIhadtoprovidethegirlswithKhrenovtableswheretrigonometricalfunctionsare shown with eight digits after decimal. In the beginning they raised a mutiny,howcome,allour life throughwewerecalculatingwiththeuseofBradis,andnowwe’llhavetoshepherdeightdigitsbackandforth…well,tocutthestoryshort,itwasat the trade-unionmeetingwhere the issueof the tableswasdecided,where itwasexplained to the calculators that all their life they were calculating combat missilestrajectories and therewasno requirement to calculate theangles close to zeroandthustrigonometricalfunctionswerenot‘jumping’sorushing.

Our last calculations we accomplished on the first Big Electronic ComputingMachine�whichhadjustemergedintheSovietUnionandwasinstalledinLebedevInstituteofPhysicsonLeninskyProspect.

Themachinewasmountedinatremendoushall.Itwasatubesandvalvesconstruc-tion,andtoprecludetubesoverheatthewindowsinthehallwerealwaysopen,eveninthewinter,andthefanwasalwayson.Tostayinwinterovercoatswaswhatwasleft to us.When a rookie happened to enter into the hall, his first reactionwas tostretchuptoswitchoffthefan,andaboveitwasaplatehanging,saying:‘Thefanislabor’sfriend,keepitrunningwithnoend’.

Half ofmachine’sworking time, say, all through theday,was allocated to the ato-mists.Almostallthenighttimewasgiventous,the ‘rocketmen’.Whendeepinthenight we terminated our calculations the public transport was not working, and itgoeswithoutsayingthatwehadnocars,thuswehadonlyoneway–tosleepatsamespot.And,man,itwascoldthere,andtokeepourselveswarmwehadtoinventdif-ferenttricks.Evengoingtotheextentofsleepinginthecorridor,wherecarpetswerelaid,sowecouldrollourselvesintothemandlaysowrappedtillmorning.

Thatverymorning,whenourcomputationswerefinishedatlengthandweobtainedthefinalfirstSputnikinsertiontrajectory,gotreallybrandedonmymemory.Itwasmewhotookthetapewithitsrecording,andwentoutoftheInstitute,thenIhadtowaittill‘Gastronom’grocerystoreacrossthestreetwouldgetopened.Itwasaplaceweresausagesweresold,andinPodlipky��,ourplace,therewerenosausagessold.Iboughtthesausagesandputthemtoameshbagalongwiththattape,andtookthecommutertraintoPodlipky.

Imademywaywithoutadventuresandwasluckythistimenotoversleepmystation,as it did happen before pretty often. At the place that tape was immediately with-drawnbyoursecurityguysandwasstamped‘classified’,thoughitwasclearthatdur-ingthetimeIwasridingtoPodlipkyImighthavelostorcopieditthatmanytimesIwanted.Howevertheywouldnotwanttomaketheirwaytotheplacewhereweweredoingourcomputations.Thatwasthearrangementofoursecuritysystem.

Thattrajectorywasincorporatedintocalculation,andonitsbasisthepitchcontrolprogramwas created, guiding the rocket in a transition froma vertical flight to

� BESM,topronounceinRussian.

�� Place,wheretheKorolev’sOKB-1DesignBureauwassituated.

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ahorizontalwithrespecttothelocalhorizon,andintoarelativevelocitycontrolpro-gram.WhenthatjobwasdonewemadeourwaytoBaikonur–afewweekspriortothelaunchwhichwasslatedforOctober6.

The assembled rocketwas already through the course of testing at the launch site,andthetaskawardedtomewastoverifythesettingsforlaunchandtomonitorthepropellantchargetotherocket.Moreover,Ihadtoattendthelaunchprocesstillthemoment of oxygen tank venting complete: if you get the venting valve closed afterfilling,thetankwillgetexplodedbythepressure,thereforeiswasrequiredtoreleaseevaporationandcontinuouslytorefillwithliquidoxygentotheneededleveltilltheverystart.

The Sputnik was also prepared by that time. The story of its creation was quiteinteresting:thetruthisthatourfirstSputnik, thatveryonewhichwassupposedtobe thefirst,weighedone-and-a-half tonesandwasequippedwitha lotof scientifichardware.Buttimewasrunningshortforitsadjustmentandcheck-outbythe6thofOctober,andtherefore itwasdecidedto lay itaside(itwas launchedlater,runningnumber three).And thefirst toget launchedwasPS-1, that isSimplestSputnik-1�.Itcontainedbatterycellsandradiotransmitteronly–asphereslightlyexceeding83kilograms.

Naturally forus,vernalromantics,oncewecametoknowabout it, tostartarguingwithKorolev:How come that insteadof a serious scientificdevicewe are about tolaunchasimpletransmitter?Wouldn’titbebettertobuild-inapressuresensor,say,a temperature sensor or…? Korolev explained that for the time being we couldn’taffordthesethings(bytheway,thoughtheysaythatKorolevwasveryruggedman,hewasverypolitewhenhetalkedtous),becauseshouldwegoforpreparingthesesensors tosetupwith theSputnik,Americans,meanwhile, cando the third launchattempt,andwhatifthatonewillturnoutsuccessfully?

Thelaunchdatewasshiftedforwardforthesamereasons.Atthattime,earlyinOcto-ber, International Astronautical Federation was holding its assembly in Barcelona,and, by the by, Soviet delegation from Academy of Sciences has also participated.Now,inoneofthosebooklets,whichusedtobeissuedregularly,wedoreadthatonthe5thofOctobertheAmericansaretopresenttotheAssemblythereportwhichiscalledSatelliteoverthePlanet.Thatstrokeawarningnotetous:couldthatmessagebepreparedinthewakeofthesatellitelaunchedbytheAmericans?Andusplanningthelaunchonthe6thonly.

Wedashed toKorolev and shown thatmessage tohim.At onceKorolevdidn’t sayanythingandlefttheroom,andonly,manyyearslaterIcametoknowthathegotincontactwithKGB,CommitteeforStateSecurity,andaskediftheyhadanyinforma-tionthattheAmericansareplanningtomakeanotherattempttolaunchtheirsatel-liteonthe5thofOctober.ThereplyfromtheKGB,andIalsocametoknowitmanyyears thereafter, was the following: ‘Negative. We do not possess the informationthattheAmericanswanttolaunchthesatelliteonthatday’.Andthesecondpara‑graphreadingas: ‘Wedonotpossessany informationthattheAmericansarenotplanningtolaunchasatelliteonthatday’.

Korolev’sdirectionwastoshortenallpreparatoryactivities:cancelsomecheck-outswhichmightbenotsocritical,andgetthelaunchdateshiftedtothe4thofOctober.Itwasarisk,certainly,andaseriousriskitwas,buthedaredtotakeit.

� Seep.18.

Andsocamethedayofthelaunch.Myteamwasatthelaunchpadtillhalf-an-hourreadiness check-point verifying all the required parameters, and then, as we singinoursong: ‘Letus,cronies,getaside’,wewentbehindthetheodolitetowerwhichbecameourviewingspotforthelaunch.

The rocket emerged from theflames. Itwasevena littlebit funny towatch it as itlookedsomewhatawkward,withits‘native’originalre-entryvehiclebeingverylongcomparedtothefairingoftheFirstSputnikbeingexactlyashortendcap.

Bytheway,beforethatmomentIhaveseenthewarheadorre-entryvehicleitselfonlyasafigure,shownasasketchytriangle.Andthen,fiftyyearslateronly,hadIseentheauthenticre-entryvehicle,jumbopiecerisingtotheceiling—inMuseuminSarov.

Well, now, ‘semyorka’�went off flying, thenwas a separation, thenwent the com-mands,telemetrymeasurements…andthen,allofasudden—hootsandshouts:‘It isfalling, falling!’Andwesaw it risingover thehorizon in thebeginningand then itmovedontoahorizon.

Thosedays, indeed, therocketswere fallingquiteoften,aswewere justatstageofdevelopmenttestsof‘semyorka’,andthatwhyallheartsstoppedbeating.Butinreal-itytherocketatthatmomentwas‘falling’onlywithrespecttous,thatis,withrespecttothelaunchhorizon.Itoughttobedriventoazeroinclinationhundredskilometersfromthestartingpoint,therefore,wewereboundtoseeitgoingdowninorderto‘lay’tothelocalhorizonlater.SoIsay:‘Well,no,guys,thethingaregoingOK,itisjustflyingadifferenttrajectory…’Howeverthepeoplewithnoexperienceofseeingsatel-liteslaunchgotfrightened.

LaterontheinformationabouttherocketandSputnikwasreceivedfromtelemetry.Ithasshownthattheboosterimpulsewascorrespondingtotheestimationsandthevelocitywasasplanned.Buttobeonsaferside,wehadwaitedtillSputnikhasflownoverheadsothatwecouldreceiveitssignalsandthathappenedinaboutanhour.Westartedtodisbandonlywhenitwasfinallyclearthatitwasonorbit.Itwasdeadinthenightbythelocaltime.

UsingspecialcommunicationassetsKorolevhasreportedaboutthelaunchandthenhecameouttous—thewholeeventwastakingplaceinkindofbarracks,peoplegotcrowdedinthecorridor,—andhesaid:‘Comrades,Idothankyou.Nowyoucangoandhaveadrink’.

Tohaveabetterunderstandingofhowitmayhavesoundedinthosecircumstances,you’ll have to envisionBaikonur in the year of 1957.As amatter of fact, BaikonurCosmodromeas suchwasnot existentat that time.Hugeconstructions like launchpad,assemblyandtestingcomplexandotherswerecollectivelycalled‘polygon’��,anditwaslocatedbythesideoftheTyura-Tamrailwaystation.Therewasasongwithalinesaying:‘Tyura-Tam,Tyura-Tam,hereisafineplaceforonlyadonkey’.

Now it takes them a few hours to prepare a rocket. At that time it took them twoweeks to assembly from themoment theywould get a delivery in separate blocks,andmonths—would it take till the launch event itself.Andall through that lapseoftime‘prohibitionlaw’wasenforcedatthesite:neitherwine,norbeer,norvodka.Andtherewasnotevenaplacetobuyit,Tyura-Tamwasarailwaystationwithalittlebuilt-upareaofadozenhousesandnotasingleshop.Whentheybuilt therangeit

� Russianword‘seven’,colloquiallyusedforR-7rocket.

�� Range.

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Wesley t. huntRess, Jr.USADirector of theGeophysical Laboratory of theCarnegie InstitutionofWashington,Presidentof thePlanetarySociety,anAcademicianin the International Academy of Astronautics, a Lifetime Associateof theNationalAcademies,anAssociateof theRoyalAstronomicalSocietyandaDistinguishedVisitingScientistatJetPropulsionLabo-ratory.

HereceivedhisPh.D.(1968)fromStanfordUniversity,thenstartedin1968atCaltech’sJPL.From1993 to1998hewasAssociateAd-ministratorforSpaceScienceatNASAHeadquarters.AttheCarnegieInstitution,todayheisaspokesmanandstrategistforthescientificexplorationofspace.

His awards include NASA’s Distinguished Service Medal, the USPresidential Distinguished Executive Award, the Robert GoddardAwardfromNASA,theCarlSaganAwardfromtheAmericanAstro-nauticalSociety,aNationalEndowmentfortheArts/FederalDesignAchievementawardfortheMarsPathfindermission.

Asteroid 7225 hasbeen named afterhim.

A dATE THAT WIll lIvE In FAmE

october4,1957,adatethatwillliveinfameforallofhumanhistory.ThiswasthedayonwhichtheSpaceAgebegan.Thisisthedatedividingthehistoryofhumansboundtotheearthfromthehistoryofhumansmov-ingofftheearth.Itwillforeverberemembered.Thoseofusprivilegedtobealiveandawareonthisdatewillrememberalwayswherewewereandwhatweweredoing.

Andwhatdo I rememberof it? Iwasa 15-year-old schoolboy living ina suburbofWashington,DC,andgettingreadyforschoolwhenthemorningnewspaperarrivedwithanextremelylargeheadlineannouncingthattheUSSRhadlaunchedtheworld’sfirstartificialsatellite.Theprintedstorybelowtheheadlinestriedtorelatethefactsas well as they were known, but the words conveyed awe and surprise. A secondarticledescribedAmerica’splansfororbitingasatellitebutseemedweakandapolo-getic.Nothingcouldsubverttherealizationthatthiswasamonumentalmomentin

wasservicedbythemilitaryunit,thereweresomeshopstherebutnoalcoholbever-agessold.

People,ofcourse,were‘findingsomewaysfromthesituation’,andthoughyoucouldnotfindwineatthesite,buttherewasalwayspurealcoholavailable.Itwasusedforcleaningtheglasssurfacesandconnectors.Biggestsupplyofalcoholwasattelemetryspecialistsdisposalbecauseall thedatawas recorded tomotionpicturefilmstrips,andtoexpediteacquisitionofdatathedevelopedfilmstripsweredriedbypurealco-hol.Well,onecoulddrinkthatstuffafterthedryingprocess.

Farandby,thesituationwasquiteconstrained.Well,andundersuchcircumstances,hereisKorolevsaying:‘Nowyoucangoand…haveadrink…’Hewaspersonwithanactoratheartandthushemadeanappropriatepauseandthenadded:‘ofacupoftea’.

AsIhave juststartedtoworkatthe launchsiteandwassimple-hearted, thereIgooutandsay:‘Well,Ihappentohaveabottleofwine’.

Korolev’s smiling face just amoment before got frowned as it was not allowed tobringinalcoholtotheCosmodrom.

Hesaid:‘Giveawaythebottletothesuperintendent’.

Isay:‘Thebottleproper—yes,Iwillsurrender’.

Helaughedandasked: ‘Whatareyou?Anengineer?WillbepromotedtoaSeniorEngineer’.

Itwasanendofascene,anddowntheroadwasacelebrationofcourse.

Thereisyetonemoreinterestingthing:ThoughitwasuswhohavelaunchedSput-nik,andthetextofthemessageforTASS�wasalsowrittenbyus,wedidnotdispersetillwehearditontheairreadoutbyLevitan.

Thewordingof themessagewasprepared ina somewhat reservedspiritandapartfromtheotherthingswehavewrittenthat,perhaps,nowthiseventmaybeleftunno-ticed,butyearswillpassandourcontemporarieswilltrulyappreciateitsimportancein the future. Levitan, in his turn,made amistakewhile casting hiswords on theradio,and insteadof theword ‘contemporaries’pronounced theword ‘compatriots’anditsoundedlikethiseventwillbeimportantthroughmanyyearstoourcompatri-otsonly.

Asaresult,thenextday’s,October5Pravdanewspaperwaspublishedasaroutineissuewitha tinyarticlesomewhere it thebottomcornerstating thatEarthsatellitewaslaunchedintheSovietUnionwithsomeseveralfiguresthatfollowed.ThefrontpagenewsoftheworldnewspaperswerededicatedtothelaunchofSputnikwithcol-or illustrations,opinionsandcomments…The foreignpapersmadeusunderstand,whatwasthatdeedthatweaccomplishedinreality.OnedaylaterPravdanewspaperhadjoinedtothechoirandpublishedillustrations,articlesandscientists’interviews,andlaterontheystartedtopublishschedulesshowingwhereandoverwhattownandcityyoucouldseethatlittlestar–theFirstSputnik.

EventuallyKorolevwasawardedwithLeninPrizeforparticipationinthiswork.MyDirector, to the extent of my memory, received Badge of Merit. I have received amedalForLaborAchievements—thesmallestcivilianmedal.IamstillkeepingitastreasurebecauseIhavereceiveditfortheFirstSputnik.

� TelegraphAgencyofSovietUnion,themainInformationAgencyofUSSR.

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modernhistory;nomatterwhoseachievementitwas.IwasfilledwithafeelingthatIwouldlaterrecognizemanytimesintheyearstocomefollowingsimilareventsinthe space racebetween theUSSRand theUS,anexoticmixtureof excitement andfear—excitementovervisionsofnewworldsbeyondtheearthandfearforthedarkermotivesbehindtheachievement.

InAmericainthe1950’s,itwastakenforgrantedthattheUSwouldbetheleaderinspaceexploration.Asayoungchild,Iwasexcitedaboutthevisionsofspaceexplora-tionthatfilledourmagazinesandtelevisionscreens.ThesewereallaboutWernhervon Braun and his fabulous dreams.We heard nothing, absolutely nothing, aboutanysuchadvancesintheSovietUnion.NorwerewetolearnuntildecadeslaterthatWernherhadarivalbehindtheIronCurtain,SergeyKorolev.Theshameisthatthetwonevermet—whatateamthatwouldhavebeen.

Intheearlyandmid1950’s,beforetheriseoftelevisionnewsandnearinstantaneousworldwidecoverage,Americansgottheirinformationaboutwhatwashappeningintheworldfromnewspapersandmagazines.Thenewspapersgaveusthedailynews,andthemagazinesgaveuslengthyarticlesonwhatwashappeningaroundtheworld.Among the largest of these magazines were the weekly Saturday Evening Post,Collier’s monthly, and Lifemagazine—amonthlymagazine famous for itspictureessays.AlmosteveryhouseholdinAmericasubscribedtooneormoreofthese.

Americandreams—Collier’smagazinecoversin1952and1954illustratingWernhervonBraun’sdreamsofspaceflight.PaintingsbyChesleyBonestell

Russianreality—LaunchofSputnikOctober4,1957

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In1952,Collier’smagazinebeganaseriesofarticlesaboutWernhervonBraunandhisdreamsforputtingaspacestation inorbitaroundtheEarth,andusing itasanassemblypointtosendspaceshipsfirsttotheMoonandthentoMars.Thesearticleswerefilledwithfabulouspaintingsofhowallofthiswouldbedone.Iwastenyearsoldandafanofsciencefiction.Thiswassciencefictionbroughttoreality.Wemightactuallybeabletodothis!Maybeeveninmylifetime.Thearticleswerethrilling.Andshortlyafterwards,WaltDisney,whohadanimmenselypopularweeklyshowontele-visionwithstoriesandcartoons forkids,madeanimatedmoviesbasedon theCol‑lier’sarticlesthatbroughtitalltolife.ThereontelevisionwasthefamousWernhervon Braun with all of his spaceship models and illustrated explanations of how weweregoingtotheMoonandMars.Itishardtoexplainhowwonderfulallofthatwastoayoung,impressionablechildfilledwithdreamsofhisownfuture.TherewasnodoubtthatIwasgoingtobeascientistandaspaceexplorer.IknewattheageoftenyearswhatIwantedtodoinmylife.

AndthencameSputnik.NotthefirststepintospaceweexpectedfromAmerica,butwhollyunexpectedfrombehindtheIronCurtain.NoteventheleadersoftheSovietUnionpredictedtheworldwideshockandaweresultingfromthe‘shotheardaroundtheworld’—theywerecaughtasmuchbysurprisewithalltheacclaimasevery-oneelse.

ThereactiontothelaunchofSputnikwasimmenseinAmerica.Thereissometruthto the notion that Sputnik forced more revolutionary changes in the US than anycoursecorrectionitmighthaveinfluencedintheUSSR.SputnikchangedthewholedirectionofAmericaneducation,scienceandtechnologydevelopment,militarypolicyandinternationalpolitics.Inthefollowingdecade,USschoolsgraduatedmorescien-tistsandengineersthanatanytimeinitshistory.Youngpeoplewereveryattractedtotheexcitementofexploringspace.ThereactiontoSputnikawoketheleadershipinboththeUSandtheUSSRtothepowerofcivilianspaceachievement.TheUSestab-lishedandfundedawholenewFederalagencychargedwithcivilianspaceexplora-tion,NASA.InsidetheUSSR,Korolevbecameastatehero(althoughincognito)andwas givengreat latitudeby the leadership to carryouthis long-cherished ideas forcivilspaceexploration.

Sputnik changed the world as well. It made achievement in space exploration themark of an advanced nation, a prestige still sought after by many nations todaybesidesRussiaandtheUnitedStates.EuropeandJapanfollowedinthe1960’sand1970’s,establishingfledglingcivilspaceprogramsthathavesincematuredintocom-petitiveenterprises.AndeventuallyChinafollowedsuit.Chinaisnowthethirdnationintheworldtodeveloptheindependentabilitytolaunchmenandwomenintospace.China is amemberof an exclusive ‘club’ that carrieswith it enormous respect andprestigeintheworld.

Sputnikwasinitiallynotatallaboutpeacefulusesofouterspace.ItwasatestflightofRussia’sfirst intercontinentalballisticmissile (ICBM). Itwas thefifth testflight,andonlythethirdsuccess.JustasintheUSwhereWernhervonBraunwasdevelop-ingmilitarymissileswiththehopeofbeingabletousethemtoexplorespace,sowasSergeyKorolevdevelopingmilitarymissilesintheSovietUnionwiththesamedreaminmind.Themilitaryobjectedtohisproposalstotesthisrocketbyorbitingasatel-lite.Heovercametheseobjectionsbyusinghispersuasivepowerswith thegovern-ment inMoscow. Itwasonlyafter thepowerfulandunexpectedaffectSputnikhadontheWestwasKrushchevfullyconvincedthatastrongcivilspaceprogramwasinthebestinterestoftheUSSRSputnikalsoconvincedthereluctantgovernmentcheck

writersintheUSthatthereweremorepowerfulandessentialmotivesforcivilspacethanjustscience,andthemoneybegantoflow.

The achievements of both Soviet and American civil space programs that followedSputnikwerethesinglebestresultsthatissuedfromthemissilearmsracebetweenthem. Thesemilitarymissiles enabled civilian space.Without them, it would havetakenfarlongerforacivilspaceprogramtodevelop.WithoutthemilitaryincentivewemightstillbedreamingaboutsendingspacecrafttotheMoon,Marsandbeyond.Theideaofscientificspaceexplorationwasnotasufficientincentiveforbuildingsuchexpensive launch vehicles.Witness the puny size of the built-for-science USVan‑guardmissile,developedexclusivelytolaunchthefirstUSscientificsatelliteweigh-ing littlemore than8kg,compared to theAtlasmissiledevelopedasanICBMbutcapableoflaunchingamannedspacecraftintoorbit.

YoucanimaginethechagrinofUSmissiledeveloperswhentheUSSRdemonstratedthecapabilitytoorbitthe80kgSputnik,10timesmoremassivethantheVanguardsatellite, followed almost immediately by Sputnik-2 weighing more than 500kg!Itbecame abundantly clear that Soviet missile technology was far ahead of Ameri-canefforts.TheabilitytoorbitasatellitesignaledtheabilitytosendamissilefromtheSovietUniontoanywhereintheUnitedStates,andtheunexpectedmassivesizeofSoviet rocketswas clearlymore thanadequate to carrya largenuclearwarhead.Americans were terrorized by such a prospect. I remember civil defense drills inwhichallschoolchildrenhidundertheirdesksinmockairraids,asmuchgoodasitwouldhavedoneinamissileattack.AfterSputnik,Americaspedupthedevelopmentofmilitaryrocketsandwarheads.WithoutaRussianmissiletestasopenandpublicasSputnik,AmericamaynothavemobilizedsoearlytomatchitsmissilearsenalwithRussiancapabilitiesandtobeginacompetitivecivilspaceprogram.

Theseverysamemilitarymissilesdevelopedinthe1950’sand1960’sarestilllaunch-ing most civilian spacecraft today. Korolev’s venerable R-7 ‘Semyorka’ ICBM, therocket that launchedSputnik and the SpaceAge, is still the staple ofRussia’s civilspaceprogramtoday,nowupgradedasvariousversionsoftheSoyuz launcher.TheUSstillusestheAtlasinitsstableofcivilianlaunches,andinoneofthegreatironiesofhistory thecurrentAtlasuses rocketenginesdevelopedby theUSSRfor itsownnuclearmissilesinthe1960’s.ThelegacyofSputnikhasindeedchangedtheworldinwaysthatcouldnothavebeenimaginedin1957.

Sputnik also changed the way we thought about exploring space. Prior to Sputnik,nooneimaginedthefirstspaceexplorersasrobots.Noonewaswritingaboutauto-nomous landerson theMoon,or robotic roversonMars.Pre-Sputnikvisionswereall abouthumanbeingsgoing to theMoon,Marsandbeyond.WernhervonBraunwasdrivenbydreamsofhumanspacetraveltotheMoonandMars.SergeiKorolevthought in thesameway.Sergei’sorbitingsatellitewassimplya test in thepath tobuildingthepilotedspacecrafthewasalreadydesigninginhismind.ButwithSput‑nikcametherealizationthatwecouldsendroboticspacecrafttothesefarawayplacesmuchmoreeasily thanhumans.Andofcourse, theMoonwas thefirstplace togo.TheUSSRledthewaywithroboticmissionsbeingthefirsttoflypasttheMoon,firstto impact theMoon,first tophotograph the lunar far side,first to landandphoto-graphthesurface,firsttoorbittheMoon,firsttolandaroverontheMoon,andfirsttoreturnsamplesfromthesurfacerobotically.

AsaresultoftheexplosioninroboticexplorationoftheSolarsysteminitiatedbytheearth-orbitalflightofSputnikin1957,wehaveleaptoffthesurfaceofourhomeplanet

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andsentroboticextensionsofoureyes,ears,nose,armsandlegstothefarreachesoftheSolarsystem.RoboticspacecrafthavesurveyedtheSolarsystemfromMercurytobeyondPluto,orbitedVenus,Mars,JupiterandSaturn,andlandedonVenus,MarsandTitantoshowusthebizarresurfacesofexoticnewworlds.

In 1957 these places could only be imagined, and traveling to themwas the realmof sciencefiction.Today, theSolar systemhasbecomehumankind’snewbackyard.

Sputnikopenedthedoortoplanetaryexploration:onthesurfaceofVenusfromtheUSSR’sVenera-13in1981(left);onthesurfaceofTitanfromESA’sHuygensProbe(right)

OnthesurfaceofMarsfromtheUSA’sSpiritrover

WecanthankSputnik forgettingall thisstarted.Sputnik initiatedarenaissance inunderstandingourSolarsystemandtheUniverse.ItalsoopeneduptheeraofEarthremotesensing, tounderstandourplanetasanentiresystemincluding thenaturalandanthropogenicchangesthatcanaffectourlifehere.

Sputnik signaled the beginning of world-wide satellite communications that haveshrunktheplanetandwillhopefullysomedaybringoutthebestinstinctsinhuman-itytowardsunderstandingofourfellowhumanbeingsinsteadofthefearandhatredthat have characterized much of human history. Observations of our planet fromorbitingspacecraftbornofSputnik’sfirstflightmayhelpustoprotectourselvesandourplanetfromself-inflicteddamageinaworlddifferentfrom1957yetstilldanger-ous—threatenedbyglobalclimatechangeandbycontinuinghumanviolence.Sput‑nikflewaroundaworldwithoutboundaries,standingasaniconforknittingtogetherthedisparateculturesofourplanet.Andlet’shopethatisitsbestlong-termlegacy.

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Georgy uspenskyRUSSIAChairmanoftheSystemEngineeringofScientificandSocioeconomicComplexesDepartment,TsNIIMASH(CentralResearchInstituteofMachineBuilding).DoctorofScience.Professor.Bornin1932.Grad-uatedfromtheBaumanMoscowHighSchoolofTechnologyin1955,a diploma inmechanical engineering.Worked in the TikhonravovArtilleryAcademyin1955–1958.

ATsNIIMASHemployeesince1958.

Honouredworkerofscience.

THE SPuTnIk: TWo dAyS bEFoRE THE lAunCH

…Themissioncontrolroomwasbuzzingwithpre-launchcommotion.Theofficerswerecheckingonthephoneaboutthefunctionalityofmeasurementandcommunicationsystemsandreportedreadiness to their supe-riors.VarioustroublesandargumentswouldbreakoutandbesettledasbythetruemilitaryofficersbasedontheCharterandaloudvoice.

Excited colonels and lieutenant colonels were buzzing between the desks, pushingeachotherawayandnotcaringforanyapologies.Thegeneralsweremonumentalintheirstature,graciouslylisteningtothereportsandgivinginstructions,somecrucial,someevenmoreso.

Theciviliansweremoresincereintheiremotionsandactions.Theyweremoreexcit-edbytheeventitself,it’simportanceandhistoricalvalue.Enthusiasmandcuriositywerewrittenontheirfaces.

Atabouteighto’clock,LieutenantcolonelGrigoryLevinshowedinthedoorwayanddeclaredwiththevoiceofaJerichopipe:‘MarshalNedelin!’

Theroomfellsilentandfroze,as if inastill frame.Theofficersfrozeattheirdesksandbowed theirheadsgingerlysquintingat thedoor.Thecivilians turned towardstheshoutingLevinwithobviouscuriosityontheirfaces.

Nedelinenteredtheroom,notpayinganyattentiontothepeople insideandrealiz-inghow significanthis appearancehere is for the common ranks.General Sokolovescortedhimrespectfullybutwithoutatraceofcomplaisance.

Theywent to the endof the rectangular roomwhere therewas aworkingdesk forMarshal.Thenescortofafewgeneralsshowedupinthedoors.Theyfollowedtheirleaderinagroupata10mdistance.

Nedelincametothechair,stoppedandlookedattheroom.Hisbrick-redmarshal’sfaceexpressedthepeaceandinfallibility.Hiswholeappearanceradiatedwithpowerandmagnitude.Heglancedatthecrowdofofficersfrozenoverthegreendesksandhislipsformedanironicandcondescendingsmile.

Theescort crowdedat about5meters fromhis chair andwere staring theMarshalawestruck. Only Sokolov, being the host here, dared to stand by his side and giveexplanations.

Finally,Nedelinsatinhischairwithhissidetotheothersintheroomandwentdeepinhismarshal’sthoughts.Maybeheimaginedthefirststagesoflaunchsiteconstruc-tioninbaredesertnearTyura-Tam,thelifeinrailcarsundermercilesssouthernsun,initiation of the intercontinental missiles project, arguments and doubts of its fastcompletion, the successful launch– andhere it is– the Sputnik.This smart intel-lectualdidalottoorganizeandlaunchthishistoricalevent,and,maybethiswasthereasonwhyhecouldrealizehowsignificantthiseventwas.

Wearingthemarshal’suniform,theexercisedhiscommander’sfunctioninamassiveandsomewhatscenicwayandthusensuredallhissubordinateswereupanddoing.Withallhisexteriorausterityandperfectionhis face sometimes revealedsparksofself-irony,whichtheotherspersonalized.Suchcaution instinctivelyprotectedthemagainstpotentialmisunderstandings,andMarshalhadachancetofreehisemotionswithoutanyharmtohistroops.

Littlebylittlethemarshalinducedshockwaswaningaway;thebusyrustlewasset-ting in.People’s voicesweregrowing louder, and the rattlewas increasing.Finally,Nedelin,whohasbeensittingquietlyupuntilnowdeepinhiscommander’sthoughts,slowlyraisedhisheavyheadand,asifpassingly,said:‘It’sgettingtooloud.’

LieutenantcolonelLevinsteppedofftheescortgroup,madethreestepstowardstheMarshal,stopped,assumedanofficialceremonialstand,andshoutedinathickbassvoice:‘Stopthenoise!’

Thecommandshotthroughlikeashockwavefromanantitankshellovertheexcitedpeople’sheadsandeverythingwentquietinstantly.

The planned launch time was approaching. Nedelin leaned in his chair with slowgraceandwithawidegestureremovedlargesilverwatchonalongthickchainoutofhispocket.Holdingitinhislefthalf-extendedhand,heopenedthelidonthewatchbyquicklypressingonthewatchknobandstartedwatchingthedial.Everyonefrozeanticipatingtheevents.SokolovandLevinquietlyapproachedtheMarshal–justincase.

‘Anynewsfromthelaunchsite?’Nedelinaskedinasmoothvoice.

‘Nothingsofar’,Sokolovanswered.

Thisbreathlesssilenceofanticipationwasonforaboutanhour.Finally,therewasacallinoneofthecommboothsintheotherendoftheroomandinafewmomentsthecommofficer,whoseallappearancerevealed the importanceofwhathewasdoing,halfrantoNedelin.Escortgeneralsinterceptedhimonhisway;theyheardthereportandSokolovthenquietlyreportedtotheMarshal.After that,Nedelinstoodupandheadedfortheexit.

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Everyoneintheroomrealizedtherewouldbenolaunchtoday,somethingdidnotsetstraightthereonthelaunchsite,—oritcouldhavebeenasimpledrillofwhichonlythecommanderswereawareof.

Theroombecameempty,thecommotiondiedaway,buttheoperationalgroupledbyJatsunskyremainedattheirworkstations.Whatiftherehappenedamiracleandthelaunchwouldstillbe‘go’?Thatiswhy,complainingaboutthedecisiveroleofthecon-tingenciesandthelackofanyvalidinformation,peopledecidedagainstgoinghomebuttospendthenightatwork.IgorMarianovichYatsunskyconsidereditnormaltostayovertimeafterhisworkintheevening,especiallyincasethereweresomeissueswiththeestimates.Hejustifieditbythetediouscommutinghomeandbacktoworkagain.

Itwas reallya full scale journey fromthe Instituteacross thefield to the trainsta-tion,thenbyelectrictraintoMoscow,thenmetroandtram.Abouttwohoursintotal.Whereashereeverythingissosimple:youliedownonthedesk,apileofbooksunderyourhead,coverwithovercoat,andhardlyyouhavetimetocloseyoureyes,asyourcolleaguesshowupatyourdoorandsaytellyouthereismorningalready.

…Althoughbeingatrueintelligent,IgorMarianovich,orsimply‘Marianych’,wasnotchoosy about the conveniences and life comfort,but did not spare himself.He wasextremelypolite andkindeveryonearound,and themajor’s rankdidnot associatewellwithhisappearance.Buthewouldbecomeclosefriendstopeopleveryseldomandslowly:hecouldnotstanddishonesty,insincerityandindifferencetowardswork.

WhateverIgorMarianovichdid,healwaysmanagedtofindoriginalwaysanduniquedecisions. Peoplewould first view them as complicated and bizarre, but theywereveryefficientuponcloserexamination.

Thus,hewasapioneerofresearchingawaytoperformreconnaissance fromspacebackin1954andin1956hestarteddevelopingamethodtoestimatetheorbitbasedon the observations of the sunlit satellite against stellar skymade by the amateurastronomers.

TheguitarwasMarianych’ssecretpassion.HeplayedfrommusicclassicalsketchesandplaysbySor,JullianiandCarcassi.Heworshippedguitar.He took itvery ten-derlyinhishands,ceremoniallyputitonhislaps,andplayedfocusedandinspired.Itwascompleteritual,anotherpartofhispersonality,justlikethework…

* * *The whole thing happened the next day, just

likeinaplayatatheater:Nedelin’sappearance,thecharacters,theirarrangementintheroom,theposturesandfacialexpressions,allinaccordancewiththeirrankinthehierarchy.

‘There is a draft in the room.Somebody feels hot?’Nedelin said in a thick throatyvoice,hardlyheardbythepeoplestandingclosetohimandwithoutturninghishead.

‘Closethewindow!’RoaredlieutenantcolonelLevinwhowasstandingthreemetersawayfromtheMarshal.

The people in the room, hypnotized dead still until then by the Marshal, suddenlyshudderedandtheroomwashummingwithinquiringshouts:‘Where?What?Who?

How?’LieutenantcolonelNarimanovwasthefastesttoreact.Withallhisheavybuildandexternalsteadiness,heunexpectedlydashedtothewindow,closeditandequallydashedbacktoNedelin.Everyonewasstunned,watchingthemaneuversofthesmartlieutenantcolonel.

NarimanovsloweddownthepaceasheapproachedNedelin,hismovementsrevealedthemilitary bearing, and, finally, having approached at a distance of 5meters, hestood still and reported: ‘ComradeMarshal of the SovietUnion!The source of thedraftwasneutralized!LieutenantcolonelNarimanov.’HeavilybuiltMarshal,leaninginhischair,raisedhishead,smiledironicallyandnodded.

Thus,wehavebeenwaitingforthelaunchtocommenceforabouthalfanhour.Cap-tains and majors would sprang regularly out from the communication booths andapproachtheescort,reportsomething,theescortwouldlistenintently,someonefromtheescortwouldapproachtheMarshalandtellhimsomethingquietly.Suddenly,thedoorononeoftheboothsbangedopen,acommunicationofficersprangoutofitanddashed towards theMarshal.Hestoodatattentionand thundered: ‘Therockethasbeenlaunched,ComradeMarshal!’

Thecommunicationofficersstartedrunningevenmorebrisklybetweentheirboothsandtheescortreportingtherocketflightstatusattheactivetrajectory.Finally,therewasthereport:‘Rocketthrustersweredisabledattheestimatetime!’

The commotion in the roomwasgainingmomentum.Themilitaryofficersand thecivilians took their nominal positions, ran through estimate forms and tables, get-tingreadytodeterminethesatelliteperiod.Numerousguests,mainlythegeneralsofeveryrankandacademicians fromtheAcademyofScienceswouldget incorporategroupsandexcitedlyexchangedtheirviews.

Everyone was waiting intensely when Sputnik would be first tracked anti-ballisticmissiledefense.Ifthelaunchwassuccessful,thentheSputnikwouldshowupfromthesouth-westinaboutninetyminutes.Communicationsofficersstartedshoutinginthephonesinanhourafterthelaunch:‘Reportthestatus!Donotmissit!’Althoughthephoneswereinsixboothsbehindcloseddoors,everyoneintheroomheardburst-ingvoicesofthemilitaryofficersbleedinginashoutingoratory.Finally,therewasacryofjoyandwonder:

‘What,wehavetrackedit?Areyousure?Whoisreporting?’Thentherewasabriefpause, everyone went calm. ‘What, what? Pushkin? What are these jokes?! I willreporttheMarshalanddisrankyou!’

Anotherpause.Itchangedtoperplexity.

‘What,yournameisreallyPushkin?Givemeyoursuperior’Apause.‘Doyouconfirmthesatellitehasbeenspotted?Youtakefullresponsibilityforthat’.

Aftertheconfirmationthecaptain,flushingwithexcitement,rushedtowardsNedelin.Alltheheadsturnedtothecaptain.Havingcomeupatarun,stoodatahalt,stoodatattentionandshouted:‘ComradeMarshaloftheSovietUnion,wehavespottedSputnik!’

Nedelin stoodup, lookedathiswatch, swepthis eyes triumphantlyover the room,andturnedtoSokolovandthegeneralsstandingfurtheraway.Thegeneralstookthisasaninvitationgesture,approachedcloserandstartedexchangingideasabouthowvalid was the report about spotting Sputnik and not some airplane or some otherobject.People’sfacesexpressedjubilationandanticipationofanepicevent.

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Another report followed in a few minutes that Sputnik was detected by anothergroundsite, thenmoreandmoregroundsites reported. Itwasclear that theeventhadhappened,andtheroomstartedhummingwithjubilation.Peoplewererunningtoandfro.Theyhurriedtoreporttoballisticiansaboutthetime,locationandtheazi-muthofthedetection.Commonrankgeneralsstoodupandwatchedthehappeningwithincreasingcuriosity.

The focus in theroomshifted fromNedelin toSputnik.Youcouldsee thatNedelinrealizedthis,andhebegantoloosehisscenicpostureandbecomeanordinarymili-taryofficer.Havingdiscussedthestatuswithhisescort,marshaldecidedtoperson-allyconfirmtheeventandmeetthepeopleintheflightcontrolroom.

Nedelinwentfromonedesktoanother.Sokolovaccompaniedhimbyhisside,Levinfollowedbehindandthentheescortgenerals.Theystoppedbyeachparticipantandlistenedtoofficersshoutingtheirstatusreports.Marshalnoddedpatronizingly,andtheescortgeneralssmiledreverently.Finally,theyapproachedthedeskwhereElias-berg,YatsunskyandNarimanovhadbeenworking.ThisiswheretheSputnikorbitalperiodwasestimated.Excited,eachof them, independently fromeachother,expo-nentiatedwithslide-rules,multipliedanddivided,addedanddeletedwithFelixcal-culatingmachinetofindoutlaterthattheperiodwas98minutes.

Nedelinstoodbythedeskandwatchedthebusyfusswithanapparentcuriosity.Forsomereason,noonewouldspringuporshoutinaroaringvoicetoreporttoComradeMarshalof theSovietUnion.Everyonehadhisnose inhispapers,peoplewereredandperspiratedwithexcitement,calculatedandrecordedsomethingjerkily.Marshalwassilentandnooneofhisescortdaredtobreakthissilence.

Narimanovwas thefirst to seeNedelin.Hestoodupdeftly,andwasabout to startshouting out his report, when Marshal gestured him not to disturb his colleagues.Yatsunskyalsobegantogetupfromthedesk,checkingthebuttonsonhisuniformin a confused manner. Pavel Ephimovich kept on writing, mumbling something,throwing the remaining hair from one side of his bold head to the other. This wasthe climaxof thedumbshow:everyone is standingat attention,Sokolovwas look-ing gloomy, the escort froze anticipating the unfortunate Lieutenant Colonel wouldbetakentotask,andMarshalgaveanironicsmile.

Narimanovwasthefirsttobreakthesilence.HesaidquietlytoEliasberg:‘PavelEphi-movich,MarshalNedelin…’PavelEphimovichdidnotbothertoraisehishead,wavedawayandsaidvexedly:‘Leavemealone!’Andwentbackinhisworkagain,stoopingoverhispapers.Thenhesuddenly limpened,stopped,raisedhiseyes,sawNedelin,smiledembarrassedly,andstartedarranginghimselfslowly:fasteningupperbuttonsonhisuniformwithonehandandsearchingforthecaponthedeskwiththeother.Hestoodupawkwardlyandtriedtocomposehismindfiguringoutwhatheshouldsayanddo.

Nedelinclearedtheair.

‘So,whatdoyouhavehere?’Heaskedinwhatappearedasafriendlytone.

‘Theperiodisabout98minutes,ComradeMarshal’,saidEliasberginanembarrassedvoice.

‘Itthistoomuchortoolittle?’Nedelinasked.

‘It’snormal’,concludedEliasberg.

TheshortanswersandroutinetoneofthedialoguebetweenEliasbergandMarshalaspeersshockedthepeople.Marshaltookthisgently.Herealizedthatthereisnoneedtostimulatetheenthusiasminthescientiststandinginfrontofhim,anddisciplininghimwouldbeuselessandwrong.

To break this abnormal situation,Narimanov started explaining how the period isestimated,butMarshalcouldnotcareless.Havinglistenedforawhile,heaskedsud-denly:‘Howcanyoubesurethatthespottingwereceivedfromtheanti-ballisticmis-siledefenseisnotamistakeorworse,aprovocationfromthepotentialenemy?’

Adumbshowagain,butnoweveryonewatchedNedelinnotwithoutaslightsarcasm.Marshal realizedhisquestionwasoddandhemanaged tofindawayout from theconfusion:

‘Yes,Ibelieveyouarenotapersontoanswerthisquestion.Keeponworking.’

Pleasedwithhimself,Marshalheadedtowardstheexitfromtheflightcontrolroom.

BythenextmorningSputnikhasmadethreeorbits,andnoweveryonerealizedthattheepiceventhashappened. Information fromtheobserverswas forwardedto theflightcontrolroom,wasprocessed,orbitalevolutionandSputniklifespanwerefore-casted.Nedelin’s appearancewasnot shocking to the inhabitantsof the roomany-more.MarshalwouldsitcalmlyinhischairandlistentoSokolov’sandNarimanov’sreports.

…Itwasabout10inthemorning.ThedoorburstopenandSergeyPavlovichKorolevshowedup.HedidnotstopandwentstraighttoNedelin.Hisfaceexpressedsatisfac-tionandconcentration.

Ryabikovwasalsohere.Smallinstature,leanandfit,hewaswalkingnexttoKorolevtoMarshal.

VasiliyPavlovichMishinfollowedthem.Hissmilingfaceradiatedhappinessandhe,agooddealtallerthanhisLeader,transmittedjubilationtoallintheroom.Thefeel-ingofboyishhappinesswasevenfurtheramplifiedbystandingoutearsofthedeputyChiefDesigner.

UponseeingKorolev,NedelinstoodupfromhischairandgreetedandcongratulatedGlavnyasapeerwithahandshake.Nedelin,KorolevandRyabikovstartedadiscus-sion.Korolev,slightlystooping,wassmilingmodestly.Nedelinwasopenandcompla-cent.Ryabikovlookedfocused,inappropriatelyresoluteandreadyforaction.

Mishinwasviewingtheroomwithcuriosity.TheroomwasviewingMishin.Thejoyheradiatedwastransmittingtothepeopleintheflightcontrolroom,reflectedbackandmadeVasilyPavlovichshineevenmore.

AfterabriefexchangeKorolev,NedelinandRyabikovheadedfortheexit.Theescortrolledafterthematanappropriatedistance.

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Viktor FaVoRskyRUSSIALieutenantGeneral.

Bornin1924inMoscow.JoinedtheRedArmyvoluntarilyin1924.In1942graduatedfromArtilleryCollegeinLeningrad(expresscourse).In1943transferredtotheHighMilitarySchoolofAirDefenceForces.From1946to1951wasastudentattheJetPropulsionDepartmentofDzerzhinskyMilitaryAcademy.Servedas theseniorengineer inthenumberofprojectsbytheMinistryofDefence.Tookpartittest-ingP-5andP-5Mmissiles.AppointedtotheCentralOfficeofSpaceDevicesin1967.

In1986–1989,CommanderofMainOfficeofArmament,thenDepu-tyCommanderonSpaceDevicesoftheMinistryofDefence.Adviserin therepresentationof theMinistryofDefenceonqualityandre-liability intheSpaceResearchInstituteof theRussianAcademyofSciencessince1989.

Heroofsocialistlabor.AwardedtheStatePrizeofRussia,5ordersoftheUSSRandmedals.

HonorablememberofTsiolkovskyAcademyofCosmonautics.

THE bEgInnIng oF SPACE ERA: EvEnTS, RESulTS, And PRoSPECTSThe Soviet period in the development of cos-

monauticsbecamehistory,goingfartherawayfromusintothepast.Itwasaperiodwheninashortperiodoftimeunderthe ‘coldwar’conditionsonthebasisofover-stressedmilitaryeconomyoutstandingsuccesswasachievedinthiscountry,turningtheUSSRintoa leadingworldpower.Weowethistotalentedscientists,designers,industrialmanagersandtheirefficientworkmanagement inthefieldofcosmonau-tics.

Lately,Russiahaslostthisposition.Itisevidentthatbasicchangeintheworkmana-gement is the main reason for that. However, we still retain extensive experience,scientific-engineeringgroundworklaidforthefuture,and,toalesserdegree,indus-trialandtestfacilitiesandengineeringhumanresources.Itisimportanttostudytheexperiencegainedintheworkmanagementinthepasttobuildanewstructureoftheretainedindustrialpotentialandtodevelopthemostefficientwayofusingitundertheconditionsofmarketeconomy.

…Thispasttimecanbevisualizedinmemoryasbright,happydaysofpost-waryears,ascolorful,unforgettablepicturesofyouth,asaconstantpursuitforthefuture.

Manyyearsofresearchworkandexperimentsperformedinanumberofcountries,development of firstmissiles in the pre-war period, then thedevelopment anduse

ofthefirstmilitarymissilesbyGermanyduringtheSecondWorldWar,aswellasapost-wardecade,whenintensiveeffortswereundertakeninourcountryandtheUSAtodevelopballisticmissiles,—allthatprecededthebeginningofimmediateworkinthefieldofspaceengineering.

Duringthepost-warperiod,responsibilityforthedevelopmentofmissiletechnologywas shared by eight defense ministries in the Soviet Union. The Ministry of Arma-ment,headedbyD.F.Ustinov,wastheleadingone.AdedicatedCommitteeonMis-sile Technology reporting to the Council of Ministers (CM) coordinated the work.This organization retained some traits of the war time period but, being a productofprogressive-mobilizationeconomy,itstillneededcertainchangestobemadedur-ingpeacetime.Itwasalsorequiredtostrengthennewtrendsofresearchinthefieldsof nuclear engineering, rocketry and radioelectronic engineering. I remember thiswholeprocess only toowell, since in 1951, having graduated from theDzerzhinskyMilitaryAcademy,IwasassignedtoserveatthemilitaryrepresentativeofficeoftheChiefArtilleryDepartmentattheNII-88Scientific-ResearchInstitute,beingthelead-inginstitutioninthedevelopmentofrocketryatthattime.

Thepowercreatedbythefirstdevelopedsingle-stagemissiles,withoutbeingoutfit-tedwiththesecondstage,wasnotenoughfor themtoenter intospace.Theaccessintospacecouldbeopenonlyforamissilewithgreaterpowercapabilities,availableforapromisingintercontinental-rangeR-7missilewithaclusterconfiguration.Pro-active research, studying possible launch of an artificial Earth satellite (AES), per-formedbyM.K.Tikhonravov’steamattheNII-4Scientific-ResearchInstituteoftheDefenseMinistry,precededthecreationofsuchamissile.However,thisactivitydidnotgosmoothly,sincesucharesearchdidnotfollowthelinesofamilitaryinstitutionengagedindevelopmentofballisticmissiles.

Nevertheless,itwasareportdeliveredbyM.K.Tikhonravovataplenarymeetingofascientific-researchconference,heldbytheDepartmentofAppliedMathematicsoftheUSSRAcademyofSciencesonMarch15,1950,thatlaidthebeginningofestab-lishmentofappliedcosmonautics,gavetheinitialmomentumtotheriseandsubse-quentdevelopmentofspaceengineering.Inthatreportaconclusionwasmadepublicthat the problem of creating an AES could be practically solved in the near future.Thereportwasbasedon the scientific-engineering report calledCompositeLiquid-FuelLong-RangeMissils,ArtificialEarthSatellites.Itsconclusionsweredevelopedin the period of 1950–1953within the framework of scientific-researchwork, enti-tledResearchintotheProblemofCreationofanAES,andlaidthebasisforwritinga letter with a proposal to carry out a practical implementation of the AES, signedbyS.P.Korolev,theHeadoftheOKB-1DesignBureau,andaddressedtotheCentralCommitteeoftheCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnion(theCCoftheCPSU),aswellastotheCMoftheUSSR,onMay26,1954.Bythattime,astudy(theN-3Project)ofschematicsforbuildingextra-long-rangemissileswithdifferenttypesofenginesandcontrolsystemswasperformedattheOKB-1DesignBureau,whichindicatedthatitwasfeasibletoimplementsuchaproposal,andapre-designanalysisoftheR-7rock-etwasundertaken.Beforethat,ataPeaceConference,heldinVienna,A.N.Nesmeya-nov,PresidentoftheUSSRAcademyofSciences,announcedonNovember27,1953thattheAESdevelopmentisquitefeasible.In1955,inordertoexceedtheAESdevel-opment,apartofstaffmembersofM.K.Tikhonravov’s team,namely:K.P.Feoktis-tov,I.K.Bazhinov,G.Yu.Maximov,A.V.Soldatova—weredelegatedfromtheNII-4Institute toworkat theOKB-1DesignBureau.And in1956,M.K.TikhonravovalsowenttoworkwithS.P.Korolev.

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However,morethanayearandahalfhadpasseduntil,onJanuary30,1956,adeci-sion was made by the CC of the CPSU and the CM of the USSR to begin practicalimplementationoftheAES.TheOKB-1,headedbyS.P.Korolev,wasassignedtobethe leadingorganizationresponsible for thedevelopmentandbuildingof thesatel-lite. Team workers of chief designers V.P.Glushko, N.A.Pilyugin,M.S.Ryazansky,V.P.Barmin,andV.I.Kuznetsovwereengagedtoparticipate intheactivitiesonthelaunchpreparation.TheOKB-1DesignBureaupresentedaconceptualdesignoftheAES,whileonSeptember3ofthesameyearaGovernmentDecreewasissuedaboutthe development of the satellite and all the ground support facilities, which speci-fiedcooperationbetweenscientific-researchinstitutesanddesignbureaus.TheNII-4 Institute, dealingwith ballistic support, conceptual design anddevelopment of acommandandmeasurementcomplex,substantiationofoptionsforusingtheAESforresolvingmilitarytasks,aswellasthe5thscientific-researchrange,dealingwithprep-arationofthesatelliteandlaunchboosterforthelaunch,wereengagedinthisworkwithintheframeworkoftheDefenseMinistry.

FollowingtheGovernmentDecree,asofMay30,1954, itwasanticipatedto launchthesatellitebyusinganintercontinentalballisticR-7missile.Infact,theworkonR-7wasbeingcarriedoutsince1953,andaconceptualdesignwasalreadydevelopedinJuly1954.Thatmissilewasbasicallydifferentfromothermissilesbyitsboosterper-formanceanddesignschematics.Therefore,tocompleteitsdevelopmentonashort-termbasiswasabigengineeringproblem.Ittookmerelythreeyearstobuildadedi-cated launchpad for its flight testing byMay 1957, namely, theNIIP-5 rangewithspecialflightrangefacilitiesandatestrangeforwarheadstofallinKamchatka.

ThelaunchduedateswerespecifiedbythefactthatonSeptember11,1956,aSovietrepresentative(AcademicianL.I.Sedov)announcedatasessionofaspecialcommit-teeontheInternationalGeophysicalYear (July1, 1957–December31,1958),heldinBarcelona,thattheUSSRplanstolaunchaAESduringtheupcominggeophysicalyear.OnecanjudgeS.P.Korolev’sconfidenceabouttheimplementationofthisideabyhispresentationdeliveredatajubileesessionoftheBaumanMoscowHigtSchoolofTechnology (nowBaumanStateTechnicalUniversity), celebrating its 125thanni-versary back on September 25, 1955.While reporting on the results of using rock-etsforstudyingtheupperatmosphere,SergeyPavlovichconcludedbysayingthatinviewofthecurrentstateofdevelopmentoftheSovietengineeringand,inparticular,ofrocketengineering,andwiththeuseofthemostpowerfulfuelsoutofthoseknownandemployedatthattime,thetasksoftheAESdevelopmentandmissileflightfromtheEarthtotheMoonwerequitefeasibleengineeringtasks.HealsoinformedaboutpotentialcharacteristicsoffutureAES.Moreover,hestated:‘OurgoalisfortheSovietmissilestoflyhigherandearlierthanitwouldbedoneanywhereelse.Ourgoalistocreateanewtypeofhypervelocitytransportationforpassengersandcargoes, i.e.tocreaterocketvehicles.OurgoalisthataSoviet-madeAES,createdbySovietpeople,shouldbe thefirstAES, and that Sovietmissiles and rocket vehicles shouldbe thefirsttoflyintoboundlessspaceoftheUniverse’.

Atthesametime,theconceptualdesignshowedthataconsiderableamountoftimewould be required to develop avionics if the satellite mass amounted to 1200 kg.Therefore, there were great doubts about the tentative launch date in the summerof1957.

Besides the Soviet Union, the USA also announced a launch of an AES within theperiodoftheInternationalGeophysicalYear.Therefore,itbecameofprimaryimpor-tancetoadheretotheplannedlaunchdate.

Theacceleratedlaunchofthesatellitewaspromotedbyadecisiontakenatthestageofdesignoptimization.Attheendof1956,M.K.Tikhonravov,takingintoaccountthetight schedule of the launchpreparation, all of a suddenproposed tomake it sim-plerthanitwasplannedinitially:withamassof83kgandaminimuminstrumenta-tion.Thiscouldmakeitpossibletoobtainexperienceinlaunchingasatelliteintoanorbit,toconfirmthepossibilityofestablishingcommunicationwiththesatellite,andtodevelopthecommandandmeasurementcomplex.Theproposalwasimmediatelyapproved,andurgentdevelopmentof suchasatellitewasundertakenat thebegin-ningof1957.

Itbecamepossibletocarryoutalargescopeofworkduetopreciseoperationofallthedivisionsof theOKB-1DesignBureauandof thepilotplant, experiencedman-agement on the part of S.P.Korolev’s closest teammates: V.P.Mishin, S.O.Okhap-kin, K.D.Bushuev, S.S.Kryukov, B.E.Chertok, L.A.Voskresensky, B.V.Shabarov,M.S.Khomyakov.Anotherimportantcircumstance,whichspecifiedtheduedatesofthefirstsatellitelaunchreadiness,wasthecompletionofthemissilelaunchboosterdevelopment.

Thefirst launchof themissilewasperformedonMay15, 1957. Itwasabortiveduetoaleakinthemissilepropellantlines.ThesecondattemptatlaunchingonJune9alsofailed.Duetoafaultyvalveassemblyinthecentralunitbooster,themissilewastakenfromthelaunchpadandreturnedtothemanufacturingplant.ThelaunchonJuly12wasalsoabortiveduetoacontact-to-framefaultofcontrolloopsinoneoftheinstrumentsduringthemissileflight.

Three abortive launches gave many people rise to concern about the destiny of theR-7missile.However, S.P.Korolev displayed certainty that the first intercontinen-talR-7missilewouldfly.Moreover,healready insistedat theCC that twomissilesshouldbeallocatedtolaunchtheAES,remindingaboutthereadinessoftheUSAtolaunchtheirfirstAES.Itwascrucialtoprovebyasuccessfullaunchthatthedifficul-tiesinensuringtheR-7missilereliabilityhadbeenovercome.

After measures taken to increase reliability and careful preparation at the launchpad,thelaunchundertakenonAugust21turnedouttobesuccessful.OnAugust27,1957, a special TASSmessagewas published in all the papers: ‘Recently, a launchof an ultralong-range intercontinentalmultistage ballisticmissile has been carriedout.The testsweresuccessful.They fully confirmedcorrectnessof calculationsandselecteddesign.Theflightwastakingplaceataveryhighaltitude,notavailableuntilnow.Havingcoveredahugedistanceinashorttime,themissilefellwithinaspeci-fied region’.The country obtained ameans todeliver awarhead to the territory ofapotentialenemy,whoalreadyhadthatopportunity,usingmilitarybasesarrangedaround the borders of the USSR. However, there was no anticipated reaction oftheworldmassmediatothisnews.IntheUSAnobodybelieveditandtreateditasahoax.Then, inorder to cool the ‘warhawks’,whoproposed to implement aplanofunansweredatomicattackofthetowns/citiesoftheUSSR,aswellastakingintoaccount the positive results of the recent R-7 missile launch, performed on Sep-tember7,atasessionof theStateCommission,S.P.Korolevproposedtoacceleratepreparationof themissile launch tobringanartificialEarthsatelliteontoanorbit.Bythattime,judgingbythestatusofworkonthesatellitedevelopmentandprepara-tionoftestfacilities,thelaunchcouldbeperformedinone-twomonths,accordingtotheestimatesoftheChiefDesigner.Thatproposalwasaccepted,themoresothatintheUSAanAESlaunchwasbeingpreparedwithintheVanguardProject,following

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averytightschedule.Aplanforthelaunchpreparationwasapproved.Thefinalstageofworkbegan.

WorkattheDesignBureau(KB)andPlantcontinuedona24-hbasis,7daysaweek.Theprogramofthelaunchboosteravionicsoperationwaschangedduetoanewflighttrajectory. The satellite separation and activation of its instrumentation took placeafterdeactivationof thesecondstageengine.All theproblemswerebeing resolvedpromptly,immediatelyonthespotbytheKBstaffmembers.S.P.Korolevpersonallysupervised theprogressofwork,appeared in theplant shopsandat theKBatanytimeoftheday,maintainingitsquickprogressbyhisinsistenceonhighstandards.

Thesecondsatellitewasbeingpreparedwithamonthshifttotheright.Itwasintend-edforbiologicalstudiesandwasalreadywellequippedwithscientificpayload.Ithadaseparatepressurizedcabin,housingatestanimal—adognamedLaika.Thesatel-litemassalreadyamountedto508,3kg.Thethirdsatellitewasalsounderconstruc-tion.Itwasintendedtoexplorethenear-earthspace.

Readiness tocarryout thefirst satellite launchwasconfirmedbyprogressmade inpreparationofthelaunchpadandmeasuringinstruments.Provisionwasmadeatthemissilepre-launchareaforlocationsequippedfortestingofavionicsandforvalida-tionofthesatelliteandwarheadseparationfromthemissileontheground.Thetestsweresuccessful.Thesatelliteandfairingweredockedtothemissileandinstalledonthetestfacility.TheworkwassupervisedbyL.A.VoskresenskyonbehalfoftheOKB-1DesignBureau.

Atthattime,aformalceremonialsessionwasheldinMoscowintheHallofColumnsof the House of Unions, dedicated to the 100th Anniversary of K.E.Tsiolkovsky.S.P.Korolev took the floor. Speaking about practical importance of research workdonebyTsiolkovsky,he indicated that theAES launchwasaneventof thenearestfuture.Onlyafewpeopleoutofallthosepresentknewthatitwaspossibletocountdaystillthelaunchofthefirstsatellite.OnSeptember19,justtwodaysafterthat,S.P.Korolevarrivedtotherange.

AtthebeginningofOctober,themissilewiththesatellitewererolledouttothelaunchpadforpre-launchpreparation.AtnightfromOctober3toOctober4,itsfinalstagewasinitiated,i.e.fuellingofthemissilewithpropellantcomponents.Thepre-launchpreparationwenttoschedule.Jointcrewsoflaunchpadtestengineerswereattheirworkplaces,headedbyA.I.Nosov,thelaunchpadDeputyHead,whileL.A.Voskre-senskyandE.I.Ostashov,theHeadoftheDivision,wereattheperiscopes.

…Commands were issued to perform launch operations, the automatic equipmentwasactivated.Thelaunchboosterswereignited.Theconcretebunkerwasshudder-ingwithroarandthemissileslaunched.

IthappenedonOctober4,1957,at10:28p.m.Moscowtime.In315secondsofflightthetelemetrydatarecordedseparationofthesatellitefromthemissileanditsenter-ingtheorbitataspecifiedtime.

Thelaunchparticipantscongratulatedoneanotherbuttheywerefarawayfromfullycomprehendingtheimportanceofthisevent…

ThewholeworldwasapplaudingtheSovietscientistsanddesigners.Sovietandfor-eignnewspaperspublishednumerousresponsesofprominentscientistsandpoliticalleaderstothisevent.TheRussianword‘Sputnik’immediatelyenteredthelanguages

oftheworldnations.Hopeswereexpressedthatthenewachievementwouldbeusedforpeacefulratherthanformilitarypurposes.Atthesametime,inWashington,thenewsaboutthesatellitelaunchwasequaltoanexplodedbombeffect.ThosePenta-gonspecialistswhofavoredthestrategyof‘balancingonthewaredge’,wereshockedbyauniversallyevidentfactthatamultistageintercontinentalmissilewascreatedintheSovietUnion,againstwhichanair-raiddefensesystemwashelpless,ratherthanbyscientificimportanceofthesatelliteflight.

ButthemainresultofthefirstartificialEarthsatellitelaunchwasthebeginningofthespaceera,acknowledgedby thewholeworld.Leadingcountriesgot involved in thedevelopmentofspacehardware,spaceresearchandutilization.Duringthefirst tenyearsofthespaceera,alreadyeightcountriesbegantodeveloptheirnationalspacevehicles,whileamuchgreaternumberofcountriesparticipatedinspaceexploration.Mannedflightsintospace,whichwerebeganin1961byYu.A.Gagarin’slaunch,con-tinuedactivelyintheUSSRandtheUSA.

TheUSAandUSSRambitionsforworldleadershipinthefieldofspaceexplorationtranslatedthe‘coldwar’intothesphereofspaceresearch,theso-called‘moonrace’waswaged, spacemilitarizationwithin the framework of flexible response strategywaslaunched,activedevelopmentofmilitaryspacefacilitieswasundertaken.

In the USSR, space hardware development was actively supported by the govern-ment.Havingoriginated frommissileengineering,space facilitiesweresuccessfullydevelopedduringthefirstyearspreciselyduetoengineeringsimilarityofthesetwotrends,practicallywithinthesamedesigninstitutions,underoneandthesameman-agement,headedatthattimebyK.N.Rudnev,L.V.Smirnov,andS.A.Zverev.Allthetime,theOKB-1DesignBureauremainedtheleadingorganization,initiatingfirstdevelopments,whichwasheadedbyS.P.Korolev, the founderofappliedcosmo-nautics.

During the subsequent years, development of Soviet cosmonautics encompassed anumber of large and complicated programs: scientific research,manned space sta-tions, satellites for national economy needs and military purposes (at that, onlytheUSAhadprogramssimilartotheSovietones).In1965,theMinistryofGeneralEngineering (Minister A.S.Afanasyev) was established and corresponding scien-tific-research institutesanddesignbureauswere founded for their implementation.Amongthem,firstofall,oneshouldnametheprincipalinstitutions,headedbyexpe-riencedexperts, asa rule, from theOKB-1DesignBureau.Atfirst, they functionedas affiliations of S.P.Korolev’s Design Bureau. Then, havingmastered stand-alonenovel trendsofspaceengineering, theyturned intoheaddesignbureausandscien-tific research institutes: theTsSKBCentralSpecializedDesignBureauonMeansofSurveillance(headedbyD.I.Kozlov),theKBPMDesignBureauofAppliedMechanicsonCommunicationandNavigationMeans (headedbyM.F.Reshetnev), theDesignBureau of the S.A.Lavochkin’s Plant on Lunar and Planetary Systems (headed byG.N.Babakin), theKBYuDesignBureauonMeteorological,ScientificSatellitesandRadiotechnicalSurveillance(headedbyV.M.Kovtunenko),theTsKBCentralDesignBureau of Engineering onOrbital Stations (headed by V.N.Chelomey), theDesignBureauoftheArsenalPlantonSpaceSystemsfortheNavy(headedbyYu.F.Valov).Onthewhole,alreadyabout80enterpriseswereengagedinspaceprojectswithintheMinobschemash (theMinistry ofGeneral Engineering) in 1965,with their numberamountingtoabout100bythe1980’s.Cooperationbetweenenterprisesbelongingtootherministrieswasevenmoresignificant.

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Summarizingthedevelopmentofworkinthefieldofspaceexplorationandresearch,onecanstatewithmuchconfidence:

1. In the first years of space era, the leadership of the USSR over the USA wasensured in the main fields. In the subsequent years, parity was established onthe whole. At that, the USSR surpassed the USA in the manned program, whiletheUSAoutranintheresearchoffar-awayplanets,launchingexpeditionstotheMoon,anddevelopmentofthemultiple-useSpaceShuttlesystem.

2. Inexecutingtheprogramsfordevelopmentofspacefacilitiesintendedfordefensepurposes,theUSAwasenjoyingtheleadershipthroughoutallthoseyears,whichcompliedwith their state policy. In the 1960’s, theUSSR lagged behind in thisareaby6to7years.Itwasexplainedbythefactthatinthiscountry,cosmonauticsbegantobedevelopedinanew,defensefieldonlyaftertheGovernmentDecreesOn the Work Schedule for 1960–1967, dated June 23, 1960, and On Deploy‑mentofWorkonDefense-PurposeSpaceFacilities,datedOctober30,1962,wereissued.Bytheendofthe1960’s,thisgapwaseliminated,exceptthatinthefieldofoperatingsurveillance,whichremainedasitwasuntil1982.

3. Practically,therehadalwaysbeenparitybetweentheUSSRandtheUSAthrough-outallthoseyears,asfarasthenumberofoperationalspacemilitarysystemsandfacilities is concerned. As for the number of launches of space craft’s, theUSAsomewhatoutdid theUSSRat the initialperiod.Beginning fromthe1960’s, thenumberof launchesofspacecraft’speryear intheUSSRconsiderablyexceededthatintheUSA,whichwasexplainedbymoreintensiveworkinthefieldofspaceexplorationandthebeginningofutilizationofcontinuouslyoperatingspacesys-tems. It was required to permanently re-supply these systems, since the activeservicelifeofourspacevehicleswasconsiderablylessthanthatoftheUSAspacecraft’s.

4. Asfortheorbitinjectionmeans,thecapabilitiesoftheUSSRandUSAturnedouttobesimilar,butourrocketlaunchersboostersstilldisplayhigherratingsinreli-abilityofoperation.

Forthe50yearsofthespaceera,achievementsinspaceengineeringleftanoticeabletraceinthehistoryofmankindandtheroleplayedbyourcountryisenormous.HowwasitpossibletoachievesuchhighworkefficiencyinspaceindustryintheUSSR?Itwaspossibleduetotheprogressive-mobilizationeconomy,assistedbytimelyfinanc-ing, development of industrial and test facilities, scientific support and sustainingengineering,withacontinuouscaringattentionpaidbythegovernmentofourcoun-try,bytheagencies,placingtheirorders,duetothelong-termplanningofworkatallthe levels, introductionof standarddocumentation and continuousquality control.Underthoseconditions,allthepeople,participatinginthedevelopment,production,testingandoperationofspacehardware,workedwithdedicationanddisplayedhero-ism.

Recently,10…15yearsafterthebreakdownoftheSovietUnion,thepaceofdevelop-ment ofRussian cosmonautics has decreased considerably,while it is scientificallypredictedthattherewouldappearstillnewpromisingtrends,furtherpromotingthemankinddevelopment.Timehascometoshapeaplanetaryculture.Inthe21stcen-tury, mankind enters a new phase of its development, mastering of space secretsand energies, raises it to ahigher intellectual level andmake it possible to replen-ish the already depleted Earth resources from space. One of the incentives for thatis,undoubtedly,theadoptionandfurtherdevelopmentofscientificandengineering

hypothesesforthesakeofovercomingrealcrisissituationsmenacingtheEarth–firstofall,theenergycrisis.Aboveall,ithastodowithyoungpeople–soontheywillhavetoenterthebattlefieldtorescuecivilizationontheEarth.Today,circumstancesarefavorablefortheeffortsofscientistsallovertheworldtobeunitedinordertocollec-tivelyconfrontglobalthreats,thatmankindfaces.Thereappearedarealpossibilitytoincreasetheaccumulatedexperienceofinternationalcooperationinthisfield.Thoseprojects thatareparticularlycomplicatedandexpensiveshouldbeorganizedundertheauspicesoftheUN.

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Igor BazhInoVRUSSIASeniorResearchFellow inTsNIIMASH(CentralResearchInstituteforMachineBuilding).

Born in 1928 inRostov-upon-Don.Graduated from theOrdzhoni-kidzeMoscowAviationInstitutein1951.ServedintheSovietArmyin1951–1960,wasemployedintheResearchInstitute-4.TookpartinresearchprojectsofdesignationofballisticmissilesandartificialEarthsatellites.

Since1960workedintheResearchInstitute-88(nowTsNIIMASH).Led thestudyofballisticsandnavigationofprospective spacecraftvehicles, was Head of ballistic and navigation service in control ofautomated and manned spacecraft. In 1985–1992 he coordinatedworkoncreatingfacilitiesformathematicalsimulationmodelingofcomplexmechanical systems inTsNIIMASH.Since 1993, leaderofresearchforRussianautomatedground-basedflightcontrolcomplexfor robotics and manned spacecraft forscientificandsocialpurposes.

AwardedLeninPrize,StateAwardoftheUSSR,theRedBannerandseveralmedalsoftheUSSR.

THE EARly WoRkS on THE STudy oF PRACTICAl PRoblEmS In THE dEvEloPmEnT oF bAllISTIC RoCkETS And THE ARTIFICIAl EARTH SATEllITESThe first artificial Earth satellite (AES) was

developedandlaunchedonOctober4,1957underthedirectionofS.P.Korolev.Theroad toward this event in our country was not simple and easy one, having madesteepzigzagsandloopsattimes.

Thefirstandthemainfactorwhichdeterminesthepossibilityofthesatellitelaunchisthepresenceofarocketabletoprovidethesatellitewiththeorbitalvelocity(about7.8km/s). The works on the problem study and the practical rocket developmenthavealreadystartedinourcountryinthebeginningofthe20thcentury.In1921thelaboratory inMoscowcreatedwith thestate fundingbegantheoperationsstudyingtheissuesofbuildingthesolidfuelrockets,withN.I.Tikhomirovbecomingtheheadoflaboratory.ItwasrelocatedtoLeningradin1925andcalledGas-DynamicsLabo-ratory(GDL)since1928.In1931thesector(laterthedepartment)oftheliquidfuelrocketswasformed(head—V.P.Glushko).AtGDLseriousadvanceswereachievedinthedevelopmentof liquidpropellantengines.Liquidfuelsystemswithapropul-sivepowerupto300kgfweredesignedandbuilt.

In1931 inMoscowbyOsoaviakhimthegroupof jetpropulsionstudies(GIRD)wasestablisheddirectedbyF.A.TsanderandthenbySergeyPavlovichKorolev.TheGIRDteamheadedbyM.K.TikhonravovhascreatedandlaunchedonAugust16,1933thefirstrocketinUSSR(GIRD-09)withanengineoperatingonliquidoxygenandpastegasoline.Therocketreachedthealtitudeabout500m�.

OnthebasisofGDLandGIRDtheJetPropulsionScientificResearchInstitute(RNII)wascreatedin1934inMoscowbytheGovernment,withI.T.Kleymenovbecomingitsdirector.AfterGIRD-09theGIRDandRNIIstaffhasdevelopedandlaunchedanum-berofliquidfuelrocketsreachingthekilometerheightsduringthetests.Butduringthepre-warandwaryearstheworksoncreatingthelong-rangerocketswerefrozen.Many leading specialists in rocketry (S.P.Korolev, V.P.Glushko, I.T.Kleymenov etal.)wererepressed.Theprioritywasgiventotheworksonthedesignoftacticalsolidfuelrockets��.

InGermany,as itbecameclear later,underthedeepsecrettheworksontheliquidfuel rocketsdesignhavegot thepriority, and theGermanscientistsunder theaus-picesofWernhervonBraunhavebuilttheV-2rocketcapableofprovidingthe900-kgmilitary payload with the 1.5km/s velocity and delivering it to the distance ofabout300km.Thewide-rangeutilizationofthistypeofrocketshasbegunin1944.Themessagesaboutit,aswellastheWinstonChurchill’sletterstoIosifVissarionov-ichStalinaboutV-2rocketshavestronglychangedtheattitudeofthecountryleaderstowardstheserockets.

IntheendofwarandduringthepostwaryearstheSovietgovernmentstartedurgent-lysendingthegroupsofprominentrocketspecialiststotheliberatedregionsforcol-lectingand studying the informationonV-2 rocket. S.P.Korolev,V.P.Glushkoandother specialists who survived the repression were set free. In February, 1946 theoperationofallgroupspointedatthestudyofV-2rocketswascombinedwithintheNordhausen Institute created in Germany, with General L.M.Gaidukov appoint-ed its director andS.P.Korolev—his deputy,GeneralEngineer. The InstitutewasoperatinginGermanyuntilMarch,1947.DuringthistimethedrawingsofV-2wererestored, nonutilized spare rocket parts were found. Using themmade possible toassemblesomeamountofrockets.

AllthedocumentsweredeliveredtoMoscowforthefollowingstudyandtestingtheassembledrockets.BythistimeonthebasisofordnancefactoryinPodlipki��theSci-entific Research Institute on Rocketry (NII-88) was established. S.P. Korolev wasassignedtheHeadofDepartmentNo.3.Thedesignbureau,computationaldivisions,experimental production, testing subdivisions and others were created within thedepartment.August26,1946isconsideredtobethebirthdayoftheKorolev’sOKB-1��,whenthedepartmentstructurewasapproved.TheabovementionedDecreealsoestablishedthecooperationofindustryfactorieswhichweregivenataskofstudyinganddevelopingthebasicrocketcomponents.

� Theworld’sfirstliquidfuelrocketwaslaunchedinUSAin1926byRobertGoddard,havingreachedthealtitudeabout15m.

�� ThoseworkshaveresultedinthecreationofKatyushamissilelauncherwhichplayedthehugeroleinthefightsoftheWorldWarII.

�� Moscowregion.

�� S.P.Korolev’s Rocket-Space Corporation ‘Energia’, 1996, BBK 39.62 I90. UDK629.78:658.5(091).

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The S.P.Korolev’s Department together with newly established cooperation wasentrustedtocompletethestudyofV-2assoonaspossibleandtocarryoutitsflighttest.ForthisgoalthetestrangewasbuiltinAstrakhanregionnearKapustinYarvil-lage.Thetestsofassembledrocketsstartedin1947.

The Government of USSR with the approval by I.V.Stalin has also charged theKorolev’sdepartmentwiththecooperationtocreatetherocketsimilartoV-2andtoarrange its production on the native factories from the native parts and materials.IthasgottheR-1index,andS.P.KorolevwasappointeditsChiefDesignerwhichheremained tobeduringall followingdevelopmentsof rocketsandspacecraft carriedoutatOKB-1.TheflighttestofR-1startedatKapustinYarinSeptember,1948.

Despite the hardwork, the development of amore powerful rocket R-2 started atOKB-1 in1947whichwasacceleratingthemilitarypayloadabout1 tonheavyupto2,2km/svelocityanddelivering it to thedistanceupto600km.Theprojectof therocketwiththeflightrangeofabout1000km(socalled ‘thousand’rocket)wasalsounder study. Research and development of the yetmore powerful and long-rangerockets was then (in 1948) beyond Korolev’s and his colleagues abilities, and thepracticalpossibilityof creating rockets like thatwasnot consideredbyalmostany-body,especiallyinthemilitarycommunity.

Theprospects andproblemsofbuilding the rocketsflying formany thousandkilo-meterswere then thought of byM.K.Tikhonravovwhowas appointed in 1946 thedeputy head of just created NII-4 at the Academy of Artillery (later NII-4 of theUSSRDefenseDepartment).TikhonravovwassenttoNII-4fromRNIItogetherwithagroupof colleagueswhich includedP.I.Ivanov,N.G.Chernyshev,V.N.Galkovsky,G.M.Moskalenkoetal.In1947groupwasalsojoinedbytheyoungmilitaryland-sur-veyorI.M.Yatsunsky.Onthebasisof thegroupmembers, thedepartmentwascre-atedatNII-4headedbyP.I.Ivanov.

MikhailKlavdievich,perfectlyknowingtheworksofK.E.Tsiolkovskywhodevelopedtheideaof‛rockettrains’,decidedtoinvestigatetheprincipalpossibilityofachievingthelongrangeofflightbythestagedrocketsobtainedbypacketingone-stagerocketsalreadyunderdevelopmentatOKB-1.

Rocket packet– cluster of rockets arranged inparallelwith all their engines start-ing and burning simultaneously. Rockets in packet are divided into two-three (ormore)parts,withtheirpropellantlinesconnectedtoeachother.Firsttheenginesofallrocketsinthepackareworkingfromthefuelstoredwithintherocketsofthefirstpart.Uponrunningoutofthefuelemptyrocketsarethrownaway.Therestwiththefulltankscontinuetheflightusingthefuelfromtherocketsofthesecondpartoftheassembly.Theemptiedsecondpartrocketsarealsothrownoffandthethirdfullpartisperformingtheflight,andsoon.Thelastpartofthepackisprovidingthepayloadwiththelargestvelocity.Wewillcallthepacketslikethispackswiththefueltrans-fer.Movingfurtheralongtherequiredtrajectorybyinertia,thepayloadperformstheflightforthenecessarydistance.

M.K.Tikhonravov entrusted I.M.Yatsunsky to develop the necessarymethods andto perform the calculations on the estimates of packet capabilities. In early 1948I.M.Yatsunskyhasreceivedanumberofinterestingresults.Itturnedout,forexam-ple,thatthepacketmadeoffiveR-1rocketsisabletoacceleratethemilitarypayloadof 1 tonup to~3.5km/s velocity and to transfer it by thedistanceup to 1300km.Packetoffiverocketseachofthemflyingfor1000kmrangeisboostingthepayloadupto~5.5km/svelocityanddeliversittothe4500kmdistance;packetof10rockets

likethisbooststhepayloadupto6.5km/s,asaresultitfliesfor7000km.Increasingthenumberof‛thousand’rocketsonecanreachtheorbitalvelocityofflight—delivertheartificialEarthsatelliteintoorbit.

The performed calculations have shown the principal possibility of achieving anyrange of flight formilitary payloads and even that of delivering the artificialEarthsatellitesintoorbitusingthepacksofrocketsdevelopedatthetechnologylevelavail-ableatOKB-1by1948.

M.K.Tikhonravovhassetahighvalueontheresultsobtained.HehasreportedthemtoS.P.Korolevwhounderstoodtheirprincipalimportanceandsupportedtheinten-tionofMikhailKlavdievichtogiveatalkonthistopicatthescientificcouncilofNII-4.Thepresentationwasgiven in thebeginningof summer 1948 in thepresenceofspecialistsandscientistsfromotherinstitutions.Unfortunately,thelargemajorityofthemeetingparticipantsdidn’tappreciatethenoveltyofthepresentedworkandtheprincipalvalueoftheresultsobtained.Thereweremanyimpetuousemotionalnega-tivespeeches,sometimesevenacid-tonguedonesandinsultingforMikhailKlavdiev-ich.Criticizedweremostlyparticular,non-principalquestionswhichwere,ofcourse,littleelaboratedbythetime.Forinstance,theconstructiondifficultiesofassemblingtherocketsinthepackwerepointedat;itwasstatedthattheincreasedairresistanceduringtheflightofthepackintheatmospherewill‛eatup’allthepacketadvantages;operationdifficultieswerementionedandsoon.Asthefutureresearchhasshown,alltheseproblemsofbuildingthepacketswereovercomable.

Despitethecritics,M.K.TikhonravovhasrepeatedhispresentationonJuly14,1948attheAnnualmeetingoftheAcademyofArtillery.Manyhigh-levelmanagers,anum-ber ofmilitary specialists of the generals rankwerepresenthere.The talkwas lis-tenedtowithagreatattention,howeverthereactionofthemostmeetingparticipantswassimilartothatofNII-4scientificcouncilmembers�.

Butstill thenoveltyof ideasandtheobtainedresults, feasibilityof theconstructiveand technical parameters taken as the input data have aroused the scientific andengineeringthoughthavingcausedthemorewideanddetailedstudyoftheproblemofcreatingthestagedrockets.Workslikethisstarteddevelopingsoon,especiallyatOKB-1.

OneoftheconsequencesofM.K.Tikhonravov’stalkwasthefactthatthehighermili-tarycommandmentcloseddowntheP.I.Ivanov’sdepartmentatNII-4asdealingwithnon-topicalproblems,andM.K.TikhonravovhimselfwasremovedfromthepositionofDeputyHeadofInstituteandappointedthescientificconsultant.ItwasonlyafterthestrongrequestfromMikhailKlavdievichthatI.M.Yatsunskyalonewaspermittedtostayforcontinuingthestudyofproblemsofstagedrocketsdesign.Widerworksonthestagedrockets,andespeciallyontheissuesofsatellitecreationwerestrictlypro-hibitedatNII-4.However,M.K.Tikhonravov’sreportwaspublishedinthejournalsAcademyofArtilleryReportsandRocketry��.

� YatsunskyI.M.JustificationbyM.K.Tikhonravovoftheideaofstagedrocketwithpacketscheme(tothe30-thanniversaryofM.K.Tikhonravov’stalk)//InthecollectedworksFromthehistoryofaviationandcosmonautics.M.:USSRAcad.ofSci.,ScientificCommitteeonthehistoryandphilosophyofscience.1979.V.36.P.185.

�� Tikhonravov M.K., engineer.Ways of providing the long firing distances by the rockets.//Rocketry.1949.No.3.

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After R-2 rocketOKB-1 has developed the project of one-staged rocket R-3 boost-ingthemilitarypayloadof3tonsweightupto~4.5km/svelocityanddeliveringitto3000kmdistance.OnthebasisofR-3projectbyrecommendationofNII-88scien-tificandtechnicalcouncilanewwarmissilewasdesigned(R-5)abletoacceleratethemilitarypayloadto3.2km/svelocityanddeliverittothedistanceupto1200km.R-5rocketwasbuilt, itsflighttesthavingstartedinMay,1953.R-3rocketdevelopmentdidn’tgobeyondthedrawingphase,buttheobtainedresultshavemadealargeinflu-enceontheprogressoffollowingworksonrocketspacetechnologyatOKB-1.

In1949,takingintoaccounttheresultscontainedinM.K.Tikhonravov’sreportattheAnnualmeetingofAcademyofArtilleryin1948,S.P.Korolevhasformulatedthepro-posaltotheGovernmentofUSSRonopeningthenewresearchtopicwhichwassug-gestedtoperformatOKB-1togetherwithalliedinstitutionsthepreliminarystudiesofthepossibilitytocreaterocketsdeliveringmilitarypayloadsto5000…10000kmdistances.In1950Korolev’sproposalwasacceptedbytheSovietGovernment,andN-3researchtopicwasstarted.

ThiswasassistednotonlybythesuccessesachievedatOKB-1butalsobythegeopo-liticalsituation.TheterritoryofUSSRwassurroundedbythemoreandmoredenseringofUSAmilitarybasesfacilitatingtheaccessofUSairforcetothemajorstrate-gicalareasofUSSR.Thepossibilityofstrike-backby theUSSRaviationturnedoutto bemuchmore difficult since USAwere residing far away. Thus the creation ofhard-to-interceptmilitaryrocketsreachingtheterritoryofUSAandtheirmainalliesbecameofthespecialvaluefortheUSSRGovernment.

After closing down P.I.Ivanov’s department at NII-4, S.P.Korolev has given theNII-4 the official order on the future studies of the staged ballistic rockets withinthe planned N-3 research topic to support M.K.Tikhonravov.Mikhail Klavdievichhasgotagainthepossibilitytostaffhisgroupanddeveloptheworksoncreationofstagedrockets,and–undercover–ontheissuesofcreatingtheartificialEarthsat-ellite. InDecember, 1949Tikhonravov succeeded in involving the young engineersG.Yu.Maksimov, L.N.Soldatova, Ya.I.Koltunov and A.V.Brykov to work. In 1950G.M.Moskalenkowas again involved into group, B.S.Razumikhin also came in. Itwas the same yearwhenO.V.Gurko and the author of this articlewere ordered tothegroupforpreparingdiplomaandtheforthcomingwork.In1953V.N.Galkovskyreturnedtothegroup.ThementionedcollaboratorshavemadeupthebasicstaffofM.K.Tikhonravov’sgroupatNII-4�.

InelaborationofhisideasM.K.TikhonravovhasdecidedtocarryouttheresearchofthestagedrocketsofawiderclasswithintheframeworkofS.P.Korolev’sorder.HehasproposedtoconsiderthepacketsconsistingnotonlyoftheidenticaldevelopedorplannedrocketsbutalsothepacketsofdifferentrocketswhichcanbecreatedbasedontheexperiencegainedatOKB-1.Tikhonravovhasalsodecidedtoanalyzethepow-ercharacteristicsofstagedrocketswiththeserialoperation(enginesofsucharocketworkinseries:firststage;then,afterthrowingoffthefirststage,secondstageenginesarefiredandsoon),aswellascombinedschemesofstagedrockets(forinstance,firstandsecondstage—packetscheme,withthethirdonebeingfiredafterthrowingoffthefirsttwousedstages).

� YatsunskyI.M.OntheactivityofM.K.Tikhonravovduringtheperiodof1947–1953injustifi-cationofthepossibilityofcreatingthestagedrockets.//IntheworksFromthehistoryofavia‑tionandcosmonautics.M.,USSRAcad.ofSci.,Sovietnationalunionofhistoriansofnaturalsciencesandtechnology.1980.V.42.P.31–39.

The so called simplest two-stage rocketswere also consideredwhich consist of thecentralrocket(secondstage)andtwo-fourattachablesiderockets.Fuellinesofrock-ets are not connected to each other. The effect of combined rocket is achieved bymeansofproducingalargeraccelerationonthesiderocketscomparedtothecentralone.Thisismadeatthecostofreducingthefuelcapacityinanyofthesiderockets(andhenceoftheirlaunchmasses)andincreasingitinthecentralrocket,supposingmeanwhilethatallrocketsareutilizingthesameengines.Byoptimizingthefuelloadsonecanachievethemaximumefficiency.

Besidestheanalysisofpowercharacteristics,anumberofotherissuesofbuildingthestagedrocketswasalsoconsideredatM.K.Tikhonravov’sgroup.

Ballistic capabilities of staged rockets of different kinds were studied, possibleschemesandtoolsofjoiningthestagesofcombinedrockets.Ballisticresearchcom-putationsofvariouskindsofrocketswerecarriedout.Thegoaloftheresearchwastofindout theoptimalvaluesof thebasicparametersof thestagedrocketsprovid-ingtheminimuminitialmasswiththegivenpayloadandflightrange.Issuesofflightstabilityoftherocketpackintheatmospherewerestudied,aswellasprovidingtherequiredaccuracyoftrajectoryrealizationduringtheenginesoperation.Problemsofcreatingthelaunchsitesofcombinedrocketswereconsidered�.

Problemsofprotecting theheadsof intercontinental rockets from theaerodynamicheating during their motion in atmosphere at the descending part of the trajectorywerestudied.Differentmethodsofrocketoperationanditsenginescut-offmomentwereinvestigated.

G.Yu.Maksimovin1950was investigating insecret theconditionsofdeliveringtheartificialEarthsatellitesintothecircularorbitsofdifferentheightandhasshownthatitiseffectivetodeliverthesatellitesintotheorbitshigherthan300kmintwophases.Atfirsttherocketisdeliveringittotheperigeeoftheinitialorbit,thenattheapogeeitisgivenanadditionalimpulseforthetransfertothecircularorbitwiththeheightequal to the apogee height of the transfer ellipsewhichwas later calledHohmannellipse.

InMarch, 1950 the scientific and technical conference on the rocketrywasheld atNII-4.InthereportRocketpacksandtheprospectsoftheirdevelopmentM.K.Tik-honravovhaselaboratedtheideasoutlinedinthepreviousspeeches,completedthemwiththenewresultsandforthefirsttimeclearlyspokenaboutthenearestperspec-tivesofcreatingtheartificialEarthsatellites,uptothehumanflightsonthem.Bythetime the two-stagepacketof threeR-3 rocketswas considered in the groupon thetechnicalorderbyS.P.Korolevanditwasshowntobeableafterthenecessarymodi-ficationstoprovidenotonlythetransferofheavymilitarypayloadtoanyrange,butalsothesatelliteorbitinsertion.

The Tikhonravov’s talk was listened to attentively, but mistrustful and satiricalspeecheswerestillprevailing.S.P.Korolevwithoneofhisdeputieswaspresentattheconference.

ThedevelopmentsofthepackwiththreeR-3rocketswereincludedbyS.P.KorolevintothedrawingsofR-3��.Thatanalysiswasperhapsthefirstattemptofinvestigating

� In1951thedevelopmentsofthelatterproblemtogetherwithYanIvanovichKoltunovwerepassedontoanothersubdivisionofNII-4.SeeYatsunskyI.M.//Ibid.

�� ThecreativelegacyofAcademicianS.P.Korolev.M.:Nauka,1980.P.300.

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theissueofcreatingtheAESbasedonrealprojectdevelopmentsofone-stagerocketsofKorolev’sOKB.

Workson studying theproblemsof building the staged rocketswere continuing inTikhonravov’sgroupuntil1953.Theresultsofresearchwereregularlypresented intheformofscientific-technicalreportsandsenttoOKB-1.Itislittleknownthatintheearly50’sthegrouphaspreparedandM.K.TikhonravovhaspresentedtotheUSSRGovernmenttworeportnoteswhichwereargumentativelypointingatthepossibilityofcreatinginthenearestfuturethestagedballisticrocketsabletodeliverthemilitarypayloads to intercontinentaldistances.Probably these lettershaveplayedadefiniteroleinadoptingtheresolutionofGovernmentoncreatingthestagedR-7rocket.

Ofcourse,M.K.Tikhonravov’sreportsin1948andthefollow-upworksofhisgroupcollaboratorshavenotdeterminedtheprojectoutlookofthefuturefirstSovietstagedR-7rocket,thatrequiredthehugeworkoftheOKB-1staffanditsalliedfactories.Butthatresearchhaveshownthepossibilityofcreatingthestagedrocketsandthewaysofsolvinganumberofmajorproblems.ThankstoitS.P.Korolevalreadyintheverybeginningoftheprojectdevelopmentshadthebasisformakinganumberofprinci-paldecisions:choiceofballisticrocketsfordeliveringthepayloadstotheinterconti-nentaldistancesinsteadofthewingedoneswhichwerealsoconsideredatthetime;packetschemeofthestagedrocketforfuturedevelopmentandsoon.

In 1953 S.P.Korolev hasmade themajor project decisions on the intercontinentalballisticrocketR-7,in1954theDecreeofUSSRGovernmentwasissuedonthecre-ationofR-7atOKB-1andestablishingthecorrespondingcollaborationofalliedinsti-tutions.InthisrespectanissuearoseonarrangingtheflightdevelopmenttestsofR-7.ThesolutionofthisissuewasorderedbythesamegovernmentalDecreetoNII-4oftheUSSRDefenseMinistrytogetherwiththerelatedcooperationoffactories.ThetestrangebuiltearliernearKapustinYarvillagewasnotsuitableforR-7rocketforanumberofreasons–inparticular,thetrajectoryoftestflightwouldpassthroughthe rather populated areas and the rocket couldhave fallen there in case of thefailedflight.

Calculations and analysis for a significant number of possible locations of the testrangeforR-7wereperformedatNII-4(I.M.Yatsunsky,I.K.Bazhinov).Oneofcon-sideredpositions–launchintheareaofDzhusalytown(Kazakhstan)andtherangeofwarheads fall onKamchatka—wasapprovedby theStateCommission, and theworkswerestartedonpreparationandbuildingthetestrangeforR-7flightdevelop-menttests�.

Onceinearly1953meandG.Yu.Maksimovwerediscussingtheissuethatmanyspe-cializedinstitutionshadbeenalreadyinvolvedintothespecificworksoncreatingR-7rocketandthepilotworkofourgroupinthisareawasbecomingnotverynecessary.AnideaappearedimmediatelythatitistimetofocusourmaineffortsattheproblemstudyofcreatingtheartificialEarthsatellites.AlmostnobodywasdealingwiththesetopicsinUSSRduringthattime.Thedraftplanoffutureresearchontheproblemsofsatellitecreationwasquicklymadeup.Solvingtheseproblemswasthenextcrucial

� ThetopicofcreatingthetestrangeforR-7,orasitwaslatercalled—Baikonurcosmodrome—isaseparatelargeissueandwewillnotcoverithere.ItisshortlydescribedinthememoriesofMozzhorinYu.A.That’showitwas…(M.:‘Internationaleducationprogram’,2000.P.74)andBazhinovI.K.Yu.A.Mozzhorinandthefirsttestrangeandgroundsupportfacilitiesinthena-tiverocket-spacetechnology.(Korolev:TSNIImash,Cosmonauticsandrocketindustry,2000,No.21).

conditionprovidingthesatellitelaunchpossibility.Ofcourse,todaythisplanappearstobequite simple, but in thosedays the ideasput in it have inspiredus.WehaveimmediatelytoldMikhailKlavdievichaboutit,hehaswarmlysupportedusandaskedtomaketheplanmoredetailed,andtodeveloponitsbasistheproposaltoopenthescientific-researchtopiconjustificationofpossibilitiesandwaysofcreatingthearti-ficialEarthsatelliteatNII-4.Aproposallikethiswaspreparedwiththeparticipationofthewholegroup,andTikhonravovhaspresentedittothemanagementoftheInsti-tuteandtheDepartmentofrocketweaponatGAU(ManAutolleryAdministration).TheproposaltoopenthespecialresearchanddevelopmentworkonsatelliteatNII-4supportedbyS.P.Korolevwasapproved,andin1954thetopicNo.72intheinstituteturnedintoreality.M.K.Tikhonravovwasappointedthescientifichead,I.M.Yatsun-skyhavingbecomeprincipal investigator.Allofuswereresponsible for thevarioussectionsofthetopic.TheapprovalofresearchworkonsatelliteproblemshasbecomethedirectevidenceofacknowledgementoftheideasandeffortsofM.K.Tikhonravovandhisgroup.Meanwhilethestrictbanontheworksonsatellite issuesintroducedearlieratNII-4wasautomaticallylifted.

InthenetworkoftopicNo.72itwasplannedtostudythebasicproblemsofcreatingthesatellitesandtomarkthewaysofsolvingthem�.Workswereheldinthefollow-ingdirections.

First,thetrajectoriesofdeliveringthesatellitestodifferentorbitswerestudied.Thepracticalmethods of calculation of staged rockets trajectories developed earlier byI.M.Yatsunskyandbymewereadoptedtoplacingthesatellites intovariousorbits.Using these methods we were carrying out the mass estimates of satellites to belaunchedbyR-7rockets.

Secondly, it was necessary to check whether the accuracy of R-7 control systemis enough for putting the satellite to orbit close to the required one, and whetherthe launch errorswill not result in the quick satellite fall to Earth.With this viewG.Yu.Maksimovhasevaluatedtheimpactofsucherrorsontheorbitdeviationfromthe requirement under the continuous operation of rocket engines.A similarworkwasdonebymerelatingtothe‘discontinuous’phaseoflaunchwhichcantakeplace,as noted above, during the launch of satellites to the orbits above 300km. It wasfinally shown that the control system accuracy of the developedR-7 is enough fordeliveringsatellitestotherequiredorbits.

Third,itwasnecessarytoanalyzehowthemajorperturbationsareaffectingtheoper-ationduringthelong-termsatelliteflightandforhowlongtheywillallowforspace-crafttoflyontheorbit.TheseissueswerestudiedbyG.Yu.MaksimovandI.M.Yat-sunsky. The formerwas analyzing the effects on satellite orbits of noncentrality ofthegravitationalfieldofEarthduetoitsellipticity,gravitytugfromtheSunandtheMoon, as well as the remnants of the Earth atmosphere on the low orbits, the lat-ter—theeffectonthesatelliteorbitfromthehigherharmonicsoftheEarthgravita-tionalfield.Asaresultthevaluesoforbitdeviationduetotheseperturbationswereestimatedandtheconditionsoftheiracceptabilitywereidentified.

Already during that initial period we were worried by the problem of satellitesencounteronorbit.Thoughweknewlawsoforbitalmotionwell,stillthepossibility

� BazhinovI.K.TheactivityofM.K.Tikhonravovin1950–1956inthefieldofresearchofthebasicproblemsofcreatingthesatellites.//IntheworksFromthehistoryofaviationandcos‑monautics.M.,USSRAcad.ofSci.,Sovietnationalunionofhistoriansofnaturalsciencesandtechnology.1980.V.42.P.39–45.

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ofrendezvousoftwosatellitesmovingatthevelocitiesofabout8km/swasnoteasytoaccept.Eventhefastestartilleryprojectileswereflyingatthespeedof1.5…2km/s,buttheirapproachesontrajectories…?Tikhonravovhasassignedmetoevaluatethisproblem.Ihavetheoreticallyconsideredandshownthepossibilityofsatelliterendez-vousonorbitsandtheirapproachwiththeaidofdocking.Intheformofstatementtheproblemofsatellitecontrolunderthesecircumstanceswasalsoanalyzed.

Thevitalissueofsatelliteflightsupportistheregularcontrolofitsorbit.Havingana-lyzed the specifics of satellite flight and possiblemeasuring facilities, I.M.Yatsun-skyandG.Yu.Maksimovhavedevelopedyet in1953 therelevantmethodoforbitalparametersdeterminationfromthechangesofsatellitemotionparameters(satelliterange, direction angles and radial velocities measured by radar or optical facilitieslocatedindifferentpointsonthesurfaceofEarth).Theaccuracyoforbitdetermina-tion from such measurements was estimated. The similar method was later updat-edandrealizedbyP.E.ElyasbergandV.D.YastrebovontheStrela�computersandimplementedatNII-4fortherealsatellitemotioncontrol.

In solving their tasks the majority of satellite types need to determine and stabi-lize in space the positions of their axes, aswell as to turn so that axeswould takethe required position. Theways andmeans for thesemaneuverswere analyzed byG.Yu.Maksimov.GlebYuryevichhasconsideredthepossibilitiesofsatelliteorienta-tion in space by observing the Sun, the Moon, Earth and the bright stars from theboardandalsoanalyzedtherequirementsoninstrumentstoperformtheseobserva-tions.Thegyrosystemswerealsoexaminedallowingtotakereferenceaxesinspaceandtoprovidetherequiredsatelliteturns(thelatterworksassistedbytheauthor).

Anotherimportantissueofsatelliteoperationsupportwasprovidingitssystemswithelectricity.TikhonravovassignedL.N.Soldatovatotakeoverthistopic.Shehascon-sideredthevariouswaysofobtainingtheelectricpoweronsatellites,ontherecom-mendationofMikhailKlavdievich consulted thedistinguishedSoviet physicists.Asaresultthemaineffortswerefocusedonthephotocell-basedsourcesofenergy,theoutlookofthissourceanditsbasiccharacteristicswereevaluated.Nowthesesourcesofenergyareusedonalmostallsatellites.

Anotherimportantandsomehowunexpectedissuewasthatofcarryingawayofsatel-litetheheatenergyproducedbyitsinstrumentsandobtainedfromthesolarandter-restrialradiation,sothatthesatellitewouldn’tgetoverheatedoroverfrozen.I.M.Yat-sunskyandO.V.Gurkoweresolvingthisproblem.Theyhavestudiedtheconditionsof radiation absorption by the satellite surface from the Sun, Earth and of radiat-ingthe innerheatofsatellite towardsthespace,analyzedthebalanceconditionsofreceivedandradiatedheats,developed thesystemof special satellite surface layersprovidingthenecessaryconditions.Asystemofshutterswasdevelopedwhoseopen-ingandclosingallowed tocontrol the thermalenvironment inside thesatellite, therequirementonthesystemofinternalforcedventilationwereformulated.

Satellitestayingforalongtimeinspaceisconstantlyexposedtotheimpactsofsmall-erand largermeteorparticlesmovingathugevelocities. In thisregardA.V.Brykovhasestimatedthepossibilityofdangerous impactsandcametotheconclusionthatitissmallandcanbeneglected.Fiftyyearsofspaceflightexperiencehaveconfirmedthisestimate.

� Russianfor‘arrow’.

Thegroupwasgivingahighvalue to theproblemstudyof returning theunpilotedandmannedsatellitestoEarth.O.V.GurkoandI.M.YatsunskyweredealingwiththeissueofprotectingthewarheadsofICBMfromoverheatingandhavedevelopedtherelevantmethodandtheprotectioncalculationtools.Theyhaveappliedtheseresultsto thesatellitesprotectionduringtheirflight in theatmosphereat thereturn.Theyhave obtained the corresponding estimates of the thermal protection system. Theauthorofarticlewasstudyingthere-entrytrajectoriesofthesatellitestoEarth,hav-ing indicated the trajectorieswhichmet the requirements to theheating andover-loads for the types of satellites under analysis. The possible deviations of the land-ing points from the calculated values were estimated. Together with G.Yu.Maksi-movsimilarestimateswereappliedtothesatelliteperforminguncontrolledballisticdescentinatmosphere.

TheworksontopicNo.72allowedtoestimatemass,sizeandpowercharacteristicsofthemainunitsandsystemsofsatellites.Basedonthisdatatheprojectconfigurationsofsatellitesweredevelopedinthegroup.Twoversionsofautomatedsatelliteswereconsideredherewith.Thefirstcase—satelliteorbitingattheheightof200…300kmand having no possibility to orientate in space. This satellite was given an index‘Object ‘D’, with A.V.Brykov and L.N.Soldatova developing its configuration. Thesecondcase—satelliteabletonavigateandturninspaceonthedatasentfromEarth.Itwaslabeled‘Object‘OD’,andV.N.Galkovskywasdealingwithitsconfiguration.

Satellites have to be equipped with the onboard systems of communication withEarthprovidingthetelemetrycontrolofonboardsystems,trajectorymeasurements,interaction with the ground-based radio commanding systems etc. Those years atNII-4deviceslikethiswerestudiedattherelevantsubdivisionsapplicabletoequip-pingR-7rocketswiththem.Possiblecharacteristicsoftheseonboardsystemsforsat-elliteswereevaluatedbyI.M.Yatsunsky,A.V.Brykov,V.N.GalkovskyonthebasisofconsultationswiththespecialistsofthementionedNII-4divisions.

Thecompletedworksallowedtodeterminethepossibleoutlookofthefirstautomat-edsatellitesasawholeandtheirbasiccharacteristics,toshowthepossibilityandthewaysofsolvingthemajorproblemsofcreatingthesatellites,aswellasthepossibilityoflaunchingthembyR-7rocket.

ItshouldbenotedthatthetheoreticalanalysisofanumberofproblemsofcreatingsatellitesduringthattimewerecarriedoutundertheauspicesofM.V.KeldyshattheDepartmentofAppliedMathematicsoftheSteklov’sMathematicalInstitute(OPMofMIANUSSR).Inparticular,D.E.Okhotsimskyhassolvedthevariationalproblemontheoptimizationoftheparametersofthesimplestpacket,togetherwithT.M.Eneevoptimized the laws of controlling the R-7 rocket at the active stage of its flight inemptyspace.TogetherwiththesescientistsG.P.Taratynova,M.L.Lidovwerestudy-ing the effects of different perturbations on the satellite operation and so on. StaffofOPMandTikhonravov’s teamwere constantly collaborating and exchanging theobtainedresults.Ifsomeimportantresearchesweretosomeextentduplicatingeachother,thatwasincreasingthereliabilityoftheachievedresultsinthenew,completelyunknownbythetimefieldofknowledge.

Works on the satellites were carried out very hard, and by 1954 the ways of solv-ing the main problems and the possible characteristics of the future satellites werealready estimated. On the basis of these resultsMikhail Klavdievich has given theteam a command to prepare the report note for theUSSRGovernmentAbout theartificialEarthsatellites.Draftofthisnotewasprepared,andTikhonravovreportedit

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Vladimir GuBaReVRUSSIAAwriter, journalist andplaywright.Author of books, films andTVprogramsaboutscientists’livesandprogressofscienceintheworld(Nuclear Age, The Bomb, Atomic Age, Chernobyl, Farewell to20th Century, 20thCentury, Confessions, Dream of the Universe,Windows from the Future, Agony of Sredmash).Thefirst journal-ist to have reached the blown up nuclear reactor a few hours aftertheChernobylcatastrophe.CurrentlyworkingontheseriesofbooksdevotedtoRussianscienceandscientists.LeadsaprogramRealnayaFantastika(TheRealFiction)inKulturaTV-channel.

Bornin1938.GraduatedfromMoscowKuibyshevInstituteofEngi-neeringandBuilding.WasachiefeditorofscientificdepartmentsinPravdaandKomsomolskayaPravdanewspapers.

Awarded the USSR State Prize (1974), the Lenin Komsomol Prize(1975),theSignofHonour(twice),LaurenceOlivierAwardfromtheBritishTheatreSocietyfortheplaySarcophagusonChernobyltragedy.

THE voICE oF ‘PS’, oR WHAT HAS THE HoRn Sung AT THE oCTobER dAWn In 1957?

toS.P.KorolevandPresidentofUSSRAcademyofSciencesM.V.Keldysh.ThelatteraskedhiscollaboratorsD.E.OkhotsimskyandT.M.Eneevtotakepartintheprepara-tionofthereportnoteaswelltakingintoaccounttheresultsofstudiesonsatellitesatOPM.ThefinalversionofthenotewassignedbyM.K.TikhonravovandpresentedbyS.P.KorolevtoUSSRGovernmentin1954�.Asitisknown,onthebasisofthisreportnote andS.P.Korolev’s proposal on the launchof thefirst artificialEarth satelliteswiththeaidofR-7rocketsthegovernmentalResolutionwasadoptedin1956whichwasassigningOKB-1tocreateandlaunchtheartificialsatellitebyR-7rocketandalsodeterminingthescheduleofworksandcooperationofalliedinstitutionsforsolvingthedesignatedtask.

In 1956 L.N.Soldatova and G.Yu.Maksimov have moved from NII-4 to OKB-1.Thenin1956M.K.TikhonravovhasalsojoinedS.P.KorolevwhocreatedthefamousDepartmentNo.9 atOKB-1. Itwas this departmentwhere theworks on design ofboth first Earth satellites and first automated stations for the flights to theMoon,MarsandVenuswereconcentrated,thefirstspacecraftofVostokandVoskhodserieswerealsodesignedhere.Assoonastheprojectsbecameready,theconstructingandotherdivisionsofOKB-1wereinvolvedintothecreationofthefirstspacecraft,aswellasthealliedinstitutionsdevelopingandbuildingthenecessarycomponentparts��.AllthesebigandhardworkshavefinallyledtothelaunchoftheFirstartificialEarthsat-ellite—SputnikonOctober4,1957.

� ThecreativelegacyofAcademicianS.P.Korolev.M.:Nauka,1980.P.343.

�� S.P.Korolev’sRocket-SpaceCorporation‘Energia’,1996.

For many of those who was at Baikonur onOctober 4, 1957 and sawoff thefirst artificialEarth satellite, the count of thenewspaceerastartedwiththesoundofhornthatwashearda fewminutesprior to thelaunch.

Suddenly—thiswasnotinthelaunchpreparationschedule—ahornerturnedupontheemptylaunchpad.Heraisedhisheadandtookthehorntohislips.

Tosome,thissoundremindedoftheFirstcavalryarmy,ofthepastwar,ofthepastyears.

Theothersfeltthatthehornerisdeclaringthefuture,whichtheyweredreamingofforsolongandinthenameofwhichtheydidnotsparethemselves.

Nohornersturnedupforanyofthelaunchesthatpreviousyearsaboundedwith.Hewasthereonlyonce–onOctober4,1957,andconnectedthepeoplethatopenedthespaceera,andlinkedthepasttothefuture.

Iknowthattherearestoriesthatchallengethisfactandconsideritareporter’stale.Maybetheyareright,butstill,isn’tthisabeautifullegend?!

Ihavetoadmitnow:Ihavehada lotofopportunities toverifywhether thehornerwasreallythereonthelaunchpadorthatwasjustthewayanotherspacemythwas

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born.However,Ineverusedanyofthesechances,becauseIthinkthishornershouldhavebeeninBaikonuronOctober4,1957!

Themythsandlegendsinourtimeshouldbecomereality,otherwisewewouldhaveneverbeenthecreators,participantsandwitnessesofhowthespaceeraopenedupbeforethehumanity.

* * *I believe, a few pages in the biography of the

firstSputnikareofparticular interest.It isnotbecausetheyaremoreimportantorsignificantthanothers.Theymorelikelybearamore‘personaltouch’,asthesestorieshelpedmeunderstandwhySputnikbrought together somany scientists, engineersandmilitary.Theirlivesbecameapartofthose‘beeps’thattheplanetheardinOcto-ber,1957.AndwhenIseetheflightofthefirstSputnikinthedocumentaries,thesesoundsbringonthememoriesofmygreatcompatriotswhoIwasluckytohavemetandspokento.

Also,tobehonest,Iamproudofhavinganopportunityforthefirsttimetotellaboutthesemilestonesofourspacehistory…

1Iguess,Ishouldstartmytalewiththetulips…

For each of us, who has somehow shared in the space achievement of our people,thereishis‘own’Baikonur.Everyoneseesitdifferently,especiallyonanniversarycel-ebrations.

Onewouldthinkthatweshouldhavethoroughlycountedtherocketlaunches(overa few thousand by now), number of the cosmonauts who were launched into theEarthorbitfromhere(quiteafewdozensbynow),andothermemorableevents,forinstance, visits from variousworld leaders, presidents and prime-ministers (also afewdozens)etc.

However, I remember something completely different. First of all, the tulips. Isawthemforthefirsttimeonmyfifthorsixthvisittothelaunchpad.Beforethespring’68myBaikonurvisitsfellexclusivelyonthelateautumn,winterorsummer—thiswasthewaythe launchscheduleworkedout.That iswhythisbarrensteppe,wherethedull landscape was only slightly animated by the rocket assembly buildings andlaunchpads,wasveryunwelcome:ascorchingheatinthesummer,piercingcoldinthe winter and constant wind blowing away any remaining romanticism from you.Thiswasatoughrealityand,tobehonest,onlythejobnecessitiesandsenseoffel-lowshipmadeyoutraveltothisdistantandinhospitableland.Thecosmonauticswasbornfromtheselflessdedicatedworkofthepeopleinmilitaryuniformandcivilianclothesconfrontingthechallenges.EachoneofthemdeservedtheHerooflabormed-al,becausetheirlaborwasreallyheroic.

Thedecisiontobuildacosmodrome(launchpad)wasmadeonFebruary12,1955.

Naturally, thiswashighlyconfidential,anditwaskeptatopsecretuntilOctober4,1957sothoroughlythatnooneknewofthat,eventhosewhoworkedinS.P.Korolev’sDesignBureau(OKB-1).

Andwe,theMoscowstudents,hadahunchthatsomethingunusualwasconstructedinthesteppe.Ihadachanceto‘raisethevirginland’in1955,1956and1957withthefirststudentcrews.

Oncewetookarideonatrucktoastoreinavillageabout100kilometersfromwherewewerebased.Therumorhadit,therewasRaspberrywineonsalethere.Ahundredkilometersinsteppeisnotadistance,sowedrovetherebyastraightline–webuiltthefirstroadsthere.Muchtooursurprise,wewerestoppedbyamilitarypatrol.Sowehadtoturnback.

InabouttenyearsIfoundoutthatwewerestoppedontheBaikonurboundary.Thisconstructionwas‘coveredup’bythe‘virginland’operations.Itwasofficiallyknown,thatthemilitarytrooptrainsheadingforKazakhstanweregoingtheretocultivatethevirginsteppelands.Although,themilitaryinstallersdidnothavetogofar:theyhavejustcompletedtheSemipalatinsknucleartestsite,andnowtheyweretransferredtoanewsite–thistimearocketlaunchsite.Notawordaboutthespacethattime…

So,whatdoIrememberontheanniversarydate?

Firstofall,peopleofBaikonur.Therearealotofthem.Butlargemeteorssometimesleavealongtrackevenagainstastarrysky…

GeneralSchubnikovmetKorolevattheofficeoftheSecretaryoftheCommunistPar-tyCentralCommitteewhenhewasgettinghisnewassignment.ThenhespentafewdaysattheOKB-1wherehewasintroducedtoanunusualproject.Thisnewassign-ment really was very odd even for someone who saw a lot in his life. He could noteven memorize all the structures that were supposed to be constructed in the baresteppe,wheretherewasvirtuallynothing–nowater,noheating,nocommunicationorroads.

‘Thisistheplacefromwhichwemakeastepintospace’,saidSergeyPavlovich,andGeneralSchubnikovtrustedthisman.

‘Wewilldoeverythingontime,notasingledayovertheschedule!’retortedGeorgyMaksimovich,andKorolevneverhadadoubtthismanwouldkeephisword.

However, whereas Schubnikov knew nothing about Korolev, but Sergey PavlovichwaswellawareofSchubnikovandhisdeeds.

During IIWorldWar, he first constructed defense facilities at riverDon and nearStalingrad, and then, when the offensive was launched, constructed bridges andrivercrossingsitesandbuilttheroads.ThesewerehisrivercrossingstructuresthatopenedthewayforRybalko’sarmoredtanksacrossVislatoBerlin,andthebridgesallstoodunderthismightyvehicles!

ThevictorydayforgeneralSchubnikovwasaturningpoint—hestartedreconstruct-ingthesitesthatweredestroyedduringthebattles.ThebridgesinVienna,BratislavaandBerlinstillservethepurpose,butfewpeoplerememberthatitwasourgeneralwhohadreallybuiltthem.Bytheway,hereconstructedthetheaterinBerlinaswellasmarinebridges.TheconclusionofthewarforhimwasbuildingawarmemorialinBerlin’sTreptow-Park.

Another greatmemorial for G.M.Schubnikov was the launch pad which sent YuriGagarininspace.

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Theplanwastomake25launchesfromthepad,andthenanewlaunchpadintotheuniverse should have been built. However, this legendary pad is still in business.Itturnsoutthatifwereallywant,wecanworklikenooneintheworlddoes:nameanystructurewhichasreliableastheGagarinlaunchpad!ThisistheBaikonur…

Thetulipsbloomaroundthelaunchpadinspring.Thebestwaytobringthemhomeisinabucketofwater—theywillnotwither.NotonlytheChiefDesigners:S.P.Ko-rolev,M.K.Chelomey(eachonehastheir‘own’padsinBaikonur)—butregularBai-konurmilitaryofficersbrought thesebright tulips to theirwives.Of course, after asuccessful launch.Thiswasan idealpresent,because it toldaboutasuccess,anewsteponanever-endingspaceroad.

2Someprominentscientistsgot forameeting in

M.V.Keldysh’soffice in summer 1955.Manyof themhadno ideawhat theywouldtalkabout, very littlewasknownaboutMstislavVsevolodovich too: the ‘top secret’gradingconcealedeverythinghewasdoing.Theinvitationtothemeetingwascom-ingfromtheUSSRAcademyofScienceswhichindicatedhowimportantthismeetingwas.

MikhailKlavdievichTikhonravovmadethefirstpresentation.Hesaid‘Sputnik’,buttheworddidnot impress anyone.Everyone took this as if theywere talking abouta new scientific instrument. Especiallywhen Tikhonravov started telling about thebasic engineering solutions, the contents of the unit, assemblies required for thenormaloperationofthesatellite,thatthescientificpayloadsshouldbeconnectedtothetelemetry…thewaytheparticipantsreactedtotheword‘telemetry’Tikhonravovunderstoodhehadtoexplaintheterm,andstartedtopatientlyexplainhowthedataisdownlinkedfromthesatellitetoEarthandhowitisdecoded.

AswasoftenthecasewithTikhonravov,hegotcarriedawayandhispresentationwasbecominglesslikeascientificreportbutratheravision–atleastthisiswhatmanypeoplethought.

Academician Yoffe, whowas a bit late for themeeting, ‘grounded’ the event— hecameallthewayfromLeningrad.

‘The refrigeration units for such delicate items are too big’, he said, ‘However, thesolararraysareaninterestingidea!Maybeit’sworthengagingthefolksfromLenin-gradandFIAN�’.

KeldyshdialedB.M.VoolfromFIANrightawayandbriefedhim.Thefutureacade-micianreactedimmediately:

‘Wewillengagephysicistsworkinginthearea.Theideaisreallyveryinterestingandpromising…’

KeldyshtoldVool’sopiniononthemattertoeverybodyandthenadded:

‘Wehavetoworkenergeticallyandunconventionally…’

…OnthethirdartificialEarthsatellitewerealreadyinstalledsolararrays, thatwereconceivedinatelephoneconversationbetweenKeldyshandVool…

� LebedevInstituteforPhysicsofUSSRAcademyofSciences.

* * *The meeting proceeded. No minutes were

recorded.Thiswasnotrequired,becausethistimeKeldyshdidnotexpectanyactualdecisionsorproposalsfromhispartners(althoughthereweresomementioned)—hehadtooutlinethescopeofthefuturespaceprogramandthemainresearchtrends.

AlthoughIwishthereweresuchameetingminutesrecorded.Theparticipantsatthemeetingrememberthattheideasformanyexperimentswerebornatthemeeting.AfewyearslatertheywereimplementedonEarthsatellites.Somescientists‘changed’theareasoftheirworkfrom‘terrestrial’to‘space’.

M.V.Keldyshwasthelasttospeakatthemeeting.

‘Iwillnotsummarizetoday’,hesaid.‘IwillnotbefaroffifIsay:weallagreedherethatmanyresearchinstitutescancontributeinEarthsatellitesresearch,soourpur-pose is tomakethem,aswellas individualscientists, interested inourprograms.Irelyonthecooperationofallthosewhoarepresentheretoday…’

Keldyshkepthiscolleaguesafterthemeeting.

‘Weneedtodistributetheletterstotheacademiciansandassociatemembers—wehavetoreviewtheirproposalsandinviteeveryonewhoweneedtobuildthemagne-tometerandthehardwareforthesolarraystudies’.MstislavVsevolodovichsmiledallofasudden.‘Allinall,dearcomrades,wewillhavetoworkwithoutrepose…’

‘Andforhowlong?’someoneasked.

‘Foraboutayearandahalf–twoyears…Andthen,maybe,thewholelife,becausethedeedwestartnowistoolargetoanticipatealltheconsequences…’

KeldyshandKorolevmetattheAcademythesameeveningtooutlinethefutureworkfornearestmonthortwo.TheyagreedthattheywouldapproachtheCentralCommit-tee(oftheUSSRCommunistParty)andtheGovernmentwithspecificproposalsforEarthsatellitesscientifichardware.Thisdocumentshouldincludespecificorganiza-tionsandnamesofthescientistswhoweredevelopingtheinstruments.

* * *In15yearstime,afterS.P.Korolevpassedaway,

IaskedthePresidentoftheUSSRAcademyofSciencesM.V.Keldyshtotellabouttheevents in summer 1955,when the scientific space researchprogramstarted to takeshape.

‘Itwasjustanormalwork’,heanswered,‘andeveryoneisawareoftheresults…’

Keldyshdidnot like to talkabouthimself.Onlyonrareoccasions,—at the launchpadorDeep-space communications centrewhenhehada spareminuteor two,herememberedthepastdays.Ioncewasluckytolistentoataleofthe‘prologuetoSput-nik’,aswashisownexpression.Irememberedonecertainphraseforallmylife:

‘Thiswasbeautifullife,becausewewereyoung,andeventhespacedidnotfrightenusatthetime…’

Therewassadnessinhiswords,anditwasoddtoseeKeldyshlikethat…

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Manyscientistsinthecountryreceivedtheletterinsummer1955.‘Howcanweusethespace?’Somewerebaffledbythequestion.Sotheanswerswereverydifferent:

‘Idonotlikesciencefiction…’

‘Ibelievethiswillhappeninafewdecadesandonlyourchildrenandgrandchildrenwillbeabletotellusmoreprecisely…’

‘Let’sfirstlearntoflyinthestratosphere…’

Butotheranswersweredifferent:

‘Wecanrununiqueexperimentsinvariousareasoftheastronomy…’

‘Nodoubt thestudyofvariousparticlesandradiation typeswillbeofparticularinterest…’

‘Ifanydisciplineopensupanopportunitytoexplorenewefficientresearcharea,thisshould not be missed, because the history of the science shows that opening newareasresultsindiscoveringthosenaturalphenomenawhichexpandthewaysofthehumanculture’,wroteacademicianP.L.Kapitsa.

Although the answers were very diverse, and some ideas and proposals lookedextremelycomplicatedandalmostnotdoable,stilleveryonehelpeddefiningaclearspaceprogram.

The Academy send a letter to the Central Committee of the Communist Party andMinister Council of USSR which proposed a clear scientific research program inspace.The‘Specialpanelfor ‘Object ‘D’wasestablishedinJanuary,1956.M.V.Kel-dyshwas assigned the head of the panel; S.P.Korolev andM.K.Tikhonravovwereassignedhisdeputies,G.A.Skuridinbecametheacademicsecretary.

‘Object‘D’wasthefirstartificialEarthsatellite.

As the routine required, Correspondent Member of USSR Academy of SciencesS.P.KorolevpresentedtheprogressreporttotheAcademypresidiumontheannualbasis.

Here is an abstract from 1954 report: ‘the prospect of building an artificial Earthsatellite and a space rocket vehicle for manned missions to high altitude and theresearchoftheinterplanetaryspaceiscurrentlyseenverycloseandreal…’

Anabstractfrom1955report:‘Wehavestartedworkingontheextendedresearchoftheupperatmosphereataltitudes200-500kmthisyear,whichwasmostlyrequestedby various institutes of USSR Academy of Sciences and other organizations. Theseactivities were research and design. The research work was launched and generalconceptofartificialEarthsatellitewasdevelopedlate1955…’

S.P.Korolev and M.V.Keldysh had no doubt the satellite would be launched in thenearestfuture…

* * *AfterYuriGagarinspacemissionIstartedwrit-

ingabookcontainingtheinterviewswiththemostprominentscientistsofthecoun-try.Iaskedthemaquestion: ‘Howwouldamanentranceintothespaceeffectyourareaofscience?’M.V.Keldyshrecommendedmesomeofthescientists.Inparticular,

among the other names there were those who participated in that legendary meet-ingwhere the scientificprogramof thefirst artificialEarth satelliteshadbeen cre-ated. Ofcourse the scientists enjoyed remembering their first steps in researchingnear-earthandouterspace.However,Iwasimpressedthemostbyhowenthusiastictheywereaboutthefuture:bythattimetheyassociatedthemselveswithspaceforthewholelife.

ThebookTheHuman.TheEarth.TheUniversewasverypopularonce itwaspub-lished:everyonewasintospace.Thiswasabeautifulanduniquetime!

3Therearealotofmysteriouspagesinthehistory

ofourscience.Notallofthemhavebeenread.

Oneofthemishowthenuclear-missileshieldwascreated.

So,whoarethecreators?

KurchatovandKorolevshouldbenamedamongthefirst.

TheymeteachotheronlyafterStalin’sdeath.

StalindidnottrustthemissilesandtotallytrustedKurchatov.

Eventsoflate1946andearly1947provethat.

USSR Academy of Sciences develops a Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy program.CouncilofMinistersoftheUSSRissuesadecreeNo.2697-1113 ‘ts’(i.e. ‘topsecret’)onDecember16,1946.Itdetailsall trendsofnuclearscienceandtechnology: fromtheresearchworkondirectconversionoftheradioactiveenergy,researchofionizingradiationeffectonthemetabolismthroughtoconstructionofnuclearpowerunitsforvesselsandplanes.

AscientificcouncilheadedbytheSergeyIvanovichVavilov(PresidentofUSSRAcad-emyofSciences)wassetupintheUSSRAcademyofSciences.Themostprominentscientistsofthecountrywereonthecouncil.However,youwouldnotfindthename‘Kurchatov’onthelist.

Justareminder:itwastwoweeksawayfromcommissioningthefirstnuclearreactorF-1…

Thecountryisinruins,famineinUkraine—thereisnobread,nopotato…Themostbasicitemsaremissing!

Whocaresaboutthe‘energyconversion’intheseconditions?!

Toputitmildly,theDecreeof16December1946looksodd,butStalinsignsitany-way,althoughheclearlyunderstandsthatitwasjustnotrealistictoimplementalltheitemsinit.

However, someoneneeds togive thescientistsasupport,aprospect;otherwise themajorpurposeforStalinandhisloyalassociateBeriawouldbedoomed.

SoStalinassignsthelatterto‘cooldown’theenthusiasmofthescientistsandpointthemintherightdirection.

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Andtherewasamotive:KurchatovcommissionsthefirstnuclearreactorinEurope,whichautomaticallymakeshimaleaderinthenucleararmsraceand,consequently,aleaderinphysicsingeneral.

Voting Kurchatov an academician is just a technicality. However, the academiciansprovetobebull-headedandelectamoreprominentAlikhanovtofillthevacancy.Sothegovernmenthastoopenanothervacancyanditwasclearatthetimethiswasspe-cificallydesignedforIgorVasilievich.

HebecomestheheadoftheNuclearProject.

TheconversationwithBeriawasbrief.ThelatterpassesalongStalin’srequesttostartworkingontheciviliannuclearprogramonlyafterthenuclearbombisavailable.Thefasterithappensthebetteritwouldbeforthescientificcommunity–thescientistswouldbegrantedatotalfreedomafterthat.

NoonewouldknowbetterthanIgorVasilievich.

InjustacoupleofweeksafterthetestsonAugust29,1949headdressestheGovern-mentwithaproposaltostartusingthenuclearpowerforthetransport,powerindus-tryandaviation.Andallhisproposalsreceiveacompletesupport!

TherewasonlyoneareaoftechnologyleftoutsideKurchatov’sview.ThesewerethemissilesandtheirChiefDesignerSergeyPavlovichKorolev.

Korolevpreparesa special reporton the rocket technology forStalin inearly 1947.HeevaluateseverythingthatwemanagedtogetinGermany.AmeetingontherockettechnologyisheldinKremlinonApril14,1947,afterwhichStalinsendsforKorolev.

SergeyPavlovichsuggeststriallaunchesoftheGermanrocketsonthemeeting,evalu-atingtheirexperienceandthenstartingdesigningourownrockets.Stalingivesa‘go’.

Intensiveworkondesigning the strategicbombers carryingnuclearweapons startsfollowingthismeeting.Noonementionsthemissilesyet…

Korolevtrainedtherocketstofly.Theygotmorepowerfulwitheverylaunch.OncehepersuadedKeldyshvisitKurchatovathis‘Woodcabin’onInstituteforNuclearEner-gyterritory…

Kurchatovwas a hospitableman.He liked towine and dine his visitors. AlthoughIgorVasilievichwasalreadyill,hehadacoupleofvodkashotsanyway.

Itisconsideredthat‘thebombwasmarriedtotherocket’atthisparticularmeeting.KorolevassuredKurchatovhewasabletobuildarocketcapableofcarryingaheavythermonuclearcharge.Hemeantthe‘semyorka’�,themissilemodelstillinservice.

The secretary, i.e. Kurchatov’s bodyguard made a few photographs. One of themcamedowninthehistoryasthree‘k’:therearekurchatov,keldyshandkorolevinthephoto.

Thephotohasbeenpublishedintheformatformanyyears.However,therewasalsothe fourthperson there—VasilyPavlovichMishin,Korolev’sassociateanddeputy.Hewas‘edited’—theacademicianwasclassifiedformanyyearson.

OnceImanagedtopublishthepictureinthe‘original’format…

� ‘Semyorka’—Russianfor‘seven’.StaysforR-7intercontinentalballisticmissileandrocketlauncher.

KurchatovvisitedKorolev’sDesignBureauafter themeeting.He tooka lookat therockets,sawthefirstSputnik.Heaskedtoswitchonthereceiver.Heardthe ‘beep-beep-beep’.Hewashappyasayoungboy.

TheyarrangedthatthenuclearscientistswouldbegivenanaccesstoKorolev’sdesignbureauandtheirrequestswouldbethetoppriority.

Nooneoftherocketscientists,evenKorolevhimself,couldvisittheNuclearCenter,theaccesswasrestricted.StalinandBeriawerenolonger,buttheordertheyintro-ducedwasstillthere…

Soonthefirsttestofthenuclearchargemissilewascarriedout.

AndthefirstartificialErathsatellitewaslaunchedonOctober4,1957…

SoonafterwardsIgorVasilievichKurchatovmetoneofhispostgraduates–thefuturecorresponding member of USSR Academy of Sciences Nikolai Chernoplyokov. Heaskedwhat hewasworking on.He started talking of the new ideas, in particular,usingtherockettechnology.

SuddenlyKurchatovbrisked,asifherememberedsomethingveryimportant.

‘Let’ssitdown’,—hesaid,—‘Doyouhaveapieceofpaper?Writethisdown…’

Andhestarteddictatingthenames…

The list includedtheDeputiesChairmanof theCouncilofMinisters,academicians,industrymanagers,ministers.Aboutahundrednamesintotal.

‘Callthem’,—Kurchatovsaid,—‘andinvitethemtoameetingthenextSaturday.Wewill‘marry’therocketandnucleartechnology.We’llstartat10a.m.…’

Thepostgraduatewastakenaback:whowouldlistentohim?

‘Well,yousaythisisKurchatov’spersonalrequest…’—IgorVasilievichgaveawispsmile.

NikolaiChernoplyokovtookthetelephone.

AmiraclehappenedeverytimehementionedKurchatov’sname.Themaninchargewouldimmediatelypickupthephoneandtellhewouldcertainlybethere.

TheInstitute forNuclearEnergyterritorywaspackedwiththeblack limousinesonSaturday.NeverbeforeorafterthisdaythereweresomanyVIP’shere.

ThemeetingtookplaceintheconferenceroomoftheInstitute.

Sergey Pavlovich Korolev showed up 10 minutes before the meeting started. Hewalkedbetweentheaislesandgreetedpeopleheknew…

IgorVasilievichKurchatovwasalreadyseatedinhisregularsitinthethirdrowneartheaisle.HesawKorolev,stoodupandwalkedtowardshim.

Allofasuddenhestoppedandmadeaprofound,Russianstyle,bow.

‘This isabowtoyou,SergeyPavlovich,fromtheRussianpeoplefortheFirstSput-nik!’—Kurchatovsaid.HethenhuggedandkissedKorolev.

Everyonewhowas luckytoparticipateat this ‘marriage’betweenthenuclearbombandtherocketcarrierstillremembersthisKurchatov’sbow…Thiswasthedaywhenallthemostcriticaldecisionsaboutbuildingthenuclear-missileshieldofourcountryweremade.

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alexander alexandRoVRUSSIAAdvisortothepresidentofS.P.KorolevRocketandSpaceCorpora-tion(RSC)Energia,CandidateofScience(Engineering).Spacepilotof theUSSR,made2flights to theSalyut-7 (1983)andMir (1987)orbitalspacestations.

Bornin1943.GraduatedfromtheMoscowInstituteofPhysicsandTechnology in 1969.Employed in theDesignBureau-1 since 1964,fellowresearcherofoperationequipmentintheVoskhodandSoyuzspacecraftandofinstructionmanualsforSalyutandMirorbitalsta-tions.

Took part in preparation and implementation of test flights ofmannedspacecraftandorbitalstationsin1968–1978.In1978,joinedthespaceflight-testcrewattheS.P.KorolevRSCEnergia.HeadofFlight-testServiceattheRSCEnergiain1987–2006.

AwardedtheHerooftheSovietUniontwice,UkrainianStateAward(1983),RussianNationalAward(2002).ReceivedtheexpressionofgratitudefromPresidentPutinin2003.

S.P. koRolEv — SPACE RoCkET And THE FIRST SATEllITE oF THE EARTH

* * *2007 abounds in anniversaries. It started with

centenary anniversary of S.P.Korolev’s birth, and the yearwill be closing outwithsimilaranniversaryofanothergreatspaceresearcherV.P.Glushko.Inbetweenthereareothergreat celebrations—anniversariesof theassociatesofbothacademiciansandChiefDesigners,includingV.P.Mishin,B.E.Chertok,O.G.Ivanovskyandsomefirstcosmonauts.Theseare‘goodround’figures,andsometimesvery‘personal’.Butthisyearonewantstocelebrateeveryanniversary,saywarmwordsabouttheperson,theteamortheeventthatmadeourcountryproud.

However,thefirstamongthesegreatanniversariesisthe50thanniversaryoftheFirstArtificialEarthSatellitelaunch.ThishappenedonOctober4,1957—thedaywhichbroughttogetherthelivesofallpeoplewhoopenedthespaceeraforhumanity.

…Ihappened tobe fortunateasaman topursue thisgreatwonderfulcause’—ararefortuneforaman!S.P.Korolev

…An abstract from the flight log of the secondmainexpeditioncrew(V.Lyakhov,A.Alexandrov)of theSalyut-7 long-termorbitalstation,datedOctober7,1983:‘…to the left along the route I saw a bright starmoving above the horizon (a container dis-charged from the air lock looks like this after an orbit of flight), I took the binoculars— itturnedouttobeasatellitewithsolararrays,prolate-shaped,rotating,andshininginthesunrays.Ibelieve,thedistancetoitwasnolessthanonekilometerandnomorethantwo.Itwasdifficulttoestimate,sinceitsdimensionswerenotclear.This ishowthestationlookslikeatadistanceofthreekilometersbutitwasforsuresmallerthanthestationinitssize.Thenthesatellitewentfurthertotheleftandbelowourorbitandmergedwiththelighthorizonoftheatmosphere.Thewholeperiodofobservationlastedaboutacoupleofminutes.’

Currently, about ten thousand artificial objects delivered to the outer space by theEarthdwellersarerecordedonthenear-earthorbits.

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* * *ourcountryopenedthespaceeraforthewhole

mankindbylaunchingthefirstsimpleartificialsatellite(‘prosteishysputnik’orPS-1)byatwo-stageboosterR-7onOctober4,1957.

The purpose of the launch was to deliver the simplest satellite to the orbit, as wellastoobtainadditionalexperimentaldataonthemissilelaunchdynamics,operationof itspropulsionsystems, controlandregulationsystem,separationsystem,on thegroundcomplexoperationandonmeasuringinstrumentation.

Atthemomentofshutdownofthepropulsionsystemofthe2ndstagewiththesatel-lite,ithadthespeedof7780m/sandwentintotheorbitwiththefollowingparam-eters: perigee altitude of 228 km; apogee altitude of 947 km; time of one orbit of96.2min.

ThePS-1,separatedafterthe2ndstagepropulsionsystemshut-down,wasball-shapedwithadiameterof580mmandamassof83.6kg.ThefirstartificialsatelliteoperatedfromOctober4,1957,tillJanuary4,1958,andcovered1440orbitsaroundtheEarth.

Bytheyear1953,thedevelopmentoftheICBMR-7(‘semyorka’)conceptualdesignwas undertaken at the Design Bureau OKB-1. The state government set a task ofdeliveryofathermonuclearchargetoadistanceofnotlessthan8thousandkilome-terswiththepayloadmassofat least8tons.Theheadpartshouldbeabletoentertheatmosphereataspeedof7900m/swithamassof5500kg.

TheexpertcommissionheadedbyAcademicianM.V.Keldyshreviewedthedevelopeddesignandconcluded:thepresentedmaterialsjustifythecorrectchoiceofthesche-maticsandbasicparametersof themissile, itspropulsionsystemsandcontrol sys-tem,andtheR-7missileconceptualdesignforthesystemscompletewiththegroundequipmentcanlaythebasisforfurtherdevelopment.ThemissileconceptualdesignwasapprovedbytheUSSRCouncilofMinistersonNovember20,1954.

In1954SergeyPavlovichKorolevsentaformal letteraddressedtotheGovernmentwith a proposal to undertakepractical implementation of designing artificialEarthsatellites (AES) on the basis of an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), beingdeveloped at that time. The memorandum presented by S.P.Korolev was based ontheoretical research into the problem of feasibility of designing AES at the currentlevelofengineering,beingconductedbytheM.K.Tikhonravov’steamattheScientificResearchInstituteNII-4oftheMinistryofDefensesince1948.

InhisletterasofSeptember3,1955,addressedtotheChiefDesignersofthemissileindustryandtothedecision-makingauthorities,containingaworkplanfordesigningtheAES,S.P.Korolevalsonotedthefollowing:

1. Itisenvisagedtolaunchthesimplestsatellite(PS)withthehelpoftheR-7missile.

2. ThefollowingshouldbeinstalledonboardthePS:• aradiotelemetrysystemwithastoragedevice;• areceiverofthecommandradiolink.

3. Thefinalmassofthemissile2ndstage,launchedintotheorbit,is8000kg,includ-ingthemassofthePSitselfamountingto1100kg.

4. Theorbitminimalaltitude(perigee)is170km.Theorbitmaximumaltitude(apo-gee)is500km.

5. ThedurationofthePSoperationisabout1month.

6. Thesetofgroundsystemsofobservationshouldincludethedirection-findingsys-temofthePSanddeterminationofparametersofitsorbit.

Itwasanticipatedthat thesetof instrumentationandequipment tobe installedonthePSandtheirparameters,aswellasthoseofthegroundsystems,wouldbefur-therspecifiedmorepreciselyandchangedintheprocessoftheconceptualdesigndevelopment.

IndesigninganddevelopingtheICBMR-7,S.P.Korolev‘fitted’thisstructuretosolv-ingappliedspaceprograms—thelaunchofEarthsatellitesandheavymannedsatel-litevehiclestotheorbit.

Therefore,withoutwaitingforpositiveresults,S.P.Korolevbegan ‘ideologicalprep-aration’ of the authorities in theUSSRAcademyofSciences, in thehigher echelonofmanagementandtheCentralCommitteeoftheCPSU(CommunistPartyofSovietUnion)sothattheycouldacceptasarealitytheideaofspaceexplorationwiththeuseofartificialEarthsatellites,beingstillfantasticatthattime.

MikhailKlavdievichTikhonravov,hisold-timecolleagueintheGIRD�,whoworkedattheScientificResearchInstituteNII-4oftheMinistryofDefenseatthattime(aswaspointedabove),washisconfederateandgeneratorofideas.Atfirst,S.P.Korolevrecruitedhimtoworkonthesatelliteandotherpromisingspaceprojectswithintheframeworkofa laborcontract.Then, in1955, togetherwitha fewofhisstaffmem-bers,TikhonravovwastransferredtotheDesignBureauOKB-1:atthebeginning,toapositionofconsultant,then,astheheadofthedesigndepartment.

In January, 1954 Sergey Pavlovich discussed the satellite topic with AcademicianM.V.Keldysh;KorolevworkedwithhimontheproblemsofcontrollingtheflightoftheR-7missile.M.K.TikhonravovpresentedhisprojectattheDepartmentofAppliedMathematicstobereviewedbyM.V.Keldyshandhispeople,whorepresenteddiffer-entfieldsofscience.

Mstislav Vsevolodovich took a great interest in the satellite. He initiated a meet-ing tobeconvenedat thePresidiumof theAcademyofSciences, invitedA.F.Ioffe,P.L.KapitsaandotherleadingfiguresoftheSovietscience.

B.M.Vool,V.S.Vavilov,B.P.Konstantinov,V.A.Kotelnikov,L.A.Artsimovich,V.L.Gin-zburg, S.N.Vernov, L.V.Kurnosova, V.I.Krasovsky, B.V.Kukarkin were invited toparticipate in this project. As the project was developed, Academician-SecretaryM.A.LavrentyevallocatedcomputertimeforthetrajectoryspecialistsoftheDesignBureauOKB-1tocalculatetheorbitparametersonthecomputerattheDepartmentofPhysicalandMathematicalSciences.

M.V.Keldysh had a few meetings with President of the Academy of Sciences,A.N.Nesmeyanov,whoattentivelyreviewedtheprojectandonMay25,1954,inthepresenceofS.P.Korolev,M.V.KeldyshandM.K.Tikhonravov,NesmeyanovapprovedofthepresentationmadebyMikhailKlavdievichandhandeditovertoM.V.Keldyshwithapositiveresolution,endorsing theparticipationof the institutesof theAcad-emyofSciencesinthiswork.

But it wasmore difficult to persuade administrators,ministry and party function-aries and bureaucrats. For the first time, S.P.Korolev discussed the satellite topic

� AbbreviationforJetPropulsionResearchGroup.

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withtheMinisterofDefenseIndustryD.F.UstinovinFebruary,1954.DmitryFedo-rovich reacted ina reservedway.M.K.Tikhonravovsendshispresentation toMar-shalA.M.Vasilevsky,whoexpressedhisreadinesstoassist inadvancingtheideaoflaunchingofthefirstsatellite.

HavingobtainedthesupportoftheAcademyofSciences,S.P.Korolevsendsoutlet-terswithproposalsonorganizationofworkonthesatellitetotheCouncilofMinis-ters,totheStatePlanningCommittee,theMinistryofDefensiveIndustry.

S.P.Korolev addedM.K.Tikhonravov’smemorandum to the letters, as well as thetranslationof theUSmassmedia reportsabout theAESdue tobe launched in theUSAbeforethebeginningoftheInternationalGeophysicalYearin1957.

S.P.Korolev’sinitiativeplansonsatellitecreationwereonceagainsupportedbytheAcademyof Sciences: onAugust 30, 1956 ameeting tookplace in the office of theChief ScientificSecretary of theUSSRAcademyof SciencesA.V.Topchievwith theparticipationofS.P.Korolev,whoreportedon thestatusof themissileR-7and thesatelliteproject.OnedaybeforethemeetingtobeheldatthePresidiumoftheAcad-emyofSciences(August29,1956),S.P.KorolevsentoutadetailedprogramofspaceexplorationwiththeaidofAES:fromthesimplestsatellitetoheavymannedsatellitevehicles.

Asaresultofthatmeeting,aworkingbody(Commission)oftheAcademyofScienc-eswasestablished,whichwasengaged in thescientific researchprogramswith theaidofawholeseriesofAES’s,includingbiologicalones,withanimalsonboard.TheCommissionwasresponsible for theproductionofscientifichardware.Leadingsci-entistsoftheAcademyparticipatedinthatactivity.ItwasdecidedthatM.V.KeldyshwouldchairtheCommission.

TheGovernmentDecree,datedJanuary30,1956,envisagedthedesignandinsertinginanorbitofanundirectedEarthsatellitewiththemeansofthedevelopedmissileR-7in1957–1958(‛Object ‛D’)withthefollowingparameters:themassof1000…1400kg;themassofhardwareforscientificresearchof200…300kg;theduedateforthe‛Object‛D’pilotlaunchsetin1957.

S.P.KorolevenlistedthefollowingscientistsfromtheAcademyofSciencesandlead-ingtechnicalinstitutesoftheUSSRtotakepartinthedesignandflightdevelopmentof theR-7: ProfessorV.I.Feodosyev from theBaumanTechnicalUniversity on theproblem of oscillatory processes in the missile flight, mathematicians-ballisticiansD.E.Okhotsimsky, T.M.Eneev, V.A.Egorov, M.L.Lidov, as well as those from thelaboratoryheadedbyT.I.PetrovattheNII-1,forwhichM.V.Keldyshwasascientificlead,onthecalculationofmotionintheatmosphereandtheEarthfieldofgravity,ontheprinciplesofflightcontrol,onsolvingtheproblemsofanaerodynamictaskofthemissileheadpartdeliverytotheEarth.

In July, 1956, Sergey Pavlovich approved of the conceptual design for the satellitewiththemassof1400kg.

However,thescheduleofscientifichardwaredevelopmentwasviolatedbytheinsti-tutes of theAcademyof Sciences and themockups of the devices failed to be pro-ducedbyNovember,1956.

Adramaticsituationtookplace—for lackofrealscientificcontents for the ‛D’sat-ellite, itwas impossible toupgrade the rocket: to change theprogramofoperationfor thepropulsion systemswith the removal of the radio equipment of the control

system, tomake theconeand thermalblanketprotecting thesatellite, todevelopaspring-loadedpushingmechanismforthefairingconerejection,apusherseparatingthesatellitefromthesecondstageoftherocket.

ItwasextremelyimportanttoensuretheleadershipoftheSovietUnioninlaunchingthefirst artificialEarth satellite, and the spanof time till that epoch-making eventamountedtolessthanayear.

SergeyPavlovichwasconvincedthattherocketwouldfly—butthequestionwasifthesatellitewouldbereadybythattime?!

Atthattenseperiodofwork,M.K.TikhonravovproposedtoSergeyPavlovichtheideaofa‘simplersatellite’…

Beginning fromNovember, 1956,S.P.Korolev’scollaboratorsbegan thedesignandconstructionofthesimplestsatellitePS-1.

OnJanuary5,1957,S.P.KorolevonceagainsentTheProposalsonthefirstlaunchesofartificial Earth satellites before the beginning of the International GeophysicalYeartotheCouncilofMinistersoftheUSSR,whichwouldradicallysolvetheprob-lemofensuring the leadershipof theSovietUnion inspacebyperforming thefirstexperimentondeliveryofanartificialbodytotheEarthorbit.

SergeyPavlovichwrote:‛Werequesttogiveusa‛go’toprepareandperformthefirstlaunches of two rockets fitted to the option of artificial Earth satellites during theperiodofApril–June,1957beforetheformalbeginningoftheInternationalGeophys-icalYear,tobeconductedfromJuly,1957tillDecember,1958.

…Byundertakingsomechanges,itispossibletotailortheR-7missiletobelaunchedas an artificial Earth satellite, having a small payload in the form of instrumentsweighingofabout25kg.Thus,thecentralunitofarocketcanbelaunchedwiththeweightof7700kg,aswellasaseparatingball-shapedcontainerofthesatelliteitselfwithadiameterofabout450mmandweightof40…50kg, toanartificial satelliteorbitaroundtheEarthatanaltitudeof225…500kmfromtheEarthsurface.Aspe-cialshort-wavetransmittingstationcanbeinstalledasapartofinstrumentationonthesatellite,ratedtooperatefor7…10days.

TwoR-7missiles,fittedtothisoption,canbereadyinApril–June,1957andlaunchedimmediatelyafterthefirstsuccessfullaunchesoftheR-7intercontinentalmissile.

…According to the resolution,datedJanuary30, 1956,acarrier rocket for thearti-ficialEarth satellite isbeingdevelopedon thebasisof the intercontinentalmissile,withtheweightofasatellitecontainerofabout1200kg,includingalargeamountofdifferentequipmentforscientificresearch,laboratoryanimals,etc.Thefirstlaunchofthissatelliteisduein1957and,takingintoaccountthehighcomplexityofdesigninganddevelopingtheequipmentforscientificresearch,canbeperformedattheendof1957…’

TheCouncilofMinisterstookaresolutiontogivea‘go’.

‛Object ‛D’ article, which is now known as the third Soviet AES (Sputnik-3), waslaunchedonMay15,1958, threeandahalfmonthsafter the launchof thefirstUSsatelliteExplorer-1.

ButletusgobacktotheFirstSputnik.ThefirstlaunchoftheR-7missiletookplaceonMay15,1957.Theflightcontinued98secondsandendedindisintegrationofthemissile.

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Two more missile launches were aborted but K.D. Bushuev, Chief Designer Depu-ty, signedoff the layoutdrawingsof thePSS-1onJune24,1957,while thesatellitecomponentpartshadalreadybeenmanufacturedintheshopsoftheDesignBureauOKB-1.

ThefourthlaunchofR-7tookplaceonAugust21,1957,andwassuccessful—thelastoperated stage of themissile rocket reached the goal. The launch on September 7,1957,wasimplementedwiththeheadpart—adesignsimilartothatforPS-1.Atthattimethesatellitewasbeingsubjectedtotestsinathermalchamberandonthevibra-tiontestbenchattheDesignBureauOKB-1.

So,bythemiddleof1957,threeofthemostimportantconditionsforthemainspaceevent of the agewere fulfilled: the readiness of the launch complex of launch padNo.1atBaikonur,confirmationoftheR-7missilereadinessforthespacelaunchbytwoprevioussuccessfullaunchesandtheflightreadinessofthePS-1,asapartofthemissilerocket,confirmedbycomplexintegratedtests.

A resolutionabout thePS-1flight testswas signedbyS.P.KorolevonOctober2—twodaysbeforethelaunchandsenttoMoscowasanotificationaboutthereadiness.Without getting any directions fromMoscow, S.P.Korolev made a decision abouttransportationofthemissilecarrierwiththesatellitetothelaunchpadonOctober3.

Accordingtomoreprecisedata,themissilelaunchtookplaceonOctober4,1957,at10:28:34p.m.Moscowtime.ItwasthesixthlaunchoftheR-7missile.

EvenafterthePS-1launch,thedevelopmentofthemissilesystemsstillcontinued.

InJanuary,1960,theMinistryofDefenseaddedtheintercontinentalballisticmissileR-7toitsarsenal.

ThelaunchofthefirstAESopenedupopportunitiestobuildspacecraftsanddeliverthemintotheouterspace,whichdisplayuniquecapabilitiesforperformingresearchandsolvingappliedproblems.

Theuseofsatellitesmadeitpossible:

• totransferfromremotemethodsofexplorationoftheouterspaceandplanetstoresearchwithtakingsamplesofatmosphere,soilincaseofadirectcontactwithaplanet;

• toorganizeasystematicupdatingofinformationdownlinkedfromsatellitesabouttheEarth,planets,galaxies,spaceenvironment;

• toobtainanopportunitytoconductphysicalandtechnologicalexperimentsundertheconditionsofadeepvacuumandlowlevelofmicrogravity;

• tocreateglobalcommunicationandnavigationsystems.

Theup-to-date levelof knowledgeand technologyallows theunique capabilitiesoftheartificialEarthsatellites,unmannedresearchstations,observatoriesandroboticsystemstobepermanentlybuilt-up.

Butallthesesystemsare,intheiressence,merelyamorecomplicatedversionofthatveryfirstsimplestsatelliteoftheEarth,launchedintospaceonOctober4,1957.

Heavy satellite vehicles, the construction and launch of which were carried out byS.P.Korolev after the pilot launches of the automated space vehicles, formed thebasisforthedevelopmentofdesignformultipurposespacesystemsinthecontempo-rarymannedprograms.

…I remember verywell one frostyOctober evening in 1957 in theMoscow region,where the sky was not illuminated either by the street lights or by the buildingsaround us, when, following the timeline printed in the Pravda newspaper, we sawastarletmovingenergeticallyalongtheblackskyamongstationarystars.Itwasthesecondstageoftherocketmissile,andourPS-1wasmovingsomewhereinthevicin-ityofit.

There could be no mistake — it was IT, our sole artificial Earth satellite at thatmoment!

Thiseventofthe20thcenturywillbeassessedforalongtime,ifnotforever,bythepeopleofourandfuturegenerationsasaneventthataffectedthedevelopmentofsci-ence and engineering, as a historical fact, that made its corrections in the politicalatmosphereofrelationsbetweencountriesandnationsontheEarth.

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timur eneeVRUSSIAAcademicianofRussianAcademyofSciences.

Bornin1924inGrozny,Russia.GraduatedfromtheMechanicsandMathematicsDepartment,theLomonosovMoscowStateUniversityin1948.

Expertinmissiledynamicsandcontrol.Participatedindevelopmentoftheresearchprogramofouterspace,theMoonandplanetsoftheSolarsystem.Oneof thefirstscientist intheworld,whohas foundthe solution for optimizationof insertionof rockets in trajectories.DevelopedthetheoryofartificialEarthsatellites’orbits.CurrentlyisinvolvedinthePhobos-SoampleReturnproject.

AwardedtheOrderofLenin(1961),theOrderofOctoberRevolution(1984),theRedBanner(twicein1956and1975),theOrderofHon-our (2005), the Lenin Prize (1975), TsanderGoldenMedal (1992),VDNKhGoldenMedal(1986)andtheDemidovPrize(2006).

Asteroid5711isnamedEneev1978S04afterhim.

m.v. kEldySH — CHIEF THEoRETICIAn oF THE nATIonAl CoSmonAuTICSFiftyyearsago,onOctober4,1957,forthefirst

time inhistory themankindhasdelivered a device into spacewhichwasflying onorbitaroundtheEarthforalongperiodoftimesendingthesignalsabouttheperfor-manceofitsonboardequipment.WiththeaidofR-7rocketthefirstartificialEarthsatellitewaslaunched.

Launchof thissatellitehada longandcomplicatedprehistory.Peopleweredream-ingoftheflightstospacesincealongtimeago.ThisdreamfirstacquiredarealbasisafterthepioneeringworkofTsiolkovskywhohasshowntheseflightstobepossiblewith the aid of rocket technology. He has devised a famous formula which allowsto calculate the fuel capacity required to achieve thenecessary rocket velocity, anddevelopedthebasicsofthemulti-stagerocketstheory.

Howeveritwasonlyafterthewarwhentherealworksontherealizationoftheideaofspaceflighthasstartedthankstotheurgentneedofdevelopingtherocketindus-tryinthemilitarygoals.InordertocountervailtheemergedthreatofnuclearattackontheSovietUnion,itwasnecessarytocreatetheintercontinentalmulti-stagedbal-listicmissile.ItwastheDesignBureauofthebrilliantengineeranddesignerSergeyPavlovichKorolevwheresucharocket—thefamousR-7—hasbeencreated.SurelyKorolev’sDBwasworkingincooperationwithotherinstitutionsdevelopingengines,control system, launch facility and so on. One should here note the Chief Design-ers V.P.Glushko, N.N.Pilyugin, M.S.Ryazansky, V.I.Kuznetsov, V.P.Barmin. Onecan’tbutremembertheexcellentassistantstoSergeyPavlovichKorolev,hisdeputiesV.P.Mishin, V.A.Voskresensky, K.D.Bushuev, B.E.Chertok. Sergey Pavlovich alsohadafirst-classheadsoflaboratoriesanddepartments,naminghereS.S.Lavrovwhowasleadingthedepartmentofballisticdesigncalculations.

But already during the hard work on creating the rockets some of its participantswere thinkingabout the spaceflight.Themost serious researchwas carriedoutbytwo collectives – M.K.Tikhonravov’s group in one of the military technical insti-tutesandgroupofM.V.KeldyshatV.A.SteklovMathematicalInstitute(MIAN).ThisresearchwaswarmlysupportedbyKorolevwhoprovisionedthespaceapplicationofthebigrocketssincetheverystartoftheirdevelopment.In1950heamazedthesci-entistsofSteklov’sinstitutediscussingtheaspectsofR-7designwithhimbyaphrasedroppedinpassing:‘Butwewillflyaroundtheglobe!’

Of course, Korolevwas the prime figure in the realization of the first Soviet spaceflights. However, along with him one should also note one more person who hasmadeacomparablecontributionintothedevelopmentofourrocketandspacetech-nology–MstislavVsevolodovichKeldysh.

* * *The name of Mstislav Vsevolodovich Keldysh,

Academician, three timesHeroofSocialistLabor, iswell knownboth inour coun-tryandabroad.He isrenownedasoutstandingnativescientist,mathematicianandmechanicwhohasgiventheoriginalsolutionsofthemostcomplicatedproblemsanddeterminedanumberofdirectionsinthemodernmathematicsandmechanicswithhisworks.He is renowned as the ‘Chief Theoretician of Cosmonautics’, one of thecreatorsandleadersofthenativespaceprogram.HeisrenownedasthePresidentofAcademyofScienceshavingbeeninchargeoftheheadquartersofthenativescienceformanyyearsandhavingdonea lot forthedevelopmentandconsolidationof thescientificresearchinourcountry,forthegrowthofroleandprestigeofscience.

MstislavVsevolodovichKeldyshwasbornonFebruary 10, 1911 inRiga in the fam-ilyofadjunctprofessorofRigaPolytechnicInstituteVsevolodMikhailovichKeldysh,distinguished construction engineer, later the Academician and vice-president ofAcademyofConstructionandArchitecture.

UpongraduatingfromMoscowStateUniversityin1931M.V.KeldyshattheinvitationofS.A.ChaplyginandM.A.LavrentyevhasbegunworkingatCentralAero-Hydrody-namicInstitute(TsAGI)studyingvariousmathematicalissuesofaero-hydrodynam-ics.Theyoungscientistshasfacedherethebiganddifficultproblemswhichappearedduringthosetimesinaircraftengineering.

In1935AcademicianS.A.ChaplyginsentM.V.KeldyshtovibrationgroupofTsAGIand assigned him thework on the aircraft flutter problem. This severe destructivephenomenon caused by resonance vibrations of the aircraft structure became anobstacle on the way of high-velocity aviation development. Flutter was under thewiderangeexperimentalstudybothinairtunnelandin-situ.Howeveritwasonlythemathematicalmodelof thisphenomenonsuggestedbyM.V.Keldysh,mathematicalmethodsofitsanalysisdevelopedbyhimandresultingtheorythatallowedtouncov-erthesourceofdangerandtofindthetechnicalwaysoffightingit.FortheseworksM.V.KeldyshwasawardedStalinPrizein1942.

Itwas1946whenhewasawardedtheStalinPrizeforthesecondtimeforthesuccess-fulworksonthestabilityofthefrontwheelofthethree-wheelaircraftchassis.Thusanother dangerous phenomenon in aviation was removed called ‘shimmy’. It wasmanifestedduringthemotionofaircraftatalargespeedontheflightstripwhenthenosewheelbecamesuddenlywobbling fromside toside,gear legwentbrokenand

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planecrashed.Havingstudiedtheshimmyingphenomenon,MstislavVsevolodovichhasbuiltanelegantmathematicaltheoryandproposedtheengineeringsolutionsofthisproblem.

While still working at TsAGI,Mstislav Vsevolodovich joined V.A. Steklov’sMathe-maticalInstituteandstartsteachingatMoscowUniversity.

ItwasduringtheseyearswhenM.V.Keldyshhasshapedintotheoutstandingscien-tistwhosetalentwasbasedonthedeepestintuitionofmechanic,thehighestmath-ematicalcultureandprofessionalknowledgeofengineeringissues.Likenobodyelsehewasable tostart fromthespecificengineeringandtechnicalproblem, formulatethe adequatemathematicalmodel, offer the effectivemathematicalmethods of itsstudy and give the constructive solutions. As a result not only the practical recom-mendationson thesolutionof theoriginalapplicationproblemweregiven,but thefundamental results in different fields ofmathswere obtainedwhich have becomeclassicalnow.Thisiswhywhenthewiderangeofworksonrocketindustrywasdevel-oped in thecountry,M.V.Keldyshbyrightbecameoneof the leadersof theSovietspaceprogram.

In1946attheageof35,justelectedFellowofUSSRAcademyofSciences,M.V.Kel-dyshwasordered theheadofJetPropulsionScientificResearchInstitute (RNII)—nowadays M.V.Keldysh Research Center. Since 1948 he started works on rocketdynamicsandappliedcelestialmechanicsinthedepartmentofmechanicsleadedbyhimattheV.A.Steklov’sMathematicalInstituteofUSSRAcademyofSciences.

ItshouldbenotedthatinitiallythemaineffortsofMstislavVsevolodovichwerecon-centrated towards themilitary aspects of rocketry applications.However there aremanyreasonstobelievethatlikeS.P.Korolevfromtheveryearlystagesofresearchhewas thinking about its ‘space’ future, too.At least in the very beginning of 50’swhile answering the question of one of collaborators at the MIAN department ofmechanicsaboutthepossibilitytodevelopthetheoryofspaceflighthehasnotjustwarmlysupportedtheidea,butproposedtostartworkwithoutwaitingforthefuture.

TheworkofM.V.Keldyshinthefieldofrocketryandcosmonauticswasdevelopinginfourdirectionsatonce.First,hewasheadingRNII.Secondly,hewasdirectingthescientificresearchonrocketdynamicsandappliedcelestialmechanicsfirstatMIANandthensince1953attheInstituteofAppliedMathematicsofAcademyofSciences(from the security reasons itwas referred to asDepartment ofAppliedMathemat-ics—OPMMIAN).Third,M.V.Keldyshwasassigned thecoordinationofworks intheUSSRAcademyofSciencesonthedevelopmentofthescientificpayloadfortheextraterrestrial research.Finally,hewasperforming the state scientificexpertiseofthe works carried out within the framework of developing the rocketry and spaceresearch.

TheeffortsofM.V.KeldyshatRNIIwereinitiallyconcentratedontheproblemofcre-atingthestratosphericwingedrocket.Underhisscientificconductthemajortasksofmakingthisrocketweresolvedhere,includingtheprincipallynewforthetimebeingissuesofballistics,astronavigationand long-termthermalprotection for thesuper-sonicintercontinentalBurya(‘tempest’)wingedcraftwithpropulsivejetengine.Sci-entific and technical solutions achieved during the creation of this craft have laterfoundwideusageintheaviationandrocketspacetechnology.Inparticular,atRNIItheyhave laidthegroundforthestartofworksonthethermalprotectionofICBMheadsandlateroflanders,spacecraftandautomatedinterplanetarystations,aswellasontheastroorientationandnavigationsystemsofspacecraft.

Since1948,firstatMIANandlaterattheInstituteofAppliedMathematicsofUSSRAcademyofSciences,at thedepartmentheadedbyAcademicianD.E.Okhotsimsky,M.S.Keldysh has initiated thewide range of activities on the rocket dynamics andmechanicsofspaceflight.Evenonthefirstphase,yetbefore the launchof thefirstartificial Earth satellite, the collective headed byM.V.Keldysh obtained a number ofprincipallyimportantresultswhichhavemadeaseriousimpactonthedevelopmentofrocketandspacetechnology.Wewillnoteseveralofthem,themostimportantones.

Aseriesofworkswasperformedin1949–1951devotedtotheanalysisanddetermi-nation of the optimal schemes and properties of staged rockets. Theseworks havehelpedS.P.Korolev tomake thefinalchoiceof thestagedR-7rocketscheme.Overthis period of time works on determining the optimal program control were per-formedwith their results having seriously assisted the improvement of flight char-acteristics of R-7 rocket and those of intercontinentalwingedmissiles, and havinglater served the theoretical basis for many future research. In the same period thedifficultproblemsofrocket’smotionaroundthecenterofgravityweresolvedtakingintoaccountthemovabilityoffluidhavingthefreesurface intherocket fuel tanks.In1953theballisticdescentof thespacecraft fromtheorbit toEarthwasproposedforthefirsttimeatOPMandthepossibilitywasshowntoutilizethislandingmethodinthemannedflights.LaterasaresultofimplementingthismethodthespaceflightofYu.A.Gagarinwascompletedwithasuccessfullanding.Thefirstrealprototypeofthepassivestabilizationsystemoftheartificialsatellitewasproposedin1954andthetheoryofthisstabilizationcreated.

Alltheworkshadtheoriginalnatureandwereperformedforthefirsttimenotjustinourcountry,butintheworld.

The creative contact and friendship of Mstislav Vsevolodovich Keldysh with SergeyPavlovichKorolevwereofhistoricalvalue.Itwasthankstothesecontactsandfriend-shipthatourrocketrywasdevelopingveryquickly,withespeciallyhighpace inthetechniquesof spaceflight.Generally,within thepleiadof thebrilliantpeoplemen-tionedaboveMstislavVsevolodovichwasplayingaspecialrole.Itwasthankstohisideas and initiative thatwemanaged to overcome very difficultmoments in build-ingupourrocketandspacetechnology,toarrangethesystematicrealizationofspaceresearchinourcountry.

AfterthelaunchofthefirstartificialsatellitetherangeofworksheadedbyM.V.Kel-dyshatOPMMIANhassignificantlyextendedandforthenextyearstherewasliter-allynoissuesofthespaceflightmechanicswhichwerenotinfluencedtosomeextentby M.V.Keldysh and his ‘team’. For instance, right after the first satellite launchworksontrackingthesatellitesandotherspacecraftwereinitiatedatOPM.Thecol-laboratorsofM.V.Keldyshhavedevelopedthemethodsandperformedthefirstorbitdetermination with the aid of computers. The Ballistic Center was later created atOPMwhichhasjoinedthecommonsystemofcoordinatingcomputationalcentersofUSSR.Theirtaskwastocollectandprocessthetrajectoryinformationwiththeaimofdeterminingtheproperorbitsofflownobjectsaswellasissuingthenecessarycom-mands.Centerhasbecometheessentialpartoftheclosedcircuitofspacecraftflightoperationandassistedthesuccessfulrealizationofspaceprograms.

Theworksonthecomplexballisticprojectingof the interplanetaryflightsofspace-crafttotheMoon,MarsandVenuswerestarted.ThemaineffortsherewereinitiallypointedtowardssolvingthetaskofreachingtheMoonandresearchingthecircumlu-narspace.Abrilliantexampleofthis‘lunar’cycleofworkswasthestudyonselecting

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thetrajectoryfortheflybyandimagingthebacksideoftheMoonforthethirdlunarspacecraft.Thiswasthefirsttimeintheworldwhentheperturbationmanoeuverwasproposedandrealized—theintendedchangeofS/Ctrajectoryasaresultofperturb-ingitsmotionbythecelestialbody(theMoon).

At theheightofworksonpreparing lunar expeditionsMstislavVsevolodovichKel-dysh and Sergey Pavlovich Korolev have made a joint decision to start the ballisticsimulationoftheunmannedflightstoMarsandVenus.Theprincipaltechnicaldeci-sions were generated which played an important role in the later development ofthe space technology:methodof spacecraftaccelerationwith the transitionaldeliv-eryintotheopenorbitoftheartificialEarthsatellitewhichhasbecometheuniversalschemeofspacecraftboosting;generalschemeofS/Cflightoperationwhichbecamethebasisofallworksonbothballisticsimulationandpracticaloperationoftheflightsof interplanetaryS/C.Thisschemewasprovidingboth themaximumcontrolaccu-racyduringtheflightandminimalmassexpensesrelatedtothedesignofthecontrolsystemitself.HeadedbyM.V.Keldysh,theOPMstaffparticipatedinallworksontheballisticdesignandtheballisticandnavigationalsupportofthespacecraftflightsforresearchingtheinterplanetaryspace,theMoon,planetsandsmallbodiesoftheSolarsystem. In this context computations methods were developed at OPM and hard-ware-softwarecomplexeswerecreatedtodeterminetheoptimallaunchdates,overallcontrolaccuracyandoptimalvaluesoftheinputparametersforperformingtheflighttrajectorycorrection.

UndertheauspicesofM.V.KeldyshtheworkswerestartedatOPMinthenewdirec-tion which has high fundamental and applied significance for the navigation andflightoperationofthespacecraft.Thisisimprovementoftheastronomicalconstantsanddevelopmentofhighlyaccuratetheoriesofmotionofthecelestialbodies.Forthefirsttimeintheworldpracticetheparametersofthelunargravityfieldnoncentralityweredetermined from the trajectorymeasurementdata.Thefirstprecise theoryofmotionofVenusinourcountrywasderived.ThegravitationconstantsoftheEarthandtheMoonanddynamicflatteningofVenuswereimproved.

Finally, under the supervision ofM.V.Keldysh ballistic design works were carriedouton thedevelopmentofanumberofuniqueartificialEarth satellites (forexam-ple, Elektron),newandperspective systemsofoperationand stabilizationof satel-lites(passivestabilizationsystems),aswellasworksondeterminationoftheactualmotionoffreelyflyingsatellitesofEarth(forinstance,ofElektronandProtonseries)aroundthecenterofmass.

MstislavVsevolodovichwas perfectly combining the qualities of the daringdream-er who was tending towards the limits of the possible, and those of the sober real-istwellawarewhere these limitsare.Whenunder the impressionof thefirstspaceflightsuccesseslotsofpeoplewereseriouslyconsideringtheprojectofmannedflighttoMarsin1964(inthefly-bymode),MstislavVsevolodovichimmediatelypointedatthenonrealityofsuchprojectsduetoawholenumberofreasonsandwasnotingthattheautomatedspacecraftwouldbetheprimarytoolofresearchingthefarplanetsformanyyearstocome.Thatdidn’thoweverpreventhimfromdiscussingthemannedflightstootherplanetsandconsideringindetailtheirdifferentprojectsinthenearestfuture.

Scientific andmanaging activity ofM.V.Keldysh in the area of cosmonautics itselfstartedin1954whentogetherwithS.P.KorolevandM.K.Tikhonravovheexpressedthe proposal of creating the artificial Earth satellite and personally participated in

preparationofthereportingnoticeonthistopicforthegovernment.In1956MstislavVsevolodovich was appointed the head of the special commission of the Presidiumof USSR Academy of Sciences on the artificial Earth satellite (commission on the‘Object‘D’).In1958bythedecisionoftheCentralCommitteeofCPSUandCouncilof Ministers of USSR M.V. Keldysh was assigned the president of the Interdepart-mentalCouncilonSpaceResearchattheAcademyofSciences(MNTSonKI).Sincethismoment both as the leader of integrated scientific and technical research anddevelopmentandthepresidentofMNTSonKI,M.V.Keldyshwascarryingthespe-cialresponsibilityfortheprogressoftheUSSRspaceprogram,evenduringthemostintenseperiodofhismultipleactivitieswhilebeingthePresidentofUSSRAcademyofSciencesin1961–1975.

HavingbecomethepresidentofAcademyofSciences,MstislavVsevolodovichgotthepossibility to manage the development and realization of the Soviet space programatthenew,higherlevel.Therangeofscientificproblemsundersolutionduringtheseyearswasunusuallybroadanddiverse.Withhisdirectparticipationthegeneralprob-lemsofcosmonautics,trendsandprospectsof itsgrowthwereresearched.Hisfieldofviewalwayscoveredthemechanicsofspaceflight,thetheoryofoperation,naviga-tion,orientation.Thestartofresearchofthenearspaceandtheinterplanetarymedi-um,theMoonandSolarsystemplanetsisrelatedtohisname.Forinstance,togetherwithGeorgyNikolaevichBabakinhewasdirectingthedevelopmentandrealizationoftheVenusresearchprogram.Hewaspayingthemostseriousattentiontothemannedflights, theirprogramsandscientificexperiments,supplyingthespacecraftwiththeequipment and devices, including onboard computers. The topic of his permanentattentionwasextendingtherangeofscientificresearchandimprovingtheirmanage-ment.HewasoriginatorofcreatingtheSpaceResearchInstituteandtheInstituteofBiomedicalProblems.

MstislavVsevolodovichwaspossessingtheincredibledepthofthought,open-mind-edness, huge erudition. Many people were dazzled by his ability to get to the veryessenceofproblemunderdiscussion,find theprincipal link,havingrejectedevery-thingnotimportant,ofthesecondaryvalue.

M.V.Keldysh was an exceptionally principled man who had placed the interests ofthebusinessandthecountryaboveanyothers.Hewasapersonofstateinthehigh-estmeaningofthisword.Onecangiveonebrightexamplehere.TheheavylauncherN1was under construction at S.P.Korolev’sDesignBureau.On the same time theChiefDesignerV.N.ChelomeysteppedoutwiththedrawingprojectofnewUR-500(Proton) launcher. Expertise of his project was assigned to the state commissionwithM.V.Keldysh incharge.Havingthoroughlyanalyzedtheproject,M.V.Keldyshappreciated its high technical level. Despite the negative reviews from a number ofprovisional commissions (which were, unfortunately, of subjective nature), expertcommitteeofM.V.KeldyshhasapprovedV.N.Chelomey’sprojectopeningthe‘greenlight’foritsrealization.ProtonlauncherhasprovidedourcountrywiththesuccessesintheresearchoftheMoon,VenusandMars,theflightsoforbitalstations.Withoutthehighfidelity toprinciplesandperseveranceofM.V.KeldyshProtonwouldhavehardlybeencreatedinthoseconditions.

M.V.Keldysh was paying the exceptionally high attention to the planning issues inthespaceresearchwhichtoalargeextentassistedourcountryinprovidinganum-berofpriorityachievements laying the foundationofpractical cosmonautics.Com-plexprogramsofresearchof thenearspace, theMoonandplanets,experiments tothebenefitofthenationaleconomicsweredevelopingunderhisdirectmanagement.

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Realization of such ambitious projects as first Earth satellite launch, first humanflightinspace,firstflightsoftheautomatedspacecrafttotheMoonanditsfirstartifi-cialsatellite,lunarsoilretrievalanddeliverytoEarth,firstflightstoVenusandMars,thefirstartificialsatellitesofVenus,firststudiesofVenusianatmosphere,softland-ingon its surface,firstpanoramic imagesof this ‘mysterious’planet transmitted toEarth by automated spacecraft and many others are directly related to his activity.Greatarehismerits in thechoiceof theprincipaldirectionbyourcountrytowardsthescientificresearchofspace,theMoonandplanetswiththeaimoftheautomatedspacecraft.

M.V.KeldyshhasactivelysupportedtheproposalbyInstituteofRadioelectronicsonthemapping thesurfaceofVenuswhich iscovered fromtheobserver’seyesby thethickopticallyopaqueatmosphere.Itwassupposedtoperformthemappingwiththeradarequipmentofthespacecraftdeliveredintotheorbitofplanet’sartificialsatel-lite. M.V. Keldysh was discussing the possibilities of such an elegant space experi-mentwiththescientists,pointingouttheimportantroletheissuesofprocessingthelargevolumesof informationshouldplay in itsrealization.UnfortunatelyM.V.Kel-dyshwasnotabletoseetheresultsofthisuniquespaceexperimentcarriedoutsuc-cessfullyin1983–1984byVenera-15andVenera-16spacecraft.

Since the beginning of intensive development of Space Shuttle returnable systemproject inUSA,theissuecriticallyaroseonthepracticabilityofcreatingthesimilarsystem inourcountry.M.V.Keldyshwasmany timesdiscussing therangeofprob-lemswhichcouldhavebeensolvedwiththeaidoftherecoverablespacesystem,dif-ficultiesofitsrealizationandthewaysofovercomingthem.Theresultwascreatingtheconceptofuniversaltransportationfacilityabletosolvethescientific,economicalanddefensetasks.Theacceptedtechnicalsolutionwasconsideredasanintermediatestep towardsmaking the completely reusable aero-spacecraft for theflights onanyheights in theatmosphereandbeyond itsboundary.On thesame time, creationofEnergia-Buransystemallowedtosolvetheproblemsofdevelopingtheheavyrocketlauncherwithacarryingcapacityabout100tandoxygen-hydrogenengines,designofaero-spacecraftwitharathercomplexandperfectoperationsystem.

HavingmadethedecisiononthenecessitytocreateEnergia-Buranrocketspacesys-temafterinternalhesitationsanddoubts,M.V.Keldyshdevotedalotofforces,talentandmanagingskillstotherealizationofthisproject.

AcademicianM.V.KeldyshplayedanimportantroleinestablishingthecooperationinspaceresearchandexplorationwiththesocialistcountriesinthenetworkofInter‑cosmos project, as well as the cooperation on the bilateral basis with USA, France,etc.HewasoneoftheinitiatorsofthefamousSoyuz-Apolloflightprogram.

The name ofM.V. Keldysh is related to the formation of new science – computa-tional mathematics without which many fundamental modern achievements wouldbe impossible. The giant atomic problem requiringhuge effortswas solved in veryshort terms. The country’s ‘rocket-nuclear shield’ was created, the military politi-calbalanceintheworldwasrestored.Thehugeroleinthisprojectwasplayedbyitsscientificdirectorship,cooperationofthree ‘k’(keldysh,kurchatov,korolev).Thisbecamepossibleduetothebroadapplicationofthemethodsofmathematicalmodel-ingwhichprovidedthechoiceoftheoptimalitemsofhardware,thusallowingtosig-nificantlyincreasethespeedofcreatingthenuclearandthermonuclearweapon.M.V.Keldyshwasparticipatinginthistitanicworkbothasthedirectorofalargecollectiveofscientistsandtheauthorofmanyideasandcomputationalmethods.M.V.Keldyshbecame the founder of this scientific discipline and initiator of its development at

V.A.Steklov’sMathematical Institute and later at Institute ofAppliedMathematicsofUSSRAcademyofSciences (IPM)whichhehas created in 1953andwasdirect-ingfor25years.Itwashere,atIPM,wherethesolutionstartedofmanycomplicatedproblemsrelatedtoatomicenergytakeoverandspaceexploration.TheInstitutetookpart in development of the largest state scientificprojects aimed towards the solu-tion of the most actual problems. All of that called for the creation of the new sci-ence,newareainmathematics.UndertheauspicesofM.V.Keldyshtheuniquecol-lectiveofspecialistswasformedcapableofsolvingthelargeappliedproblems.IdeasandmethodsdevelopedbyM.V.Keldysh,hisdisciplesandcolleagueshavereceivedawideappreciationanddisseminationfindingtheapplicationinmanyareasofsci-enceandeconomy.ThefirstcalculationsatIPMwereperformedmanuallywiththecapturedelectro-mechanicalmachinesofMercedestype.Butsoonthefirstcomput-ersappearedthatallowedtoincreasethecomputationspeedbyordersofmagnitude.M.V.Keldyshwasoneof thefirst torealize theroleofnewtechnologicaldevices inthescientificresearch,inthescience-technicalprogress.IPMwasreceivingthefirstsamplesofpracticallyallnativecomputers.ThespecialdivisionswerecreatedintheInstitutewheredevelopmentswereunderwayonprogramminglanguagesandcompi-lators,PC-architecture,networks,visualizationsystemsandmanyothertopicswhichhaveturnedintowhatisnowreferredtoasinformationtechnologies.

FormanyyearsM.V.KeldyshwasactivelyparticipatinginmanagingtheUSSRAcad-emyofScienceswhichhewasheadingasaPresidentofAcademyforfourteenyears.

He was paying a large attention to the choice of main directions of the scientificresearch,perspectivesofdevelopmentofscienceandtechnicalprogress.Itwasinthecloseconnectionofscienceandtechnology,inthecooperationofsciencewithindustrywhereM.V.Keldyshwasseeingthemostimportantstimulusfortheprogressofscience.

Since1961AcademicianM.V.KeldyshwasheadingtheCommitteeontheLeninandState Prizes. This Committee was intended to carry out exceptionally responsiblefunctionsoftheobjective,unbiaseddiscussionandcorrectevaluationofnotjustthescientificworks but also the outstanding achievements in the field of industry andeconomysubmittedtoseektheprizes.ItisclearthattheroleoftheCommitteepresi-dentisextremelyhighandhemustbepossessinganexceptionalauthorityandwis-dom.M.V.Keldyshwasanexcellentexampleofthemanagerendowedwithallthesequalities.

The activity of M.V.Keldysh, an outstanding scientist, distinguished manager whohasmadesomuchforraisingthepowerandprestigeoftheSovietsciencewaswor-thily marked with the triple awarding him a high dignity of the Hero of SocialistLabor,manyothermedals,prizesandhonoredtitles.

AcademyofSciencesisregularlyawardingM.V.Keldyshgoldmedalfortheoutstand-ingscientificresults,theInstituteofAppliedMathematicsisnamedafterhim.Thereisamemorialroom—museumofM.V.Keldyshandthemonumentraisedbysculp-torV.M.Klykov.

And themore time is goingby since themoment of his passing in 1978, themoreclearlyandsharplywerecognizehisroleforthecountryasagreatscientist,patriotandcitizen,hisvalueasthemanagerofscienceasawholeandofthespaceresearchinparticular.

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my REFlECTIonS on THE SPuTnIk-1 lAunCH

yuri RyzhoVRUSSIAEmployeeoftheOrdzhonikidzeMoscowAviationInstitute.Academi-cianoftheRussianAcademyofSciences.

Born in 1930, Moscow. Graduated from the Moscow Institute ofPhysicsandTechnology in1954.Worked in theZhukovskyCentralAerohydrodynamicInstitute(TsAGI),ResearchInstitute-1(nowtheM.V.KeldyshResearchCenter),theOrdzhonikidzeMoscowAviationInstitute(currentworkplace;from1986to1992heldthepositionofrector).

Deputy to the Supreme Soviet in1989–1992.Member of Presidium ofthe Supreme Soviet, Chairman of theSupreme Soviet Committee on Sci-ence,CultureandEducation.

AmbassadorExtraordinaryandPleni-potentiaryofRussiainFrance(1992–1999).

KnightofLegionofHonour(France).AwardedbetheUSSRStatePrize,PresidentialPrizeofRussia,OrdersofRussiaandtheUSSR.

Totelltoday,50yearslater,howwe,engineersofmygeneration, tookandestimated thefirst in theworld artificialEarth satellitelaunched by our country, one need to imagine who we were and where we were atthosetimesprecedingthattriumph.

By saying ‘we’ Imeanbothmyself andmanyofmy ‘fiztekh’ (theMoscow InstituteofPhysicsandTechnologyorMPIT)‘classmates’.Themajorityofus,whograduatedfromthe‘Fiztekh’backin1953–1956,specializinginthisorthatwayinaviationandmissilescienceandindustry(theso-called‘aerodynamics’and‘thermodynamics’),incompliancewiththeapproachadoptedattheFiztekh,studiedtheprofilesubjectsatthebasicfacultiesofscientific-researchinstitutesratherthanatDolgoprudnymuchbeforegraduationfromtheFiztekhinstitute.Forthe‘aerodynamics’,itwastheCen-tralAerohydrodynamical Institute (TsAGI) in the townofZhukovsky,while for the‘thermodynamic students’, itwas theCentral Institute of AviationEngineBuilding(TsIAM)andtheNII-1Scientific-ResearchInstituteinMoscow,beingitsaffiliationatthattime(currently,theM.V.KeldyshCenter).

WeallknewoneanotherfromDolgoprudny,whereweweretaughtbasicsofmath-ematics,physics,mechanics,languages,aswellasanumberofother,oftenfarfromdevelopingdisciplines. Iamtellingabout thisdisposition insuchdetail inorder toexplainthereactionoftheabove-described‘community’or,rather,myownreactiontotheepoch-makingeventofOctober4,1957.

InFebruary1954,havingdefendedmydiplomathesisonaerodynamicsoffeatheredbodiesofrevolution,Ibeganworkingatthesameplacewhereithadbeendone—attheDepartmentofAerodynamicsofair-to-airandsurface-to-airmissilesoftheTsAGI2ndLaboratory.Therewereinspiringtimes:synchrophasotron,atomicandhydrogenbombs, jetplanefightersandbombers,geophysicalrocketstakingoffverticallystillhigherandhigher…

Undertheatmosphereofextremesecrecyinthedefenseindustry,beingisolatedfromforeignmassmedia,itwashighlyincredibleforcitizenswhodidnotdealdirectlywithaviationandrocketscienceandindustrytoimaginethatthelaunchofthefirstartifi-cialEarthsatellite(AES)wassorealandimminent.

Thesituationwasdifferentinthesocietyofscientistsandengineers.Itwasnotonlythatwecommunicatedwithoneanotherandwithour‘seniorfriends’but,forexam-ple,my ‘Fiztekh’ friends and Iwere eager to absorb scientific and popular scienceinformationpublishedinforeignperiodicals(e.g.,PopularMechanicsJournal).Theaccess to theseperiodicals, including those thatwereclassifiedandstampedwithaso-called restricting access ‘hexahedron’,was ensuredby theTsAGIBureau of Sci-entific andTechnical Information (BNTI). Similar departmentswere also availableat theTsIAMandNII-1 Institutes.All of themwere very generously suppliedwithscientificandtechnicalliteraturepublishedabroad.Thisinformation,alongsidewiththeactualworkperformedattheseinstitutions,allowedustogetanideaofactualnear-futurepotentialitiesofworldscienceandengineeringinthefieldofaviationandmissiles.

Besides, at the BNTI Bureau it was possible to get acquainted with trophy Ger-manmaterials.FromthesematerialsweknewaboutquiteattainablegoalsthathadalreadybeenachievedbyGermansinthisfieldevenbefore1945.

WeknewthattheGermanshadleftbehindbothusandouranti-Hitlercoalitionalliesbyyearsandyears.Theyhassurpassedusinthetacticmissilearmament(V-1andV-2),air-defensearmament(theWasserfall,Reintochterair-defensemissiles),inair-jetengineswithcentrifugalandaxialcompressors,increationofjetplanefighterswithnear-sonicvelocitiesofflightandback-and forward-sweptwings,allowingashockwavephenomenononawingtobeshiftedtotheMnumbers~0,8.

The department, where I worked, was not directly engaged in the ballistic mis-sile rocketprojects.Then,velocitiesofair-to-airandsurface-to-airmissilesdidnotexceedM = 3. Nevertheless, we were also ‘hit’ by the ‘fire’ of long-range nuclear-chargedballisticmissiles.Wewerebriefedabouttheirpotentialities,effectiveareas,dependingonthenumberofmegatonequivalent,projectsofinterception-destroyingofwarheadsatthedescendingtrajectorysection(itwasonlyattheendofthe1970’sthattheybeganseriouslydiscussinterceptionattheinsertionstage).

Despitethesofteningofpoliticalcustomsinthecountry(aftertheXXCongressoftheCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnion(CPSU),the‘coldwar’wasinfullswing.TheUSU-2reconnaissanceaircraftswereon the looseflyingoverour territoryataltitudesnotaccessibletoourairdefensemeans.

Onlyin1960,theyetanotherU-2wasfinallyhitbyananti-aircraftmissile,theaero-dynamicsofwhichwasdevelopedinourdepartment.Afterithadbeenshotdown,itspilotPowerswastakencaptive.Myimmediatebosses,A.F.MitykinandV.M.Shury-gin,wereamongthosewhoreceivedtheLeninPrizeforthisevidentachievement.

Twenty years later, at one of the research centers in California I witnessed a U-2launch. The ‘oldman’ continued to work, pursuing the research goals rather than

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intelligence ones, same as its Soviet equivalents developed at theV.M.MyasischevDesignBureau.

Fromour friends,working at theNII-1 Institute,we knew that theDesignBureauheadedbyS.P.Korolevworkedinclosecontactwiththeirinstitute.Sometimebeforethat,evenbeforehewasarrested,S.P.KorolevhadworkedonthesameterritoryinLikhobory,attheRNII.Weknewthat,havingreproducedtheV-2missile(R-1),Ser-geyPavlovichcreatedtheR-5missileand,subsequently,thefamousR-7one,whichafter having been subjected to numerous upgrades, is still reliable in serving thespaceexplorationgoals.Therefore,forus,youngspecialists,itwasclearthattheAESwouldcomenext.Theonlyquestionwas:Whowouldbethefirsttolaunchit?WeortheUSA?IntheUSAandintheWest,theyhavebeendiscussingresearchinthisfieldextensivelyandratheropenly.Withinthiscountry,thistopicwas‘TSSI’(TopSecret.SensitiveInformation.).

Maybe, it ismy personal opinion of the event of October 4, 1957, but it seems tome that ithadbeenunderestimatedby the ‘publicopinion’ofourcountryandhadfailed to impress the public as profoundly as Yu.A. Gagarin’s flight into space onApril 12, 1961.What anation-wide triumph itwasonApril 12! Iwas among thosecrowdsinManezhnayaandRedSquareandwascheeringtogetherwithmycompa-triots,althoughforus,youngspecialists,itwasnotanunexpectedeventeither:justthesamequestion:Whowouldbethefirst?Butthen,inOctober,1957,itwasratherourfriends-rivalsintheWest,whogasped,havinglosttheraces.Although,forsure,theyhadamuchbetterunderstandingofcapabilitiesthiscountryhadinthefieldofAESlaunching.And,onceagain,theydrewconclusionsforthemselves,inparticular,about trainingof specialists innew,developingfieldsof scienceandengineering intheUSSR.

Andonceagainafewwordsaboutme.Atthebeginningof1958,havingbeeninvitedbyAcademicianG.I.Petrov,ImovedfromtheTsAGItohis4thGas-DynamicLabora-toryoftheNII-1Institute.Itwasrequiredtofinishtheconstruction(includingearthexcavation)andcommissioningofawindtunnelwithaclosedworkingsection(whichistypicaloftheTsAGIbutdidnotcomplywiththetraditionsoftheNII-1Institute)withaflexiblecontrolledexhaustsectionfor theMnumbersupto6,withaballastheating.Iwasalsoentrustedwithother ‘oddjobs’,relatedtoacruisemissileoftheS.A.LavochkinDesignBureau,havingaramjetengineandvelocity,correspondingtoM~3,anditsstar-trackingspine.Igotintouchwithaerodynamictestsofthismis-silemockupintheT-109windtunnelbackatthetimewhenIwasstillworkingattheTsAGIInstitute.Separationwithsideacceleratingengineswassimulated(theenginewasdevelopedbytheBondaryukDesignBureau,whichwaslocatedonthesameter-ritoryoftheNII-1Institute,whilethe4thLabwasactivelyworkingontheinletassem-blyandthewholegas-dynamicductofthisuniqueramjetengine).

Butwhat I remember verywell is a small taskonanalogue simulationof a vehicledisorbit with an aerodynamic quality, allowing overloads and thermal fluxes tobe considerably decreased, as compared with the ballistic re-entry, performed byYu.A.Gagarin’scapsule.

I performed this simulation under the supervision of G.F. Telenin, a remarkablepersonandscientists,attheendofApril,1960.BelkaandStrelkadogswerealreadyorbitingthespace, leavingusnodoubtaboutournewspacetriumphbeingcloseathand.TherewasoneyearleftbeforeY.A.Gagarin’sflight.

* * *Iwasluckybothinmyprofessionandinmylife.

ToworkatsuchremarkableinstitutionsasTsAGIandNII-1duringthetimeswhensuchgiants(irrelativeoftheirrelationships)asM.V.Keldysh,G.I.Petrov,S.A.Khris-tianovich, V.S.Avduevskiy, V.V.Struminskiy, A.A.Dorodnitsyn worked there, notonlyseeingthembutalsolisteningtothemduringmeetingsandworkshops–wasn’titgoodluck?!

That was the time when a poet was writing: ‘somehow physicists are honoured;somehowpoetsareneglected…’

The poet was not utterly sincere. Lyric poets — Ye.Yevtushenko, A.Voznesensky,R.Rozhdestvensky and others were standing together with physicists in the sameinspiredranksatthatremarkableanduniquetime.

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Roger-Maurice BonnetFRANCEPresidentoftheCommitteeonSpaceResearch(COSPAR).ExecutiveDirectoroftheInternationalSpaceScienceInstitute(ISSI).

Bornin1937,France.GraduatedfromParisUniversityinPhysicsandAstronomy(1961).

In1963,atServiced’Aéronomie,helaunchedthefirstFrenchspaceastronomyexperimentonboardaVeroniquerocketinSahara.Direc-toroftheLaboratoiredePhysiqueStellaireetPlanétaire(1969–1983).In1983–2001wasinvolvedwiththeEuropeanSpaceAgency.AsDi-rectoroftheScienceProgrammeoftheESA,heestablishedasearlyas1984thefirstlongtermprogrammeofESAcalledHorizon2000.

JointDirectorGeneralforScienceatCNES(CentreNationald’Etudesspatiales,NationalCenterforSpaceStudies,2002–2003).PresidentofCOSPARsinceOctober2002.

Awarded by Gagarin Medal in 1985, Tsiolkovsky Medal in 1993,COSPAR Award in 2000, NASAPublicServiceMedalin2001.FellowoftheEuropeanGeo-physicalSociety(2001).OfficierdelaLégiond’Honneur.

WHAT dId SPuTnIk-1 do uS And To mEFranceandRussiahavedevelopedastrongtra-

ditionofmutualesteem.Thisisbasedontherespectofculture,artandothercom-monvalues,includingliteratureandpoetry,painting,architecture,music,dance,andscience.My formerSoviet friends,nowRussians,hadagenuineadmiration for thevaluesof theFrenchrevolution.Reciprocally, therewas, inparticularafter theSec-ondWorldWar,strongadmirationfromalargepartoftheFrenchpopulationforthecourageand thesacrificesof theSovietpeople.SowhenSputnik-1wassuccessfullyplaced intoorbit, thatpartof theadmiringFrance,andmore,was, the least tosay,enthusedovertheexploit.Iwasamongthem,a19-years-oldstudentatParisUniver-sity.Honestly,Icouldnotbelieveit.Howwasitpossibletoaccelerateanobjectlikethatnot-so-littlemetallicballtothephenomenalspeedof29000km/h?Howwasitpossibletoget it talkingtous?HowwasitpossiblethatthecountrywhichinvadedHungaryandsentitstankstoBudapesttheyearbeforemanagedtooccupyagainthefrontscene,thistimewithanevenmorestunningevent?AneventthatwewouldnothavebeensomuchsurprisedhaditbeenthefactoftheUnitedStates,themosttech-nologicallydevelopedcountryofthewholeworld.ButfromSovietUnion!Incredible!

In1957,theinternationalcontextwasdominatedbythe‘coldwar’,thedominanceofSovietUnionoverseveralEastEuropeancountriesandalsobycolonialwars.FrancehadjustleftVietnamtoimmediatelystartfightingagainstAlgeria.TheUnitedStateswerealreadythinkingsucceedingtheFrenchinVietnam.TheseweredoomdaysfortheworldadecadeorsoaftertheendoftheWorldWar.Then,suddenly,theland-scapechangedjustbecauseofthistinysphereofaluminiumorbitingaboveourheads

andarrogantlysendingitshistorical‘beeps’.Wewerewitnessingaplanetarytogglingofwhichweknewnothingandofunforeseeableconsequences.Injustafewminutestheworldenteredintoanewera:thespaceagehadstartedwhichwouldmodifyourwaysoflivingandwouldstrengthenthealreadystrongbipolarizationoftheworld.

Sputnik-1wasprecededbyaneventwhichwasnotunderstoodimmediatelyasrelat-ed.AttheendofAugust,IrememberlisteningtotheradiowhenitAnnouncedthatSovietUnionhadsuccessfullylaunchedwhatwasidentifiedasafirstIntercontinent-alballisticmissile,whoseperformancewereastoundingandaboveanything imagi-nable. The public announcement came five days after the successful test, probablybecausetheRussianswantedtobesuretheyhadeventuallysucceeded.Thisstunningachievementcreatednervousnessinthemedia.Thisfirsttestwasfollowedbyasec-ondsuccessfuloneonSeptember7.ThegeneralpublicknewverylittleatthattimeoftheRussianspaceprogramwhichwaskeptunderstrongsecrecy.WhensuddenlySputnik-1occupiedthefrontpagesofnewspapersandofallmedia,theunbelievabletruthappearedclearly:SovietUnionwastheleaderofthemostadvancedtechnologi-calprowessofthecentury.

Indeed, we knew nothing and certainly not the name of themanwho created theevent,SergeyKorolev,whohadbeengiventheresponsibilityinFebruary,1953bytheSovietgovernmentofbuildinganintercontinentalrocket.Wedidnotknowthenthattheprogramwassupposedtosenda3-tonpayloadat8000kmdistance,thedistanceseparatingMoscow fromWashington, a requirementwhichwas later on upgradedwhenthethermonuclearwarheadwasestimatedtoweigh6tons(amistakenestimateofAndreySakharov).Wedidnotknow thispowerful rocket’sname:R-7or ‘semy‑orka’.Wedidnotknowthatittooklessthan4yearstodevelopthelauncherandthatbetween15thMayand21stAugustitwasvictimof3failures.WedidnotknowthataspeciallaunchingrangehadbeendevelopedatTyura-Tam(nearBaikonur)incentralKazakhstan,speciallycreatedfortheR-7.Wedidnotknowthattherocket’sconfigu-rationwassuchthatitwasinfactamilitaryflop,adevicetoodifficulttouseincaseofcrisisandemergency.WedidnotknowthatSergeyKorolevhadunderstoodthatfactseveralyearsbeforethefirsttestandthathetookhimselfthedecisiontoadaptthe top stageof theR-7 to create the rocketnamed8K71 inUSSRwhichwouldbecapableofthefirstsatellizationattheoccasionofthestartoftheInternationalGeo-physicalYear(IGY).WedidnotknowthathehadtofightagainstthescientistswhowantedtousethisfirstsatelliteforconductingexperimentswhichwouldhavegiventhemaleadingscientificrolebutwouldmostlikelyhavedelayedthelaunchofSput‑nik-1,lettingtheAmericanstaketheleadershipoftheconquestofspace.Asanexcel-lentmanager,hetookthedecisiontomakeSputnik-1relativelysmall(58cmofdiam-eter)andsimple,weighting83.6kg,equippedwithonesingle‘experiment’:thegen-ial radio transmitters responsible for sendingone ‘beep’ per second,a ‘beep’whichwouldremainfamousfortherestofthehistoryofhumankindasthefirstsignaleverreceivedonEarthfromouterspace.AmajorPRscoopaswewouldsaynow.

Wedidnotknowalotofthingsbutwithtimepassingwenowrealizethatweshouldhaveknown.OnfirstAugust,1955,followingtheannouncementthreedaysearlierbytheAmericans that theywould launch a satellite as part of their IGY contribution,theRussiansmadeasimilarannouncement.ButthiswastotallyignoredintheWest.AtthespecialCommitteeforIGYheldinBarcelonaonSeptember11,1956,theSovi-etdelegateannouncedthathiscountrywould launchasatelliteduringtheIGY.OnJuly9,1957theSovietmediaannouncedagainthatasatellitewasbeingpreparedforlaunch.Theywentevenasfarasgivingtheradiofrequenciesitwoulduse.Again,the

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Westand inparticular theUnitedStates ignoredtheannouncement,probablycon-sidering itas intoxicatingpropaganda.Finally,onSeptember18,at theoccasionofthe100thanniversaryof thebirthofK.Tsiolkovsky,RadioMoscowannouncedthatthelaunchofthesatellitewasimminent,butoncemorethiswasignored.

AnotherbigsurprisewasthelaunchofSputnik-2lessthanamonthlaterwhichwassix times heavier than Sputnik-1 and carried the charming little dog Laika as offi-cialpassenger.On15May,1958Sputnik-3weightingnearlythreetimesasmuchasSputnik-2wasalsosuccessfullyputintoorbit.Weweretotallyflabbergasted,astheresourcesof theRussian rocket seemed tohave extraordinarily enormous capabili-ties.Korolev’smachine had started its incredible career. If itwas not a goodmili-taryengine,itprovedonthecontrarytobeagreatspacelauncherwhichisstillused50yearsafteritsfirstlaunch.

TheearlydaysofspaceresearchwereclearlymarkedbythesuccessesoftheSovietmissionswhile,simultaneously,theAmericanswerecatchingup,painfullyandslowlyfirstbutthenwitharegularandimpressivepace.TheCOSPARcreatedinthewakeofSputnik-1offeredaforumwheretheirrespectivescientificachievementswereregu-larly reported. I remember the rooms atCOSPARScientificAssemblies, filledwithmobsofscientists fromallovertheworld,curiousandimpatientto learnthe latestdiscoveries on the Moon, Venus, Mars or just the Sun. In spite of the great politi-cal difficulties, the open policy of our Soviet colleagues allowed the initiation ofthemost impressive dialogue between the East block and theWest, a dialoguewhichhasmarked thewhole history of the 50 years of space research and con-tinuestodayatanimpressivelevel.EventhoughSputnik-1isachildofthemilitarycompetition between the two superpowers, its main legacy has been the initiationanddevelopmentofinternationalcooperationmarkedcertainlyalsobyagooddoseofcompetition.

TheeffectofSputnik-1onmyown fatewasabsolutelydetermining. Iwassomuchimpressedbythetechnicalprowessthatwhencamethetimeformetodecideonmyfuture,Idecidedtobecomeascientist,andItoldmyparentsthatifImanagedtosuc-ceedIwoulddevelopmycareer inspace.Whatcountedaboveall formewas tobeinvolved.AndIhavebeen!Aftermyexamswerepassedsuccessfully,IrejoinedthelaboratoryofJ.E.Blamont,theonlyoneseriouslyinvolvedinspaceresearchatthattimeinFrance,andlessthansixyearsafterSputnik-1Iwasableto launchmyfirstexperiment in space on board a Veronique rocket from thedesertofSahara.Sput‑nik‑1madeitalleasyformeandonOctober4,2007,Icelebratenotonlyaveryhis-toricalbirthdaybutalso50yearsofmyfullinvolvementinspacescience.

Inparallel,otheractorswereentering thescene.Less than4yearsafterSputnik-1,deGaulle founded theCentreNationald’EtudesSpatiales,CNES, theFrenchspaceagency and my country was the first after Soviet Union and the United States tolaunchasatellitewithitsownmeansonNovember26,1965(A-1alsocalledAsterix).Francebecameaprivilegedpartnerandoneoftheleadersofthespaceera.ThevisitofdeGaulletoBaikonurin1966placedFranceinauniquepositionontheinterna-tionalspacesceneandopenedthewaytoanintensescientificcooperationwhichlaterspreadthroughoutEurope.Afterthewar,visionaryscientistslikeL.deBroglieandP.AugerinFranceandE.AmaldiinItalywereveryactiveinusingscienceasameansofEuropeanintegrationandofdialogueamongthemostferociouswarringcountries.TheycreatedCERNin1954 fornuclear research,andESROforspaceresearch fol-lowedinthewakeofSputnik-1 in1962.ESROlaterin1974becameESA,theEuro-peanSpaceAgency.

IncontrastwiththesituationinUSSRandtheUSA,thedevelopmentofspaceactivi-ties in Europe was based on a totally peaceful approach which may explain its dif-ficultstartandlengthydevelopment.AsanearlyactorofspacescienceIbecamerap-idlyinvolvedinthedevelopmentoftheEuropeanspaceeffort,firstasa24years-old‘expert’inthevariousESROcommitteesandlateratESAwhereIbecametheScienceProgrammeDirectorin1983until2001.TheexcellentspiritofcooperationbetweenFranceandUSSRbasedonmutualrespectandadmirationoftheirrespectivevisionsin the exploration of the Moon and Venus but also in astronomy and geosciences,percolatedinEuropeandlaterontheworldwidescene.

The climax was undoubtedly reached during the preparation of the observation ofHalley’sCometin1986attheoccasionofitsreturntoperihelion.Intheearly1980’s,USSRandFranceweredevelopingthetwoVegamissionstoVenuswhichweresup-posedtolaunchasetofballoonstostudytheatmosphereofthe‘Morningstar’.TheRussians had clearly gained leadership in the exploration of Venus. In view of thereturnofHalleyatperihelion,RoaldSagdeev,thenheadoftheIKI�instituteinMos-cow, in agreement with his international partners, in particular France, proposedtomodify the spacecraft and to observe alsoHalley at some8000kmdistance. Inparallel, ESA was developing Giotto and the Japanese space agency ISAS the twolong-distanceSakigakeandSuiseimissions.Giottowasaimingatacloseflybyofthenucleus.Thankstoaclevernavigationtechniquebasedontheutilizationof imagesobtainedfirstbytheVegamissionsandontheirveryaccuratetrackingbytheNASADeep Space Network, Giotto was able to approach the comet to within 600 km.Inthemidstofthe‘coldwar’thisuniquemontageofcooperationremainsstilltodayanexemplaryachievementandclearlyadirect legacyof the leadershipacquiredbySoviet space technologymasterly illustratedbySputnik-1. Iwasproudofbeing theESAresponsibleactorinthisuniqueandsuccessfulstory.

TherespectivesuccessesofUSSRandoftheUSinmannedmissionsandcosmonau-ticsalsoestablishedasolidbasisforinternationalcooperationaswellasaprofoundcorps spirit between soviet cosmonauts and US astronauts which was vividly illus-tratedduringthejointApollo-Soyuzflightin1975andcontinuestodayonboardtheInternationalSpaceStation.

One cannot say that without Sputnik-1, space research and all the applications ofspace would not have started. It was just a matter of months for the Americans tolaunchtheirfirstartificialsatellite.ThefactthattheyweresecondbehindtheSovietsaddedsomekindofspicetotheevolutionofthescene.UntilthelaunchofApollo‑11,the Soviets dominated. One particularly exciting characteristic of that period wasthatwecouldnotseeanylimitstotheirprogress.TheflightofGagarin, lessthan4years after Sputnik-1,was another landmark in thehistory ofmankind and, again,rightfullystunnedtheworld.WhenNeilArmstrongputhisfeetontheMoonhoweverthebalancechangedsuddenlyandanewerastartedwhichwasmarkedbyaremark-able record of very ambitious American astronomy and planetary missions and bythe gradual disappearance of Russia (but not of Russian scientists) from the frontsceneofspacescience.AfinaljoltintheenormouslylonglistofthesovietsuccessesoccurredonNovember15,1988withthefirst—andlast—launchoftheBuranshut-tleinafullyautomaticmode.Thatwasthelastspectacularsuccessandtheendofastunningstory.

� SpaceResearchInstituteofUSSRAcademyofSciences(todayRussianAcademyofSci-ences).

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TheBasicspuTnikIn the meantime, Soyuz, the successor of theR-7 followed its incredible pathwithtoday over 1700 successful launches, manned and unmanned,making it themostreliable launcher intheworld.Thevisionof theSovietdesignersofR-7andthatofSergeyKorolev inparticular to launchthefirstSputnik,hasshaped irreversibly theevolutionof space exploration.Letme illustrate thiswitha fewexamples.Withoutthe robust scientific Soviet leadership following Sputnik-1, France would not havebeenable tobe thefirstEuropeancountry toplace laser reflectorson theMoon. ItwouldnothavebeenpossibleforFranceagaintoembarkonthemostextraordinaryand unique and successful balloon expedition in theVenusian atmosphere. FranceandRussiawouldnothavepioneeredthroughtheircooperationinthefieldofgam-ma-ray astronomywhich then culminatedwith the international Integral mission.TheincrediblesuccessoftheHalleymissionsandinparticularofGiottowouldhavemuchlessscientificallyrewarding.

WithoutSoyuz,amazingly,theInternationalSpaceStationwouldhavebeenaspacedesertedplaceformorethan3yearsasaconsequenceoftheColumbiaaccident,andclearly today Soyuz ensures the safest and most accessible means to serve the ISS.LookingbacktomyfavouriteESAprogram,IcancertifythatwithoutSoyuz,whichis not only reliable but also relatively cheap, the Cluster mission would have beenabandonedafterthefailureof itsfirst launchonboardthemaidenflightofAriane-5. The so-successfulMars Express mission and its Venusian clone Venus Expresswouldsimplynothaveexisted.Lookingahead,Gaia,Bepi-ColomboandSolarOrbit‑erwouldprobablybeindifficultyiftheyhadtoconsiderusingadifferentlauncher.ThelegacyofSputnik-1isjustimmeasurable.

AsfarasIampersonallyconcernedImustsaythatIamveryluckytohavebeenawitnessofthesuccessofSputnik-1andinthewakeofthissuccesstobeabletodevotemylifetospaceandtohavebeen—amongmanyothers—anactorofthisincredibleadventurewhichstartedonOctober4,1957at10:28:34p.m.Moscowtime,whenthe20enginesoftheR-7ignited,liftingSputnik-1offthelaunchpad,todisappearafewminuteslatertowardsthenortheastintothenightsky.Letmeexpressmyadmirationandmygratitudetoallthosewhohavecreatedmydreamandmadeitcomethrough.

aROunDTheWORLDin1,5hOuR R-7rocketinthemountingandtestfacility.Baikonur

ChiefDesigners:A.F.Bogomolov,M.S.Ryazansky,N.A.Pilyugin,S.P.Korolev,V.P.Glushko,V.P.Barmin,V.I.Kuznetsov

aROunDTheWORLDin1,5hOuR

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FirstAES.Generalview

snapshotofAES-1passageoverMelbourne

alla MaseVIChRUSSIADoctorofScience.Professor.Specialistinthefieldofspacegeodesy,space geodynamics and geophysics, opticalmonitoring of artificialEarthsatellites.

BorninTbilisiin1918.

GraduatedfromtheLiebknechtPedagogicalInstituteinMoscowin1941. Senior scientist in the Sternberg Astronomical Institute, Lo-monosovMoscowStateUniversity,in1945–1957.DeputyChairmanin the Astronomy Council in Academy of Sciences of the USSR in1952–1987.DeputySecretaryGeneraloftheUNcommitteeonpre-paring the 2nd United Nations Conference on the Exploration andPeacefulUsesofOuterSpace(New-York,1981–1982).

ChiefResearchFellowintheAstronomyCouncil(currentlyInstituteofAstronomyRussianAcademyofSciences)in1987–2003.

AwardedbytheUSSRStateAward(1975),theRedBannerofLabour(1975),theSignofHonour(1961),InternationalPrizeinastronautics(1963).HonoredworkerofscienceoftheRSFSR,FullmemberofIn-ternationalAcademyofAstronautics.FellowoftheRoyalAstronomi-cal Society (GreatBritain).

FIRST SPuTnIk, EARly yEARS oF obSERvIng ARTIFICIAl EARTH SATEllITES, EARly RESulT

RECognITIon

Academician L.I.Sedov, L.V.Kurnosova, meand the officer of the ForeignDepartment of theUSSRAcademy of Scienceswerethedelegation that flew toParis onOctober 3, 1957.Wewere supposed to get ourSpanishvisas tofly toBarcelonatoattendtheAssemblyof InternationalAstronau-ticalFederation (IAF), as theUSSRhadnodiplomatic relationswithSpain at thattime. The Soviet embassy responded to our Spanish visas request that they couldarrangethemintwoweekstimeonly.However,theassemblyopenedonOctober4,andwehadnootheroptionbut togo to theSpanishembassyourselves.L.I.SedovandIwentdirectlytotheambassador.Wegaveourbusinesscardsandwereimme-diatelyadmittedbytheAmbassador.Weapologizedforbotheringhimandexplainedtheissue.TheAmbassadorwasverykind, inquiredaboutourspecializations,askedwhatAstronauticalFederationwas—hewasconfusedbytheterm‘astronautics’.Hewaspleasedwithourexplanationsandarrangedthevisastobeissuedimmediately.Wechecked ina smallhotelby theNorthernTerminal, foundoutwhenweshouldarrive at the airport to board ourflight toBarcelona, andpeacefully fell asleep.AtfiveinthemorningtheownerofthehotelwokemeupandtoldmethatBBChasjustreportedthattheUSSRlaunchedthefirstartificialEarthsatellite.Hewasconcernedifthiseventposedanythreattohumanity.Ireassuredhimthattherewasnothreatatall.ThenIwokeupmycolleaguesandwecalledourembassytoconfirmthenews.Itturnedoutnooneattheembassywasawareofit.Allthevisitorsstayingatthehotel

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keptaskingusabout the ‘RussianWonder’ throughout thebreakfast.Ofcourse,wewereinformedathomeabouttheexpectedlaunchofthefirstsatellitethosedays,butnodatewasgiven.Andhereithadjusthappened.ThefirsteverartificialEarthsatel-lite,Sputnik,wassuccessfullylaunchedinourcountry.WeweregettingreadyforourflighttoBarcelonainelatedspirits.Apparently,weweretooexcitedandstayedlon-ger,sowehadtocallataxi(ourembassyrefusedtogiveusacar).

IttookustoolongtochangeourAeroflotticketsforAirFranceandfinallywewerelateforourflight.Whenwe,totallylost,returnedtothehall,thenewsvendorswereselling extras with ‘SPUTNIK’ headlines across in large font. It was the first timewhenthisRussianwordturned international.AnairportofficerapproachedusandaskedifweweretheRussiansthatmissedtheflight.Whenweconfirmedthis,hesaidthattheplanewasturnedbackforusonly(‘Youhavesuchagreatdaytoday—theSputnik!’)andtookusacrosstherunwayinhisjeeptowhereourplanewaslanding.Therampwaslowered,andwefoundourselvesinthecabinwhereeveryonewasinslightpanic.ThepassengerswerepuzzledwhytheirplanereturnedtoParisafteronlya20minuteflightandwhothesenewpassengerswere.‘Don’tyouunderstand?—ourescortsaid—theseareRussians,theylaunchedtheEarthsatellitetoday!’Wehadourfirstpress-conferenceduringtheflight—everyonewantedtoknowallabouttheFirstSputnik.

Acrowdof reportersandrepresentativesof theSpanishAstronauticalSocietywerealreadyexpectingusinBarcelona.Therewerealotofquestions,butmostofallevery-one wondered about the weight of Sputnik, eighty something kilos seemed unbe-lievable.Thething is,all thepublicationsonfuturesatellitesat that timediscussedAmericanprojectsonly,whichfeaturedreallysmallunitsthatweighedaboutakilo.TheFrenchnamedthesemanmadesatellites‘oranges’.WewereoftenaskediftheremightbeamistakeinTASSmessage,andtherealweightshouldbe0.8kg.

Theprogramoftheassemblyhadtobetotallyredesigned.Almosteveryreportdis-cussed the options to launch Earth satellites. Many participants withdrew theirreportsandwenttogethertothelocalradiostationtolistentothesignalsbroadcastedbytheSputnik-1.Wewereofferedcongratulations,peoplewonderedhowSovietsci-entistsmanagedtosurprisetheworldwithoutanypreviousmessagesordiscussions.No one even ‘noticed’ that academician Bardin, the Russian representative in thesteeringcommitteefortheInternationalGeophysicalYear,reportedthattheUSSRispreparingtolaunchasatellite(whichwasrecordedintheminutes),andacademicianA.A.MikhaylovinhisarticlepublishedinSovietAstronomicalJournalevenreportedtheorbitalinclinationofthesatelliteabout56°.Mostlikely,nooneeverbelievedtheUSSRcouldmanagesuchagreattask.Everyonewasimpressedbytheweightofoursatellitewhichnowseemsinsignificantcomparedtotheweightofmodernsatellitesreachingtones.

Somedelegatesoftheassemblyavoidedus,ifnottosaywerehostile.WhereassomeUSparticipantsmadenosecretoftheirdisappointmentasthey,aswellasthewholeworld,hadbeencertain that thefirst artificialEarth satellitewouldbe launched intheUS.ThefounderandthechairmanoftheAstronauticalFederationwastheworldknownscientistTheodorevonKarman,originallyHungarian.Hehadlonglivedandworked in theUS andwas the chief theory analyst and government consultant onspaceexploration.Ofcourse,ourSputnikwasamajordisappointment forhim.Hetried to conceal this, offered his warm congratulations on this great success in hisopeningspeechandatsidemeetings.However,oncehegotlooseallofasudden.

AtthereceptionoftheFederation,vonKarmanseatedL.I.Sedovandmeattheheadof the tableoneither sideofhimself.At somepoint someone jokingly congratulat-edtheAmericandelegateon loosingthespaceexplorationrace.SuddenlyvonKar-manexplodedandstartedsayinginloudvoicethatUSSRcouldnothavemadethisachievement,thiswholebusinessistoodoubtful,heknowsthiscountrywellenough,thereisnoorderthere,andnothingisdoneontime.Itriedtocalmhimdownbutitonlymadethematterworse.HestartedtellinghowhelivedinRussiaandcouldnotgetbacktoHungary,andhowhefinallymanagedtodothatpretendingtobeadoctorinaHungariandelegationthatarrivedinMoscowfortalks.Hetold:‘Theycannotdoanythingproperly,neverdoanythingintime’.Peopleseatingatothertablesstartedturningtheirheadstowardsus.Hewastellingthataddressingmeandnevergavemeachance toput inaword.Nooneevencared tohelpmeout.Sedovdidnot speakEnglish, so he did not understand what von Karman was saying and just sat andsmiled.Theothers,menmostly,werewatchingthewholeshowwithapparentinter-est.AnEnglishdelegatesittingwithmeontheothersidealsopreferredtostandback.VonKarmanwenton,butIwassorrytoseethisdistinguishedelderlymaninsuchastateanddidnotwantthewholematterendupwithamajorscandal.IwaitedtillhisnextaccusationthatRussiansarenotable todoanything timeandsaid inaprettyloudvoice,thatwestillmanagedtolaunchtheSputnikjustontime,rightbeforetheAssembly.Everyoneatthetablelaughedandapplauded,andthatfinishedvonKar-man.Hisfacefell,hefinishedanotherglass,thenhewastakenhome,andeverybodystartedthankingmeforfinishingthematterwithoutascandal.‘Itwastoomuchfunwatchingyoumanagethesituation’,—toldmetheHeadoftheUSdelegation.

Thenextday,opening thesession,vonKarmanapologized tomeand to thewholeSovietdelegationinpublicandgavemeaceremonialpresent—a‘Sputnik’hat,whichheorderedurgently inLondon(adeepredvelvethemispherichatwith fouranten-nas). This concluded this incident, but vonKarman thankedme a few times after-wardsformypatienceandforhushinguphisinappropriatebehavior.

Ourwhole Barcelona tripwasa total celebration.Peoplewould recognizeus in thestreet and congratulate us. L.I.Sedov and I appeared on television, L.V.Kurnosovamadearadioappearance.AllSpanishpaperswroteaboutus.Onefamoustoreadorsaidhewouldkillthenextbulltohonorthefirstsatelliteandourdelegation.Wewereinvited to watch this corrida, got the seats right underneath the government box,whereFrancosatwithhiswife.OurpapershadwrittenalotabouthiscrimesduringtheSpanish civilwarand I expected to see amonster.Whatwe sawwasanelder-ly,plumpandtiredmaninthebox,what,however,didnotpreventhimfromreact-ingexcitedlytowhatwashappeningonthefield.Thecorridawasverylong,sixbullsceasedtocomeoutfallingvictimstotheartofthreetoreadors.‘Our’toreador,comingoutonthefield,wavedhishattousandheroicallykilledthebull.Itwasveryhardtowatchthebullfightingbeingnewtotheshow.However,theaudiencewasshoutinginexcitement,noisilyapprovingordisapprovingofwhatthetoreadordidonthefield.

Itwas fun towatch how Spaniards totally disregarded the track of time.No eventstartedintime.OnlyforeignscientistsshowedupfortheMayor’sreceptionintime,theSpanishturnedupanhourlate,andtheMayorhimselfshowedupanotherhourlate, which was absolutely normal. We decided to keep this in mind for the finalreceptionandcameanhourlate,andwestillwerethefirst.Atthereception,wewerepresentedahugecakewithachocolaterocketthathadasmallballwithfouranten-nason itscone.TheSpanishwhowereevacuated toUSSRduring thewarcame tovisitusinourhotel.TheyaskedaboutMoscowalot,andwereparticularlyinterested

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ifLuzhnikistadiumhasbeencompleted,becausetheytookpart inpreparationsforthe futureconstruction.TheDirectorof the lace factory invitedus to takea lookattheir products. The female participants of the delegation each received a beautifulandelegantlacemantleasagift.TheSpanishdepartmentoftheAstronauticalFeder-ationceremoniallypresented‘LunarPassports’tous.Thiswasabeautifuldocument,whichsaidthatitsownerisentitledforapriorityseatonthefirstpassengerflighttotheMoon,anditalsoaskedtheMoondwellerstopayeveryrespecttotheholderofthisdocument.

AfterourtwodaystayinMadrid,wewenthomeviaPariswithaconnectionfortheAeroflot flight toMoscow. A surprise has been waiting for us in Paris. The Sovietambassadorandhisescortweremeetingourdelegationattheairport.Itturnedout,thatPresidentdeGaulle’swifeaskedhimifshecouldmeetthedelegationofthesci-entists that were on a visit to Spain. She read about them in the papers and want-ed togetfirsthandnewsabout theSputnikandspaceexplorationpotential.That’swhentheembassyrememberedthedelegationthattheyinitiallyignored.TheycalledMoscow,learnedaboutourwhereabouts,extendedourvisasandstayinParisbyfourdaysandnowweremeetinguswithhonors.AlargepartywasorganizedattheSovi-etembassyandwewerethe ‘maintreat’ there.TheFrenchPresident’swifeaskedalotofquestions,shewasverysorrydeGaullehimselfcouldnotcomebecauseofhissickness,butpromisedtotellhimeverythingindetails.Otherguestsdidnotleaveuseither,sothepartywasabigsuccess.TheAmbassadorwasveryhappyandthankedus.So,ourtripcametoendonahighnote.AndallthankstotheSputnik-1.

Several years later, in 1961, Von Karman founded an International Astronauti-cal Academy within the Astronautical Federation and became its first president.Herecommendedin1962thatseveralscientists fromthespaceexploringcountriesshouldbe included in thefirst staffof theAcademy.L.I.Sedovand Iwere thefirstrepresentativesoftheUSSRintheAcademy.TheAstronauticalAcademyisatpresentarecognizedinstitution,itsponsorsseveralinterestingactivitiesandhasalotofAca-demiciansandCorrespondingmemberselectedbasedontheorganizationCharter.

AFTER THE lAunCH oF SPuTnIk: ITS FIRST obSERvATIonS And FIRST SCIEnTIFIC RESulTS

AftertheUSSRsuccessfullylaunchedtheFirstartificialEarthsatellite(AES)onOcto-ber4,1957,theprimaryimportancewasgiventoorganizingandsupportingobserva-tionsofthemanmadespaceobjects.TheAstronomicalCounciloftheUSSRAcademyof Sciences (Astrosoviet) was responsible for organizing a system of optical obser-vationstationstoobservethefirstandfuturesatellites.Astrosovietstartedworkingonorganizingthesystemofthegroundstationsearlyin1957beforethesatellitewasevenlaunched.

First,thevisualobservationstationsoftheSputnik-1wereorganizedatPhysicsandMathematics faculties of State Universities and Teacher Training Institutes of Rus-siaaswellasAstronomyObservatoriesoftheAcademyofSciencesoftheUSSRandacademiesofSovietrepublics.Thestudentswereinvolvedasobservers,andteachersandresearchofficerswerebecomingLeadsofthesestations.

WedidnotknowpreciselyhowfasttheorbitofthefirstAESwouldchangeatthefirststages,withtheorbitwithintheupperatmosphere,howbrightwouldbetheobjectandotherissues.Itwasnotclearwhichtoolswouldbethebesttouseinobservations,howmanystationswererequired,whatwasthebestmethodtotraintheobservationspecialists,etc.

Itwasclearthatnoregularproceduresoftheastronomicalobservationsorexistingtelescopesweregoodforthat,andwehadtodesignandusedifferenttypeofequip-mentanddevelopdifferentobservationprocedures.Sincewehadnotimetodesignspecial trackingcameras,wemadeadecision to startwithvisualobservations.ForthatpurposeoneoftheindustrialenterprisesinMoscowregionmanufacturedsmallastronomictelescopes(AT-1tubes)witha50mmlens,6-powermagnifyingproper-tiesandquiteconsiderablefieldofviewof11°,sothattheobserverwasabletotrackthesatelliteagainstthestarsforatleastafewseconds.

All StationHeads took special training in summer 1957 at the training course setup at the Ashgabat astrophysical observatory. The trainers were Astrosoviet andAshgabatobservatoryofficers,whohadanextensiveexperienceobservingstars,plan-etsandmeteors,butwhoneverbefore(justliketherestoftheworld)hadtodealwiththeAES. Therewas a lot of unknown at that time, and the students togetherwiththe trainers tried tometiculously define the conditions of observing the satellite atleastpartially, inorder toobserve itwith themaximumefficiency inreal time.Thefollowing‘imitation’wasabigsuccess.Oneoftheparticipantswouldtakealongpolewithalanternattachedtotheend.Hewouldclimbthemountainandstartwalkingfasttryingtokeepthelanternsteady.Peopledownintheobservatorygardentrackedthebrightmovinglightagainstthestarskyandtriedtodetermineits locationwithbinocularsorsmallastronomic‘sputnik’tubes,specificallydesignedforthispurpose.Later, when the observers were trained at the stations, more advance training ses-sionsweredeveloped.Planeswith special light sourceswouldflyover the stations,thuscreatingacloserimitationofanAES.

A.M.Lozinskywasoneoftheorganizersandteachersofthecourse.Hespendmucheffort to organize theZvenigorod experimental station of theAstrosoviet, designedspecifically forartificialsatellitesobservations (nowTheZvenigorodObservatoryoftheInstituteofAstronomy,RussianAcademyofSciences).FormanyyearsA.M.Loz-inskyheadedthestation,wherehesupervisedexperimentalobservationsofartificialEarthsatellitesandmodificationsoftheequipment.

The station received a range of new instruments and aids in 1958–1966, includingprinting chronographs, break-circuit chronometers, and shortwave radios, zenithtubesTZK,andBMTtubeswith 110mm lens,20-powermagnificationand5°fieldofview.Thisallowedtohavemorepreciseandaccuratetimetrackingoftheobserva-tions,aswellasdeterminethelocationofweaksatellitesinhorizonsystemofcoordi-nates.

Intheyear1958,aspecialstationnetworkwassetupinanumberofcountriesintheNorthern and Southern hemispheres as part of the InternationalGeophysical Yearprogram.Therewasamassiveobservationalsupportbasedonthemethodthatdidnotrequireanyextensiveprocessing,andthedatawassenttospecialcomputingcen-tersinanhouraftertheobservationwasmade.Thesecentersusedthedatatoverifytheorbit.

By the time the Sputnik-1 was launched there were about 70 observation stationsavailablearoundtheSovietUnion:fromthenorthernmoststationinArchangelskto

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the southernmost in Yerevan, from the westernmost in Kaliningrad to the eastern-mostinVladivostok.Therewereabout100stationsoperatingintheUS,59inJapan,24inChina,18intheNetherlands,13inCzechoslovakia,10inPolandand8inDDR.

TheobservationsoftheSovietsatellitesweredeliveredtotheAstronomicalCouncilof theAcademy of Sciences of theUSSRon regular basis from33 countries on allcontinents.FirstforeignobservationsoftheSputnik-1anditsrocketweresenttotheAstrosovietinearlyOctober,1957fromtheRoyalAstronomicalObservatoryinEdin-burgh(Scotland)andschoolobservatoryinRodevisch(DDR).Thecomputingcenterin theUSSR receivedover900000observationsof over 500Soviet andAmericansatellitesandtheirrocketsforthefirst10yearsoftheobservations.400000oftheseobservationswere received from abroad.Manyhigh quality observation resultswereceivedfromBulgarian,Finnish,Polish,DutchandItalianobservationstations.

ThenextstepindevelopingopticalobservationsoftheAESwasthephotographyofanilluminatedflyingobjectagainstthestarsky.Thephotoimageofthesatellitetrackmadewithatelescopecouldbemeasuredtobetterprecisionthanitwouldbedonewiththevisualobservationmethod.However,theastronomicaltelescopes,asarule,are very ‘awkward’ units, designed to observe celestial bodiesmoving at extremelylowvisiblevelocities.Thephotographyofsatellitesrequiredmanufacturingofspecialcamerasandthemodificationofexistingtelescopes.

The coordination of the activities to develop new photographic cameras, train newobservers,andimprovetheobservationmethodswereagaingiventotheZvenigorodExperimentalStationoftheAstrosoviet.ThemostefficientcamerausedatboththeSovietandforeignobservationstationswasthecameraAFU-75designedbyLatvianengineers.

Apart from the station in Zvenigorod for observational purposes, the efforts weremadetosetupinAstrosovietasectorofopticalobservationsofAEStomanagetheroutine organizational issues. In less than a year since the foundation, the sectorstartedtopublishtwoperiodicals.Thiswas,tobeginwith,TheBulletinofStationsforOpticalObservationofArtificialEarthSatellites (whichwas laterchangedtomoreappropriateObservationofArtificialEarthSatellites),whichfeaturedtheobserversdiscussingthepotential improvementof thetoolsandtheprecisionof theobserva-tions,etc.Specialissuesofthebulletinpublishedtheresultsofsatelliteobservationsasapartof joint international efforts (first sponsoredby theMultilateralCoopera-tionCommittee foundedbyAcademiesofsciencesof theparticipantcountries,andfrom1968on—asapartofsectionNo.6ofthe‘Spacephysics’workinggroupintheInterkosmosprogram).Additionally,anotherbulletinObservationsof theArtificialEarthSatellitesfeaturedvisualobservation(andlateritalsoincludedphotoimagery)inputsonsatelliteobservation.Thisisauniquearchivefeaturedmaterialsonorbitalestimatesforartificalsatellitestobelaterusedinscientificresearch.

AssoonasthesectorforopticalobservationoftheAESwasestablished,theAstroso-vietstartedtobecomeascientificinstitution,whichlaterevolvedintoamodernsci-entificresearchInstitute.

By1962,fiveyearsaftertheSputnik-1waslaunched,weaccumulatedamassivebulkofvisualopticalobservationsof loworbitsatellites.Thisallowedsettingandreach-ingveryunique(andoftenabsolutelypioneering)goals,theoneswewouldnotevendream of before. The ideas to have synchronized photo observation of the cylin-der-satelliteEcho-1 for space geodesy purpose was voiced by D.E. Schegolev in thePulkovoobservatorysimultaneouslywiththeideaofquasi-synchronous(basic)visu-

al observationsof low-orbit satellites to search for short-termvariations indensityoftheupperatmosphere(HungarianastronomersM.IllinBayaObservatoryandI.AlmarinKonkoliObservatoryinBudapest).M.IllandI.AlmarproposedaprogramInterobswhichallowedtousegeometricalmethodstoestimatethecoordinatesofthelow-orbitsatellitewithgoodaccuracy,andthendeterminethesatelliteperiodaroundtheEarthwithin1-2daystimeframe.Thisopenedanopportunitytoresearchthelinkbetween short-term variations in atmospheric density and Solar and geomagneticvariations. The Interobs program observations were also performed in the opticalobservationssectoroftheAstrosovietin1965–1966forthesatellitelaunchedin1960andwhich later revolved around the Earth at 450 km altitude. The first solid linkbetweenthevariationsofsatelliteperiodandvariationsofthegeomagneticindexKpwasfirstestablishedon20–29thofAugust,1963.ThiswasanabsolutelynewresultthatweandM.IllinHungaryreceivedsimultaneously.

I.D.Zhongolovich (InstituteofTheoreticalAstronomy,USSRAcademyofSciences)proposed the Big Chord program that became themost interesting and significantprogram in space survey and performed as a part of the Interkosmos cooperationplan.

Decades later, in late 1970’s and in 1980’s, the accuracyof satellite orbit estimatesincreaseddramatically,andbasicobservationswerenolongerrequired.Atthisstageearly processing methods would seem simplistic and program results would not berepresentative.However,oneshouldkeepinmind,thatthesewerethefirstsuccess-ful efforts touse visualobservationsof thefirstEarth satellites to explore theareathatwasablankspotbeforethesatelliteswerelaunchedinspace.

OnemaycalltheobservationoftheboosterrocketthatlaunchedsatelliteKosmos-53in1965aspioneering.V.M.Grigorevsky(Chisinaustation,artificalsatellitesobserva-tionprogram)ledtheSpinprogram,whichwasasystemofjointphotometricobser-vationsatanetworkofobservationstations.Theofficersof theopticalobservationsectorinAstrosovietprocessedandinterpretedtheinputs.Theresearchofspinandrotationperiodsoftherocketrevealedagoodsolidlinktothevariationsofsolarandgeomagneticindices.Thiswasanabsolutelynewresultatthattime,whichpavedthepathtousingpowerfulphotometrymethodsinsatellitesobservation.

These methods, as well as later methods based on the use of laser rangers, radiounits,advancedopticalreceivers,etc.becamethebasisofthemoderntechnologyinobservingartificalsatellitesoftheEarth.

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Jacques BlaMontFRANCEProfessorEmeritusattheUniversityofParisVI.AdvisertothePresi-dentfromCNES(CentreNationald’Etudesspatiales,NationalCen-terforSpaceStudies),theFrenchSpaceAgency.

BorninParisin1926.ReceivedhisD.Sc.fromtheUniversityofParis.

From1957to1996hewasProfessorattheUniversityofParisVI.Af-terhavingbeeninchargeoftheFrenchsoundingrockets,hebecamescientific and technical Director of CNES. He has participated tonearlyallplanetarymissions(bothAmericanandSoviet)from1972to2000asaPrincipalInvestigatorforvari-ousexperiments.

FRom SPuTnIk–1 To WHERE?

In the summer of 1955, the Press Secretary ofPresidentDwightEisenhowerannouncedthattheUnitedStateswouldlaunchsixtotwelve satellites during the InternationalGeophysical Year (IGY). That speechwasfollowed twodays laterby thedeclarationof twoSovietacademiciansL.SedovandK.OgorodnikovinCopenhagen,thattheSovietUnionwouldalsolaunchasatellite.Theexistenceofbothprogrammeswasthereforewellknown.

During September of the following year 1956, a general assembly of the scientistsinvolvedintheIGYmetinBarcelona.Myresearch,conductedinthesmallgroupledbyAlfredKastlerwhichrevolutionizedphysicsbyconceivinganddevelopingopticalpumping,hadnothingtodowithrocketry.However,sinceIwasmiserablyunderpaidbytheNationalCentreforScientificResearch(CNRS),IhadbeenworkingatnighttoprepareanUNESCOexhibitpresentingtheIGY.UNESCOsentmetoBarcelonatoeventuallymeetpeopleinvolvedinthespacepartofthisinternationalenterpriseduetostartonJuly1,1957.IheardtherearepeatbySovietdelegatesoftheSedov-Ogoro-dnikov announcement, and the imminent launch of satellites by both superpowerswasgreetedbythehundredsofpresentscientistswithacompleteconfidenceinthesuccessofaventureunanimouslyconsideredasofminorimportance.Isatnearthedominant figurehead of theFrench astronomy,who toldme: ‘Their satellites, theywillnotevenseethem!’Aroomhadbeenreservedformembersinterestedinrocketsandsatellites,andtheattendantsfoundthemselvestobeonlythree,includingmyself.Was also present a young French engineer Iwas toworkwithmuch later on, andHowerNewell,whohadpublishedin1953abookIstillown: ‘HighAltitudeRocketResearch’,andwastobecomelaterChiefScientistofthestilltobebornNASA.

InthefollowingJanuary,havingleftParisforaresearchfellowshipattheUniversity of Wisconsin, I devotedmyfirsttwodaysinAmericatoatriptoWashingtoninordertofinishmyworkontheUNESCOexhibit.How-erhadbeenkindenoughtoarrangea visit to the Naval Research Labo-ratory, where I met John Hagen,Director of the Vanguard project,and I was able to admire my firstsatellite,asmallthingdevotedtothestudy of the Earth’s magnetic field,presented to me by Jim Heppner,the scientist in charge; this space-craftmusthavebeenavictimoftheVanguardfailure.

During the year 1957, the scien-tific community was well aware ofthe imminent attempts by both thesuperpowerstoplacesmallcapsulesin orbit, anddidnotmark anypar-ticularexaltationonthepotentialofthis idea, even any real interest. Asamatteroffact,atthisIGYmeeting,

allleadershadexpressedsomekindofantipathyforthecomingventure,andnobodymentionedanypossibleapplicationsoutsidetelecommunications.

OnOctober4,1957,IwasonboardthesteamerUnitedStatesbetweenNewYorkandLeHavre,returningtoFranceafterhavingbeenelectedinabsentiatoachairattheUniversityofParis.Maybetherewassomeannouncementpostedontheship’snewsbulletinboard,butIdonotrememberanyeffectonthepassengers,andcertainlynotonme.Sputnik-1wascertainlynosurpriseforscientists.Themediacreatedtheevent,and very soon a completely new theme appeared, the notion of a race between theSovietUnionandtheUnitedStates,bolsteredbythetrumpetingpropagandaofMos-cow,glorifyingthetriumphofthecommunistsysteminthestyleofNikitaS.Kruch-shchev’sfamouschallenge‘Wewillburyyou!’TheWestheldtheimaginaryviewthattheSovietUnionhadcunninglykeptsecrettheexistenceofanenormousprogrammeofballisticmissilesinordertoattackthecapitalistworld,andthatitsfirstaimwastoconquertheorbitalspace.Nobodyinsideoroutsidethescientificcommunityunder-stood the nature and the magnitude of the event. At the beginning, the Americanman-in-the-streetfeltirritatedbytheinternecinefightsofthevariousmilitaryAgen-cies(ArmyversusNavy),whichhadcauseddelaysintheprogramme,asisillustratedbyadrawingpublishedonNovember21,1957,intheWashingtonPostandwhichIrememberhavingenjoyedatthattime.

My explanation of the hysteria which engulfed the public opinion, to culminate intheinventionofthe‘missilegap’mythusedbytheDemocratstowinthe1960presi-dentialelections,residesinwhatIhavecalledthe‘WrightBrotherssyndrome’:anyAmericancitizenbelievesthataviationwasinventedex-nihilobytheWrightBroth-ers,andthereforeforhimtheairspaceisAmericanterritoryandheritage.Byexten-

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sion,orbitalspaceshouldalsobeanAmericanproperty,andintrusioninthissacreddomainbyanyothernationwasconsideredasrevolting.Thespectacularandmostadmired achievements of the Soviet program, due essentially to the high perfor-mances of the Korolev’s launchers, exacerbated this frustration, which reached itsacmewiththeGagarin’sflight.Theexactcoincidenceintimeofthismajorevent,withthefiascooftheBayofPigs,ledPresidentJohnF.KennedytodecidetheAmericandrive towards theMoon. Space and speciallyMan-in-Space had entered forever intheimageofhiscountrythattheAmericancitizenharboursdeepinsidehisheart.Bytheway, this isnot thecase forRussia,whichpossessesa legitimeclaimonSpace:theidentificationofthesovietspacesuccesseswiththeregimehasledveryearlytoadisaffectionofthepopulationforsciencewhichhasshowedforcefullysincethedisap-pearanceoftheUnion.

Duringtheimmediatepost-Sputnikperiod,somesmallercountriesalsofeltfrustrat-edinfrontofthegrandioseapplicationsofthesciencesandtechniquestheyhadinearliertimescontributedsomuchtoelaborateandperfect.Everybodywasconvincedthattheaccesstoorbitwassodifficultandcostlythatitwasreservedforevertothetwosuperpowers.Buttherewasonerulerintheworldwhoperceivedthatitwasnotthathard,andlistenedtoagroupofambitiousyoungmenconvincedthattheycoulddoitifgivenareasonablesupport.ThatrulerwasCharlesdeGaulleandin1961,hedecided the creation of a French Space Agency and the development of a nationalsatellitelauncher,whichwassuccessfullytestedin1965,makingFrancenotthecon-tenderofthemajorpowers,butthefirstoftheaverage-sizednationstolaunchsatel-lites,andbyconsequencetheleaderofEuropeanspaceactivities.

BeforeGeneraldeGaullemovedinthisdirection,wepoorEuropeanscientists,weretrying to catch the train. Certainly Sputnik-1 changed my life. The heads of Frenchscience had altered their mind and wanted action. As soon as I arrived in Paris onOctober9,1957,IwasgiventhetasktoconceiveanddirectthescientificuseofthesoundingrocketVeronique,developedinFrancefortheIGYandnevertestedbefore.Itwas launched successfully inMarch 1959. Ihadbecomea space expertwhen, inJanuary1960,atthefirstCOSPARAssemblyinNice,IapproachedtheSovietVice-President,thegeneralandAcademicianAnatolyA.Blagonravov,towhomIsuggest-edaFrenchparticipationtotheSovietprogramme(somenerve,wehadnothingtooffer!).Tomysurprise,hedeclaredafewdayslaterinaninterviewgiventotheinflu-entialdailyLeMonde: ‘ForeignscientistsandparticularlytheFrench,canproposetotheAcademy,thestudyofascienceprogramme.Itcouldbecomeaformofpos‑siblecooperation:ourAcademywouldverylikelyrespondpositivelytotheseoffers’.Thesewordswerenotfollowedbyanyconcretestep,andsinceasimilarproposalhadbeenmadebyNASAinMarch,1959,wenegotiatedanagreement for the launchofthefirstFrenchsatellitebyNASA.

However,theideawentthroughtheSovietsystem,aformalofferwasmadein1964andthediplomaticmachinestartedtomove:adelegationledbySedovvisitedusinOctober, 1965andproposed to launchaFrenchsatellite.AndreiGromykodeposedinthehandsoftheFrenchambassadorinMarch,1966,thedraftofaprotocoltobesignedthefollowingJunebydeGaulleduringhisplannedtriptotheSovietUnion.AsmalldelegationIwasamemberof,asthescientificandtechnicaldirectorofourSpaceAgency,wassenttoMoscow(19–24April,1966)inordertofinalizetheagree-ment.Inthemostfriendlyatmosphere,thediscussionswereledbythe‘GlavnyTeo-retik’Mstislav V.Keldysh, President of the Soviet Academy of Sciences and of theStateCommitteeforSpace.

Withemotion,IrememberthelunchofferedtoourSoviethostsbytheFrenchambas-sador. After the coffee, Keldysh tookmy arm and expressed in perfect French hisdesiretoinvolveusnotonlyintheexplorationoftheMoon,butalsointhestudyofthelifeonMars.AsIhavewritteninoneofmybooks,theportraitofPetertheGreat,givenby the tsarhimself, oneof the few relicsofourRepresentation inSt.-Peters-burg,infrontofwhichIlistenedenthralledtheseconfidences,remindedmethatinthiscountrywhichIvisitedforthefirsttime,traditiondictatestoforceNature.Itisdifficulttorelivetodaythesensationofexoticwhichfilledusinfull‘coldwar’aswediscoveredthisimmense,unknownandmysteriousSovietUnioncrownedbyitssuc-cessesinspace.

If I had been impressed by my conversation with Keldysh, it is because I had theambitiontointroduceFranceintotheexplorationofplanets,thenec-plus-ultraofthespaceadventure.Itwillhappenonlyonce.Thecountryofthed’Alembert,Lagrange,Laplace,Fourrier,LeVerrier,Poincarécouldnot,shouldnotstaymotionlessasthemostbeautifulconsequencesoftheirideasandwouldmajestuouslyunrollthroughthesolar system. The collaboration with the Soviet Academy would introduce us into themajorendeavourofthecentury,associatedwiththemastheGermanswerehelpingtheAmericanstotheconquestoftheMoonandbeyond.Thisiswhy,oneyearlater,Iplacedin the hands ofKeldysh passing throughParis inNovember, 1967, a proposal for thelaunchofaflotillaofsmallaerostatsintheVenusatmosphere.Borninadream,theideawasbringingtotheplanetaryexplorationnotonlytheneededmobility,butalsoatouchofstrangenesswhichaddedpoetrytoourtechnicalpreoccupations.

Unfortunately,thefriendlyambitionscherishedbyKeldyshandmyselfatthattime,didnotcometofruition,essentiallybecauseofthelackofinterestforspacesciencedisplayedby the successive French governments. The Prime minister Pompidou sneered: ‘TheMoon,itwouldmakeallParislaugh!’Ourparticipationtothelunarmissionswerecan-celled.Aftermanyvicissitudes,myVenusballoonswereincorporatedintheVegamissionanddevelopedbytheSovietscientistsandengineerswithoutFrenchparticipationforaperfectflightinJune,1985—eighteenyearsaftertheinitialproposal!

Nomorethanus,ourSovietfriendswereabletotakeadvantageofourpartnership.Ifwehadsucceededinbuildingaseriouspoliticalbasisforourcooperation,wecouldhavehelped inthedevelopmentof the liquidhydrogenenginessosorelywanted intheirlunarprogramme.TheN1andtheEnergia-Buranfailureswerecausedbyalackof systemengineering acrossmultiple complex components, anorganizationalflawthatpropagatedduringthewholeSovieteraandwasneverfixed.IfwehadhadopenaccesstotheLavochkinAssociation,kepttotaloutofcontactwiththeoutsideworldbythemaniaofsecret,ourmasteringofspacesystems,demonstratedbythesuccessofArianeandofalltheCNESmissions,couldhavecontributedtosaveMars‑4to-7in1974andPhobosin1988:ourcooperationcanbeconsideredasasuccessionoflostopportunitiesforbothpartners.

Theevolutionof spacehasnot followedanyof ourpredictions.Humanspaceflightwhichforalongtime,lookedastheheartofthespaceactivities,provedtobeadeadend.The landingon theMoonshinesas theobeliskof thecentury, followedbyfif-tyyearsofabandon,aprowesswithoutfuture.Itbecameclearearlythatthemanu-facturingofmaterialsinorbitcouldnotbecomeaneconomicreality.Astronautsareleftwithabiketoexerciseandspendtheirtime.LikeBuran,liketheNASAshuttle,theISShaslackedaclearmission.Conceivedasalaboratorywiththeuniquefacilityofno-gravity, ithas so farprovedvaluableonlyasa trainingfield for international

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hand-shaking and an hotel for super-wealthy tourists (imagine what Lenin wouldhavethoughtofit…),drainingmoneyandtalentfromusefulinvestments.

Whathasprovedtobetheengineofhistoryisnotspaceaswebelievedin1957,butthe physics of solids which provides electronic components whose performancesincreaseexponentiallywithatimeconstantoftwoyearssince1962withoutrelenting,andshouldfollowthesameexpansioninthenextdecades.Intwentyorthirtyyears,minicomputers with the processing capacity of the human brain will become avail-able: this iswhy Imaintain that the explorationof spacewill beperformednotbyfleshyhumans,butbymindsmadeofsiliconorcarbon.

Inouryears,roboticspacecraft,notmannedflights,havetriggeredatotalrevolutioninallthesciencesoftheUniverse.Astronomy,planetology,geology,geodesy,meteo-rology,oceanography…younamethem,noneofthemlookaswhattheywerein1957.For these matters, we had at that time, a vague glimpse of the potential of space.Ontheopposite,nobodyfiguredoutthestupendousscopeandimportanceofspaceapplications.TelecommunicationsandspeciallydiffusionoftelevisionhavechangedthemindofallthemenonEarthsincetheystartedinearnestaround1990,spreadingHollywood-mode culture down to the poorest. The ‘Revolution inMilitary Affairs’,responsible for theblitzkrieg successof theAmerican forces in therecentconflicts,reliesonspaceassets.Intheveryrecentyears,localizationbyGPSanddisseminationofspaceimagesbynetworkslikeGoogleEarth,haveenteredthedailylifeandhabitsofhundredofmillionspeople,andthisisonlythebeginning.Addoperationalmeteo-rologyand,soon,disastercontrolandcrisismanagement:spaceapplicationsmarriedwithInternetarefastbecomingthebackboneofourcivilization.

Duringthepasthalf-century,thespaceclubhasgrownfromtwotoadozennationsthathavetheirownaccesstoorbit.Militaryimperatives,commercialneeds,thescien-tific lureof theheavens,butaboveallprestigeandpridehaveshapedtheseefforts.Europe,spurredbyFrance,hasbecomeatopplayerandisclearlythemostadvancedspacepoweraftertheUnitedStatesandRussia.India,inspiredbymydearfriendthelateVikramSarabhai,hasconcentratedonusingspaceassetstodeliverservicesforthe intellectual and economic development of the country. India, Japan and Chinadisposeofastrongexpertiseinspaceandfollowthepathofthetwosuperpowersofthe1960’sbyenteringtheman-in-spaceclub,aprowessalreadyachievedbyChinain2003,butalsoaquagmirewiselyavoidedbyEurope.WhowouldhavesaidthatIsraelwithonlyfivemillioncitizen,wouldbecomeaspacepowerassoonas1988?OthersnationslikeIranareonthevergeofspaceflight.ThemotivationofthesenationsisnotdifferentfromthatoftheSovietUnionandtheUnitedStatesahalf-centuryago.Spaceflightandmilitarypowerarethetwosidesofthesamecoin,whetheritresultsinvirtualorrealcapability:space,Ihavesaid,isthesceptreofthePrince.

Letuslookinthecrystalballofthefuture,evenif,withatimeconstantoftwoyears,it hasbecomevery opaque.Under themajor threatshangingonourheads, gener-atedbytheprojectedriseinpopulation,thedangersoftheincreasingurbanization,the vanishing of natural resources as water and oil, the extinction of species, man-kindisfacedwiththeproblemofitsverysurvival,whichcouldbecomeacuteduringthecomingcentury.Observationsfromspaceprovideasurveillanceof theenviron-mentofuniquescope,precisionsandwealth.Forinstancethemonitoringofoceanicaltitudes,thecartographyofpolarcaps,themultispectralanalysisofforests,desertsand cultivated terrains furnish data essential for the diagnostic of climate changes.Nodoubtthatenvironmentalstudiesfromspaceplatformswillreceiveahighpriority

in all countries. Unfortunately, the assessment of a situation deteriorating towardsdisaster is not sufficient to reverse the course of events. Thepower to stophistorydoesnotresideinspace.Wewilldescribethedangerswithmoreandmoreaccu-racyandwillnotbeheard.AnddonotbelievethatleavingtheEarthinspaceshipsisanoption.

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yuri BatuRInRUSSIASpacepilot.MadetwoflightstotheMirorbitalstationin1998andtotheInternationalSpaceStationin2001.ProfessoroftheMoscowInstitute of Physics and Technology, Department Chairman in theMoscowEngineeringPhysicsInstitute,ProfessoroftheLomonosovMoscowStateUniversityand theDiplomaticAcademy(MinistryofForeignAffairsofRussianFederation).

Bornin1949inMoscow.EducatedintheMoscowInstituteofPhysicsandTechnology,theInstituteofLaw,theJournalisticDepartmentofMSU,highcoursesoftheMilitaryAcademyoftheGeneralStaffandtheDiplomaticAcademyattheMinistryofForeignAffairsofRussianFederation.

WorkedintheS.P.KorolevRSCEnergia.FormerAssistanttoPresi-dentonnationalsecurityandtheDefenceCouncilSecretary.Qualifiedcosmonaut-researcherin 1998, flight-testcosmonautin2001.FellowofGagarinCosmonautTrainingCenter.

FIRST SPuTnIk: FRom RIvAlRy To HISToRIC gAInThelaunchoftheFirstArtificialEarthSatellite

hadgeopoliticalimportance.Originallygeospace(habitationspaceontheEarth)waspiecemeal,itwasaworldofdistributedlocations.Navigationmadeitmoreholistic.Aviationmade itevenmoreholistic.Communicationsystemsaddedthefinal touchtoit—geospacebecameclosed.Stagesofgeospaceformationcanbemeasuredveryapproximately, to an accuracy of centuries. As for transition of geospace to a newquality,ithappenedbeforeoureyesinonemoment.Andweknowtheexactdate.OnOctober4,1957geospacebecameunclosed.

RulES oF THE gAmEI suggest we consider the process of unclosing

geospace in terms of themathematical theory of games.Bydefinition, a game is acertainsetof rules thatdescribes the formalstructureofacompetitivesituation. Ifthe‘players’arestates,thentherulesthattheyhaveagreeduponarenothingelsebutinternationallaw.Inbrief,thelevelofcompetitivenessinagameisinverselyrelatedtothevolumeofrules(law).ButwhatmadetherivalryinthelaunchoftheFirstsatel-litespecialwasthatthespacegamehadstartedlongbeforeitsruleswereestablished.Thisisauniquesituationforagame.

Thestrategiesoftheplayerswereasfollows:

• TheUSSRtried towin thegamewithoutanyrules, towin thegameusing tech-nologies;

• TheUSAalsoparticipated intheraceof technologiesbut itdecidedtocreate itsownrulesthatwouldensurethevictory.

I’lldescribethesituationinmoredetail.

Morethanfiftyyearsago,onMarch28,1955,theU.S.NationalSecurityCouncilreco-mmendedinformingthePresidentthatitwouldbeefficientandexpedienttoestab-lishtheprincipleof‘FreedomofSpace’:‘…launchingasmallartificialsatelliteintoanorbitabouttheEarthpresentsanearlyopportunitytoestablishanearlyprecedentfordistinguishingbetween‘nationalair’and‘internationalspace’,adistinctionthatcouldbetoouradvantageatsomefuturedatewhenwemightemploylargersatellitesforintelligencepurposes’.�Thereasonwassimple:byacceptingthepolicythatfavoredthelegalregimeofouterspacewhichwassimilartothatestablishedforhighseas,theUSAcouldestablisha‘FreedomofSpace’precedent—aprecedentofUSspacecraftsoverflyingtheterritoriesofdifferentcountriesfreelyandlegally.Itisamazingthatattheheightofthe‘coldwar’suchapowerfulcountryastheUnitedStateswasconsid-ering international legal grounds for its further political steps. It must also be saidthatinthisrespecttheUnitedStatesoffiftyyearsagowasdifferentfromtheUnitedStatesof today,whentherightof forcedominatestheforceof lawinforeignpolicydevelopmentandimplementation.

OnMay20,1955theUSNationalSecurityCouncilapprovedatop-levelpolicydocu-mentonUSsatelliteprogram(NSC5520).Itstatedinpart:

‘Re-examinationshouldbemadeof theprinciplesandpracticeof international lawwithregardto‘FreedomofSpace’fromthestandpointofrecentadvancesinweapontechnology…’��

Meanwhile the Soviet Union gave practically no consideration to any internationallegalaspectsofspaceexploration:thefirstpublicationonthesubjectwouldappearintheUSSRonlyinacoupleofyears.Tobeexact,thefirstideasconcerningfutureouterspacelawwerevoicedintheSovietUnioninthelate1920’s–early1930’s,butthose ideas can be regarded just as an anticipation of cosmonautics and its futurelegalproblemsvoicedbythemostinsightfulscientists.In1926V.A.ZarzarspeakingatameetingoftheAirLawBoardoftheAviakhimUnion��putforwardasuppositionthatinfuture,therewouldbeestablishedaninternationalregimeforspaceflightsataspecificaltitudeanditwouldreplacestatesovereigntyoverairspace.Accordingtohim,beyondtheconfinesoftheairspaceoftheEarththerebecomeseffectiveaspecialregimeofspaceshipflights,whichisfreefromearthlyjurisdiction.��Ataconferenceoflawyersspecializinginairlaw,whichwasheldinLeningradin1933,E.A.Korovinmadeareport ‘Conquestof theAtmosphereandAirLaw’wherehe focusedontherightofthestatetotakemeasurestodefenditssecurityirrespectiveofthealtitudeofflightsover its territory.Thereportwaspublished inaFrenchJournalonInterna‑

� See:ExploringtheUnknown.SelectedDocumentsintheHistoryoftheU.S.CivilSpaceProgram.V.II:ExternalRelationships.JohnM.Logsdon,/Ed.DayD.A.,LauniusR.D.Wash-ingtonD.C.,NASAHistoryOffice,1996(hereinafterExUn-II).P.273.

�� Quotedfrom:ExUn-II,P.241.

�� OrganizationinsupportofAviationandChemical(‘Khimia’–Chemistry)readiness.

�� See:ЗарзарВ.А.Международноепубличноевоздушноеправо//Вопросывоздуш.пра-ва:Сб.тр.секциивоздуш.праваСоюзаАвиахим.М.:Союзобществдружбыавиац.ихи-мич.обороныипромышленности,1927.Т.1.С.90–103.

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tionalLawin1934.�BasicallyitwastheonlydoctrinehintattheofficialpositiontheSovietUnionmighttake.

Thusweseethatattheearlystageofspaceracetherewerepracticallynonormsofinternationallawapplicabletospaceexploration.However,themilitaryandpoliticalcompetition reached a high point. Considering the fact that space race was gainingmomentum,thesituationbecamedangerous.Oneoftheprimarywaystoreducethatdangerwas to startdrafting international space law. Itmustbeacknowledged thattheUSAwasthefirsttounderstanditatgovernmentallevel.

THE SATEllITE PRoblEmHistoryshowsthatveryoftenthepoliticaleffect

ofcosmonauticsachievementswasofsuchsignificanceforstateleadersthatitdeter-mined directions for space programs development. In fact, space policy was beingformedasafollow-uptomilitarypolicy,thereforeitoriginallycontainedan‘adextra– oriented’ element. In other words, foreign space policy began to form since theinitialstepsofspaceexploration.Strictlyspeaking, itwasspacepolicy thatgaveanimpetustospaceexploration.

SpacepolicyasanintegralpartofthegeneralpolicyofthestatebegantoevolveafterWorldWarIIandtheUSAwaspioneersinthisrespect.TheadministrationofeveryUS president as well as military agencies constantly drafted and revised guidelinedocumentsonexplorationanduseofouterspace. It isworthyofnote thatasearlyas1952aspecialreportwaspreparedforPresidentTrumanonthepresentstatusofthesatelliteproblem.Infact,H.TrumandiscusseditindetailwithBrigadierGeneralWallaceGraham,whowasTruman’spersonalscientificadvisorandaphysicist.Wal-laceGrahamintroducedTrumantoAristidGrosse,achemistwhohadworkedontheManhattanProject.PresidentTrumanrequestedGrossetoconductadeeperstudyof‘thesatelliteproblem’.MajorGeneralKennethD.Nichols,formerdeputyforLieuten-antGeneralLeslieR.Groves,whoheadedtheManhattanProject,arrangedGrosse’smeeting with space scientists, particularly Wernher von Braun. Grosse completedTruman’sassignment.HoweveritwastoPresidentEisenhowerthatGrossereportedtheresultsofthestudyonSeptember24,1953.��AsfortheSovietUnion,itwasonlyin1954thatthesatelliteproblemwassubmittedfortop-levelconsiderationandpolit-icaldecision-making.

Asfarasresearchisconcerned,bothcountriesweremovingalmostatthesamepace.

InMay 1945WernhervonBraun,whohadalreadyarrived in theUSA,preparedareport for theUSArmydiscussing thepossibilityofcreatinganartificialEarthsat-ellite (AES). In October the USNavy proposed its own satellite. On April 9, 1946the issuewasdiscussedat theJointArmy-NavyAeronauticalBoard.However theydidnotcometoanydecisionanddecidedtoreconsideritamonthlater,onMay14.MajorGeneralCurtisLeMay,DirectorofUSAFResearchandDevelopment, imme-

� See for further detail:Международное космическое право /Под ред. Г.П.Жукова иЮ.М.Колосова.М.:Международ.отношения,1999.С.18–19.

�� ThereportwassubmittedthroughDonaldQuarles,thenewAssistantSecretaryofDefenseforR&D.See:ExploringtheUnknown.SelecteddocumentsintheHistoryoftheU.S.CivilSpaceProgram.V.I:OrganizingforExploration.JohnM.Logsdon/Ed.LearL.J.,Warren-FindleyJ.,WilliamsonR.A.,DayD.A.WashingtonD.C.,NASAHistoryOffice,1995(Hereinafter—ExUn-I).P.266–269.

diatelydecidedtocommissionanindependentstudyoftheissue.ProjectRAND,setupasadivisionoftheDouglasAircraftCompany,brainstormedthepotentialuseofsatellites forUSAF for threeweeks.OnMay 2, 1946,RAND releasedThe Prelimi‑naryDesignofanExperimentalWorld-CirclingSpaceship�(ReportNo.SM-11827)��which described meteorological, reconnaissance and communication satellites.InApril,1951RAND,theRandCorporationatthattime,releaseditsnextreportUtil‑ityofaSatelliteVehicleforReconnaisance.��InSeptember,1954WernhervonBraunformulatednewproposalsforaMinimumUnmannedSatelliteVehicle.��LaterthemilitaryselectedthatprojectasapotentialcandidatefortheInternationalGeophysi-calYear (IGY)Programbutultimately rejected it in favorof theVanguardproject.TheVanguardprojectstartedinMarch,1955andwasdevelopedbytheUSNavy.InAugust,1955 itbeat twootherprojects inacontest—theUSArmyOrbiterprojectandtheUSAFproject.��

Early in 1945 engineer-colonel M.K.Tikhonravov gathered a team of specialists(N.G.Chernishev, V.A.Shtokolov, P.I.Ivanov, V.N.Galkovsky, G.M.Moskalenko,A.F.Krutov and others) on the basis of the Rocket Research Institute which wasestablished by M.N.Tukhachevskiy back in 1933. They were assigned to designamannedhighaltitude rocket (withapressurized cabin for twopilots)basedonasingle-stageliquid-propellantrocketwhosespecificationswouldenableittoflyuptoanaltitudeof200kilometers.Bythemiddleof1945theteamhaddesignedamodelof thehigh-altituderocket(VR-190).OnMarch23,1946theprojectwassubmittedtoM.V.Khrunichev, the thenMinister forAviationIndustry,andonApril12 itwasconsideredbytheMinisterialPanelofExpertsheadedbyAcademicianS.A.Khristia-novich.ThepanelofexpertsgaveapositiveevaluationoftheprojectandsubmitteditsdecisiontooneofKhrunichev’sdeputiesforsigning.Howeverthedeputyministerprocrastinated.Thedelaywascausedbyredtapeonly.BythattimetherehadalreadybeendraftedtheUSSRCouncilofMinisters’DecreeOnEstablishingaSpecialCom‑mitteeonRocketryundertheAuspicesoftheUSSRCouncilofMinistersanditstatedrocketrydesignamongitspriorities.Khrunichev’sdeputyjustthoughtthatthedesignof therocket-propelleddevicewouldbeconsideredatahigher level,by theSpecialCommittee on Rocketry, which would do the decision-making. The Decree of theCouncilofMinistersof theUSSRonQuestionsofRocket-propelledWeaponry thatmentionedtheSpecialCommitteewasreleasedonMay13,1946.

Meanwhile the procrastination made M.K. Tikhonravov andN.G.Chernishev, whohadbeenwaiting forananswer too long,submitamemorandumonVR-190proj-ecttoJosephStalin.Theystressednotonlythescientificbutalsothepoliticalimpor-tance of the project. It must be stressed that the memorandum did not say a wordabout military applications of the rocket. (At that time Iosiph Stalin still held theofficeoftheMinisterforDefenseandlatertheMinisterfortheArmedForcesalongwiththeofficesoftheChairmanoftheGovernmentandtheGeneralSecretaryoftheCentral Committee of the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). It was onlyinMarch,1947thathehandedtheofficeoftheMinisterfortheArmedForcesoverto N.A.Bulganin.) Stalin entrusted M.V.Khrunichev with studying the project by

� ExperimentalWorld-CirclingSpaceship.

�� ExUn-I.P.236–244.

�� Ibid.P.245–261.

�� Ibid.P.274–281.

�� See:КарашЮ.Тайнылуннойгонки.СССРиСША:сотрудничествовкосмосе.М.:ОЛМА-ПРЕССИнвест,2005.С.33.

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M.K.TikhonravovandN.G.Chernishov. Itdidnot takeKhrunichevmuch timeandefforttorememberthatdocumentandfinditinthemazeoftheministerialredtape.Thedocumentwassubmittedforasecondconsideration:thistimenotonlyaviationindustry specialists but also specialists from theWeaponryMinistry and theMin-istry for Electrotechnical Industry studied it. On June 20, 1946, M.V.KhrunichevinformedStalinonthepossibilityofdesigningamannedspacerocket,stressingthatinthememorandumTikhonravovandChernishevhadindicatedaone-yeartermfordevelopingthespacevehicle,howeverupontheconsiderationofallthedocumentsbythecommissionTikhonravovandChernishevindicatedatwo-yearterm.M.V.Khru-nichevespeciallystressedthattwoyearswasaminimumtermanditwasverytough.TotheletterM.V.KhrunichevattachedtheDraftDecreeoftheUSSRCouncilofMin-istersontheissue.StalinhoweverdidnotendorseM.V.Khrunichev’sletterandtheDecreewasnotadopted.

Proceedingfromthe‘rocketpacket’idea,M.K.Tikhonravovmadecalculationsandin1948he came to the conclusion that technically itwaspossible to launchanartifi-cialEarthsatelliteintoorbitonthebasisoftheexistingtechnicalachievements.�InJuly,1949themaindocumentsforthe‘rocketpacket’wereprovidedtoS.P.Korolev.InMarch 1950M.K.Tikhonravovmade a public report inwhich he touched upontheprospectsofcreatinganAESandapossibilityofusingitforamannedflight.OnMarch 16, 1954Korolev voiced the ideaof creating anAESat ameetingorganizedbyacademicianM.V.Keldysh.The latter receivedanapprovalof theproposal fromA.N.Nesmeyanov, President of theAcademy of Sciences of theUSSR.OnMay 27,S.P.Korolev submitted a memorandum On Artificial Earth Satellite (prepared byM.K.Tikhonravov)toD.F.Ustinov,thethenMinisterofDefense.InAugust1954theCouncil ofMinisters of theUSSR approved the proposals on elaboration of space-flightrelatedscientificandtheoreticalproblems.

TheprojectsunderelaborationrepresentedastageofthemilitaryrocketprogramsoftheUSSRandtheUSA,hencewhatmadethelaunchingoftheartificialsatelliteparticularwasthatbeingregardedasamilitarystep,itcouldhavecomplicatedthealreadydifficultrelationsbetweentheUSSRandtheUSA.��

PresidentEisenhower followedtheadviceofhisconsultantsandmadeadecisionto launcha scientific satellite aspartof theUScontribution to the InternationalGeophysicalYear(IGY)–aninternationaleffortofscientistsfrom67countriesthatlastedfromJuly1,1957,toDecember31,1958andfollowedtheresolution,thatcalledforlaunchingscientificEarthsatellitesduringtheIGYtosupportprecision-mappingof theEarth. The resolutionwas adopted by the InternationalCouncil of ScientificUnionsinOctober,1954.

Astatementwaswritten.ItwasendorsedbyCongressandvoicedbythespokespersonfortheWhiteHouse:July29,1955

TheWhiteHouse

StatementbyJamesC.Hagerty

On behalf of the President, I am now announcing that the President has approved plans bythis country for going ahead with launching of small unmanned earth-circling satellites as

� See: 4 Центральный научно-исследовательский институт 1946–1996. Историческийочерк.М.:МОРФ,1996.С.18.

�� Seeforfurtherdetail:БатуринЮ.М.Космическаядипломатияимеждународноеправо.Звездныйгородок,2006.

partoftheUnitedStatesparticipationintheInternationalGeophysicalYearwhichtakesplacebetweenJuly1957andDecember1958.Thisprogramwill forthefirsttimeinhistoryenablescientists throughout the world to make sustained observations in the regions beyond theearth’satmosphere.

ThePresidentexpressedpersonalgratificationthattheAmericanprogramwillprovidescien-tistsofallnationsthisimportantanduniqueopportunityfortheadvancementofscience’.�

Thestatementdidnotcontainahintatotherthanscientificpurposesoftheprogram.ButitwasnocoincidencethatitwasmadejustafewhoursafteranofficialstatementonH-bombstocksthathadbeencreatedoverthelastsixmonthasdirectedbyEisen-hower.��

Toavoidprovokinganinternationaldebateover‘freedomofspace’,theEisenhoweradministrationleadersrestrainedgovernmentofficialsfromanypublicdiscussionsofspaceflightatthattime.��IntheUSSRanypublicdiscussionsofthekindwereforbid-denforreasonsofconfidentiality.

InearlyAugust,1955,M.V.Khrunichev,V.M.RyabikovandS.P.Korolevsentamem-orandumtoN.S.Khrushchev,FirstSecretaryoftheCentralCommitteeoftheCPSU,andN.A.Bulganin,ChairmanoftheCouncilofMinisteroftheUSSR,inconnectionwithAmerica’sstatementofitsintentionstolaunchasatellite.OnAugust8,1955thePresidiumoftheCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnionadoptedadecisionOnDesign‑inganArtificialEarthSatellite.

A SPACE ZERo Sum gAmETheUSAmorethanoncestatedinnumerouspolls

andsurveysthatitdidnotintendtoloseandthatitwouldnotstandtheUSSR’sleader-ship.Politiciansvoicedthatpredominantopinion.All theterminologyofspaceracedidnotadmitofanyotherinterpretationoffurtherdevelopmentofevents:theUSAwouldbeeitheraheadorbehind,i.e.itwouldeitherbeawinneroraloser.Suchthinkingistypicalofazerosumgame,asituationinwhichaparticipant’sgainorlossisexactlybalancedbythelossesorgainsoftheotherparticipant(s).��

AcademicianB.V.Rauschenbachwasoneofthemostprominentspecialistsinspaceindustry.Hewasnotapoliticianandcalledthisprocessinamorelenientmanneraprocessof ‘sportandromance’.Hewroteinhismemoirs: ‘Thesportsmanshipchar-acteroftheprocesshadtwosides.Firstly,allofuswhoworkedinthefieldofdesign-ing space vehicles experienced the emotions that are typical of all athletes— tobethe first. The USAwas doing something similar and none of us wanted to let ourAmericancounterpartsbefirst.Itwasanabsolutelygenuinefeelingofcompetition.Secondly,theresultsofthecompetitionhadpoliticalimportance:incaseofsuccess,theleadersofthecountrycouldusetheinternationalprestigethatithadgainedandthat’swhytheirassistancewasgenerous.Everythingwasnew,itwasbeingdoneforthefirsttime,andthat’swhatmadeitromantic.Therehadbeennopreviousexperi-

� ExUn-I.P.200–201.

�� See:KarashYu.Op.cit.P.15–16.

�� ExUn-I.P.224.

�� AccordingtothetheoryofVonNeumannandMorgenstern,anyzerosumgamehasasolution.Inotherwordsthefollowingtheoremcanbeproved:‘ThereisastrategythatensuresthegainofSideAorthereisastrategythatensuresthegainofSideB’.(SaatiТ.S.Matematicheskiyemodelikonfliktnikhsituatsiy.M.:Sovetskoeradio,1977.P.131.)

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enceofthekind,andweconsideredourselvesexplorerslikeColumbus,whosetouttodiscovernewlands’.�

Upuntil1957theUSAhadalwaysbeenahead:firstincreationoftheatomicA-bomb,lat-er–inlong-rangebombers,thencametheH-bomb.

Andnowitwasallaboutasatellite.TheUSAdidnotdoubtthatitwouldbethefirstasusual;neverthelessthespecialistscloselymonitoredwhattheUSSRwasdoinginthatfield.

On July 5, 1957, AllenW.Dulles,Director of Central Intelligencewrote a letter toDonald Quarels, Deputy Secretary of Defense, in which Allen W. Dulles gave hisassessmentofthereconnaissancedata:‘…InformationconcerningthetimingofthelaunchingoftheSoviet’sfirstearth-orbitingsatel-lite is sketchy,andourpeopleheredonotbelieve that theevidence is sufficientasyet foraprobabilitystatementonwhentheSovietsmaylaunchtheirfirstsatellite.

However,datahasbeenrecentlyreceivedthatAlexanderNesmeyanov,PresidentoftheSovietAcademyofSciences,statedthat,‘soon,literallyinthenextfewmonths,theEarthwillgetitssecondsatellite’.Otherinformation,notsoprecise,indicatesthattheUSSRisprobablycapa-bleof launchingasatellite in1957,andmaybemakingpreparations todosoonIGYWorldDays…TheU.S. community estimates that for prestige and psychological factors, theUSSRwouldendeavortobefirst in launchinganEarthsatellite…TheRussians liketobedramaticandcouldwellchoosethebirthdayofTsiolkovskytoaccomplishsuchanoperation,especiallysincethisisthehundredthanniversaryofhisbirthday…’��

TheUSwasrightinindicatingoneofthepoliticalandpsychologicalfactors—desiretobe thefirst.OnSeptember25,1955,whentheMoscowBaumanHighofTechnol-ogy(MVTU)celebratedits125thanniversary,SergeyKorolev,anMVTUgraduate,chiefdesigner and Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences said in hisreportattheanniversarysession:‘OurgoalistoensurethatSovietrocketsflyhigherandearlierthananyoneelse’s.

OurgoalistobethefirstinamannedspaceflightwithaSovietmanonboardtherocket

OurgoalistoensurethattheFirstArtificialEarthSatelliteismadeintheSovietUnionbytheSovietpeople.’��

Therewasnothingbadaboutit.SimilarapproachesalsoexistedintheUSA:Eisen-hower’sspecialadviser,N.Rockefeller,convincedhimthatitwasinadmissiblefortheUSAtoloseinspacerace,thedomineeringformofrelationsbetweenthetwocoun-triesinspaceinthosedays.Thepolicyofrivalrydeterminedverymuch.

AndonSeptember17, 1957,on thedayofTsiolkovskiy’s100thanniversary, thedaythattheU.S.reconnaissanceindicatedasapossiblelaunchdateforthefirstsatellite,S.P.Korolev made a report in the House of Columns devoted to the famous scien-tist.Hesaidoneimportantthing:‘IntheverynearfuturetheUSSRandtheUSAwilldothefirsttestlaunchesofartificialEarthsatellitesforscientificpurposes.’��HehadknownbythattimethattheSovietsatellitewouldbelaunchedonOctober6.Butitsohappened,thatS.P.Korolev,withoutanyconcordancewithMoscowtop-leveloffi-

� РаушенбахБ.Пристрастие.М.:АГРАФ,1997.С.376.

�� ExUn-I.P.329.

�� Citedfrom:КоролёваН.Отец:в2кн.Кн.2.М.:Наука,2002.С.274–275.

�� Ibid.P.282.

cials,shiftedthelaunchtoOctober4byhisownauthorityrightatBaikonur.�Onthatday theworld learned that theSovietUnionhad launched theFirstArtificialEarthSatellite,whichusheredtheSpaceAge.

TheAmericanshadalmostmadeittobeingthefirstinlaunchingasatellitehoweverfor them the level of competition did not supersede the legal constraints that weretobefirstintroduced.Forexample,thesuccessfullaunchoftheUStwo-stagerocketboosterJupiter-ConSeptember20,1956happenedonlyafteraPentagonrepresen-tativehaddoneathoroughinspectionforapossiblethirdstageundertheheadfair-ingthatcouldlaunchsomepayloadintotheorbit.��Fromthemilitaryandpoliticalperspective,suchstrictrequirementsandcarefulattentionwerejustified,takingintoaccountthetenseinternationalsituation.

gEoSPACE unCloSIngThe attitude in theWhiteHousewas generally

dismissiveoftheSputniklaunchforabout24hours,beforethepublicandscientificreaction of the country became known, statedGeneral AndrewGoodpaster, Eisen-hower’sstaffsecretary.��ThentheyrememberedthatEisenhowerhadbeenwarnedplenty of times of the propaganda effects of such a satellite launch but had alwaysdismissedthem.‘TheMemorandumoftheMeetingwiththePresidentofOctober8,1957’preparedbyGoodpaster said that,when thePresidentaskedabout thepossi-bilityofasatellitelaunchhereceivedapositiveanswerthat‘ithadbeenpossibletodoitayearbeforeandevenearlier.HowevertheConsultingCommitteeonSciencethoughtthatcreationofanAESmustgoseparatelyfromdevelopmentsinthemilitarysphere.Oneofthereasonswastoemphasizethepeacefulcharacterofthisprogramandtheotherwasthestrifetoavoidtheuseofmilitaryrocketstechnologiestowhichforeignscientistscouldgetaccess’.��

EisenhowerattemptedtodownplaythesignificanceofSputnik,butinvain.Healsoadmonishedhisofficialsnot tocommenton the issueofwhether theUnitedStatescouldhave‘beaten’theSovietsintospace.Hewantedtoavoidtheinterpretationsofspaceexplorationasaspacerace.��

HenryKissingertriedtoplaydowntheimportanceofthefirstsatellite inDiploma‑cy.Hewrites: ‘WhentheSoviets launchedanartificial satellite—aSputnik— intoearthorbit onOctober 1957,Khrushchev interpreted it as aone-timeachievement,asevidencethattheSovietUnionwasaheadofdemocraticcountriesinscientificandmilitaryrespect.…PresidentEisenhowerwaspracticallytheonlyonewhorefusedtosharethepanic.Asamilitarymanheunderstoodthedifferencebetweenaprototypeandamilitaryoperationsissuetype.’��

Eisenhower understood the situation very well, but at that particular time he wasmostofallconcernedabout international legalaspectsof theflightof thefirstarti-ficialspacecraft.Sputnikwasmakingoneorbitafteranotherovertheterritoriesof

� See:ГоловановЯ.Королёв.Фактыимифы.М.:Наука,1994.С.537–538.

�� See:KarashYu.Op.cit.P.34.

�� ExUn-II.P.245.

�� Citedfrom:KarashYu.Op.cit.P.94.

�� ExUn-II.P.246.

�� KissingerH.Diplomatiya.M.,1997.P.514.

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manycountries.TheUSAcloselyfollowedthereactionofthosecountries.Therewaspractically no reaction in the world in terms of diplomatic demarches or rallies ofprotest.FourdaysafterthelaunchofthesatelliteEisenhowerdecidedtodiscussthatsignificanteventwithhisteamofadvisersandtopofficials.‘TheRussianshaveinfactdoneusagoodturn,unintentionally,inestablishingtheconceptoffreedomofinter-nationalspace,’DeputySecretaryforDefenseQuarlessaid.‘ThePresidentaskedthegrouptolookaheadfiveyears,andaskedaboutareconnaissancevehicle.SecretaryQuarles said the Air Force has a research program in this area and gave a generaldescriptionoftheproject.’�

ThepoliticaleffectofSputnikwasmuchmoreimportantthanit’sscientificresults.Thelaunchevokedaworldwideresponse.TheUSSR’sinternationalprestigehadimmense-lyrisenjustovernight.

EstablishingspacegamerulesseemstobeofevenmoreimportanceandthecreditforinitiatingtheserulesbelongstotheUSA.Therefore,launchingtheFirstSputnikwasacommongain.

TheUSAwantedtowintherace,butwhatitwonwasthatlaterthegamewasplayedaccordingtoitsrules.

TheUSSRwontheraceintermsoftechnologybuthadtoagreewiththerulesofthegame.

TheUSSRandtheUSAbegantoplayanon-zero-sumgameanditwastheircommongain.

Humankindalsogainedalotinhavingtherulesofthegameandatechnologicalfoot-holdestablishedforfollowers.

This ishowOctober4,1957witnessedthetransitionfromgeopolicy inthespaceoftheglobetothepolicyintheunclosedspaceofcosmos,whichwecancallcaelumpoli‑tics��.Indeed,inthefirstdecadetheUNOandmember-statesofthisreputableinter-national organization were concerned about establishing the rules of the game forexplorationoftheMoonandotherplanets(theTreatyonPrinciplesGoverningtheActivitiesofStatesintheExplorationandUseofOuterSpace,IncludingtheMoonand Other Celestial Bodies came into effect in 1967).Then therewas a longpausebecausespaceexplorationturnedouttobealongerandmorechallengingtaskthanitwasassumedinthetimesoftheSputnik-1.

Almost half a century has passed since that day. In 2004USPresidentGeorgeW.BushannouncednewvisionforspaceexplorationwhichenvisagesreturningAmer-icans to the Moon, building an outpost on the Moon and sending an expedition toMars.TheUSA,theonlyremainingsuperpowerontheplanetEarth,findsthelimitsofinternationalrelationstoonarrow.

In2006theUSAadoptedanewnationalspacepolicywhichalreadyhasallthefea-tures of caelumpolitics. The purpose of the document is to enable unhindered U.S.operations in and through space to protect U.S. interests. (‘The USA preserves its

� ExploringtheUnknown.SelectedDocumentsintheHistoryoftheU.S.CivilSpaceProgram.V.IV:AccessingSpace.JohnM.Logsdon/Ed.WilliamsonR.A.,LauniusR.D.,AckerR.J.,Gar-berS.J.,FriedmanJ.L.WashingtonD.C.,NASAHistoryDivisionOfficeofPolicy andPlans,1999.P.52.

�� FromtheLatinwordcaelumwhichmeans‘sky,heaven,allthespacebetweentheEarthandCelestialbodies’.

rights,capabilitiesandfreedomofactioninspace.Freedomofactioninspace isasimportanttotheUnitedStatesasairpowerandseapower’).TheUSnewspacepolicyischaracterizedbytheUSAdistancingitselffrominternationallaw.TheUSAwillnotcommititselftoanyarmsreductiontreatiesthatwillimpedethedevelopmentofsys-temsdesignedtoprotectUSnationalsecurityinterests.TheDirectiveunderlinestherefusalofWashingtontoconductanyformalnegotiationsonarmscontrolthatmaylimitUSaccesstooruseofspace.

Russia,China,JapanandIndiahavealsoannouncedtheirplanstoestablishoutpostsontheMoon.TheUSAandRussiahavemannedmissionstoMarsontheagenda.Anewspaceracehasbegun.TheUSAappearstobeginitbyestablishingitsownrulesof thegameonceagain. Itaugursanabsolutelynewera for international relations.Therehasjustbeenaregularsuccessionofepochs:‘HewhogovernstheWorldIslandgovernstheworld’;‘HewhoownsseasistheMasteroftheWorld’;‘Hewhohassupe-riorityinairspacerulestheworld’.Andfinally,‘hewhohascontroloverspaceisthefutureLordoftheWorld’.Inthisrespectwecanalreadytodaysaythatthetransitionfromgeopoliticalparadigmtocaelumpoliticalparadigmhashappened,thetransitionthatbeganonOctober4,1957,whentheSputnik-1waslaunched.

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Vladlen VeResChetInRUSSIAJudgeoftheInternationalCourtofJusticeoftheUNinHague,1995–2006.

Bornin1932inBryansk.

GraduatedfromtheMoscowStateInstituteofForeignAffairsin1954(a diploma in international law, post-graduate diploma from thesameinstitutein1958).

FirstDeputyChairmanofInterkosmosCounciloftheAcademyofSci-encesoftheUSSR(1967–1990).

Vice-Presidentof theInternationalInstituteofSpaceLawin1977–1995,DirectorEmeritussince1995.

HonouredworkerofscienceinRussiasince1995.FellowoftheBulgarianAcademyofsciences.MemberoftheInternationalAcademyofAstronautics.

FoR THE bEnEFIT And In THE InTERESTS oF All mAnkIndThe launch of the first artificial Earth satellite

wasnotonlyarevolutionarybreakthroughinscienceandtechnologywhichbroughtourcivilizationontoanew level,butwasanevent thathadamajor impactontheunderstanding of close link between a human and humanity. I believe, the latterbecamealreadyapparent in thefirstyearsof the spaceeraand inparticular in thewaypeoplearoundtheworldgreetedtheflightofYuriGagarin.

OnthedayofthisflightIhappenedtobeinItalyparticipatingasamemberofUSSRAcademyofSciencesdelegationinaconferenceorganizedbytheInternationalCom-mitteeonSpaceResearch (COSPAR). It’seasy to imagine the feelingsof theSovietparticipantsof theconferenceafterwereceived thenewsof thefirstmannedspaceflight.Ofcourse,wewereproudofthefactthatthisfirstmaninspacewasourcom-patriot.Butwealsowitnessedhowgenuinelyexcitedthisnewsmadenotonlyotherparticipantsofthe‘space’conference,butalsoallthepeoplewemet.

Ihaveit imprintedinmymemory,aspeopleofFlorence, thecitywhichhostedtheconference,werevirtually stakingout theentrance to thehotel inwhich theSovietdelegationwasstaying,inordertotalktoYuriGagarin’sfellowcountrymentoexpresstheirsympathy.NewspaperextraswerepublishedwithhugephotosofYuriGagarinonthefrontpage.ThelocalauthoritiesarrangedameetingwiththeSovietscientistsin themagnificent PalazzoVecchio—XIV century palace on the central square inFlorence.Thehallwaspackedandthepeoplegreetedeachspeechwithstandingova-tions.Asitisknownthiseventwasmetthesamewayallaroundtheworld.NomatterwhichcountryYuriGagarin latervisited,peoplewouldgreethimnotasadignifiedforeigner,butasacloseanddearfriend.

I believe, this common excitement evidenced that the space flights made all peo-plecloser,createdthe feelingofcommonlinkbetweenthemregardlessof thestateboundariesoranydifferenceswhatsoever.AftertheFirstSputnikandopeningofthemannedspaceflightsera,westarted toperceive theplanetEarthwith it’senviron-mentalandotherglobalproblemsasourcommonhomethefortuneofwhichisclose-lyrelatedtoeveryhumanlivingontheplanet.Certainly,theglobalthinkingwasalsopromotedbyvarioustypesofspacetechnologyapplications:spacecommunications,meteorology,navigation,Earthremote investigationsensing—whichhadasignifi-cantimpactonourlives.

ConsideringtheimpactoftheFirstSputnikonvariousaspectsofsocial life,humanactivityandscientificdisciplines,I,beingajurist,wouldliketomention,thatanewfieldoflaw—internationalandnationalspacelaw—hasit’soriginsinthelaunchoftheFirstSputnik.AlmostthenextdayafterthelaunchoftheSputniktherewasadis-cussioninthemediaifastatecouldmakesimilarlauncheswithoutpriorconsentofotherstates,keepinginmindthattheairspaceoverthelandandwaterterritoriesofstatesareplacedundertheirsovereigntyregardlessof thealtitude.Fortunately, thefactthatthesekindsofissueswerenotsettleddidnotbecomeanobstacleforlaunch-ingspacecrafts intotheEarthorbit.Oneofthereasonsforthiswasthe immediaterecognitionofthecommonimportanceofspaceexplorationforallmankind.

There is a great logic behind the fact that the basic document of the internationalspace law — Treaty on Principles Governing Activities of States in Explorationand Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 40yearsofwhichwemarkin2007,startswiththesolemndeclaration,sayingthattheStatesParties(theyareover100ofthemnow)tothisTreatyconcludedit, ‘inspiredbythegreat prospects opening up before mankind as a result of man’s entry into outerspace,recognizingthecommoninterestofallmankindintheprogressoftheexplora-tionanduseofouterspaceforpeacefulpurposes,believingthattheexplorationanduseofouterspaceshouldbecarriedonfor thebenefitofallpeoples irrespectiveofthedegreeoftheireconomicorscientificdevelopment…’

AnarrayofInternationalAgreements,firstofalltheaforementionedSpaceTreatyof1967,securedanumberofimportantprovisionsresultingfromuniversalimportanceofspaceexploration:outerspacewasdeclaredfreeforexplorationandtheusebyallstates;outerspace,includingtheMoonandothercelestialbodies,wasnottobesub-jecttonationalappropriation;anumberofprohibitionsandrestrictionswereintro-ducedforcertainmilitaryusesofouterspace.

The global nature of space activities requiresmaximum international cooperation.The principle of cooperation and mutual assistance in space research and use fea-turedamongthe fundamentalprinciplesof1967SpaceTreaty.However, thedevel-opment of international space cooperation was not all roses, especially at the earlystage.Ihadachancetocontributetoorganizingandlegallysupportingtheinterna-tionalspacecooperationofourcountryatthischallengingstage.

Thiswas the timeofopenstandoffand ideologicalstrugglebetweentwosocialandpoliticalsystems,wheninrelationsbetweenthetwoleadingspacepowersprevailedcompetitionandrivalryratherthancooperation.Thepotentialofdualuse(bothmili-taryandcivilian)of themajorityof thespacevehiclesandsystemsensured,on theonehand,lavishstatefinancingoftheseactivities,butontheotherhand,themilitaryandpolitical leadershipofeachstateprimarilyaddressedeverymajorstep inspaceactivityfromstrategicandgeopoliticalpointofview.

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Besides,thecooperationcarriedalotofideologicalcontent,andit’sscopedependedonthestateofpoliticalrelationsbetweenthecountriesconcerned.Themilitarycom-ponentofspaceactivitiesalsomanifesteditselfinthefactthatitaddedmorebarrierstointernationalcooperation,connectedwithsecurityconsiderations.

At the early stage, the space cooperation was mostly limited to sharing scientificresultsandcoordinatedopticalobservationsof thesatellites.Gradually, itextendedto installing foreignand then jointlyproducedpayloadsonSoviet spacecrafts,andlatertolargescalejointscientificprojectsincludingaseriesofInterkosmossatellites,complexprojectsinvolvinginterplanetaryprobesand,finallydockingandjointflightofSovietandAmericanspacevehiclesSoyuzandApolloaswellasanumberofotherinternationalmannedmissions.

A lot of credit in promoting the cooperation goes to a number of Soviet and for-eign scientific and industrial organizations and individuals. Among them honor-ablementioningshouldbereferredtotheprominentSovietscientistsM.V.Keldysh,B.N.Petrov,V.A.Kotelnikov,R.Z.Sagdeyev,O.G.Gazenko,K.D.Bushuyev,G.N.Ba-bakin,V.M.Kovtunenko.ItissadthatneitherS.P.Korolev,norV.P.Glushko,norawholecohortofotherdistinguishedspaceengineersandmanagersofspaceindustrycould personally cooperate with their foreign counterparts due to security reasons.They have contributed a lot to the development of space cooperation and certainlywouldliketohavepersonallyparticipatedinit.OnceIhappenedtobepresentduringadiscussiononthissubjectbetweenM.V.KeldyshandS.P.Korolev.

At the present time, the scope of international cooperation in space increased tre-mendously.Thisisevidencedbynumerousinternationalagreements,efficientfunc-tioning of international space organizations and systems, building of internationallaunching sites and the International Space Station. However, one should remem-ber that the space component of the armed forces of some states also considerablyincreased.Themodernarmed forces largelydependon thepresenceandefficiencyoftheirspaceassets.Themajorchallengeistopreventtheneworrecentlyresumedspacemilitaryprogramsfromresultinginviolationsofthewellanduniversallyestab-lishedprinciplesofspaceactivitieswhichmayleadandleadingtoaspacearmsrace.Maythe‘starwars’beconfinedtovirtualworldonly.

Buzz aldrinUSAOneoftheearlyastronauts.TogetherwithNeilArmstrong,onJuly20,1969,hemadethehistoricApollo-11moonwalk.Hehaslogged4500hoursofflyingtime,290ofwhichwereinspace, including8hoursofextravehicularactivities.

Hewasbornin1930andgraduatedwithhonorsfromWestPointin1951.LaterheearnedaDoctorate inAstronautics fromtheMIT inMannedSpaceRendezvous.

In1993Dr.AldrinreceivedaUSpatentforapermanentspacesta-tion.Morerecentlyhefoundedhisrocketdesigncompany,StarcraftBoosters,Inc.,andtheShareSpaceFoundation,anonprofitdevotedtospacetourism.

Theauthorof twospacenovelsTheReturn (2000)andEncounterwithTiber(1996),hisautobiography,ReturntoEarth(1973),chil-dren’sbookReachingfortheMoon(2005),andthebestsellerhistori-caldocumentary,MenfromEarth(1989),describinghistriptothemoon.

AwardedthePresidentialMedalofFreedom.

THougHTS on THE AnnIvERSARy oF SPuTnIkWhilethelaunchofSputnikmayhavestunned

theworld,italsogalvanizedit.AnartificialsatellitewasorbitingplanetEarthforthefirsttimeinhumanhistory:theSpaceAgehadbegun.

Iwasapilot in theUnitedStatesAirForce in1957andhadalreadyseen therapiddevelopment of jets that couldfly faster, farther andhigherduringmy career.TheAmericanshadalsobeenworkingtodeveloptheirownspaceprogram,buttheSovi-etsachievedthefirstsuccessfullaunchofasatellite.SputnikspurredtheUStoswitchinto an even higher gear. Now, space travel was a fact rather than a dream, and Iwantedtobeapartofit.

In1959I leftmynucleardeliveryfightersquadroninGermanytoenroll inaUSAFastronauticsprogramattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology(MIT).Idepart-ed threeyears laterwithmydoctoraldegree inOrbitalMechanics tocommandtheTestPilotSchoolatEdwardsAirForceBase.Mythesiswaswrittenonhowtopilotandrendezvoustwospacecraftinorbit.Iwaslookingtothefuture!Ofcourse,atthetimeIcouldnothaveforeseentheroleIwouldplayintheworld’sspaceprogram,buttwelveyearsafterthelaunchofSputnik,IsteppedofftheLunarModuleladderontothesurfaceoftheMoon.

AhalfcenturyhaspassedsinceEarth’sSpaceAgebegan,andmostoftheworld’spop-ulationhasneverlivedinaworldwithoutartificialsatellitesorbitingtheplanet.Over80%ofthepeoplelivingtodaywerebornafter1957.Theyhavegrownupinaworldwhereweatherpatternsaretrackedbysatellites,newsprogramssendlivebroadcasts

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aroundtheworld,andpeopletalkonthephoneorbye-mailwithfriendsonanothercontinentaseasilyaswiththeirnextdoorneighbors.Technologically,theSpaceAgehasmadetheworldasmallerplace.

Psychologically, it hasmade it a grander one. Over the last 50 years, hundreds ofmenandwomenhaveorbitedEarth,andtwelveAmericanshaveevenwalkedontheMoon.Wehave sent roboticmissions to everyplanet in the Solar systemand to afewasteroidsandcometsaswell.Right thismomentthereareroversexploringthesurfaceofMars.AndwehavelookedatourownplanetfromspaceandhaveseentheEarthasoneworld,notaglobedividedbymanmadeboundariesandborders.

Ibelievethatfuturehistorianswill lookbackattheSpaceAgeasaturningpoint,atimewhenwefinallybegantothinkofourhomeaslargerthanahouseoratownorevenacountry.Humanity’shomeisEarthitself.Andonedaywewill ‘growup’andwillbereadyto leavehome—asallchildrendo—andtraveltootherworlds,suchasMars.

Janusz Bronisław ZielińskiPOLANDProfessorofGeodesyattheInstituteofNavigationofthePolishNavyAcademy. Coordinator of the 6-FP ProjectGalileoApp and GalileoInfoPointforPoland.Vice-PresidentoftheCommitteeforSpaceRe-searchofthePolishAcademyofSciences(PAS).MemberoftheBu-reauofCOSPAR.CorrespondingMemberoftheInternationalAcad-emyofAstronautics.MemberoftheInternationalCommitteeoftheGlobalNavigationSatelliteSystems(UNbody).AseniorscientistattheSpaceResearchCentrePASanduntil2006,HeadoftheDepart-mentofthePlanetaryGeodesyoftheSpaceResearchCentre.

Bornin1935inLodź,Poland.

HewastheassistantprofessorattheWarsawUniversityofTechnol-ogyuntil 1968, thenmoved to the InstituteofGeophysics,PAS. In1976hebecameaDeputyDirectorforScienceoftheSpaceResearchCentreandheldthepositionuntil1986.

Hewas a ScientificManager of theBaltic Sea Level Project and aPrincipalInvestigatoroftheDIDEXProject.

my PERSonAl ConSEquEnCES oF THE SPuTnIk-1The autumn 1957was quite significant forme.

In September I finishedmy studies at theWarsawUniversity of Technology and IreturnedforfewdaystomyfamilyhomeinŁódź.IwasinterestedinastronomyandIwasawarethatAmericansareworkingontheproject to launchanartificialsatel-lite.However, inŁódźeverythingwasveryfarfromthespaceprojects.Itwasacitywithverytraditionaltextileindustry,thecitywheretherevolution1905started.Oldfactorieslookedlike50yearsbefore.There,wesuddenlygotthenewsbyradio:theSovietUnionlaunchedanartificialsatellite.Formeitwasspectacular.Ihadthefeel-ingthatsomethinggreathadhappened.Butmyfamilywasnotimpressed.Myfather,whowasastronganti-communist,toldme:‘Don’tbelieveit,itisthecommunistpro‑paganda…’Howeverneitherhe,normyself,hadtheideahowmuchthiseventwouldinfluencethehistoryandmypersonallife.

One year later I started a job at theWarsawUniversity of Technology. I have gotthepositionofanassistant intheChairof theGeodeticAstronomy.Thesalarywasridiculouslylow,butIwashappytoworkinresearch.There,Igotthechance—myeldercolleagueLudoslavCichowiczaskedmetoworkwithhimonthecalculationoftheorbitoftheSputnik-3.ThissatellitewaslaunchedonMay15,1958.Itsradio-sig-nalswererecordedinvariousplacesintheworldandwereavailable.ThePolishlead-ing expert on radio-wavepropagationprof. StefanManczarskiwanted touse theserecordingstodevelopthemodeloftheionosphereandheneededpositionsofsatel-liteinfunctionoftime.CichowiczwithmysmallcontributioncalculatedtheorbitanditwasthefirstpracticaltaskinsatellitegeodesysolvedinPoland.

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Startingfromthiswork,thesatellitegeodesy,thenew-bornscience,becametheleit-motivofmyprofessionallife.OurPolishgroupcollaboratedwiththeteamsfromoth-er countries in the frameof theWorkingGroup chairedbyprof.AllaGenrikhovnaMassevich, dealingwith the satellite observations and data analysis. ThisWorkingGroup evolved later into the INTERCOSMOSProgramme, that covered very broadspectrumofspaceactivity.

In1963IhadthefirstencounterwithCOSPAR.PolandinvitedthisorganizationtoholditsyearlyscientificmeetinginWarsaw.ThePresidentofthePolishAcademyofSciences JanuszGroszkowski, thePresident of thePolishSpaceResearchCommit-teeWłodzimierzZonnanditsScientificSecretaryLudoslawCichowiczwelcomedtheAssembly. Iwasworking in the secretariat.Renowned scientists came to our capi-tal,amongthemJeanKovalevski,WilliamKaula,MikeGaposchkinandothers.Thefriendlycontactsestablishedat that timeendured theyearsandwere thesourceofmy intellectual joyanddevelopment.COSPARprovedtobethebridgebetweentheeasternandwesternworldsformeandforanumberofotheryoungscientistsfromthe‘socialistcamp’fascinatedbyspace.

Butnotallthethingswerepleasant.Spaceactivitywasandstillisstronglyconnectedtomilitaryproblems. In 1967,afterfinishingmyPh.D. thesis, I applied for the fel-lowship of the Ford Foundation. The fellowship was awarded and the SmithsonianAstrophysical Observatory accepted me as scholar. However, the State Departmentrefusedtogivemeavisawiththeexplanationthatproposedtopicofmystudy(theEarthgravityfieldinvestigation)isnotsuitablefortheinternationalexchangeprogram.

The military and political connotations of the space program were the curse andblessingforthespaceresearch.Thebadthingwasthattheflowofinformation,indi-vidualcontactsor jointprojectswereveryrestricted.On theotherhand therivalrybetween USSR and USA opened almost unlimited resources on both sides. In UStheApolloLunarProgramorNASAwouldhaveneverbeencreatedwithoutpoliticalcompetitionwith theSovietUnionwhoansweredwithequally remarkableachieve-mentsinformofmannedmissionsofthelongduration,spacestations(Salyut,Mir)orinterplanetarymissions.

Fromthehistoricalperspectivewecansay,thatpartialreplacementofthearmsracebythespaceracewasanexcellentprocessanduntilnowbothgreatspacepowerscanbenefitfromthepotentialandtheinfrastructuredevelopedduringthe‘coldwar’.

Anotherinterestingdevelopment,characteristicforthespaceactivity,istheinclina-tiontothemassmedia.Spaceachievementsarespectacularbytheirnature.Bigrock-etsascendingslowlyfromtheirlaunchingpadincloudsoffire,satelliteswithbizarreshapeshanging in the space, astronauts inwhite space suitsfloating inheaven, allthesephenomenaarereadymoviepictures.Risksoffailureorevendisasterdramatizethesituation.Thesecircumstancesenabletosellwellthestoriesofspaceconquest.

However,inmyopinionthereissomethingmorebehindthissuccessfulpublicrela-tions of space. There is somethingwhatwe can call the fascination ofmankindbyspace.Itisadream,eternaldreamofIcarusstrivingtowardstheSun,thedreamofColumbuslookingforanewpath,thedreamofTsiolkovskytogobeyondtheEarth.Goingforward,higherandfurther–ithasforeverbeentheinternalcompulsionofman.

Let us come back to historical reminiscences. After the COSPARmeeting inWar-saw,theinternationalspaceresearchdevelopedevenmore.In1966theSovietUnionproposed to the so-called ‘socialist countries’ the program for cooperation under

thenameINTERCOSMOS.Thispoliticaldecisionopened theway to space for sev-eralsmallcountries,includingMongoliaandCuba.OfcoursePolandbecamealsothepartner of INTERCOSMOS. Thanks to this program several INTERCOSMOS satel-liteswerelaunchedenablingthescientistsfromsmallercountriestoputexperimentsontheboardsofspaceprobesandsatellites.InPolandwewereproudinparticularofthemissionKopernik-500(Intercosmos-9),thesolarradio-wavesexperimentdevot-edtothe500thanniversaryofthebirthofNicolausCopernicus.TheprojectwasledbyJanHanaszfromtheAstronomicalInstituteofthePolishAcademyofSciencesinTorunanddr.V.AksionovfromtheInstituteofRadioelectronicsinMoscow.

The INTERCOSMOSprogramwas an excellent example of the beneficial influenceof the space research on the political and cultural relations between countries andpeople.Thecloseandintensecooperationonprojectsdevelopedmutualunderstand-ing and friendships. It permitted to see the human faces of individuals behind theironmaskof theofficialpropaganda. Inparticular Iwould like to recallwithgreatadmiration thePresidentof the INTERCOSMOSprogramAcademicianBorisNiko-laevich Petrov. His deep scientific knowledge, intellectual superiority and superbpersonalculturegavehimtheuniquequalificationtoruntheinternationalcoopera-tionprogram.Hisdemisein1980wasagreatlossforINTERCOSMOS.OnthePol-ishsideresponsiblefortheINTERCOSMOSactivitywasastronomerprofessorStefanPiotrowski,whodevelopedfriendlyrelationswithPietrov.

ThenextstageoftheINTERCOSMOSprogramwasaseriesofthemannedflightsonboardof thespaceshipSoyuz.Thisundertakingwashighlypolitical,butwe,withintheAcademy,triedtomakeitusefulfortheresearch,too.Itwasaremarkableexperi-encetotakepartinthearrangementsfortheseflights:IwitnessedalmostallphasesofpreparationsofthePolishcosmonautMiroslawHermaszewski,fromhisselectiontothecompletionofhisspacemission.Hermaszewskididverygoodjobperformingperfectly the reach research program prepared for him by the scientific commit-tee.HewassupportedbyhisflightmatePiotrKlimukwholateronvisitedPolandmanytimes.

Theannouncementofthepossibilityofmannedflightsforcosmonautsfromsocialistcountrieshasbeenmetwithverystronginterestof thegovernmentsof thesecoun-tries. In particular, theGovernment of Poland, controlled by the communist partywithEdwardGierekas theFirstSecretary,strongly insisted thatacosmonaut fromPoland shouldhave thefirst flight in the sequence. Itwasmotivated by thePolishGovernmentpolitical doctrine thatPoland, being the second largest country in the‘socialist camp’ should be considered as an ally number one by the Soviet Union.However,forsomeunknownreasons,theSovietGovernmentreservedthefirstplacein the sequence of flights for Czechoslovakia. I observed this controversy continu-ingforafewmonthswithbewilderment.IwouldneverhavebelievedbeforethattheGovernmentofthesocialistPolandcouldbeinvolvedinthesuchhardquarrelwiththedominantSovietGovernment.Buttheresultwaseasytopredict:theCzechoslo-vakiancosmonautflewthefirst.

My most traumatic experience related to the space activity was the organization oftheCOSPARScientificAssemblyin2000.PolanddecidedtoinviteCOSPARforthesecond time and it happened at the turn of the century year 2000. Iwas appoint-edtheChairmanoftheLocalOrganizingCommittee,prof.PiotrWolański fromtheWarsawUniversityofTechnologyandprof.ZbigniewKlosfromtheSpaceResearchCentresupportedmeimmenselyasco-chairmen.Wehadfiveyearsofhardworkofpreparations,butfinallythemeetingwentwellandsometwothousandsparticipants

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weresatisfied.Besidesofregularscientificsessionsweorganizedopensessionsandlecturesforthepublic.Itwasmygreatsatisfactiontoobservetheenormousinterestofthesociety inproblemsofspace,demonstratedbyhundredsofpeoplecomingtolectureroomstohearpresentationsbyeminentscientist.

It is impossible to discuss in a relatively short article the immense progress in thescience and technology, resulting from the applications of the space methods andmeans.Letmecommentonwhathappenedinspacegeodesy,thefieldmostinterest-ing forme.Of course the last50yearsbrought theprogressnot in the space tech-niquesonly,butinmanyotherfields,likecomputertechnology,telecommunication,aviation and so on.But the impact of space is themost significant. First, both thegeodeticscienceandappliedgeodesycalledsurveying,becameglobal.AlmostallovertheworldthegeodeticmeasurementsaredonewithhelpofGPS,theglobalsatellitepositioning system, and by virtue of this method, they are in the same coordinatereferenceframe,thesamescaleandthesametimesystem.Wecanusesatellitesforthenavigationonthesea,ontheland,intheairandalsoinspace.TheGPSwillbesoon supportedby theRussianGLONASSandhopefully in few years byEuropeanGalileo. The maps which are now available are to large extend the products of theEarthobservationsatellites.TheEarth’sglobedimensions,Earth’srotationandtheEarth’sgravityfieldmodelareknownwiththeprecisionincomparabletothatoffiftyyearsago.ThankstospecialdedicatedmissionslikeCHAMP,GRACEandGOCEwecanobserve the temporal changes of the gravityfield of theEarth,what is equiva-lenttotheshapeofit.ThankstothealtimetricsatelliteslikeTopex/Poseidon,JasonorEnvisatwecanobservethechangesoftheshapeoftheoceansurface,causedbythetemperature,pressureorchemicalcompositionofthewater.UsingsatellitesforLaserRangingSystem,inparticularLAGEOS,wearemeasuringthemotionsofthecontinental tectonic plates, which a few years ago was a pure hypothesis only. Thechanges in thegeodeticscienceandtechnologyareasprofoundas thosewhich fol-lowedinventionofthetheodoliteandthetriangulationmethodinXVIIIcentury.Cer-tainlythelast50yearshavechangedthegeodesymorethantheformer200years.

I think I canconsidermyselfahappymanwhohadaprivilege to liveandwork inthetimeofsuchdynamicdevelopmentandtocontributetoittosomeextend.Also,IcanfeelhappythatonmywayoflifeImetsomanypeoplesomuchinvolvedandsoenthusiasticaboutspace.ItwasthecaseintheyearsoftheINTERCOSMOSprogram,itwasthecaseinmyserviceforCOSPAR,mycooperationwithESAandmyworkintheSpaceResearchCentre inWarsaw.All this importantstagesofmyprofessionallifewerethefollowuptothisparticulardayoftheOctober4,1957.

Gurbax s. lakhInaINDIAProfessor Emeritus and former Director of the Indian Institute ofGeomagnetism(IIG),Mumbai.

HereceivedPh.D.fromIndianInstituteofTechnology,Delhi(1972).Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi. Visit-ing Professor, Research Institute of Sustainable Humanosphere,KyotoUniversity, Japan (2005). Senior Resident Research Associ-ateofNRCatNASAJetPropulsionLaboratory,Pasadena,California(1996–1998).AlexanderVonHumboldt(Germany)ResearchFellowatRuhrUniversityBochum(Germany)in1981–1982and1985.Re-search Scientist, Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, NewYorkUniversity(USA)(1988–1989).

MemberoftheExecutiveCouncilofInternationalAssociationofGeo-magnetismandAeronomy.

RecipientofK.R.RamanathanAward(2005)oftheIndianNationalScienceAcademy,DelhiandtheDecennialAward-GoldMedal2000ofIndianGeophysicalUnion,Hyderabad.

HoW SPuTnIk CHAngEd my vIEW oF lIFEI came to know about Sputnik nearly two

yearsafterthehistoriclaunchofSputnik-1onOctober4,1957.WhenSputnik-1waslaunched,Iwas15yearoldboystudyingin5thgradeinSanatanDharmHighSchool,Panipat, a small town about 90 km away fromDelhi. At that time, Panipat was asleepy handloom town. I came to know aboutSputnik andYuriGagarin, not frommyschool,butfromthemagazine,SovietBhumi,whichwastheHinditranslationofSovietLand,whichmyfatherhadsubscribedattheinsistenceofanewspaperagentin1959.Asanincentiveforsubscribingforoneyear,hegavemyfatherbackvolumesoftheprevioustwoyears.IwasverymuchsurprisedwhenIsawthisHindimagazineatmyfather’sshopandhegavethemtomeforreading.Iwasinthe7thgradeandwasstudying Science subject in addition to Mathematics, English, Hindi, Punjabi, San-skrit,HistoryandGeography.Iwasveryfondofreadingmagazineandnovels.InoneofoldissuestherewasanarticleaboutSputnik-1,thefirstman-madeobjectorsatel-liteorbitingtheEarth.Iwassurprisedtoknowthatitcouldgetuniquedatapertain-ingtothedensityoftheupperlayersoftheatmosphereandradiowavespropagation.Ifoundallthisverystrangeandinterestingatthesametime.Istartedtakingspecialinterestinthesciencesubjectthenonwards.Seeingmyinterest,myfatherrenewedthesubscriptionfortheSovietBhumiforthenextseveralyears.In1961,whenIwasin9thgrade,oneissueoftheSovietBhumicarriedtheinterviewofYuriGagarin,thefirstmaninspace.HewentintospaceinasputniknamedVostokonApril12,1961,orbitedtheEarthonceandcameback.ThiswasanhistoricmomentnotonlyfortheSovietUnionbutfortheentireworld.IwasfascinatedtoseethepicturesoftheEarthtakenfromspaceandtoreadtheinterviewwithYuriGagarin,thefirstastronaut.Thisfiredmyimaginationaboutthemysteriesofspace.

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IwasbornonApril7,1943inMianwali(nowinPakistan)inundividedIndia.Itwasa very small town, and most of the people were either doing farming or handloombusiness.My father’s familywasamong the fewwell-to-do families.Unfortunately,welosteverythingduringthemaniafollowingthepartitionofthecountryonAugust15,1947,whenwewere forcedto leaveMianwaliandcometotheIndianTerritory.AfterstayinginmanyrefugeecampsinAmritsarandDelhi,finallymyfather’sfamilywas settled inPanipat.Wehad a tough time initially.My father started twohand-loomsinapartofourhouseitself,theincomewerelowandwebarelysurvived.Hethenstartedtheretailbusinessofcolouranddyes.HewouldbuytheseproductsfromDelhiandsellittothehandloomownersfordyingtheyarn.Heworkedveryhardandthebusinessstartedpickingupbyearly1960’s.

Itmay appear strangenow, but in early 1950’s,when Iwas a youngboy, very fewparentswouldsendtheirchildrentoschoolinourcommunity.Myfatherhadnofor-mal education himself. He had a rudimentary knowledge of Urdu and arithmetic.Herealizedtheimportanceofeducation,andsendsmeandmybrothersandsisterstoschool. Igotascholarship fromtheSchoolBoard fordoingwell inmy8thgradeexamination. This provided an impetus for further studies. I did well in my schoolleaving(10thgrade)examinationwhichwasconductedbytheStateEducationDepart-ment.MynamewasintheMeritlistandIwontheNationalMeritScholarship.Onecondition of the Scholarshipwas that itwill continue tillMaster’s degree providedtheawardgetsmorethan60%marksineachannualexamination.Therewasagreatpressureonmyfathernottosendmetocollegefromourcommunity.Thecommuni-typeoplehadmisconceptionthattheboysdevelopbadwayswhentheygotocollege,andstopregardingtheirelderswithrespect.SeeingmyinterestinhigherstudiesandtheimportanceoftheScholarship,myfatherallowedmetogetadmissioninBachelorofScienceinAryaCollege,Panipat.Igotthescholarshipthroughoutmycollegeedu-cationandpassedmyB.Sc.in1967withafirstrankinmycollege.

I wanted to do Master in Science and told my father. Everyone in the family wasagainstitasIhadtogooutofPanipat.EventuallymyfatheragreedbutinsistedthatI shouldstudy inDelhi. Iapplied to Indian InstituteofTechnology (IIT),Delhi foradmissiontoM.Sc.course.WhenIgotaletterfromIIT,Delhiforthetestandinter-view,my father accompaniedme toDelhi. Thiswasmyfirst visit to theCapital ofIndia.HeleftmeatIITandpromisedtocomebackintheeveningtopickmeupafterfinishinghiswork.TheadmissiontestofIITwasverymuchdifferentthananyexami-nationIhadearlier.Ididnotknowaboutthemultiplechoicequestionsandaboutthenegativemarkings.Withgreattrepidation,Istartedsolvingthepaper.Icouldfinishabout70%ofthequestions.Iwasfeelingverylow.Allotherboyswerecheerfulandlaughingasmostofthemhavedonethewholepaper.Andsomeeventoldmetogohome,asmynamewouldnotbeinthelistforinterview.Ifeltlikegoinghome,butI had towait formy father.When the list of candidates selected for interviewwasputuponthenoticeboard,mynamewasthereandIheavedasighofrelief. Iwascalled for interviewandbecameverynervouson seeingfivemembers of the inter-viewcommittee.Thiswasmyveryfirstinterviewofanykind.AsIcametoknowlat-er,Prof.M.S.Sodha,HeadofthePhysicsDepartment,wasthechairman.AftersomepreliminaryquestionstotestmyknowledgeaboutPhysics,heaskedmewhyIwanttodoM.Sc.inPhysicsandwhatIwanttobecome.IblurtedoutIwanttostudyspaceandbecomeastronautlikeYuriGagarin.WewerenottaughtanythingaboutspaceinourB.Sc.,ItoldhimfranklyaboutreadingabouttheSputnikinSovietBhumi.ItoldhimthatIwanttodoMasterinPhysicsasitwillprovidemeskillstoexplorespace,

which isnotempty. I felt someMemberswere laughingatmyreply,but Iwasnotsure.Prof.Sodhaaskedmeseriously‘Whatisit(i.e.,space)then?’ItoldhimthatiswhatIwouldliketofindout.IdonotknowhowIcouldsayallthisatthattime.Iwastoldtogohomeandthattheresultoftheinterviewwillbeintimatedtomebypost.WhenIcameoutoftheinterview,myfatherwaswaitingformeandwecamebacktoPanipat.

More than3weekshadgoneaftermy testand interviewat IITDelhi. Ihadnearlylosthope,andwasthinkingofwaystoconvincemyfathertoletmegoforstudiesinPanjabiUniveristy,PatialawhereIhadalreadybeenaccepted.OnedayaletterfromIIT Delhi arrived informing about my selection for the admission to M.Sc. Physicscourse.Thiswasamomentofgreatjoyforme.IimmediatelytookadmissioninIIT,Delhiafterpayingtheadmissionandhostelfees.Ihaveneverlivedinahostelbefore,andthethoughtoflivinginIIThostelexcitedme.ThecoursesstartedandsodidmyNationMeritScholarship.StudyinginIITwasawholelotofnewexperience.Therewereregularassignments,someweeklyandsomebi-weekly,allgearedtowardsappli-cationofthetheorytaughtintheclassroom.TheIITLibraryhadlotsmanybooksonphysics,mathematicsandallengineeringsubjects.Italsohadagoodcollectionoflite-rarybooksandnovelsunderitshumanitysubject.Initially,Iusedtogohomeduringtheweekendsbut the studypressure increasedand I couldgohomehardlyonce amonthorevenless.Duringthesecondyear,weweretaughtacourseonplasmaphys-ics,duringthe3rdand4thsemester,byDr.BimlaButi.ShehaddoneherPh.D.fromChicagoUniversity under the supervision of Prof. S. Chandrasekhar, awell-knownastrophysicist,wholateronwasawardedtheNobelPrize!IgotinterestedinplasmaphysicsandthoughtofdoingPh.D.inthissubjectaftercompletingmyMasterdegree.Thissubjecthadtremendouspotentialforthermonuclearfusionaswellasforastro-physicalapplications.

WhenItoldmyfatheraboutthis,hewasnotveryhappytohearthisastherewasfam-ilypressuretogetmemarried.Luckily,bythistime,myfather’sbusinesswasgoingwellandtherewasnofinancialpressureforvariousfamilyobligations.Iwashopingtogeta fellowshipformyPh.D. fromeithertheCouncilofScientificandIndustrialResearch(CSIR)orfromtheIITitself.IdiscussedwithDr.ButiaboutmydesiretodoPh.D.inplasmaphysicsunderhersupervisionandsheagreed.IappliedtoCSIRforthejuniorresearchfellowshipandwassuccessful.IregisteredforthePh.D.atIIT,DelhiwithDr.B.Butiasmysupervisor. I startedmyPh.D. career fromJuly, 1969andthetopicofmythesiswasStudyofsomeelectromagneticinstabilitiesinmagne‑tizedplasmas.Istartedworkonordinarymodeelectromagneticinstabilitiesincoun-terstreamingplasmas.Iwasworkingveryhardduringthisperiod,andmanyatimeIwouldget frustrated.AfteraboutayearandahalfmyworkpickeduppaceandIstartedmakinggoodprogressonmyresearchproblem.Atthistime,Dr.Butidecid-edtoleaveIIT,DelhiandjoinPhysicalResearchLaboratory(PRL),AhmedabadasaProfessor.Luckily,CSIRfellowshipallowedthejuniorresearchscholartotravelandworkatanotherlaboratoryfor3monthsatastretchwiththeapprovalofthesupervi-sor.ButbeforethatIhadtofindaco-guidefromtheIITfacultyotherwisemyPh.D.registrationatIITwouldbecancelled.Prof.A.K.GhatakofthePhysicsDepartment,whohastaughtusmathematicalmethodsandquantumphysics,cametomyrescuebyagreeingtobemyco-guide.Forthenextyearandahalf,IwasshuttlingbetweenPRL,Ahmedabad,andIIT,Delhi,regularlyspendingabout3monthsatAhmedabadandamonthorsoatDelhi(thistimewasrequiredtogetapprovalfromCSIRtovisitPRLformywork).Aftertwoyearsasjuniorresearchfellow,Igottheseniorresearchfellowship fromCSIR. Finally, I submittedmyPh.D. thesis inApril, 1972 andwas

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offeredaVisitingScientistpositionatPRL(thisissimilartopost-docposition).Isuc-cessfullydefendedmythesisduringanopenvivaandwasawardedthePh.D.degreeinOctober,1972.Mystayofabout18monthsorsoatPRLasVisitingScientistprovedveryproductiveintermsofpublicationsaswellasbroadeningmyperspective.Ipub-lished5papersduringthisperiodandinoneofthepaperappliedmytheorytosolarwinddiscontinuities.Inawaythiswasmyfirstpaperonmicrostructureoftheinter-planetaryspace!IthinkthispaperwasinawayresponsibleformyselectionasFel-lowat the Indian Institute ofGeomagnetism (IIG),Colaba,Mumbai.This institutewascarvedoutofthewell-knownColabaandAlibagMagneticObservatorieswithamandatetostudygeomagnetismfromallaspects.Well,Istartedmyfirstregularjobasascientist in thepostofFellow in IIGonNovember13, 1973. Initially, I startedworkingonthetopicofplasmainstabilitiesinthemagnetosphereandsolarwind,andslowlyexpandedtheactivitiestocoherentradiationmechanism,solarwindinterac-tionwithcomet,magnetosphericsubstorm,storms,andspaceweather.Ihadagoodfortune to work with many well-known space physicists and visited several spaceresearchinstitutesincludingtheNASAJetPropulsionLaboratory.Inmyownsmallway,IhavecontributedtowardsunderstandingtheEarth’snearspaceenvironmentwheremanysatellitesareorbiting.Icouldnotbecomeanastronautbutcouldatleastfulfillmydreamtosolvesomemysteriesofspacetosomeextent.ThisishowSputnikchangedmyviewoflife!

Marcio BaRBosaBRAZILDeputyDirector-Generalof theUnitedNationsEducational,Scien-tificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO).

Bornin1951,MrBarbosaholdsaM.Sc.degreeinSystemsAnalysisand Applications (1975) from the National Institute of Space Re-search(INPE),Brazil.

In1973MrBarbosajoinedtheBrazilianNationalInstituteofSpaceResearchwherehefinallyworkedasDirector-Generalin1989–2001.HeestablishedatINPEtheCenterforNumericalWeatherForecastandClimate Studies (CPTEC) and the Inter-American Institute forGlobalChangeResearch(IAI).

Since February, 2001, Mr Barbosa is Deputy Director-General ofUNESCO.

From1996to2000,hewasVice-PresidentoftheInternationalSoci-etyforPhotogrammetryandRemoteSensing(ISPRS)andfrom2000to2004,PresidentoftheInternationalAstronauticalFederation.

HeisamemberoftheInternationalAcademyofAstronauticsandtheBrazilianAcademyofEngineering.

THE lAunCHIng oF SPuTnIk-1 And ITS ImPACT In dEvEloPIng CounTRIESonOctober4, 1957 the launchingofSputnik-1

changedhumanity’shistoryopeningnewperspectives for scientificand technologi-caldevelopmentinindustrializedcountries(calledSuper-Powersatthetime).Italsocontributed, very determinately, to the progress and development of many otherdevelopingcountries(astheyarecurrentlyknown).

What seemed only a scientific challenge, from the proposal made by the Interna-tional Council of Scientific Unions, in October, 1954, to launch artificial satellitesto commemorate the International Geophysical Year (1957–1958), became in fact,thebeginningof thesocalled ‘SpaceRace’between theUSAand the formerSovietUnion.Theperceptionandconcernofthepublic,atthetime,werethatinthemili-taryfield,theformerSovietUniondemonstrateditscapacitytolaunchnuclearweap-ons,throughballisticmissiles,leavingfromEuropeinthedirectionoftheUSA.And,asareactiontotheestablishedpoliticaluproar,theUSAhadapproved,amongotheracts,voluminousresourcesforitsExplorerspaceprogramandthecreationofNASA.Theraceinvolvingbasicallytwoactorsalsowon,fromthenon,theinterestofmanyothercountriesthatuntilthenwererarelyconvincedoftheimportanceofinvestinginspace.

Brazil, for example, in 1961 was already taking its first steps to organize its spaceactivitieswiththecreationoftheprecursortothecurrentINPE(NationalInstituteofSpaceResearch).Afterthepioneeringexperienceofsomeofitscountriesattheendofthe1950’s,notablyFrancewiththeCNES,Europewasreorganizedinanambitious

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and integratedmannerwith thecreationofESA(EuropeanSpaceAgency) in1975.Similarenthusiasmwasseen inIndia,China,CanadaandJapan, tocite the largestinvestors.

TheinitialconceptofsmallscientificsatellitesorbitingtheEarththatinitiatedwithSputnik-1,associatedwiththeincreasingcapabilityofdevelopmentandlaunchingoflargemasses,notnecessarily incircularorbitof lowaltitude,allowedanextraordi-naryevolutionintheexplorationanduseofthespaceforpeacefulpurposes,benefit-ingallofhumanity.Whatwasonlyscientificbegantohaveamoreimmediateappli-cation interestingtoeveryone,andthus,at theendof the60’s, thesocalled ‘SpaceApplications’ (use of the space for communications, monitoring the environment,meteorology,positioningandnavigation)areborn.Theseapplicationsbecameopera-tionalandgainedcommercialpotentialinalotoffields,likeincommunicationsforexample,alreadyinthebeginningofthe1970’s.

This does notmean that the scientific activitieswere left behind. From the simplepossibilitytodetectradiosignalsattheionospherewiththeSputnik-1,orthediscov-eryoftheVanAllenBeltswiththeExplorer-1in1958,continuousinvestmentshavebeenmadebyagreatnumberofcountries,individuallyorincooperation,inordertoexploretheUniverse,notonlyintheregionsclosetoEarthbutalsotheMoon,Mars,Venus,otherplanetsintheSolarsystemandtheouterspace.

Theadvancementofspacetechnologyandthediscoveryofnewmaterials,processesandprocedures,particularlyinthefieldofflightsafety,havemadescientificexperi-mentspossiblethroughspacecraft,carryingmenornot,forperiodsofshortorlongduration(somemonths).Specialattentionshouldbegiventothemannedmissionsand the scientific experiments on board stationsMir and ISS (International SpaceStation),theHubbletelescopeandthemanyprobessuccessfullylaunchedintospace,plus, naturally the engaging successes of the precursory flights of Gagarin, Glenn,theApolloprogramandtheconquestoftheMoonin1969.Since1961,400menandwomenhadthechancetogotospaceinmissionsaimedattheimprovementofthequalityoflifeonEarthandexploringtheUniverseanditswealth.

Internationalcooperationisacrucialissuegiventhepointofviewagreedbyallcoun-tries about thenecessity to keep the space as a regionof interest tohumanity andusingitforpeacefulpurposeswithuniversalbenefits.Theseconceptsarebeingfor-malizedsince the launchingofSputnik-1, throughthevarious international treatiesunder the responsibilityof theUnitedNationsandof itsCOPUOS(UnitedNationsCommitteeonthePeacefulUsesofOuterSpace).ThemostimportantofthemistheOuterSpaceTreaty,adoptedin1967andratifiedbyover90countries.Initsfirstarti-cleitstatesthat‘theexplorationanduseofouterspace,includingtheMoonandoth-ercelestialbodies,shallbecarriedoutforthebenefitandintheinterestsofallcoun-tries,irrespectiveoftheirdegreeofeconomicorscientificdevelopment,andshallbetheprovinceofallmankind.’

However,inreality,spacecooperationonlytakesitsfirststepbetweenthetwogreatpowers of the time—USA and the former SovietUnion—with the historicApol‑lo-Soyuzmission of July, 1975. It is also true that bilateral cooperationwas beingpracticedbyother countries since the 1960’s, butwas concentrated in thefields ofspaceresearchordataexchange,withpracticallynointeractioninthetechnologicalfield.Nevertheless,theseexchangeswerefundamentalfortrainingprofessionalsandmaintainingthedevelopingcountriesinterestedinthebenefitsdrawnfrominvestinginspace.

Today,50yearsafterthelaunchofSputnik-1,whatisnoticeableisagreatexchangebetweenthecountriesthathavespaceactivities,notonlyinsciences,butalsointhetechnologicaldevelopment.Also,notjustbetweenindustrializedcountries,asreflect-edinthescopeoftheISSprogramsincethebeginningof itsassemblyin1998,butalsobetweendevelopingcountries.AnexampleisthecooperationbetweenBrazilandChinainsatellitedevelopment,whichmaterializedin1997withthelaunchingofitsfirstsatellite, theCBERS-1(China-BrazilEarthResourcesSatellite).OnemustalsomentionthattheISS, involvingmorethan20countries, isthemostambitiouspro-gramintermsofscientificandtechnologicalcooperationeverdevelopedbyhumanityuptothisday.

The ‘scientificandprofessional societies’ in thespacefieldhavebeenplayinga rel-evantrole inthespacecooperationandexchangeof informationamongtheprofes-sionalsofthearea,particularlytheIAF(InternationalAstronomicalFederation)cre-atedin1951.Eveninthecriticalmomentsofthesocalled‘coldwar’,theIAFservedasausefularenafordialoguesandexchangesbetweentheconflictingparts.

From the technological point of view, the small Sputnik-1 (approximately 83kg ofmass)servedasaninspirationfornumerousspaceprogramsthatcameaboutfromthatmomenton,especiallyindevelopingcountries.Forreasonsassociatedwiththelowcostandtherelativelylowcomplexityinthetechnologyinvolved,manycountries,that until then were isolated from the space run, saw in the Sputnik-1, a model toengageinthespacefield.Untilthen,thesecountriesconsideredthemselvesonlyabletosharedataofscientificexperimentsobtainedbyothers.Theynowbegantodreamaboutalsohavingtheirownsatellites for theirownapplicationsandspecificneeds.Theycouldstopbeingspectatorsandstartbeingactors.Moreover,thecostoflaunch-inginorbitasmallsatellitewouldbemuchlessthanlaunchingalargeone.Thedevel-opingcountriesdidnotrealize,however,thatthisleaporadvancementwouldneces-sarilydemand,foranumberofyears,alotofeffortincapacitybuildingastohumanresourcesandareasonableinvestmentinlaboratoriesandspecializedfacilities.Thatishow,only in themid1980’s,didviable spaceprogramsbasedonsmall satellitesstarttosurgeindevelopingcountries.InthecaseofBrazilforexample,forfinancialreasonsaswellasthoseregardingtheaccesstotechnologyforlaunchingintoorbit,itsfirstsatellitedevelopedentirelywithindigenoustechnologywasonlysuccessfullylaunchedintoorbitin1993.Itisthecountry’sfirstenvironment-data-collectingsatel-litewithanapproximatemassof115kg,anditisstillinoperationtoday.

Anotherinterestingaspectisthatwiththeadvancementofmicroelectronicsandthesocalled‘newmaterials’,fromthe1970’stheusageofsmallsatellitesbegantobecon-siderednotonlyforscientificexperiments,asinthebeginning,butalsoformissionsconsistingofspaceapplications,particularlyregardingthecollectionofenvironmen-taldata(asinthecaseofBrazil),Earthobservation,andnavigation.Finally,whatwasonlypossible todowith satellitesof largemass (above500kg),high technologicalcomplexity,andingeostationaryorbits,begantobepossiblethroughsmallsatellitesinloworbits,isolatedorinconstellation(groupofsatellitesoperatinginanetwork).Thisallowedforanevenlarger interest intheconceptofsmallsatellitesbythesci-entificcommunity, informationusers,andtheaerospace industry.Similarly toBra-zil,otherdevelopingcountriesinAsiaandAfricaadvancedalongthesameconcept,andinthelastdecadeenteredtheselectivegroupofcountriesthattodayexplorethespacethroughtheirownmeans,asitisthecaseforAlgeria,Argentina,Nigeria,Tur-keyandThailand.

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SatelliteSCD-1

SCD-1orbit

SCD-1isaDataCollectionSatellitewithfollowingspecifications:

• Format:octogonalprism

• Dimensions:1mdiameter,1.45mheight

• TotalMass:115kg

• Power:110W

• Structure:HoneyCombAluminumPanels

• Attitude:Stabilizationbyrotation

• PassiveThermalControl

• DataCollectionTransponderinUHF/S

• SbandTT&C

• SolarCellsExperiment

• CircularOrbitat750kmaltitude,25degreesinclination

• Mission:EnvironmentalDataCollectionthroughremotegroundplatformsSCD-1orbit

ItistruethatinconsequencetothespaceruninitiatedbytheSputnik-1,theadvance-mentsofsatellitesinthefieldoftechnologicaldevelopmentwithmilitaryanddefensepurposesareobvious,however,humanitywasalsocapableofconceivingfundamentalspaceapplicationsinstrictlycivilfieldsthathaveunprecedentedbenefitstoallpeo-ples,suchas:telecommunications,monitoring,navigation,sustainabledevelopmentoftheenvironment,preventionandmitigationofnaturaldisasters,meteorologyandoceanography,andcollectingallsortsofdatathatwouldbeotherwiseimpossible.

Humanityhasgaineda lot fromall thisandwill certainlycontinuebenefiting itselffromtheconsequentscientificandtechnologicaldevelopmentaslongasitssearchforanswersaboutthedynamicsofthesystemsthatsupportlifeonEarthandtheoriginsoftheUniversemaylast.Thequestionraisedtodayisthat,despitethesegreatscien-tificandtechnologicalachievements,ourplanetcontinuestohaveits‘sustainability’threatened,especiallyduetothegreatclimaticchangesrecentlyobserved,whicharecausedbymanyfactors.Thetechnologyandthespacemeansareavailable,theinter-nationalaccordsaresigned,therefore,itistimetomakeanindividualandcollectiveeffort tomaintain,onEarth, the life conditionsacceptable toall, andconsequentlytheobviousbenefitwhichthatentailsforfuturegenerations.

Jose Francisco Valdes GalICIaMEXICOFullProfessorattheInstituteofGeophysicsofNationalAutonomousUniversityofMexico(UNAM).ResearcherandHeadoftheSpaceSci-encesDepartmentofInstitutodeGeofнsica-UNAM.

Bornin1952.

DoctorofPhilosophybytheImperialCollegeofScienceandTechnol-ogy(theLondonUniversity).AppointedasDirectoroftheGeophys-ics Institute-UNAMfor the2005–2009.VicePresidentof theCos-micRayCommissionoftheInternationalUnionofPureandAppliedPhysics(MemberoftheCommissionfrom1999to2009)andfounderoftheLatinAmericanSpaceGeophysicsAssociation(PresidentoftheSteeringBoard1993–1998).

MemberoftheMexicanNationalResearchersSystemwiththehigh-estlevel.MemberoftheAugerInternationalCollaboration.

He is in charge of the infrastructure and operation of the NeutronMonitor (Mexico City); theMoun telescope (MéxicoCity)andtheSolarNeu-tronTelescope(VolcánSierra Negra Volcano,Puebla4580masl).

oCTobER 4, FIFTy yEARS AFTERAverypersonalstartintospaceissues

my infant days elapsed amongst everydaynewsconcerningeventsrelatedtospaceexplorationasthenewest,dearestanddir-estadventureofmankindhistory.Myteachersatelementaryschool,myolderbroth-ersandsisters,parentsandrelativesalike,everybodywastalkingexcitedlyabouttheouterspaceandimaginingallkindofpossibilitiesforscienceanddevelopment.Therewasa‘spacemania’,apervasivemoodinvadingallearthlysouls,filledwithhopesofanewera.

IremembermyselfglancingthroughthepagesofanissueoftheLifemagazinewithaspecialreporttocommemoratethefirstwomaninspace:ValentinaTereshkova.Thethenshorthistoryofspacetravelincludedthereallowedforseveraldetaileddescrip-tions; the one that capturedmy attentionwas that of the first living creature senttospace:thedogLaikaandherunavoidabledeath,asthecapsulewasnotdesignedforrecovery.Onthoseyearsspacewasparamount:thenamesofYuriGagarin,JohnGlenn,GordonCooper,AlanShepard,AlexeiLeonov,werefadingoutthoseofElvisPresleyorotherofthebloomingrockstars.

Iamachildofthespaceage;thelifeIrememberiscontainedintheyearsaftertheSputniklaunch,muchofthegossipsorgamesorganizedatschoolbreakswererelatedtotheworldbeyondourbluesky,theracetotheMoonoccupiedasubstantialpartofmyteenagerthoughts.Theremembranceof thefirstphotographof theEarthtakenfromtheouterspacebringsbackmyownsurpriseandthestupefactionofthefacesof

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allthosesurroundingme.Sovividisinmymindtheamazementofmycompletefam-ilygazingat thenon-coloredTV imageofNeilArmstrongandBuzzAldrinwalkingthroughtheMoon,abreathtakingmemento.Nonetheless,lookingatthe1964Olym-picsinTokyoorthesoccerworldchampionshipinEnglandin1966inrealtime,werenormaleventsformeandmanyothersofmygeneration,ameasureofthecontradic-tionsoftheepoch.

Inaway,thespaceexcitementwasaproperbalancetotheanguishcomingoutfromthe cold war events. I also remember sleepless nights, fearing the truth in the endoftheworldstoriestoldbymanyatthetimeoftheBahíadeCochinos(BayofPigs)invasion,ortheoccupationofPrague.Theworldwasmovingthroughapathwayofdevelopmentononehandandofconfrontationontheother.Nowonderthedevelop-mentpathwasmuchmoreattractiveasitpromisedanenlightenedfuture;theotherhadnofutureatall.

A bRIEF ACCounT oF SPACE RESEARCH In mÉxICoFollowing the enlightened path I decided

to enroll for a B.Sc. in Physics to afterwards pursue postgraduate studies in SpacePhysics.Cosmicrayswerethemainsubjectofmyendeavors;thistopicwasthemostdeveloped inMéxico thanks to theheritageofProfessorManuelSandoval-Vallarta,aworld class scientist thathad the vision tomakeour country look into the spaceissuesasearlyasthe1930’s.Thecrucialexperimenttodiscovertheeast-westeffectofcosmicraysarrivingtoEarthwasperformedinMéxicoCityin1935byLouisAlvarez,guidedbytheproposalofSandoval-Vallarta.Justbeforethebreakofthespaceage,Manuel Sandoval-Vallarta brought toMéxico one of the most important scientificmeetingsdealingwith spacephenomena: the 5th International Cosmic Ray Confer-encewasheldinGuanajuatoin1955.

Newactorscameintothescene:RuthGallwasaproperheiroftheseedsplantedbySandoval-VallartaintheNationalUniversity(UNAM);thankstoherleadershipandof an engineer from the National Polythecnic, Eugenio Mendez Docurro, the SpaceSciencesbecamearespectedsubject in thenationat large.Theywere instrumentalfor the creation of the ComisiуnNacional del Espacio Exterior, CONEE, (NationalComissión for theSpace) in1962,with theclearmission to launchMéxico into thespace technology era; programs for rocket and balloon development were created,stationstoreceiveinformationfrommeteorologicalsatelliteswereinstalled,acollab-orationagreementwithNASAforremotesensingwassignedandmanyotheractionswereplanned;unfortunately lackofsupportbyshortsightedgovernmentscancelledtheCONEEinthefollowingdecade.Nonetheless,Ruth’seffortsneverfadedaway,herendeavorsledtothecreationofaninterdisciplinaryworkinggrouponSpaceActivi-tiesinMéxicointhe1980’s,whichwaslatertransformedintheUniversityProgramforSpaceResearchandDevelopment (1990).Onan international levelRuthandahandfulofscientistsfromthelessdevelopedcountriescreatedtheCOSPARPanelonSpaceResearchintheThirdWorld(1982),withcontinuedactivitiesuptoourdays.

From1962agroupofBasicSpaceScienceswascreatedintheInstituteofGeophys-icsoftheNationalUniversityofMéxico(UNAM).Thegrouphasgrownintoamatureresearch department, known and respected inmany parts of the world nowadays.

Thecontemporaryresearch interestsof thegrouparemostvaried: fromtheSuntothe solar wind, planetary magnetospheres and ionospheres, the planets themselvesand,ofcourse,cosmicrays.Thegroupoperatesseveralobservatoriesofworldqual-ity:acosmicraystationwithaneutronmonitorandamuontelescopeinMéxicoCity,aSolarNeutronTelescopeatthetopoftheSierraNegraVolcano(4600ma.s.l.)200kmeastofMéxicoCity,anInterplanetaryScintillationradioarrayinCoeneo,tothewestof the country, a ionosonde some60kmaway from theUNAMmaincampusandasolarradiointerferometeratthecampus.Manyoftheresearchersofthegrouparepartof international teamsdealingwiththedesign, implementationandopera-tionofexperimentsinspacecraftfromNASAandESA.

SpacetechnologyhasnotbeenabletoflourishcompletelyinMéxico.Sincethecan-cellationoftheCONEE,feweffortshavebeendoneforfurtherdevelopments:amul-tiinstitutionalprojectsurgedinthedecadeofthe1980’stocreateaMexicansatellite(SATMEX); theenterprise fadedawaydueto lackoffinancialsupportby thespon-soringagencies.Inthe1990’sanewinitiativefromUNAMtookshape;thistimeforamicrosatellite(UNAMSAT-1)thatwasdesigned,developedandbuiltlocally;unfortu-natelyUNAMSAT-1waslostduetoafailedrocketfromBaikonurin1995.Afterthatfailuremoneydidnotflowagain toa spaceenterpriseuntil very recently.As theselines are written, UNAM is developing a new project for a further attempt to haveits own satellite program. On the political side a law for the creation of a MexicanSpaceAgencyhasalreadybeenapprovedbythelowerchamberoftheCongressandisunderconsiderationbytheSenate.LetushopethattheshortsightednessoftheMexi-candecisionmakersonthespaceissuesiscomingtoanend.

THE WoRld bEyond bEComES ouR oWnbutifmycountryhasbeenrestrictedtodevelop

onlythebasicspacesciencesfromearthlybasedobservatoriesorthroughcollabora-tionswithforeignagencies,andthespaceinfrastructuredevelopmentwashindered;manyothercountriesdidexploredirectlytheouterspacefromthe1960’sandmanyothers started to do so as the 20thcentury waned. This exploration of the worldbeyondouratmospherehaschangedforeverthewayweseeourplanetandourselves,ithashadalsoadrasticeffect inthewaywecommunicate, travel,eat,work,spendourfreetime,searchforinformation,fixourholidays,everyaspectofhumanlifehasbeentouchedifnotcompletelymodifiedinthelastfiftyyears.

WehavegonefromlocatingprimitivecommunicationsatellitesintoEarth’sorbittothelaunchofsophisticatedequipmentforthestudyoftheEarthvegetation,mineral,petrol or aquifer resources, meteorological, navigation, perform speedy communi-cationswithin theEarth surface,measure the crust plate displacements, knowourexactlocationintheEarthandmanyotheractivities.Menhavegoneintothespace,walkedanddrivenwheelcarsthroughtheMoon’ssurface.ManmaderoverssearchedthroughMars.Longdistanceprobes tookpicturesof everyplanet fromMercury toUranus,ourspaceshipslandedinthesurfacesofVenus,MarsandthesatelliteTitan.Comettailsweresampledseveraltimes.Wediscoveredin-situthatthesolarwindhasasharptransitionatadistancenearahundredastronomicalunitsfromtheSun.The‘star trek’ is just one step fromgoing into science reports and leave sciencefictionstories.

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Nowondertheattitudesofmenintheearly21stcenturyare inmanyrespectscom-pletely different from those of the 1950’s,much of this change is undoubtedly duetospaceexplorationachievements.Fiftyyearsagothethoughtofexploringtheout-erworldsoftheSolarsystemwasamerechimera;todaymankindhasgonebeyondthatstage.VerylongdistancecommunicationswithintheEarthsurfaceweredifficulttoestablishinthe1950’s,todayitisaneasyeverydaypractice.Manyofthegadgetsweuse inourquotidian life from iPODs tominicarsareproductsof the spaceage,unimaginablebeforeOctober4, 1957.Conditionsof lifearedrasticallydiverse; thisoverwhelmingtechnicalprogresswashelpedifnotstartedbytheachievementsofthespace age, where sizes and weight should be small, performance must be extreme-lyoptimized,precisioniscrucialforthemereexistenceoftheplannedexperiments,theycannotberepeatedsincethelabisthousandsofkilometersaway.Thereforethedemandsofspacetechnologypromotedanunprecedenteddevelopmentthathasthenbeenappliedtogadgetsofcommonusetoday,modifyingoureverydayenvironmentlittlebylittle.Now,afterfiftyyearswecanbarelyimaginehowpeoplesortedouttheirlivesthen.

Theworldhasshrunkliterally,forasnowwecanseewhatishappeninginanydis-tant place over the surface of the Earth at the same time we are having our mealsoraswedoourshopping,orjustforabreakduringworkinghours.Thereisalmostnomysterious landwecannotvisitandsearch throughtheirmostguardedsecretsin real time;and thiscanbedone fromourhome,officeoranyeverydaysite.Thishaschangeddrasticallythewayweseetheworld,thewaywecommunicatewithoth-ers,thewayweorganizeourthoughtsandconcepts.Nowforus,theAmericans,theAsians or Africans are no longer distant people alien to us, they are part of us, weshare a common planet and a common fate.We are aware that our actionsmightaffectthemastheirscouldaffectus,afeelingIcouldhardlybelievethehumanshadbeforethespaceage.

Unfortunately,aspervasiveastheyare,thedevelopmentsassociatedtothespaceagehavenotchangedthelivesofmanythatremainonthesurvivalline;progressisstillbeyondtheirgrasp.FortherearemillionsofpeopleinAsia,Africa,LatinAmericaorevenintheUSAorEuropeforwhomthemicroelectronics,opticalfibers,sophisticat-ed medical treatments or instant telecommunications over the whole planet meansnothing.Theyarestillpatheticallystrugglingtogetameal,ahome,aschool,carefortheirhealth,clothing; they lackthebasic thingsthatshouldhavereachedthemnotfiftybuthundredsofyearsago.Butherewestarttogobeyondthescopeofthepres-entessay,scienceandtechnologycanservetothehumansontheconditionthattheirsocietieshavetheorganizationandtheinstitutionswhichassurethateverybodycanbeprovidedfor.Soweareinvadingthefieldofmerepolitics,butapartofthisfieldhasbeenprofoundlytouchedbythespaceage.

PolITICS And SPACE SCIEnCE And TECHnologyThe way international politics is done has also

changed in the lastfifty years.A significantpart of this change isdue to the spaceera.Thefirstelementeasytoidentifyherehastodowiththeresourceseverycountryhasassignedtodevelopspacescienceandtechnology.Therichestandtechnologicallymoreevolvednationswerethefirsttocomeintothescene,establishingthepaceand

the linesunderwhichspaceexplorationwas tocome intoexistence.Othershadnoalternativebuttofollowtheirfootsteps.Muchofthefrontierbasicspacesciencewasdoneexclusivelyinthecountriesoftheso-calledfirstorsecondworlds,givingwayforthegerminationofspacetechnologythere.

Thus,spacecommunications,remotesensing,microelectronics, lowgravityproduc-tionofnewmaterials,exobiologyandmanyotherdiscoveriesweredonebynationalsofahandfulofcountries.Therestremainedbehind.Thesenewconditionsgaveevenmoreadvantagestothedevelopedworldfortheycouldestablishtelecommunications,possessed unique information onnatural,mineral and oil resources, landdevelop-ment,forestandcropevolution,etc.Thereforethegapbetweentheknowledgeoftherichandtherestoftheworldbecamewider.Thefirstgroupcouldimposeconditionsontheothersinallthefieldsspacetechnologygavethemadvantages:theycouldsellcommunicationchannels,assesstheresourcesofeverynationwithouttouchingtheirland, do spying activities unnoticed, charge unfair amounts for technology transferonnewmaterials,seeds,medicinesandthelike.

Asithashappenedwithotherscientificandtechnologicaloutbreaks,i.e.,atomicandnuclearphysics,thewillofthedecisionmakersandthemoneylenders,andthelackofsocietal instruments tostopthem,were theconditions thatallowedspacesci-enceandtechnologytobeduringmanyyearsfortheserviceofthefewandnotofmostofus.

Nevertheless,asthetechnologicallylessevolvedsocietiesbecameawareoftheimpor-tance of the use of space, the gap begun to close. Many underdeveloped countrieshavenowadaystheirownspaceagenciesandprograms.Letuskeepthehopethatthebenefitstheywillgetfromsuchdecisionsarewidelyspreadwithintheirownspheresofinfluence.

SPACE RESEARCH, gAInS And loSSES?knowledgeisalwaysgoodforitprovidesuswith

betterunderstandingoftheUniversewelivein.Whenweunderstandsomethingwemayusethisknowledgeinourownbenefit,buildingnewtoolstoeaseourlives,pro-vidingmeanstoprotectusfrompotentialdangers,producingnewandversatilemate-rials,gettingthecureforuncontrolleddiseases,inventingsophisticatedmethodsfordiagnosisorjustthemeresatisfactionandchangeofattitudethatthecomprehensionofacertainnaturalphenomenonbrings.Within thisviewspaceresearch isalreadyoneoftheassetsofmankind.

As many human activities, the space age has also produced some inconveniences;thefirstandmostobvioushasbeenmentionedaboveandwastheexpansionofthegapbetweentherichandthepoornations.Buttherearealsootherdrawbacksthatcomenotexplicitlyfromspacescienceandtechnologyitself,butfromthemisusageofthem,i.e.,sophisticatedweaponrythatcoulddestroyourplanetinlesstimethanittakestoreadthispageorleaveourneighboringspaceinvadedwithwastefromthou-sandsofscrapsatellites.

Itisobviousthattherearesomepathstobecorrected.Thenewresearchshouldbeconducted on a more collaborative and environment careful basis among nations.Peace and well-being of men and women should be paramount aims of the newapproachintospace.

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Anyhow,theexplorationoftheworldbeyondouratmosphereproducedunquestion-ablebenefitsforthequalityoflifeofmany;ithasalsoexpandedpossibilitiesforourevolution as a species. As new challenges are set, the mind and the instruments itproduceshavetoevolveevenfurther,savingusfromstagnationthatwouldinevitablyleadtoabackwardpath.Thehumanhistoryshowsthatwhenasocietystopsdevelop-ingthesignsofdeclineappearsoon.Thereforewemustbegladthatspaceistheretobeconquered,tohelpourmindsspreadout,imaginenewworlds,makethehopefullyfictionbecometrue.

Marcos e. MaChadoARGENTINAAstrophysicist,expertinsolaractivephenomenaandspaceresearch.

Bornin1949,BuenosAires(Argentina).Hehasdevotedhisprofes-sional career to the study of solar active phenomena and space re-search.Hewas theProjectDirector ofArgentina’s first indigenousscientificsatelliteproject,launchedin1996.

MemberoftheCOSPARBureauandtheCOSPARScientificAdvisoryCommittee.HehasbeenVice-ChairandChairofthePanelonSpaceResearch in Developing Countries and currently a member of thePanelforCapacityBuilding.

Hehasservedinmanynationalandinternationalscientificadvisorycommittees, held, and holds, various responsible positions in theArgentina Space Agency and is also a Member of the InternationalAcademyofAstronautics.AmongseveralawardsanddistinctionsisVikramSarabhaiMedal(2006)forhisoutstandingcontributiontospaceresearchindevelopingcountries.

FRom SPuTnIk-1 To ConSTEllATIonS oF SATEllITESmy first thought, when I was invited to write

about my recollection of the Sputnik-1 launch, was that probably I would not havemuchtosay,sinceIhadjustturnedeightyearsoldthatyearandIwasmostlyinter-estedinplayingandreadingcomicbooksandnovels.HoweveritturnedoutIcouldremembermuchmore than Ihadanticipatedand, furthermore, Ihave for thefirsttimerealizedthatOctober4,1957andthedaysthatfollowedhadaratherprofoundimpact inmy life. I vividly remember being in the carwithmy parents askingmyfather, a mathematician, many questions, far too many I am sure. But there wasoneinparticularthatbroughtananswerthatdisturbedme.IaskedmyfatherwhenArgentinawasgoingtobuilditsownsatelliteandheanswered(nothisexactwords,Iamsure):‘Probablynever,weshalljustbuytheminthefuturefromthosethatknowhowtobuildthem’(whiledrivingacarbuiltintheUSA).

Justayearandahalflaterwewere‘buildingandlaunching’,withafriendofthesameage,ourown‘rockets’.Needlesstosaythesewerenotrealrockets,butproducedrath-erstrongexplosionsthankstoalcoholandtheoxygenwemanagedtoextractfromtheoxygenatedwaterthatwewereusing(insteadoftheliquidoxygenthatwehadreaditwasusedintherealrockets).Whenthat‘thing’exploded(fortunatelyourneighborsgotused to thenoise ratherquickly!), its toppart thatwehad left somewhat looseflewupintheairandwehappily(over)estimatedthealtitudeithadreached.Someofourlaunchesevenincludedliveanimals(ants)that,ofcourse,weneverrecovereddeadoralive.

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Besidestheseanecdotes,whichreflecttheearlyimpactthatSputnik-1hadonmylife,whatIbelieveisthemostimportantlegacyofOctober4,1957istheuneasyfeelingIhadaboutmyfather’sanswer.

Jumpingintime,bythemid80’sIwasinthemidstofarewardingcareerinastron-omyandsolarphysics,withspaceresearchandtheuseofadvancedspacecraftverymuchinstalled inmy life,havinganalyzedOSO-6andSkylabATMdata,aswellasparticipatedinmissionoperationsandanalysisofdatagatheredbytheSolarMaxi‑mum Mission (SMM) spacecraft. It was then decided by Argentine authorities toembark in theprocessofdesigning,buildand launch thecountry’sfirst indigenoussatellite.Thiswas the chance to answermyownquestion, theone Ihadaskedmyfathersome30yearsearlier!Forseveralreasonsthewholeprocessstilltookaboutadecade,butin1996anArgentinespacecraft(built inhouse,notelsewhere)devotedtosolarandastrophysicalresearchwaslaunchedintoorbit.

Irrespectiveofthesepersonalremembrances,Sputnik-1asweallknowledthewaytoopennewfrontiersinscience,technologyandapplications.Althoughforquitesometimespaceresearchwasanexclusive ‘club’ofjustafewmembers,thelatestpartofthehalf-centurythathaselapsedhasshownmoreandmorecountriesbeginningtotakepartinanactivewayinthechallengingventurethatusedtobecalledthespacerace. I expect this trend of increasing number of countries to continue in the nearfuture.Inthecaseofdevelopingcountries,whichconformasizeablefractionofthelatestcomers,somewilldropout(intermsofbuildingtheirownsatellites)aftertheinitial exploits, but the number of newcomers will continue to exceed the dropoutsforquitesometime.Thentheneedtouseforefronttechnologytoobtainworld-classresultsinscienceorapplications,mayprovetobefartooexpensiveformostdevel-oping countries working in isolation. Notable exceptions are emerging space pow-ers, suchasChinaand India, and it is likely that a fewotherswill join in thenearfuture. For this to occur it will demand a political decision by such country, basednotsomuchinscientificissuesbutratherinaperceptionofincreasedinternationalprestige,power,auraorbusinessopportunity.Inothercasesthecountry(developedaswell asdeveloping)maydecide tohave adifferent role, act just as a supplier ofspecific sophisticated instrumentation.SomemembersofESAhave taken this atti-tudealready.TheESAexperienceisalsoenlighteninginanotheraspect,byshowingthebenefitofjoiningforcestoobtaingreaterresults.Itsexample,Ibelieve,shouldbefollowedbythecreationofotherconsortiaateitherregionalormaybehemisphericlevels.

InageopoliticalsenseSputnik-1alsostartedamajorrevolution.Incloseresemblancetotheimportanceithad,afewcenturiesago,tohavethecapabilitytonavigateandexploretheseas,accesstospacebecameamajorassetinaglobalcontext.Thediffer-encewiththesituationwehadbeforeregardingtheseas is thatwewerethendeal-ingwithatwodimensional(2D)exploration,thathassinceSputnik-1expandedintoa three dimensional (3D) space. It is not surprising that developed countries,withwell established global influence, also have a leadership role in space science andexploration.Inthiscontext,wealsoseethatcountriesliketheaforementionedChinaand India, with strong emerging economies and leadership potential, devote majorresourcestospaceresearch,itsapplicationsaswellasexploration.

Lookingahead,mypersonalview is that thepaceof technologicaladvancesaswellasthenevertobeunderestimatedlevelofhumaningenuity,makeitverycomplicat-edtopredictwhatweshallseeinthenext50years.Althoughspacetravelhadbeenin themindofpeople,sinceJulesVerne’s time, it ishardtobelieve thatsomebody

would have dreamt in 1957 about the global positioning systems thatwe regularlyuse today,ourprecisemeasurementsof thecosmicbackground, theearlystructureof theuniverseanddistantgalaxies,discoveriesrelatedtoDarkMatterandenergy,our current studies of the Earth and planets using advanced remote sensing tech-niques,ourpossibilitytomap,in-situ,theEarthmagnetosphereanditsphenomenaandsimilarlyobtainahighresolution3Dviewofthestructureofthesolarcoronaaswell as to probe the solar interior, to mention just a few recent achievements. It ismybeliefthatprecisionandasystemicapproachwillbethenameofthegameintheyears tocome.Be it instudies related to the fundamental lawsofphysics,astrono-my,solar-terrestrialphysics,planetaryexplorationandthemonitoringof theEarthland,oceans,atmosphere,icecoverandglobalclimate.Thewordprecisiondoesnotjustentailprecisemeasurementsbysophisticatedlargeaperturetelescopesandstateof theartdetectors, it also involvesprecise formationflyingofmany spacecraft, aswellasveryhighprecisionpointingsystems,cryogenicdevicesandinertialsensors.In the case of Earth sciences, global monitoring and researchwill be performed byconstellationsofsatellites (systems,orevensystemsofsystems), rather thansinglespacecraftlikethoseoftheoutstandingLandsatseries.Tomakeitclear,IrecognizeandadmiretheLandsatdatavalue.Furthermore,asweastronomerssomuchknow,longstandingobservationalseriesareinvaluabletoolsthatunfortunatelyarenotthatcommonnowadays.Asamemberofaspaceagency,Ihaveseenfartoomanytimes,peopleaskingfora‘Landsatimage’,ratherthan‘animage’,becauseofitsvalueaddedcharacteristics.Itsimplyhappensthatglobalmonitoringwilldemandavarietyandfrequencyofcoordinatedmeasurementsthatwillhavetobeobtainedbymanysatel-lites.Theproliferationofconstellationsand/orsystemswillalsoenhanceoneofthemostdistinctivecharacteristicsofspaceresearch,internationalcooperation,thatwillbecome not just convenient but also necessary. This again underscores the impor-tanceofthecreationofinternationalconsortia.

Last,butnotleast,awordabouthumanexploration.Eventhoughresistedbymanyofmycolleagues,scientiststhatrightfullypointoutthatwiththefundingspentinsend-ing humans to space many world class missions, including robotic missions to theMoontoMarsandotherplanets,couldbeafforded,Iamcertainthathumanexplora-tionwillbeverymuchaliveinthenextfiftyyearsandmayalsobringunanticipatedbenefitstoscienceandlifeonourplanet.Duringthisperiodmanwillagainwalkonthe surfaceof theMoon (menandwomenofmore thanonenationality) andmostlikelyestablishapermanentor semi-permanentpresence there.On theotherhandIamveryskepticalaboutaMarsmissioninthenextfivedecades.Thechallengesofsuchmission, in termsof theresourcesand lifesupportsystemsthatarenecessaryare,needlesstosay,fargreaterthananythingwehaveexperiencedbeforeinhistory.Itcanonlybeaccomplishedinsuchtimescalebyaspaceconsortium,thelargestpos-sibleconsortium.Infact,ifthisweretoberealized,itmayturnouttobetheultimatesocietalbenefitthatspaceexplorationcanbringtohumankind.

SinceSputnik-1notonlymarkedthebeginningofthespaceage,butwasalsoinmanyways‘aproductorchildofthecoldwarera’,incaseithappensitwouldbeitsgreatestlegacy!

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atsuhiro nIshIdaJAPANExecutiveDirectorattheGraduateUniversityforAdvancedStudies(Sokendai),andPresidentoftheAsiaOceaniaGeosciencesSociety.

Born in 1936andgraduated from theUniversityofTokyo in 1958.HereceivedhisSc.D.degreefromtheUniversityofBritishColumbiain1962.

HespentmostofhiscarrierattheInstituteofSpaceandAstronauti-cal Science (ISAS), Japan, and served as itsDirectorGeneral from1996to2000.

He wrote a monograph Geomagnetic Diagnosis of the Magneto‑sphere (Springer) in 1978 around his earlyworks. Since 1980’s hemanagedtheGeotailsatelliteprogramtoinvestigatethedynamicsofthemagnetotail.

HehasbeenawardedbytheAmericanGeophysicalUnion,EuropeanGeophysicalSociety,RussianAstronau-ticsAssociation,JapanAcademy,andCOSPAR.

lEgACy oF THE SPuTnIk-1: A vIEW by A JAPAnESE SCIEnTISTThe launch of the Sputnik-1 was received with

excitement in Japan. Signals received at each orbit over Japan were reported byradio,andascientistwhooperatedagroundreceiverbecameaninstantcelebrity.Itwasthetimewhentheeffectofthepost-warbanoftheaeronauticalresearchwasstilllingeringinJapan,anddevelopmentofasoundingrocketfortheInternationalGeo-physicalYearhadjustbeenstarted.Themagnitudeoftheachievementwascleartoeveryone.ItgavethefledglingJapanesespaceprogramapowerfulimpetus.

In the fallof 1957 Iwasa studentat theUniversityofTokyomajoring ingeophys-ics. I was at the fourth school year and planned to proceed to the graduate school.But I could not decidewhich branch of geophysics to choose. Likemany studentswhoenrolledintheDepartmentofGeophysicsIwantedtoclarifythesecretofnatureand thereby contribute to thewelfare of humankind. Seismology,meteorology andoceanographyaretheareaswhichcansatisfythedesiretodobothbasicandappliedresearchastheyaddresstheearthquake,weatherandenvironmentthatexertsignifi-cantinfluenceonhumanlifeandsociety.ButIcouldnotfindthegeoscienceatthattimeparticularlyattractive.Recallwhatthegeosciencewaslikein1957.Platetecto-nicswas in themindsofa fewpioneersonlyand itwasstilla fewyearsbefore theidea was published and revolutionized the solid earth science. Electronic computerwasstillasubjectoftheengineeringresearchandittookafewyearsbeforeitbecameavailableasapopulartoolofresearch.Inshort,thisignorantandalittleambitiousyoungstudentthoughtthattheclassicalgeophysicswasboring.

Then the Sputnik was launched. As a geoscience major I had learned the criticalimportance of the observations. Observations are the fundamental element of geo-sciencewhichprovidesproblemsandinvitesolutions.Thestagnationoftheclassical

geoscience in1950’swasmainlybecauseofshortageofnewmeansofobservations.ThelaunchofSputnikchangedthescene.Allofasuddenthevastnewspacewaslit-erallyopened foractiveresearch.Thisnewspace isgoing toreveal fascinatingnewphenomena thatawait challenge, I thought.Theobservations in spacewouldmakeitpossibletotestthehypothesesthathadbeenbuiltontheremote-sensingobserva-tionsfromthegroundandtomoveaheadtowardthedeeperunderstandingofnature.ThisisthedirectionIshouldtake.SoIjoinedthelaboratoryofgeomagnetismwhichaddressedthephysicsofspacebyusingthegeomagneticobservationsontheground.This choice determined the course ofmy life. Coming from this background, I amverypleasedandfeelmuchhonoredtobeinvitedtojointhisCelebrationoftheSput‑niklaunchexactly50yearsafterthatday.

I was soon to witness the power of the observations by spacecraft for my ownresearch.Inearly1960’sthemechanismbywhichthesolarwindimpartsitsenergyandmomentumtothemagnetospherewasthehotissue.Twopossibilitiesweresug-gested:onewasmechanicalandtheotherwaselectromagnetic.Accordingtothelat-ter thereconnectionbetween the interplanetaryandgeomagneticfieldscouples thesolar wind with the interior of the magnetosphere. I originally favored the formerwhichIthoughtwassimpler.SowhenIcomparedtheinterplanetarymagneticfielddataof IMP-1 released from theNASADataCenterwithgeomagneticDP2fluctua-tionsin1967,myobjectivewastoshowthattheywerenotcorrelated.(DP2isanewtypeofgeomagneticvariationswhichreflectstimevariationsinthemagnetosphericconvectionIhaddiscovereditin1964).Contrarytomyexpectations,DP2variationsand IMFwerebeautifully correlatedpeak-to-peak,which suggested that themech-anismwaselectromagnetic. I immediatelyconvertedandbecameafirmbelieverofreconnection.LaterIproposedandmanagedtheGeotailsatellitemissionthatdelvesinto the magnetic reconnection process in the magnetosphere. This satellite waslaunchedin1992astheforerunneroftheInternationalSolar-TerrestrialPhysicsPro-gram(ISTP).

ISTPwasaprogramwherethreespaceagenciesoftheworld,namelyEuropeanSpaceAgency,NASA,ISAS�andalsoSpaceResearchInstituteofRussianAcademyofSci-ences(IKI),collaboratedtostudythephysicsoftheplasmaenvironmentoftheEarth.Theseagenciesdeployedaflotillaofspacecraftthatformedanetworkofspaceobser-vatoriesatstrategicallykeyregionsinthesolarwindandthemagnetosphere.Itwasanambitiousprojectthatinvolvedtensatellitesplussomesubsatellites.Notsurpris-inglythepeoplewhopromotedandledthisprogramateachagencybelongedtotheSputnikgeneration,bywhichImeanthefirstgenerationofspacescientistswholikemyselfstartedtheircarrierrightafterthelaunchoftheSputnik.Itwasamostpleas-antexperiencetomakefriendswiththepeersofthisgenerationworldwideandtojointheforcestobuildthemilestoneprogramovercomingvariousdifficultiesontheway.

Theadventof theartificial satellitehashadprofoundeffectsoverabroad rangeofhumanactivity.Tous,theJapanese,theopeningoftheintercontinentalTVtransmis-sionviatelecommunicationsatelliteswasmarkedbyanunforgettableevent;assassi-nationofPresidentKennedyinNovember,1963happenedtobethefirstscenetrans-mittedbyasatellitefromtheothersideofthePacific.Oneyearlaterthe1964TokyoOlympicbecame thefirstOlympicgame thatwas telecast to theworldvia satellite.The meteorological satellites have become an indispensable means for forecastingweather.AmeteorologicalobservatoryonthesummitofMountFuji(3776m)whichhadplayedakeyrolefor72yearswasreplacedbyarobotstation.Theuseofsatellite

� InstituteofSpaceandAstronauticalScienceofJapanAerospaceExplorationAgency.

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networkfortheprecisepositioningisrelativelynewbuttheGlobalPositioningSys-temhasquicklybecomeacommontoolfornavigation.Onecangoalongwaylistingtheareaswhereartificialsatellitesarebeingusedtomakelifemoreconvenientandmorecomfortable.

Butthemostfar-reachingconsequenceoftheadventofartificialsatellitesmayhavebeenthedétente.Inthedaysofthe‘coldwar’thecompetingsuper-powersdevelopedsuper-weapons against each other and the state of their readiness was the super-secret.Topenetrate thesecrecyUSdeveloped theU-2planebut itproved tobeanextremelyriskymissionpoliticallyandstrategically.Withartificialsatellitesitbecamepossible tomonitor thebackyardof theotherparty routinely froma safedistance.Hide-and-seekbecameanextremelycostlygametoplayandeventuallytheyhadtogiveup.Thismaybe justapartofmanyreasons thatbroughtaboutdétente,but Iguessitwasoneofthemostsignificant.

Whenthespaceagebeganwehadevengranderexpectationsthatsatellitecommuni-cationswouldmaketheworldeverywhereapeacefulplacetolive.Communicationsviasatelliteswouldspreadanynewsinstantlyovertheworldandunitethehuman-kind by the shared information. Unfortunately this expectation has proved to benaïve;Inspiteofdétente,armedconflictsarestill rampant intheworldtoday.Theglobalexchangeofinformationdoesnotseemtohavemadeusmorerational,either,asjudgedfromthefundamentalistmovementswhoseinfluenceseemstobeevenontherise.It isclearthathumankindgainedmuchbythespacedevelopmentanddidnotloseanything,butthegainhasnotbeenasgrandandsweepingaswehadexpected.

From themythological times, humankindhad three basic questions. These are thestructureandoriginoftheUniverse,oftheSolarsystem,andoflife.Theavailabilityofobservationsinandfromspacehasdoneagreatdealinadvancingourpursuitinthequestionson theUniverseandSolarsystem,andourhope is risinghigh that itcanalsocontributetotheclarificationoftheoriginoflife.Iflifecanbefoundontheplanets and/or satellites other than the Earth, its genes and their comparison withthoseofthelivesontheEarthshouldprovidecanonicallyimportantmaterialinthisquest.Evidenceofwater thatnurtures lifehasalreadybeendetectedonMars,andthereisalsoastrongindicationofitspresenceonEuropa.Fascinatingneweraofsci-enceisexpectedtoopenbeforeus.

On the technological side, the Japanese asteroid mission Hayabusa is pushing thelimitoftheroboticexplorationoftheSolarsystem.Evenifitisforeseeablethatastro-nautswould be sent to nearby planets in the 21stcentury, such approaches cannotbe expanded tomost other bodies in the Solar system. Itwill be required to buildmoresophisticated,efficient,andreliablespacecrafttoexploreavarietyofSolarsys-tembodies.Advancesintherobotictechnologyshouldbeessential,andthiswouldbeparticularlyimportantforexploringtracesoflifeandexaminingpossibleevidencesofitsevolutiononotherbodiesoftheSolarsystem.

Spacetechnologiesdrivenbysciencerequirementswillcontinuetopushthefrontierofengineering.Robotictechnologiesthataredevelopedforuseinextremeconditionsof space, such as high/low temperature and high radiation dose, will stimulate thedevelopmentofroboticinstrumentsforuseinotherextremeconditionsinnatureandin industrialdevices.SpaceopenedbySputnik isa fertileground for innovationaswellasimagination.

Risto Juhani pellInenFINLANDDirectorofScienceinSpaceResearchattheFinnishMeteorologicalInstitute.

Born in 1944. M.S. in 1966; Licentiate of Philosophy (theoreticalphysics) in1970;Ph.D. in1979.Employed in theFinnishMeteoro-logicalInstitute(FMI)since1972(Seniorresearchscientist,ChiefofAeronomyDivision,Professor,HeadofDepartment ofGeophysics,DirectorofScienceinSpaceResearchsince2003).

AdvisortotheSwedishandFinnishSpaceBoardsfor15years,toESA(EuropeanSpaceAgency)DirectorofSciencefor6years,andtoESADirectorGeneralfor4years.Keyscientistinstartingandcoordinat-ingco-operationinthefieldsofgeophysicsandspacephysicswiththeSovietUnion/Russiafornearly30years.

HeadofasmalldelegationthatmadethefirstofficialcontactswithIKI and Intercosmos andagreedon theprinciplesof scientific col-laborationbetweenresearchinstitutesinFinlandandSovietUnion.

Awarded by Gagarin Medal (2005); EGU (European GeosciencesUnion)HonoraryMembershipandJeanDominiqueCassiniMedal(2006).

SPuTnIk SHoWS THE nEW WAy

SPuTnIk In my PERSonAl lIFE In THE mId 1950’s

by the time when Sputnik was launched I wasa13year-oldschoolboy.Iwasatthatageoftransitionfromchildhoodtothedaysofyouth.Toyswereexchangedfor transistors,booksof fairy tales forbooksofexcite-ment,lullabiesforrock’n’rollsungbyanewstar,ElvisPresley.Theenvironmentwasalsochanging.TechnologystudentsinFinlandstartedTVtransmissionsin1955andFinland joined the United Nations the same year. News was received only throughradio or newspapers. Short, non-stopmovies presented at ordinarymovie theatresserved as an important information channel for the continuous change and devel-opmentoftheworld.Bytheendofthe1950’sandbeginningofthe1960’sthistaskwasgraduallytransferredtoregularTVbroadcaststhatbroughtdailynewstoeveryhome.

BythetimeSputnikwaslaunched,Ihadonmybookshelftwointerestingbooksaboutspace.Istillhavethemasvaluablepiecesofevidenceaboutwhatwasthoughtaboutspaceatthattime.Onebookwaspublishedin1952withthenameConquestofSpace,whichgavean impressiveviewofa roundtrip inourSolarsystemwithcolourpic-tures.Theyareartist’sviews,butquiteclosetotherealonesthatwecancatchtoday

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fromanymediadealingwithspace.Anotherbook,whichhasmysignaturefrom1956,isnamedConquerorsoftheSolarSystemandwaspublishedalreadyin1947.Inthisbookatomic-poweredrocketsflewfromplanet toplanet,Titanbeing the lastdesti-nation.ThroughthesebooksIbecameawareofspaceflights,rocketsanddreamsofmankind’sfuture,evenbeforethespaceagehadstarted.

Atschoolmyphysicsclassesstartedinautumn1956.TheteacherwasveryinspiringandsomehowhewasalsoinvolvedinthepreparationactivitiesfortheInternationalGeophysicalYear(IGY),whichstartedJuly1,1957.ThroughhimIlearnedthatsome-thingremarkablewasgoingtohappenandIcanstillfeeltheexcitementcreateddur-inghislessons.Inprinciple,Iwaswellpreparedforthestartofaneweraforman-kind.IdonotrememberwhereIwasexactlywhenthenewsofthe launchofSput‑nikwasannounced.Iassumeitwasanordinarydayandtheeventwasmadepublicthroughradionews.DuringthefollowingdaysnewspapersfollowedSputnik’sflightcloselyandtheHelsinginSanomat,themainnewsmediabythattime,gaveprecisetimetablesfortheevening-timepassagesofthesatellite.

NearmyhomeatHelsinkiwasaRussianchurch,theUspenskiCathedral,whichwaslocatedonahighhillwitharelativelydarkbackground.Iremembergoingthereeve-ningafterevening to followthebrightspot thatcrossed thedarkskywithavisiblyhighspeed.Therewereplentyofpeople,andtherewasalwayssomeonewhowaswellawareofthesatellite’stimetableandkeptusothersinformedoftherightobservingmomentanddirection.StaringatthedarkskycoveredwithspotsofstarsandwaitingforSputniktocomehasremainedclearlyinmymemorylikeithadhappenedyester-day.ButuptothattimeIwasstillnotawarethatmyfutureprofessionalcareerwouldtakeplaceinthisfield.

ThecoverofConquestofSpace,writtenbyWillyLeyandpublishedinFinnishin1952.Inrightis anartist’s viewof theSaturnianmoonTitan,not too far from the realoneswehave seen

recently.PaintedbyChesleyBonestell.(Avaruudenvalloitus,WSOY,1952)

A group of directors from the FinnishMeteorological Institute visiting IKI (SpaceResearchInstitute ofRussianAcademy of Sciences) in January 2006. Iam standing second from the

rightandafull-sizecopyofSputnikishangingaboveus

SPuTnIk TRIggERS THE START oF FInnISH SPACE ACTIvITIES

AnessentialpartofFinland’sparticipationintheIGYwerethesatelliteobservationsof theUniversity ofHelsinki’s astronomy professor, Gustaf Järnefelt, which beganonOctober13,1957,onlyninedaysafterthelaunchofSputnik-1.OpticaltheodolitesmadeforobservingweatherballoonswereusedatthemeteorologicalobservatoryatJokioinen,underthedirectionofM.Sc.PenttiJärvi.Visualobservationsenabledveryaccuratemeasurementsof thesatellite’sorbit, fromwhichpropertiesof theEarth’satmosphere,theEarth’sshape,andthestructureoftheEarth’sgravityfieldcouldbecalculated.

Also, Dr. Vilho Vaisala, founder of the Vaisala Ltd. company, joined the satellitetrackingactivitiesbyconvertinghisradiotheodolite,normallyusedfortrackingbal-loon-borne radiosondes, to a frequencyof 40MHz,which allowed receptionof theSputnik radio signals.Altogether 12passagesduring thenights fromOctober 10 toOctober13wererecordedattheobservingsitenearHelsinki.Themeanvalueoftheorbitinclinationwasfoundtobe65.40degreeswitha65.79-minuteorbitperiod.

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DuringtheIGYnumeroussatelliteswereorbit-ingtheEarth.ByApril,1959some15satelliteshadbeenobservedatJokioinen,aswellasthefinalstagesoftheirlaunchvehicles.TheJokio-inenobservationstationdistributeditsresultsdailytoanetworkofforeignstations.Dissemi-nation tookplace in the formofairmail, tele-printer,andtelegram,originatingatfirstfromtheHelsinkiObservatory,butfromMay,1958data were distributed by the communicationscentreoftheFinnishMeteorologicalOffice.

Finland’s governmentandotherofficialquar-ters showed a surprising enthusiasm for theobservations. The Finnish Government, theFinnish Broadcasting Company, and the Uni-

versityofHelsinkidonatedenough funds topurchaseanew, automated theodoliteandtohireobservers.Fortunately, as Järnefelthad foreseen, therewere alreadysufficienttrainedpersonnelatthemeteorologicalobservatoryatJokioinen.Thesepeoplehadalreadybeentrackingballoons,evenatnight,usingthesamesortofpro-cess needed for tracking artificial satellites, just as Järnefelt had pointed out withpleasure.

Politically the decisionsmade in the late fall of 1957 concerning satellite observa-tions were connected to assuring cooperation with the great powers. In this regardtherewerenoproblemsfromabroad;Finlandworkedinthesatelliteobservationnet-workinaperfectlynormalway.EverythingtookplaceintheIGYframework.Satel-lite observations were collected for publications, which could be used later to sup-portjoiningCOSPAR.Ofcourse,thiswasnotpartoftheoriginalintention,becauseCOSPAR only materialised in the space research world a year later, in November,1958.

ThankstotheIGYandthe launchofSputnikspaceresearchmaturedandrosetoanewlevelworldwide.Satellitesplayedasignificantroleinthatdevelopment,buttheIGYraisedthatlevelwhenitbroughttolifeajointeffortbytheinternationalcommu-nityofunprecedentedbreadth.

InNovember,1963theFinnishAcademyofScienceandLettersformedacommitteechairedbyProf.JärnefelttoprepareforFinland’smembershipinCOSPAR.ShortlythereafterthecommitteesubmittedarequesttotheMinistryofEducationforfund-ingtocoverthe1000USdollarsmembershipfee,whichwasimmediatelyapproved.

Uponreceivingthegrantthecommitteestresseditsbeingmeritedwiththeremark,‘…moreover,the followingreportsandpublicationsdemonstratetheability inourcountry to produce important and significant space research results.’ They werepublications of Professor Järnefelt’s results in tracking artificial Earth satellites:G.Järnefelt, Visual observations of artificial satellites in Finland. Three volumes1957–1962; G. Järnefelt,On the satellite observation work done in Finland; andG.Järnefelt,NabljudenijazaiskusstvennymisputnikamiZemli.

FourSputnikpassagesduringthenight11-12Octo-ber1957trackedbya40-MHzradiotheodolitenearHelsinki.(V.Väisälä//Geophysica,V.5.No.4)

SatelliteobservationsfromthemeteorologicalobservatoryatJokionenstartedninedaysafterthelaunchofSputnik-1(FinnishMeteorologicalInstitute)

In the years following IGY itwas seen clearly that Finlandwas that sort of ‘coun‑try that was active in tracking satellites and other space research’. Suchwas thedescription offered by the committee appointed by the Finnish Academy of Sci-enceandLetterstoprepareforFinland’sCOSPARmembershipinNovember,1963,reflectingCOSPAR’srules.

In early January, 1964 the committee requested the Finnish Academy of ScienceandLetterstoapplyformallyforCOSPARmembershipandnamedthefirstFinnishNationalCOSPARCommittee,withProf.GustafJärnefeltaschairman.Membershipbeganon2June,1964.

ItisclearfromtheabovethatthereadinessinFinlandtoobservesatelliteswithbothopticalandradiomethodsexistedduetotheearlierdevelopmentworkforobservingwinddriftvelocitiesofmeteorologicalballoonsondes.Thetechniqueswereimmedi-atelyutilisedforsatellites,whichprovidedafirmbackgroundforFinlandtotakethenextstep,joiningtheinternationalCOSPARorganisation.

SPuTnIk gIvES A booST FoR InTERnATIonAl dEvEloPmEnTAfter it was demonstrated that satellites could

belaunchedintoEarthorbitsitwasquitenaturalthatrapiddevelopmentandcompe-titiontookplaceonthisfield.

Sputnik-1wasanaluminiumballwitha58cmdiameter.Ithadtworadiotransmit-tersonboard,butnootherdedicatedscientificequipment.Scientific instruments tomonitorsolarradiationwerelaunchedalreadyonemonthlaterwithSputnik-2,whichcarriedaswellthefirstlivepassenger,thedogLaika.Inpracticethismeantthatwithin

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TheSpaceFutureForumwasarrangedinMoscowaroundthe30thanniversaryoftheSputnik-1launch,inOctober,1987.ThephotographtakeninthefrontoftheJuriGagarinmuseumintheStarCityhighlightsthehistoryofspaceconquest.FromtheleftareValentinaTereshkova,firstwomaninspace,KathrynSullivan,secondUSfemaleastronaut,Jean-LoupCretien,firstFrenchastronaut,DickGordon (withsunglasses),anApollo-12 astronauton theMoonsur-face,andAlekseiLeonov,thefirstspacewalker.JustbychanceIhappenedtobethenextfaceontherighthandsideofLeonov.Iamveryproudofthis‘family’picture,whichwastakenwith

myowncamera.(FinnishMeteorologicalInstitute)

Weather satellite image received at theHelsinki University of Technology RadioLaboratory on 27 March, 1967. Thisimage, showing ice conditions on theGulfofBothnia,wasoneof theveryfirstreceived in Finland. (HelsinkiUniversity

ofTechnologyRadioLaboratory)

onemonth,attheverybeginningofthespaceera,allthevariousdisciplinesofmod-ernspaceactivitieswerecarriedoutandtested.

And the development work was even accelerated. On 12 April, 1961 Yuri Gagarinmade the first manned flight in space onboard theVostok-1 spacecraft; PresidentKennedy announced inMay 1961 that theUSwould land astronauts on theMoonbeforetheendofthedecadeandAlekseiLeonovmadethefirst12-minutespacewalkonMarch 18, 1965 from theVoshod-2 spacecraft. This was an incredible boost ofinternational activities, all realised or started before ten years had passed after theSputnik-1 launch. This was the era of miracles and rapid growth in various spacetechnologies.

Spaceorganisationswerefoundedallovertheworld.Someofthemwereabletoprog-ressquickly,whilesomeneededmoretimetomaturefortheirtask.Europeisagoodexample of the latter case. Balancing between civil and military goals in space wasnotaneasy task,especiallywhen insomecasesmostof the funds fordevelopmentworkseemedtocomefromthemilitaryside. ‘Peacefulpurposes’wasakeywordinmanyactionsdealingwithpurescientificactivities.Scientificpurposescreatedpres-sureonindustrytoworkwithsomethingtheyneverhaddonebefore.Theimpossiblewasmadepossiblethroughscientificspaceprojects.

On the technical side, computer technologies started to develop more rapidly duetothenewpressure.Thesamehappenedwithsoftwaretechnologies.Newmaterialshadtobedevelopedforspaceandsemiconductortechnologies,too,hadtomeetthedemandsforreducedmass,sizeandpowerconsumption.Telecommunicationmeth-odshadtoadapttothegrowingdemandsforoperationinanextremeenvironmentand transmission of more and more data in shorter times. Radiation hazards formaterialsandcomponentsandevenlivingorganismhadtobeestimatedquicklyandpreventivetechnologiesdeveloped.Mostoftheseresearchanddevelopmentactivitieshadtobecarriedoutwithinonly15yearsaftertheSputnik-1launch.

Gradually benefits for everyday life started to become visible. Already in the late1960’s several new application areaswereintroducedtothepublic.Weathersatellites started to support forecast-ing services. In Finland the first satel-lite images of ice cover on the BalticSeawere received in spring 1967.Thiswasamodeststartbutitoccurredonly10yearsafterthestartofthespaceage.Today land resources, weather pat-terns, traffic conditions, and televisionand data transmissions are obtainedthroughsatellites.Wehavegrowntobeso dependent on satellite technologiesthat if all the functioning spacecraftwere switched off only for an hour thewhole world would enter into a com-plete,long-durationchaos.

ThesymboloftheApolloprogrammeforthefuturegenerations:anastronaut’s footprint

ontheMoonsand

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InthewakeofthehighlysuccessfulApolloprogrammeactionsweretakenthathaveexpanded our knowledge and understanding of the Universe. Pioneer‑10 and -11,togetherwithVoyager-1and-2,all launchedaroundthemid1970’s,haveprovidedimagesanddataofallthebodiesinourSolarsystemexceptPluto,whichisintoday’sfocus.TheimageoftheUniversehasbeenexpandedbyotherspaceprobes,especiallytheHubbleSpaceTelescope, launched in 1990and inoperationever since.Societyhas received the ‘gifts’ of thesemissionswithhigh respect andpleasure, andwhentherewasariskofclosingHubble,itwaspublicpressurethatforcedNASAtoretractitsdecision.This isacompletelynewdimensionofbehaviour inspacemattersandofimportanceforthefuture.Futurelargemissionsmusthaveaclearandvisiblecul-turalimpactandhavetobeapprovedandsupportedbythepublicatlarge.

Theveryearlieststepsinspacehistoryhavehadastrongmannedflightcomponent.Bringingmantospacehasbeenconsideredtobethehighestgradeofspacequalifica-tionforanationoranorganisation.Todayitseemstoberelativelyeasyand‘cheap’tolaunchahumantospaceandmoreandmorenationsarejoiningastronauttrainingprogrammes.Makinglong-durationflightsisadifferentissueandcreatesmuchhigh-er challenges for individuals. The psychological and physiological aspects are focusareasofresearchinmanyorganisationsatthemoment.ThelessonslearnedalsohaveanimmediateimpactonhumanlifeontheEarth.Thetwolarge-scalespacestationsputintoorbitsince1986,Mirbeingthefirstone,haveofferedsuitabletestplatformsforstudyingvariousaspectsofhumanbehaviourandlifeinmicrogravityconditions.

Workingwithspaceprojectshasenhanced internationalcooperation inremarkableways.Pioneerorganisationshaveseennewcomersenteringthefieldandproceedingtowardstheirgoalsinaverydeterminedway.ChinaandIndiaareonexpressroutestotheMoonandotherdestinationsinspace,whileJapaniscontinuouslydevelopingandexpandingitsspaceprogramme.ThetraditionalbalancebetweenEuropeandtheUShasgota third leg in theAsia.This lookspromising,butsuccess inbuildinganeffectivenetworkofcollaboration isstill tobeseen.Thepotential ishighbutmanycompromisesandaccommodationshavetobefoundonapoliticallevel.

TodaywecancrosstheAtlanticinlessthan10hoursbypayinglessthan10USD/kgfor the ticket.WhenCharlesLindberghfirstmade it in 1927 thecostwasuncount-able,becauseitwasthefirsttime.Sendinginstrumentstospacecoststodaybetween4000-10000USD/kgand thepricegoesdownall the time.Sendinga tourist foraweektotheISScostsabout250000USD/kgincludingthetrainingprogram.Ashort3-hourtriptonearspacehasbeenestimatedtocost~250USD/kg.In1927,80yearsago,obviouslynobodycouldimaginejustbuyingacheapticketandgettingonboardafancyplanetobeonanothercontinentafterjustafewhourswithouttoomuchextratrouble.Thissamedevelopmentcouldbetruewithspaceinanottoodistantfuture.

SPuTnIk, THE FIRST mIlESTonE FoR THE FuTuRESince the launch of Sputnik-1 and -2 in 1957,

ontheaveragetwosatellitesperweekhavebeenlaunchedintospace.Todaynearly700operationalspacecraftservetheneedsofthepopulationonEarth.Humanshavevisitedspace(amongthemfivetourists)morethan800timesandspentaltogetherabout20000daysthere.TwelvemenhavewalkedontheMoon.Humanshavebeenliving at low-Earth orbit (LEO) continuously for 20 years. The International Space

Station(ISS)isabouttobecompletedandmannedactivitiesbeyondtheISSeraandestablishingapermanentMoonbaseareunderconsideration.

Sputnikwas thefirstmilestone inspace, landingmanontheMoonthesecondoneandeverythingthathasoccurredsincethencanjustbeconsideredaspreparationforthethirdmilestone,which,withoutadoubt,issendinghumanstoMars.

Todaywearemuchbetterpreparedtotakethenextstepthanmankindwasin1961,when US President John F. Kennedy announced that US would go to Moon before1970.Upto that timeonlyonemannedflighthadbeencarriedout inspace.Todaywe have enough knowledge and experience that we could start working towards amannedMarsflightalmostimmediately.However,itisadvisabletostaycoolandfirsttakethescientificstepsneededduringthecoming20-25years.Thisisagreatoppor-tunityforplanetaryscienceandweshouldnotloseit.

KeepinginmindtheHubbleexperiencecitedabove,thescientificcommunityshouldstartactingnow.It isnotenoughthatweareawareof theopportunity;wehavetobringthemessagetothepublic.Onlyscientistscanredirectpeople’smindsbyadver-tising the new challenging visions and by spreading information about their scien-tificactivities.Some20-25yearsfromnownearlyeveryhumanbeingonthisplanetshouldanticipatewithexcitementmankind’snextexplorativestepandfeelwillingtocontributetotheevent.Themedia’sappetiteforMarsinformationshouldbestimu-latedcontinously.Mega-publicityisneededtogeneratetherequiredpublicinterest.

Whateverthefutureoftheworld,spaceactivitiesaregrowinginvolumeandimpor-tance on a global scale and integrating ever deeper in each nation’s every-day life.

Today, when space research hasrevealed striking new features of theUniverseandourownSolarsystem,weknowonefactforsure:cominggenera-tions will know incredibly muchmorethan we, who have only witnessed thefirstfewdecadesofspaceresearch.

Andsoitismostappropriatethattodaywe celebrate the two launches a half acenturyago thatopened thespaceera.Sputnik-1and-2startledtheworldandthussetintomotiontheeffortsinspacethathaveledtosomanyadvancesandastonishing discoveries. They outlinedanddefined thenature ofmuchof theworkofthenext50years.And,finally,theypointedtothefuture.

Possibly the first Finnish spacecraft, pre-sentedattheSpace2003exhibitioninHel-sinki.ItisasmallMarslander,builttogeth-er with some Russian institutes. It usesinflatable technologies during the descentphase. Professors Risto Pellinen and DavidSouthwoodarediscussingthefeasibilitiesof

thelander

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Grigory CheRnyaVskyRUSSIAFirstDeputyDirectorGeneral–ChiefDesignerofFederalStateUni-taryEnterprise‘RussianInstituteofSpaceDeviceEngineering’,HeadofResearchCentreforEarthoperativemonitoring.DoctorofScience.Professor.CorrespondingMemberofRussianAcademyofSciences.

Born in 1926 inMoscow. Graduated fromMoscow OrdzhonikidzeAviation Institute in 1949. Head of System Designing Center inTsNIIMASH (Central Research Institute for Machine Building) in1984–1992. Acting Director and then Director (1992–1998), laterDirector and Chief Designer in the Center forProgramResearchofRussianAcademyofSci-ences(1998–2000).DirectorGeneralandChiefDesigner in the Centre for Earth Space Moni-toringin2001–2006.

Awarded the Order of Lenin twice,Lenin Prize (1976), State Prize of theUSSR(1969)and8medals.

RETRoSPECTIvE look AT THE lAunCH oF THE FIRST ARTIFICIAl EARTH SATEllITE

50yearsagoforthefirsttimeinhistoryofman-kindanartificialsatellitewasdeliveredintoorbitbySovietUnion.

Thisuniqueeventwasconditionedbytheevolutionofearthlycivilizationwhichhasresultedinthequalitativegrowthof itsenergeticandinformationalpotential inthe20thcentury.

Contemporaneousgrowthoftheimmensityofecological,economicalandsocialprob-lems,illusionsofunlimitedpossibilitiesofanthropogenicactivity,lowmoralvalues,imperfectionofpoliticalorderarebringingthedangerofuncontrolled,unpredictablescenarioofevents,arethreateningtheplanetEarthwithacatastrophe.

As history shows, the prime force able to prevent the destruction of society is thecollective human mind whose intellectualization is growing with the enlargementof social sphere.Launchof thefirst artificialEarth satellite (AES)gave start to theexpansionofsocialspheretowardsthespacescale.

Dialectics is teaching that theprogressofsociety isdrivennot leastby the featuresimmanenttomankindsuchascompetition,rivalryandunfortunatelymilitaryoppo-sition.ItisthosefactorsthathavedeterminedtheadventofthefirstSputnikandthe

following impetuousprogressof cosmonautics.By launching thefirstSputnikRus-sianshavethrownoutachallengeinthefieldofscience—andofmilitarypower.

Forestimating thehistorical valueof thefirstAES launch it isobviously expedienttorefrainfrompanegyrizingthefirstspacefaringnation,andhavingspotlightedthehistory, to try to get a sense of purposefulness of the space activity in our countryandabroad.Oneshouldremembermeanwhilethatjudgingthepastiseasierthanthepresent.

1. FlIgHTS To SPACEThe dilemma of utilization of material proper-

tiesandshapesofspaceinthesocialsphereisfarfromtrivial,requiresrathersignifi-cantresources,stipulatestheintegrationofvariousfieldsofknowledgeandtechnolo-giesonaglobalbasis.

PresentlytheideasofK.E.Tsiolkovskyaboutspreadingtheearthlyformsoflifethroughout the Universe appear to bemerely figurative. At the same time theindirectanddirectappearanceofManinspaceisalreadyqualitativelyenlargingthesocialspheretoday.

Thespaceactivitypenetratesbothmaterialandspiritualsidesofhumanlife.Itsvalueforthesocialmentality,ethic,moralishigh.

‘Twothingsfillthemindwithevernewandincreasingwonderandawe’—thestarryheav‑ensabovemeandthemorallawwithinme.’(I.Kant)

Thespaceactivityismultidisciplinaryandasanycomplexproblemrequiresthesys-temapproach.

During the past 50 years the main directions of space activity have been shaped:exploration, research and utilization of space. The complex of transportation andinformationtasksisbeingsolvedmeanwhile.

ThetransportationtaskbeforeandduringthelaunchoffirstAESwasidenticaltothefinalpurpose.Solvingitgavestarttothewholespaceactivityandprovidedthedeliv-eryofthefirstspacecraft(S/C)intoorbit.

The beginning of space age is conditioned by the advances of the Soviet militaryindustrialcomplexintherocketengineeringarea.WorksonjetpropulsionproblemshaveobtainedthestatesupportinSovietUnioninearly1930’sintheframeworkofsolvingtheweapontasks.Thecenterofgravitywasshiftedtowardsthesolidmissile-rywhichwas,bytheway, forgotteninthepost-waryearswithUSAtakingovertheleadershipinthedevelopmentofsolid-fuelintercontinentalmissiles.

As to the prehistory of the first space flight, it is related to Germany. In themid-1930’s, when the military department has appreciated the prospects of the rocketweapons, the full-range activity has started here on the development of liquid fuelvehicles.In1942arocketwassentbeyondatmospherewhichhascrossedthespaceboundaryattheheightof100km.

ItwasyetbeforeSecondWorldWarthatGermanyactivelydevelopedradio-technicalindustrywhose productswereworld-renowned,which has created the backgroundforbuildingtheautomatedcontrolledrockets.

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TheindustrialmanufacturingofballisticmissilesestablishedinGermanyduringthewarhasbecamenot just thebase for the futureworksontherocket-spacetechnol-ogyinthewholeworld,buthasalsoshowntheadvantagesofsystemapproachtothecomplexproblem,ability tomobilize theresourcesandthecompetence inmanage-mentofachievingthespecifiedgoal.

ItwasonlyUSAandSovietUnionwith their scientific and technicalpotential thatwereabletomakeuseoftheresultsobtainedbyGermanyinthefieldofrocketmak-ingafterthewar.TheSovietUnionhasfullyutilizedthesepossibilities.Theworld’sfirst intercontinentalmissile created inUSSRwith themainpurpose of putting anendtoUSAinvulnerabilityincaseofnuclearwarhasprovidedthebreakthroughtospace.

The historical value of this event consists in the fact that first orbital velocity wasachieved.Intercontinentalballisticmissilehasplayedaroleofthefirstlaunchvehi-cle.

Acomplexof scientific, technicalandmanagementproblemshasbeensolved,withthe lag in radio-technical industry and automated instrument-making engineeringremoved,thoughitappearinglateragainandbecoming‘chronical’.

Itishardtoimaginenowtheintensityofworksintheareaofrocketmakingthatwerecarriedinthecountry:16typesofliquidfuelvehicleswithaflightrangeupto1200kmandheightover200kmweremanufacturedandtestedsince1948to1956.

ThehistoricsuccessofSovietUnionisexplainedbyanumberofreasons:

• thepeopleofourcountryhavingsurvivedthedevastatingwarwerereadytoanyself-sacrifice for the sakeof providing independence andworldprestige of theircountry.Thepopulationwasconvincedintheneedofcreatingtheperfectweaponsystems,andafterthelaunchofthefirstAES—inthenecessityofspaceflight;

• Sovietstatemachinehadtheabilitytomobilizehugeresourcesforachievingthegoal, thoughusing illogicalandsometimescriminalmethods. It isofbig impor-tancethatthegoalssetbytheSovietorderwereflawless:socialjusticeandstateindependence;

• the political management of country and its highest officials have adequatelyrespondedtotheGermansuccesses inrocketbuilding,showedsystemapproachtosolvingtheproblemofcreatingtherocket-nuclearweapon,andlatersupportedthespaceflights.TheroleofN.S.Khrushchevwasveryimportant;

• thedistinguishingfeatureofSovietscientificandtechnicalelitewasthefactthattheircreativework–themeaningoflife–wasdirectedtowardthespecifictechni-calresulttothebenefitofstate;ithadinherentcollectivismandthesenseofper-sonalresponsibilitybeforethestate,aswellascombinationofindividualcreativitywiththemanagingactivity;

• ourremarkablecompatriotsstoodat theoutsetofcosmonautics:K.Tsiolkovsky,F.Tsander;

• theprogramofpenetratingthespacewasheadedbythemost talentedscientist,engineer,managerandinthesametime–dreamerSergeyPavlovichKorolev.Hewas able not just to solve global problems, but also to set them; the creators ofrocket-spacetechnologywerethegiantslikeValentinPetrovichGlushko,MstislavVsevolodovichKeldysh,VladimirNikolaevichChelomey,MikhailKuzmichYangel.

2. FIRST RESulTS In SPACEWiththelaunchofthefirstAEStheresearchof

spacehasbegun.InthespaceresearchthegoalissetofhandlingtheinformationinordertoinvestigatethenatureofspaceandEarthasitsconstituentpartwiththeaidofthespacebasedtechnicalfacilities.Thedirectpresenceofmeasuringdevicesintheexploredmediumisqualitativelychangingtheinformationaboutit.

ThefirstdirectmeasurementsofseveralparametersinspacewereperformedbythethirdSovietAESwith 12 scientificdevices onboard.But evenduring the operationcheckoutsofthefirstAESsomedataaboutspacewereobtainedindirectly.

Thepreparations and launchof thefirstAESof the simplest designwith themassunder 100 kg have simultaneously served as the beginning of spacecraftmanufac-turing.Ayearafterthefirstsatellitelaunchtheutilizationofspacehasbegunwhichincludesthedirectsatisfyingtheneedsofsocietywiththeaidofthespacebasedtech-nicalfacilities.

Thedesignofthespacecraft(artificialEarthsatellites,interplanetarystations,spaceships)isdifferingfromthelaunchvehiclesduetotheirgoals,environmentalimpactfactorsandlifetimewhichdeterminethecharacteristicapproachtotheirmanufactu-ringandusage.

ThespacecraftmanufacturinginSovietUnionhasbeendevelopedundertheauspicesofSergeyPavlovichKorolevinhiscollective,aswellasintheinstitutionsledbyGeor-giyNikolaevichBabakin,DmitryIlyichKozlov,MikhailFedorovichReshetnev.

Thegoalsofspaceresearchandutilizationhavestipulatedthecreationoftheappro-priatespacerockets(launchvehiclesandboosters).

InthisconditionstheprogramsofmodifyingthemilitaryrocketsR-7,R-14andoth-erswerecarriedout.However,thesystemapproachwasnotalwaysfollowed.

The dependence of launch facilities outlook on the assigned information task hasclearlyshownupinthe‘moonrace’.Itsfuzzinesshasleadtotheseriousdifficulties,andperhapstothefailureofcreatingtheN-1rocket.

TheProtonlaunchvehicledevelopedwithoutmatchingtospecificpayloadswaslyingthere doing nothing for decades until finally finding its application. More tragicalwasthefateofheavyEnergialauncherrocketdevisedbyV.P.Glushkowhichhasleftwithoutpayloads.AsaresultonlyoneofitsblocksisbeingusedtodayasZenitlaunchvehicle.

Angaralaunchvehicledespitethe50-yearsoldexperienceisdesignedagainwithouttheprogramofusageandutilizationinspace,onthebasisofgeneralreasoningasitiscommonlyinthespaceindustrynow.

Thefirstdecadesofthespaceagewererichwiththeevents.Duringthisperioddoz-ens of Soviet andAmerican satellites of the scientific andapplieddestinationwereresidinginorbit.MissionstotheMoonandtheSolarsystemplanetshavestarted.

SovietUnionwasretainingtheleadershipthankstotheintellectandthemoralitiesofthewiderangeofthespaceactivityparticipantswiththehugestrainoftheindustrialpotentialofthecountry.

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DuringtheraceforthepriorityinachievingthedataabouttheMoonandSolarsys-templanetswhichhadboththeinformatoryandadvertisingnature,24autonomousLunarstationsand16Venera stationswere launched inSovietUnion,sevenflightsforstudyingthesystemofMarswereperformed.ThebacksideoftheMoonwaspho-tographed for the first time (1959), soft landing on our satellite performed (1966),atmosphere of Venus explored (1967), lunar soil delivered to Earth by automatedfacilities(1970),softlandingonVenusrealized(1970)anditssurfaceimaged(1975).

FouryearsafterthelaunchofthefirstAESinspaceSovietUnionbecamethehome-landofthefirstcosmonaut.Thiswasthesecondepoch-makingeventincosmonauticsandthebeginningofon-the-scenestayofManinspace.

The apogee of space activity was the landing of American astronauts to the Moonin1969.The ‘Moonrace’was lostby theSovietUnion,andtherearesolidgroundsforthat.

Americanspiquedby thevictoriesofourcountry in spacehavedeclared theLunarprogramasthenationalpriorityin1961.Inthenexteightyearsthisprojectwasreal-ized,bythewaywiththeparticipationofdozensGermanrocketspecialistsheadedbyWernhervonBraun.

ThesewerethedayswhentheconsiderablysuperioreconomicshasallowedUSAtogettwenty-foldpredominanceoverSovietUnioninthenuclearpotential.Ourcoun-try,inordertoprovideitssafety,wasforcedtoenterthemoredifficultandhardracethanthelunarone.Asaresult,by1975thegapwasreducedtothe3:1ratio.

DuetotheabovementionedreasonthepoliticalmanagementofthecountryhasnottimelyandclearlystatedthegoalofpilotedflighttotheMoon.Thechangeofleadersitself has made effect which was followed by the poor funding and unreal terms ofplanrealization.

There were also subjective factors. Besides S.P.Korolev, there were also V.N.Che-lomeyandM.K.Yangelinvolvedintothecompetitivebattle.PrincipaldisagreementshaveappearedbetweenS.P.KorolevandV.P.Glushko.Itwasnotwithoutthelatter’sparticipationthatnoseriousdevelopmentsonthehydrogenfuelwereheldinUSSRbythestartof lunarrace.S.P.Korolevhasmadeseriousmistakesinthestrategyofgroundtestingoflaunchfacilities.

HavinglosttheleadershipafterthelunartriumphofUSA,SovietUnionhasreachedthepriorityresults inthemannedflightonthe loworbits,rocketenginesmanufac-turing,creationofautomatedoperationsystems,satelliteradiocommunicationandinotherfields.

3. RESEARCH And uTIlIZATIon oF SPACE

DuringallfiftyyearssincethelaunchofthefirstAESthevectorofdirectionofspaceactivity by the states involved in cosmonautics is pointed towards providing thenationalsafety inthepolitical,militaryandeconomicalaspects.Thespaceresearchis indirectly influencingallaspectsofnationalsecurity.Sincethe launchofthefirstSputnikanduntilthelandingofthemantotheMoonthepoliticalaspectwasprevail-inginspaceactivity.

Thishastobetakenintoaccountwhileanalyzingthespaceactivityattheglobalandstatelevels.

AfterthesuccessfulcompletionofthelunarprograminUSA,therealizationofsimi-larprograminUSSRhasbeenaborted: thestimulus tocompetitionwasgone.Duetotheabsenceofthelarge-scaleideasofhumanstayinspace,the‘space’quartersofUSAandRussiaarefeelingsomeperplexityinsettingthenextgoalsofcosmonautics.

Theon-sitestayofthemaninspacehasbecometheflagofthespaceactivitythanksto itssocialandpoliticalsignificance,and itshouldbeconsideredwhiledevelopingthestrategiesofspaceactivity.

HumanflightaroundtheEarthandtotheMoonwereepoch-makingeventsandhavedisplayeditsbigpotentialpossibilities.Thehugepopularityofthemannedflightscanbeexplainedbythementalfeaturesimmanenttotheman,suchasambitions,compe-tition,strivingtoknowledge.Thepilotedflightshavegotthesupportofthepoliticaleliteandthewidepublicinthewholeworld.

But itshouldbenotedthat theflightsofspacecraftwiththehumanonboardare inprinciplesolvingaverynarrowtaskofexploringthespaceasa livingenvironment,andtheircontributiontothespacesciencesislessimportantcomparedtotheauto-matedspacecraft.Theroleofthemannedflightsintheutilizationofspaceappearstobe limited to the servicingof complicated technicaldevices in spaceand,probably,transportationofcargoes,thoughtheproductivityofthelatterisratherdoubtful.

After the euphoria of thefirst space years the interest tomannedflights started tovanishduetoabsenceofsensations,whichcouldnotbuthaveaffectedthepopular-ityofthespaceactivityasawhole.Intheendof20thcenturytheinterestofthewidepublictohumanpresenceinspacehasbeenreanimatedforawhileduetothepro-grams of the Soviet transport vehicles and long-term habitable orbital stations, aswellastheAmericanrecoverableShuttlespaceships,despitetheabsenceoftheglob-algoalsforthem.

Onthesametime,themostimportantarebecomingthespecifictasksofglobalinfor-matizationwhichimpliesahigherleveloftheaccesstoinformationinsocietyonthebasisofcomputerizationandthemoderncommunicationfacilities.

The global informatization constitutes the main dedicated goal of space utilizationwhichcanalsoincludeinthenearestfuturetheimplementationinlimitedamountsof the tasksof space tourism,materialsmanufacturingandbiological technologies,buildingthesolarpowerplantsandothers.

The activities on manufacturing the satellites in the goals of global informatizationwerestartedbySovietUnionandUSAsoonafterthelaunchofthefirstAES:

1958—AmericancommunicationsatelliteAtlas-SCORE

1960—AmericanmeteorologicalsatelliteTIROS-1

1964—SovietpersonalsatellitecommunicationserviceStrela-1

1964—AmericannavigationsatelliteTransit

1967— SovietsatelliteretranslationsystemMolniya-Orbita

1967— Sovietobjectmotioncontrolsatellite(navigation+communication)Tsiklon

1976— directbroadcastingsystemthroughAESEkran.

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Thewholeclassofspaceinformationsystemsisusedintheinterestsofglobalinfor-matizationforthesatelliteradiocommunication,spatialandtemporalpositioningofthecooperatedobjects;monitoringofterrestrialobjectsandphenomena.

Themostvaluablecontributionfromthespaceactivityintotheglobalinformatizationisprovidedbythesatellitenavigation.

ItsprimaryinstrumenttodayisAmericanGlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)composedofmorethan24satellitesprovidingthemeasurementsofcoordinates(to1m),veloc-ity,timecalibration.Toimprovethemeasurementaccuracytheextendingnavigationsystemsareusedwiththeadditionalinvolvementofgroundbasedtransmitters.Rus-sianorbitalgroupofGLONASSsystemisbeingreanimatedwhichissimilartoGPSinitsgoalsanddesign.

TherangeofpracticalutilizationofsatellitenavigationsystemscanbejudgedbythemanufacturingplansofGPSandGLONASSreceiversforallkindsoftransport,con-struction works, agriculture and so on. According to the information of Americanexperts,16millionreceiverswillneedtobemanufactureduntil2008,halfofthem—forcars.BytheoptimisticforecastsofMinistryofEnergetics,theRussianmarketisestimatedin50…70mlnUSdollarsayear.

‘Social impacts of communication satellites can become no less important thanthosewhichadventofnewspapersandmagazineshavemadetomankind…’(ArthurC.Clarke).

Currently7thousandonboardretranslatorswiththeaveragebandpassof36MHzareoperatingongeostationaryorbitsonlywhichistwicethetodayneeds(Russiaisusing286retranslatorson12S/Cwithitsshareofmarketbeing1.5%).700thousandVSATterminals–stationswithsmall-apertureantennasandIP-technologies—areutilized(Russianshareis0.36%).

Morethan1millionuserstationsofpersonalcommunicationsystemaredeployedonloworbitswith1thousandstationsbeinginRussia.

Monitoringanddiagnosticsofterrestrialobjectsandphenomenafromspace(remotesensing)includestheglobalhydro-meteorologicalcoverage,environmentalmonitor-ing,mappingthesurfaceofEarth.Ofhighimportanceistheapplicationofthisareaofspaceactivitytosolvingtheproblemsofecology,Earthclimateforecastandcoun-teractingthenaturaldisasters.

The remote sensing involves satellite system of environment monitoring; researchS/Cwiththemulti-spectralinstrumentsofactiveandpassivesensingofhigh,medi-umandlowresolution;detailedresolutionspacecraft.

By2010theremotesensingfleetwillcountupto130spacecraft,includingabout20ofthemforthedevelopingcountries.

The space exploration is going on actively. World astrophysical and planetaryresearches are being performed with the aid of automated interplanetary stations.American rovers Spirit and Opportunity, in their fourth year of operation of Mars,arestudyingtheMartiansurface.EuropeanorbitingspacecraftVenus-Expressisper-formingtheprogramofscientificresearchsinceJune2006anddeliveringtheimagesoftheMorningstar.

AmericanCassiniprobeiscontinuingitssuccessfulmissionandobtainingtheimagesofspacesystemofSaturnsince2004.AnotherAmericanprobe,NewHorizonshas

approachedJupiter(firstimagesofthisplanetweretakeninSeptember,2006)andobtainedthefirstimagesofitsmaingoal—Plutotowhichitshouldarrivein2015.

EuropeaninterplanetaryspacecraftUlyssesonthesolarorbitiscontinuingthestudyofheliospheresince1990.TwoheliophysicalStereospacecraftlaunchedfromUSAin2006arepreparingtoreceivereal-timestereoscopicimagesoftheSun.

Thehistorical landmarkof theworldcosmonauticswasthecreationof theservicedHubbleSpaceTelescopewhichwaslaunchedintoorbitaroundEarthin1990andstillcontinuestoenrichthefundamentalsciencewiththeuniqueinformationabouttheUniverse.

4. RuSSIAn SPACE ACTIvITyTakingintoaccountitslargescale,theroleand

placeofspaceactivityisconsideredattwolevels:globalandnational.

Onecanjudgeonitscurrentstatus,inthefirstapproach,basedonamountoffinanc-ingwhosesourcesarestatemilitaryandcivilianbudgets,aswellascommercialone.In2005theytotaledinthewholeworldtomorethan180blnUSdollars.Themarketvolumeofspaceservicesin2005amountedto110blnUSdollars.

The space activity in the whole world is mostly developing at the expense of statebudgets. American governmental structures have invested to the space activity57blnUSdollarsin2005,with41blnUSdollarsfromPentagon.

ThespacebudgetsofEurope,IndiaandChinahavenumberedin2005,respectively,about:4blnUSdollars, 700mlnUSdollars, 500mlnUSdollars.Roscosmosbudgetfor2006counted1blnUSdollars.

FromyeartoyearRussiaisgivingupitspositionsofthespacemarket.Nowitisonlysignificantly present (about 40%) in the segment of space launches, whose yearlyworld turnover is estimated as 2.5…3blnUSdollars. On the same time the worldshare of commercial satellites manufacturing amounts to about 10blnUSdollars,navigationfacilitiesandservicesapproach20blnUSdollars,satellitecommunicationshareisatthelevelof60blnUSdollars.

SpaceresearchwithusingautomaticstationsofdomesticproductionhasstoppedinRussia.Therearenoremotesensingspacecraftonorbits.TheprogramsoflowEarthorbit(LEO)mannedflightsarelow-effectiveandnon-perspective.

Russiahasturnedintoarecognized‘spacecarrier’,whoserocketlaunchersdelivertoorbitsforeignspacecraft,basically,andspacevehiclescarryforeigntourists.

Space commercialization and granting of space services are accepted as a generalobjectiveof spaceactivity inRussia, insteadofproducingeffectivespacemeans formaintainingthenationalsafetyofthecountry.Suchasituationcontradictstheworldpractice.

The continuity of space activity in Russia is not supported by appropriate materialandintellectualresources.

Evenwithregardtoworldtendenciesinastronauticsdevelopment,itisratherhardtoforecastthewaysofdevelopmentofspaceactivityinRussiaundervaguenessofstatepolicyinthisarea.

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aROunDTheWORLDin1,5hOuRAt the same time, the number of conditions seems to exist,which non-observancethreatenstodestructthespacebranch.Theseconditionsinclude:

• guiding by basic principles of the system approach (purposefulness, continuity,acceptability);

• declaring,atthestatelevel,theproductionofeffectivespacemeansformaintain-ingthenationalsafetyofthecountryasthegeneralobjectiveofspaceactivity;

• correspondenceofthenomenclatureofspaceactivity’stargettasks.Includingthemannedflightprograms,totherealresourcerestrictions;

• sufficientstatefinancingofspaceactivity;

• participationinambitiousplanetaryresearchprojectsjointlywithforeignpartnersoroncompetitivebasis.

spacein-siTu AES-1assembling

spacein-siTu

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AES-1scheme.Generalview AES-1assembling

AES-1innercomposition AES-1powersources

emmanuel t. saRRIsGREECEDirector of the Space Research Laboratory of the Democritus Uni-versity,Thrace.

CommitteeonSpaceResearch(COSPAR)CommissionD1Chairman,1992–1998.NationalSpaceCommittee,DeputyChairman.

Bornin1945.DiplomainPhysics,UniversityofAthens(1967).Ph.D.inSpacePhysics, theUniversity of Iowa (1973).PostDoctoralFel-low,theAppliedPhysicsLaboratoryoftheJohnsHopkinsUniversity(1974–1976).ResearchScientistintheMax-Planck-Institute(1976–1977).

Professor of Electrodynamics at the Department of Electrical En-gineeringoftheUniversityofThraceandDirectoroftheSpaceRe-searchLaboratorysince1977.

DirectoroftheInstituteofIonosphericandSpacePhysicsoftheNa-tionalObservatoryofAthensin1990–1996.

JohnsHopkinsScholarAward1992.AwardforAcademicExcellence1994.CorrespondingMemberoftheAcademyofAthens,elected2003.ESAand/orNASAAwardsforoutstandingcontributionstotheUlyssesandGeotailMissions.

SPuTnIk: oPEnIng THE STAgE FoR SPACE In-SITu

REFlECTIonS on THE PAST 50 yEARS In SPACE

uptoonlyfivedecadesagothespaceabove50kilometresfromtheEarth’ssurfacewasinaccessibleandbasicallyunknown.Today,numerous satellites and spacecraft have performed extensive observations of thenear-earth space environment and explored many region of planetary bodies andtheinterplanetarymediumallthewaytothelimitsoftheheliosphere.Furthermore,spaceresearchhasbeenestablishedasoneofthemajorsourcesbywhichmanyscien-tificdisciplinesproceedtowardsnewknowledge.Usingtheuniqueconditionsofferedby observation from space and by in-situ experimentation in previously inacces-sible regions, research inspace is servingavarietyof scientific fieldsandappli-cations, including: Astronomy and Astrophysics, Planetology, Plasma Physics,Particle Physics, Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry, Meteorology, Geodesy andGeophysics,Oceanography,MaterialSciences,Telecommunications,Navigation,LifeSciences,etc.

Spaceflightsoffertodaygreatcapabilitiesfor:

• in-situmeasurementsofplasmas,thefourthstateofmatterfillingtheheliosphereinexoticconditionsnotencounteredinlaboratoriesonEarthaswelldirectobser-vationsofSolarsystembodiesandtheirenvironments.

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• ObservationsabovetheEarth’satmosphereofthewholespectrumoftheelectro-magneticradiationemittedbytheSun,galacticandextra-galacticobjectsandtheUniverseitself,freefromatmosphericabsorptionandothereffects.

• MakingglobalobservationsoftheEarthasaplanetandmonitoringfromspaceitsatmosphere,oceans,landandbiosphere.

• Performinguniqueexperiments in lifesciences,biologyandmaterialsciences inweightlessnessforextendedperiodsoftime.

Thebenefitofall thesedisciplinesandapplications fromtheadvantagesofferedbyspaceflightsisbeyondanydoubt.Howeverintermsofpurespaceresearchthereisa single contribution, which touches the core of scientificmethodology. This is, inmyview,theimmensecontributionofin-situmeasurementstospacescience.Thoseinvolvedwithspaceresearchrealizehowmanyassumptionswerenecessarily intro-ducedpriortoaccessingspaceinordertocomprehendandinterprettheonlyavail-able remote sensing observations from certain bands of wavelengths. The accumu-latedexperienceof50yearsofspaceresearchhasshownthat, followingthe in-situexplorationofaregionoranobjectoraphenomenoninspace,weareusuallyfacedwithgreat surprises,whicharericher thanour imaginationand forceus to rethinkandreviseourperceptionsandtheoreticalunderstanding.

SputnikonthehistoricaldayofOctober4,1957,openedthestagetospaceflight.Thefiftybusyyearsof in-situ space observations,which followed Sputnik,haveprovid-edmanybrilliantscientistswiththeuniqueopportunitytoexpandthelimitsofourunderstandingofourspaceenvironmentandatthesametimehaveledthescientificcommunitytocontainsomeofourweaklyfoundedperceptions.

Thus thewell knownstatement that ‘the impactof in-situ research in space to ourunderstandingofthespaceenvironmentiscomparabletotheimpactproducedbytheadventofthetelescopetoAstronomyandthemicroscopetoBiologyinthe17thcen-tury’ismorethanjustified.

REFlECTIonS on THE FuTuRE

Space Weather

Thefiftyyearsofexplorationanddetailedobser-vations of the terrestrial space environment have unraveled a good picture of itsmorphologyandstructure.Measurementsofthevariousstatesofthehotionizedgas(plasma)andtheassociatedmagneticandelectricfieldsfillingtheEarth’smagneto-sphereandinterplanetaryspacehaveprovidedabasicunderstandingoftheirdynam-ics.Oneofthemostimportantdiscoveriesofthespaceerawasthatoftheexistenceofaclosesolar-terrestrialrelationship,wherebyitwasrealizedthatthereisastrongcoupling of violent electrodynamic effects in the solar atmosphere, the interplan-etarymediumand the geomagnetosphere all theway to theEarth’s ground. Theseeffects,called‘spaceweather’,haveseriousandoccasionallydamagingconsequencesonspaceandgroundsystems.Furtherinvestigationofthecomplexdynamicsofthesolar-terrestrialcouplingisneededinordertounderstandthedetailedmechanismsbywhichthevariousplasmaregimesareledtoexplosiveinstabilitiesresultingtotheheating and transport of plasma and the acceleration of energetic particles. In the

nextdecadesweexpecttoseededicatedconstellationsofspacecraftatvantagepointsofthesolar-terrestrialenvironmentmonitoring‘spaceweather’muchlikethemeteo-rologicalforecasts.

Miniaturization and the Nano-SatelliteRevolution

Space research is exceptionally demandingin technologicaladvancements, since it is carriedout inaharshenvironment,withdamaging energetic particle radiation and extreme temperatures, while spacecraftsystemsandinstrumentsmustmeethighenergyrequirements,extremecommunica-tionrequirementsforthetransportofenormousvolumeofdata,etc.Furthermoreallthismustbeachievedunderthedoctrinethat‘Spaceinnotforgiving’.Oneandonlymistakecanbecatastrophicforthewholemission.

Today we have entered a phase of explosive growth of new edge technologies aim-ingmainlyattheminiaturizationofspacesubsystems.ParticularlyimportantisthegrowthofadvancedMicro-Electro-MechanicalSystems(MEMS)andSystems-on-a-Chip(SoC)basedondedicatedintegratedcircuitstoleranttotheconditionsofspace,whichareofexceptionallysmallweightandpowerdissipation.Thesameisalsotrueforthetechnologiesofadvancedmicrosensors.Thespacecraftelectronics,whichusedtooccupybigspaceandweight,couldnowbecontainedinamicrochip.

Inthenextdecadeswewillseehundredsoreventhousandsofmicro-andnanosatel-lites(NanosatelliteRevolution)withexceptionallyadvancedtechnicalcharacteristicsand low launching cost tofill simultaneouslymany critical regionsof space for theunderstandingofthecomplicatedanddynamicsolar-terrestrialenvironmentandtheexplorationofunknownandinaccessibleregionsoftheheliosphereandtheplanetarysystem.With the rapid development of systems ofmicropropulsion,microsensors,microgyros,intersatellitelinks,etc.,weexpecttoseeevenpicosatelliteswithweight<1kg and dimensions just 10 cm carrying payload capable of important observa-tions.

Withthegrowthandwideuseofmicro-andnanosatellites,theoperationsofbigandcomplicatedspacecraftcanbedistributedtoanumberofsmallerones(coordinatedsemi-autonomousoperations).Constellationsofminiaturesatellitesreleasedfromamother spacecraft could functionasa single entityundertaking coordinatedopera-tionsandflightformation.Theywillconstituteadistributedconstellation,whichwillprovideflexibilityandpossibilityofrearrangementforadaptationinspecialmissionsand the performance of simultaneous measurements of a complex space regime atdifferentlocations.Thisisascloseasonecouldgettoa‘dreamspacelab’forin-situobservationscontinuingthelegacyofSputnikwithitsachievementofthefirst‘spacein-situ’.

The unexplored regions of the heliosphere

despitethelegacyofthePioneersandtheVoy‑agersintheexplorationofouterspaceveryimportantregimesoftheheliosphere—our large scale space environment— remain unexplored and present a permanentchallengetoourSpaceScienceStrategiesforthe21stcentury:

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• TheInnerSolarSysteminsidetheorbitofMercuryandthesolaratmospherenearthesurfaceoftheSun,whichisthesourceofthesolarwindandallthedynamiceffectsonthecomplexsolar-terrestrialcoupling.

• The Outer Limits of the Heliosphere, where the solar wind is contained by theStellarMagnetoplasma.

• TheNearInterstellarSpace,wheredeepspaceprobesareexpectedtoentercross-ingtheheliopause.Afascinatingachievementwhichisanticipatedforitssymbolicaswellasitsunquestionablescientificvalue.

Following the Water

The21stcenturyforspacesciencewillbemainlythecenturyfortheexplorationofplanets,satellitesandasteroids,whereoneofthemain scientific targetswill be the search forwater in the Solar system,whichmayprovide answers to the fundamentalquestionon thepresenceof life formsbeyondEarth.ExistingaswellasplannedspacemissionstoMars,theJovianmoonEuropaandtheSaturnianmoonEnceladusareonrouteto‘FollowingtheWater’

Robotics and Human Space Flight

The space activities of the 21stcentury will bedominatedbyintensivepreparationsforthecolonizationofthe‘accessible’Solarsys-tembodiesandtheadaptationofmanintheforeseen‘friendly’artificialSpaceEnvi-ronments. Until then the detailed exploration of these bodies and all the necessarypreparationswillbedonewithrobots,fromwhichalotistobegained.Thereisnoth-ing at the level of collecting data and conducting observations under exceptionallyharshconditionsthatrobotscannotmakebetterandmorereliablythanman.Robotsare theextensionsofoursenses.However theanalysis, interpretationand thecon-clusionsareexclusivelyourownresponsibilityandprivilege,aswellasthedecisionfortheappropriatetimewhenourselves‘inwisdom’willleavethemotherplanetforextendedperiodsoftimetodistantspacebodies.

Forthematerializationofmannedmissionstolargedistances,thetechnologyneed-edmuststillwaitformajoradvances.Especiallyprimitiveandexpensivearestilltheexistingpropulsionsystems,whichtodaydonotallowforanyoptimismfordistantspace missions not even to the near planets. More promising is the growth of Sys-temsofinformationtechnologyandrobotics,whichhavealreadygivenabigimpulseto spaceexplorationandhave created the requiredmature conditions fordramaticadvancesinthecreationofnearreal-timedataprocessingunitsforthedevelopmentofintelligentsystemsandadvancedrobots.

‘ColoniesofRobots’willsetthegroundforfuturevisitsoftheMoonandtheneigh-bouringplanetsbymanwiththeestablishmentofcommunication links,computingpower,navigationandremotesensingstations,plantsfortheproductionandstorageoffuelandoxygen,etc.The‘ColoniesofRobots’arethemissingstep,whichisneces-sarytoensureasubsequentexplorationbyman.Particularlyimpressivearethecon-ceptsontheproductionofrawmaterialandthedevelopmentofstructuresin-situontheMoonforuseinorbitaroundtheEarthandouterspace;aswellastheconceptsforthescientificexploitationofaLunarBaseforresearchoftheMoonitselfandtheSolarsystem,researchinbiologyandmicrogravity,useoftelescopesinthefarsideoftheMoon,etc.

EPIloguETheexplorationoftheSolarsysteminourtimes

willbemarkedforthousandsofyearsinthefutureasoneoftheleadingachievementsofhumankind,muchliketheGreekphilosophyandthoughthasimprinteditsstamponourcivilizationoverthelastmillennia.However,whiletodaywespeakwithsome‘hybris’ofthe‘conquestofourspaceenvironment’andtheexplosiveincreaseofourknowledgeforspace,atthesametimewerealizethatthemagnitudeofourignoranceisenormous.Thosedeeplyinvolvedwiththeadventureofspaceresearchknowwithappreciationandmodestythattheyonlyhavetheutmostprivilegeofbarelytouchingthevastnessofwhatwaspreviouslyinaccessible.

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Roald saGdeeVRUSSIAAcademicianoftheRussianAcademyofSciences.

Graduated from the LomonosovMoscow State University in 1955.WorkedintheKurchatovInstituteofNuclearEnergyin1956–1961.HeadofthelaboratoryintheInstituteofNuclearPhysics(SiberianDepartment of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1961–1970). Headof the laboratory in theInstituteofHighTemperaturePhysics (theUSSRAcademyofSciences, 1970–1973).Directorof theSpaceRe-search Institute in 1973–1988. One of the founder of the modernplasmaphysics.

WorksintheMarylandUniversity(USA)since1989.Simultaneously,holdsthepositionofChiefResearcherintheSpaceResearchInstitute(Russia).Max-PlanckSocietyFellow.ForeignMemberoftheNation-alAcademyofSciences,USA.

HeroofSocialistLabour.AwardedtheLeninPrize,OrderofLenin(twice),OrderofOctoberRevolutionandtheRedBanner.

dISCovERy oF A nEW WoRld

For those, whose life is, to this or that extent,directly related to space, the 50th Anniversary of Space Era is not just an eventbelongingtothecommonheritageofmankind—itisalsoaverypersonalexperience.Atthetimewhenspaceexplorationmadeitsfirststepforward,Iwasveryfarawayfrom thisfield of activity, perceiving everything takingplace in it only through theperspectiveofmassmedia.

Myownscientificinterestshadtodowithplasmaphysicsandcontrolledthermonu-clear fusion,beinganewfieldofactiveresearchat that time,evokingawide inter-nationalpublic responseaswell.Thishappenedafter the famous lecture,deliveredbyI.V.KurchatovinEngland,whenN.S.Khruschevallowedtheresearchworkinthefieldof‘termoyad’(ashortfor‘thermonuclearfusion’inRussian)andpincheffecttobedisclosed.

Thus,justinawink,we,theresearchfellowsfromtheKurchatovInstituteofAtomicEnergyandothersimilarclassified institutions,wereallowedtocall thingsby theirproper names instead of using encoded secret ones. The ‘syrup of high altitude’turned out to bemerely ‘high-temperature plasma’.My first scientific publicationswere devoted to its basic physical properties. Those articles dealt with theoreticalpredictionsofvariousinstabilitiesinplasmaandwithpropagationofwaves(withanattemptatcomprehendingthedynamicsofhigh-amplitudewaves).Inoneofthefirstpublications(still intheformofaclassifiedreport,asof1956,writtenincollabora-tion with L.Rudakov), we described ‘mirror’ instability of discharged magnetizedplasma.Bytheway,atthattimewecalledit‘diamagneticinstability’,whichreflecteditsphysicalmechanismmoreadequately.

At the same time, almost immediately after that classified report, I developed anideaabouttheexistenceofcollisionlessshockwaves,whichlaterresultedinaspecialtypeofwaves inplasma–solitons.It isdoubtful thatat thattimeIcouldseriouslycontemplateaboutactualapplicationsoftheseeffectstoextraterrestrialplasma.Anattempt to reproduce these phenomena under laboratory conditions seemed to beofgreaterinterest.Eventually,inafewyearsweweresuccessfulingeneratingsimi-larshockwavesinalabplasmaexperiment.Forthatpurpose,IhadtomovetotheAkademgorodokCityinNovosibirsk,whereImanagedtopersuadeateamofremark-ableexperimentatorstotacklethisproblemandstudyhowtogeneratesuchwaves.Asitturnedout,spacewasourunexpected‘competitor’inthisfield,namely,the‘syr-up’ofsolarwind.ItwasKonstantinGringauz,whowasoneofthefirsttodiscoveritbutIpersonallygottoknowhimmuchlater(from1973attheIKI�Institute).

Thenotionthat99percentofallthematterisinitiallyinaplasmastateflatteredthevanityofmygenerationofplasmaphysicists.Aswellas the idea that itwould takeus,‘themastersoftheUniverse’,justtwentyyearstodevelopathermonuclearreac-tor.Alas,bythemomentIwenttoworkattheIKI,Iwasmuchlessoptimisticaboutthe‘termoyad’.EvenbeforeIbegantoworkattheIKIandevenbeforemydeparturefortheAkademgorodokCity,mycommunicationwithBorisTverskoyhadbecomeabridgebetweengeneralplasmaphysicsanditsimplementationundertheconditionsofspace.Borisbecameastaffmemberoftheuniversityteam,ledbySergeyVernov��,engagedinsearchforenergyparticlesonsatelliteorbits.TverskoyintroducedmetoVernovandweseriouslydiscussedthequestionwhether instabilitiesof the ‘mirror’type could influence dynamics of radiation belts. Somewhat later, back in 1960, incollaborationwithV.Shafranov (currently,Academician, theEmeritusHeadof theDepartmentofPlasmaTheoryattheKurchatovInstitute��),wepredicted‘cyclotron’instabilityofanisotropicplasma. Itwas laterapplied to thedescriptionofboth theradiation belts and a number of other phenomena, which seemingly went far awayoutside the scope of conventional plasma-physical concepts (as, e.g., the so-calledgalacticshockwavesofcosmicrays).

In1958,thediscoveryofradiationbeltsturnedouttobearealspacedrama(andforsomepeople,perhaps,atragedyoflostpriority).KonstantinGringauz,oneofthosewhodirectlyparticipated inthoseevents, toldthat inthespringof that fatefulyearSergey Korolev was verifying the launch readiness of Sputnik-3 instrumentation atthe very lastmoment before the launch (itwas the first satellite to carry scientificequipment).Allthe‘science’payload,includingtheVernov’sdetectorofcosmicrays,werereadyforflight.However,theproblemwasthatatape-recorderusedtorecordthe instruments’ data failed.Nevertheless, Korolev gave ‘go’ to launch. The instru-mentsorbited theEarthmany timesbut thedataweredownlinkedonlywithin theBaikonurcommunicationpasszone.And,alas—itwaspreciselyonthissectionoftheorbitthatanabnormalpresenceofcosmicrayswasrecordedbuttherewas‘damnedobscurity’ontherestoftheorbit.

In a couple of months, a similar instrument of James Van Allen, installed on a USsatellite,capturedallthegeometryofradiationbeltsandpavedthewayforawhole

� SpaceResearch InstituteofUSSRAcademyofSciences (then;nowRussianAcademyofSciences).

�� AtD.N.Skobeltsyn InstituteofNuclearResearchof theMoscowStateUniversity (SINPMSU).

�� RussianScientificCenter‘KurchatovInstitute’

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lev zelenyRUSSIADirectoroftheSpaceResearchInstituteoftheRussianAcademyofSciences. Corresponding member of RAS. Professor of the MoscowInstituteofPhysicsandTechnology.DoctorofSciences(1987).

Bornin1948.GraduatedtheMoscowInstituteofPhysicsandTech-nologyin1972andworksintheSpaceResearchInstitutesince1972.Topscientistinthetheoryofcollisionlessplasma,magneticfieldre-connection,dynamicsofchargedparticles,magnetosphericphysics.

DeputyheadoftheInterballproject(1995–2000).ChairmanoftheWorkinggrouponSolar-TerrestrialPhysicsoftheInter-AgencyCon-sultativeGroupforSpaceScience(IACG,1997–2000).MemberoftheBureauofCOSPAR.

Awarded by State fellowship in the frame of support of prominentscientistsofRussianFederation(1993and1997).AwardofAlexandervon Humboldt Foundation.Awarded Officer’s Cross(Poland) for establishingscientificcontactsbetweenRussian and Poland.Laureate of the RussianFederation PresidentAward in the field ofeducation.

‘FIZTEkH’ – IkI – FuRTHER on, To THE ouTER SPACE

seriesofdiscoveries, fallingas if froma ‘cornucopia’, in thefieldof cosmicplasmaand,ingeneral,inthephysicsofthenear-earthspace.

Years have passed and ‘handling’ with cosmic plasma turned into a pretty routinebusiness.Manyeffects,whichwerepredictedtheoreticallybutrequiredtocreaterath-erexoticconditionstoperformlaboratoryexperiments,weremucheasierobservedinspaceexperiments.Forexample,theVEGAspacecraft’instrumentsdetectedlocalizeddepressionsofthemagneticfieldwhereitwasappropriate(evenwhenflyingnexttotheHalley’scomet)—beingevidentresultsofthatvery‘mirror’instability,theeffectsofcyclotroninstabilityofionsofthecometorigin,whencapturedbythesolarwind,andthecomet-relatedfrontedgeofcollisionlessimpactwaves.

GoingbacktothestoryoftheSputnik-3—nodoubt,theChiefDesigner�understoodeverything.Afewyearsthereafter,havingoncemetKonstantinGringauz,hedisclosedthesecretofthatunfortunatedecision.Inthemorningonthelaunchday,hereceivedatelephonecallfromN.S.Khruschev.HepassedarequestfromItaliancommuniststolaunchsomethingfortheirpartytobeabletoaddafewmillionofvotesduringtheparliamentaryelectionsinItaly.Sincethen,spaceandsciencewereheldhostagebypoliticsforalongtime!Asaresult,thatevidentadvantageintime,whichcouldhavebeenusedbytheSovietspacesciencemorethanonce,waslosttoagreatextent.

However, it should have become evident, where the bet would be placed, on theSputnik-2example.TheprioritywasplacedonthedogLaikaratherthanonscience(orevenanypracticalapplications).Wasn’t it a clear indicationofa futureendlesschainofmannedflights for thesakeofpoliticalprestige?The fact that, in thefieldofmannedflights,theUSAwiththeirshuttleswentsquasheventoagreaterextentcouldbejustarelativeconsolationforsomepeople.But, inanycase, incomparablygreaterfinancialresourcesallowedtheUSAtopursueaseriousscientificprograminparallel.Besides,theUSAsucceededininvestingalotintotheapplied(includingmil-itary)andcommercialuseofspace.

While forus,at the IKI,with its relativelysmall scientificoutreachwithinourowncountry,abroadinternationalcooperationbecameawayoutofacrisisatacertaintimeperiod.WithintheVEGAProject,weweresuccessful inmakinguseofscienti-ficpayloadsdevelopedinninecountries.ItsJointManagingBoardwasabletoaffecteventheengineeringandtechnicaldecisionsmadeontheProjectasawhole.

Nowadays,fiftyyearsafterthelaunchoftheFirstSputnik,theleadingfrontoffun-damental space science has moved far beyond near-earth space. Everything thathastodowithradiationbelts,magnetospheresandsolarwindhasbecomeasubjectforappliedstudies.ThesearchforsignsofexolifeonMars,intheSolarsystemand,hence,everywherehascurrentlybecomeafocalpointofscienceinterests.Thistopicwillbeattractingtheattentionofresearchworkersforalongtime,aslongasintel-ligentlifesurvivesonourownplanet.Andwithintheframeworkofspaceastronomy,theHubblespacetelescopeshowedhowprocessestakingplaceintheUniversecanbevisualized.

Thoseofus,whoremain ‘theGuardianAngels’ofplasmaphysics,hadtowithstandthestrokesoffateonthe‘prestigeofourprofession’alreadytwice:atfirst,itwasthediscoveryofDarkMatterandthen,relativelyrecently,ofDarkEnergy,beingthemaindominantoftheUniverse,whichleftaverymodestfractionofmerely4percentfortheplasmastateofmatter.

� S.P.Korolev.

It took me long to begin writing this article.Ihave been struggling with answering the first question: ‘What memories do youhaveaboutthedayofOctober4,1957?’Ievenpeekedintomy3rd-formschoolday-book,which Imiraculously still retained,but thathistoricallymemorableweekdidnothaveany recordsother thanconventional teacher’s remarks: ‘Got in the teach‑er’sway’,‘Wasfidgetingduringthelesson’.So,Ihavetoadmitthattheeventwhichshaped my future, as well as that of billions of the Earth inhabitants, more or lessescapedmyattention.

Arealinteresttotheouterspacewasarousedlater.Itshouldbenotedthatthebookswritten by Ivan Efremov, Stanislaw Lem, Ray Bradbury and brothers Strugatskiyewerenolessimportantindoingthatthantheactualevents.ThelifeofapupilfromSchoolNo.167,theDegtyarnyPereulok,Moscow,wasrunninghappilyandsmoothly(ordid it only seemso?)and Iheard thefirst ‘reverberations’ofmy futureonly inApril,1961,whenhavingreturnedhomeafterclasses,Isawasmilingfaceofamanwearingapilot’shelmetonthescreenofanold‘KVN’TVset.IrememberbeingsurprisedbyhisfamilynameGagarin,whichbelongedtoaprinceratherthantoaproletarian.

By and large, by the moment of my graduation from another, already special-ized mathematical school, I had no doubts about which university to enter. Surely,itshouldbethe ‘Fiztekh’(theMPIT,shortfortheMoscowInstituteofPhysicaland

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Technology)–thefamous‘Rocket’FacultyofAerophysicsandSpaceResearch.Thatwasnotthebestyearforenteringauniversity.Theyearof1966wasthelastoneforKhruschev’sexperimentoneleven-yearsecondary-schooleducationandthe10th-and11th-formpupilssimultaneouslyfinishedschoolandcompetition(thoughusuallyhighenough)wasdoubled.Somepeopletriedtoscaremeoffbya ‘percentrate’,advisedtoenter ‘Mekhmat’ (theMechanicalandMathematicalDepartment)but, somehow,I instinctively understood that one cannot cheat one’s fate andwent to submitmydocumentstoacomfy,provincial townofDolgoprudny,which lookedlikeanythingbutasanctuaryofscience.

Sincethattimemylifewascloselyrelatedtothe‘Fiztekh’:atfirst,asastudent,thenasan lecturerand,currently,asaHeadofoneof it’sChairs. In fact,duringall thesubsequentyearsIhavebeenastaffmemberofonlytwoinstitutions:theMPITandtheIKISpaceResearchInstitute.

TheSpacePhysicsDepartmentwasfound-edonthebasisof theIKISpaceResearchInstitutein1969duetotheeffortsofGeor-gy Ivanovich Petrov, the then director oftheIKIInstituteandProf.LeonidLvovichVanyan,aDivisionDeputyHead.The IKIInstitute, founded in1965,was inneedofyoung specialists and, it should be men-tioned, the ‘Fiztekh’ Chair fulfilled thattasksuccessfully(andstillcontinuestodoit). Ibelieve that,at least,halfof thestaffmembersof the Institute are the ‘Fiztekh’alumniofdifferentyears.

It would be interesting to describe how Icame toworkat thatDepartmentand theIKI Institute (to characterize the man-ners of those times). As it often happens,the big-politics zigzags also changed thefuture of ordinary small people. On April14, 1969,my friend Volodya Parshev andIwent for awalk down springMoscow. Irecollected that on that day— the day ofMayakovsky’s tragical death — poets gettogether in the square named after him,recitepoems,andsingsongs.Ithadalwaysbeen a legal, almost formally authorizedevent. But the times had changed already— after the ‘Czechoslovak Spring’ the

authoritiessetto‘tightenthescrews’andthemilitiamenstartedtoscattertheillegal‘mob’ofpoetsandtheirlisteners.ParshevandIgotintotrouble.Wewerearrested,takenintoamilitiastation, theycapturedour identificationdataand letusgowithamitybut,asitturnedout,notexactly.

Thatautumn,thereappearedaletter,addressedtothe‘Fiztekh’,sentbycorrespond-ing official authorities containing a long list of theMPIT students, engaged in theanti-Sovietactivities.Ournamesdidnotmisstolandintothatlist.AtthattimeIwasastudentofadepartmentat theScientificResearchInstituteofThermalProcesses

GeorgyIvanovichPetrov

(NIITP, currently, theM.V.KeldyshResearchCenter),mostly engaged in classifiedprojects. There I began todealwithnuclear rocket engines— themost interestingprojectintheworld,asitseemedtomeatthattime.

TheDean’sOfficehadtoreacttoaletterissuedbysuchaseriousorganization.AfewstudentsmentionedinthelistweresentdownbutParshevandIgotincrediblylucky:wewere allowed to choose ifwewant to leaveor goover from the classified ‘base’toabrandnew‘unclassified’ChairofSpacePhysicsorganizedbyIKIwhichhadjustbegantorecruitstudents.

Very unwillingly, missing the NIITP Institute, we set forth in search for that new‘base’lostinanindustrialzone,surroundingthe‘Kaluzhskoye’subwaydepotatthattime.

Probably, it was only after the first lectures about solarwind (which unexpectedlyimmediately capturedmy imagination) that I stopped to feel distressed about thatalmost forcedtransitionandfullyplungedintonewtasks.Thecareersof thosestu-dentsfrommy‘Fiztekh’groupwhoremainedattheNIITPdidnotendupverysuc-cessfully—nuclearrocketengines,beingsowonderfulindrawings,turnedouttobepracticallyimpossibletotest.Onlynowthistrendhastakenmomentumagain,tryingtoundertakeasecondattempt.

TheveryfirstmonthsattheIKIInstituteamazedmebyfreemannersprevailinginacademicianinstitutions,bysharpdiscussionsconductedatseminars,beingalmostonthevergeofcorrectness,bysomestrangeatmosphereoffragmentationandiffer-entclanswhichwe,students,wereabletofeelimmediately.GeorgyIvanovichPetrov,thethenDirectoroftheIKIInstitute,hadafewmeetingswithus.Heimpressedusstronglyenough.Unfortunately,hedidnotdeliverlecturestousandIhavealmostnopersonalrecollectionsaboutG.I.Petrov�.

During itsfirstyears, theInstitutewasdwelling inhastilyconstructed ‘glass’build-ings–foursmallglass-coveredbuildings,usuallyintendedatthattimetohousehair-dresser’sparlorsordry-cleaners.ThesebuildingsarestillpresentintheyardoftheInstitute.OneofthemhousestheMoscowBranchoftheDepartmentofPhysicsandEnergeticsoftheMPIT,whereourbasedepartmentwastransferredin1976.

Construction of the large building, currently occupied by the Institute, was under-takeninthesameyearsbut,afterN.S.Khruschevlefthisposition,the ‘GoldenAge’ofspaceresearchintheUSSRwasover, itbegantobefinancedinthesamewayasotherfieldsofscience,andtheconstructionofthenewbuildingproceededatasnail’space.LegendhasitthatM.V.Keldysh,PresidentoftheRussianAcademyofScienc-es(atthattimeweonlybegantosuspectthathewasthatlegendary‘ChiefTheoreti-cianofCosmonautics’,referredtointhenewspapers),cutthatknotwithresolutenessinherentinhim:1/5ofthebuildingwasgivenovertotheInstituteofAppliedMathe-maticsandanother1/5,toanotherorganisation.Asaresult,by1973theconstructionwascompletedandthestaffmembersmovedtonewspaciousoffices.

Thefirstprecursorsof‘tectonicshifts’werefeltinthespringof1973,thereweremanydifferent rumorsbut sooneverythingwas clear:P.Z.SagdeevwasappointedanewdirectoroftheIKIInstitute(atthosetimedirectorswerenotelectedyet)andtheglo-riouseraof‘SturmundDrang’began.

� N.M. Astafyeva wrote about him in a book recently published by IKI Institute calledCountdown.

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179 RoaldZinnurovichSagdeev

OnecouldveryquicklyfeelthewindofchangeintheInstitute.Atthattime,Iwasthechairmanof theCouncil ofYoungScientists (CYS),managed to see thenewDirec-torandaskedhimtodeliveralectureforyoungscientists.Beforethat,attherequestof the CYS, such lectures were delivered by I.S.Shklovsky and Ya.B.Zeldovich.

Itseemed to me that Roald Zinnurovich(R.Z.)gotenthusiasticaboutthatideaandin a few days he delivered a lecture enti-tledSpecific Nature of Space Research inaconferenceroomcrammedfullbyyoungscientists,aswellasbyold-agedones.

The audience was taken aback by manyaspects of that delivery — the Institutewastobecomequiteadifferent,powerful,dynamiccenterofspacescience,aninitia-torofnewandboldspaceprojects,requir-ing self-sacrificing work and challengingefficiency of all the staff members. I stillhave snatches of the lecture notes and,reviewing them now, I got surprised onceagain—Institutemanaged tosuccessfullyimplement almost everything out of allthatwasplannedthenbyR.Z.

Gradually,asIunderstandnow,overcom-ingthetenaciousresistanceofbureaucratsof different levels and authorities, R.Z.managed to turn the Institute into a cen-terofinternationalcollaboration.Itbeganfrom the Soyuz-Apollo Project, in whichthe Institute mostly played the role of an‘unclassified’ umbrella for those spaceindustryfigureswhosenamesandactivity

weresecretatthattime,whiletheVegaProjectwasitsculminatingpoint.Itstillratesasthetopmostscientificachievementofourspaceexperiments.

WhenR.Z.cametoheadtheInstitute,italmostimmediatelybroughtaboutasharpturninmyscientificcareer:in1974IbecameapostgraduatestudentofAlbertAbuba-kirovichGaleevwhocametotheInstitutewithR.Z.UntilthatIdealtwithrather‘dry-ish’problemsof spaceelectrodynamicsbutalready inmyfifthorsixthyearsat theuniversityIwascharmedbythethenrapidlydevelopingnonlinearplasmaphysics.IscrutinizedthebooksbyV.N.Tsytovich,thelegendaryTriestearticlebyA.A.GaleevandR.Z.Sagdeev,articlespublishedbyCoppiandRosenbluth.OurencounterwithA.A.Galeevwasanothergoodluckevent,themoresothatatthebeginningitdidnotlookverypromisingatall.

A.A.Galeevwasappointedaheadofabignewdepartmentofspacephysicsat thattime.Attheendof1973,hemadeapresentationforhisnewteammembers.Ihavenoideawhatgotintomebut,havingjustundertakenaclosestudyofarecentlypub-lishedreviewbyA.A.GaleevandR.Z.Sagdeev,Idecidedtoprovethat ‘wewerenottarredwiththesamebrush’.Asaresult,Iattackedthespeakeraggressivelyenough(by the way, it was quite in line with the IKI manners) and asked him questionswhich,asitthenseemedtome,wereveryintricate.

PresentationwithOrderofHonourtoAcademicianA.A.GaleevbyPresidentofRussianFederationV.V.Putin

Perhaps, it was something more than just my imprudence that attracted the inter-estofAlbertAbubakirovich (A.A.), sincea coupleofmonths laterhe invitedme tohisofficeandgavemeaninterestingtasktosolveabout ion-cyclotroninstability inrecently discoveredmagnetospheric polar cusps. A.A. had never specifically taughtanythingeithermeorhisotherstudents:VolodyaKrasnoselsky,AlexanderNatanzon,

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andAndreySadovsky.Wemerelywatched, listenedandadoptedbothhis scientificandhumanways ofworking. Interestingly, recently enough, at oneof conferences,ourUS colleague, who did not know that V.Krasnoselsky used towork at the IKIInstitute,cameuptometosharehissurprise:‘It’sstrangethatyouandVolodyaaresosimilarinmakingyourpresentations,asifyouweretaughtbyoneandthesameperson’.

IwastotallyenthralledbytheworkwithA.A.GaleevsothatIpaidalmostnoatten-tiontootherprojectsledbyIKIInstitute(missionstoMarsandVenustonamejustfew).Itwasonlyinthemiddleof80’sthatIbegantobeinterested(thankstoOlegVaisberg)inotherplanetsofSolarsystem.

ItwasnoteasytoworkwithA.A.Hecaptured‘intheair’.Afterlisteningaboutanewresult,obtainedafterweeklyorevenmonthlystruggles,heguessedtheanswer inafewminutes,whichonecouldseeinhiseyes.

A.A.Galeevbecameadirector in1988,while Iwaselected(new ‘democratic’ timeshadcome)achairmanofthespacephysicsdepartment.Galeevhappenedtobecomeadirectorinthemostdifficulttimes:fourteenyearswhichcoincidedwiththeendofthe‘perestroika’anddisintegrationoftheUSSR,accompaniedbynumeroustragediesanddisasters.Thespaceindustrysufferedgreatdamagesaswell.Nowonder,ithadanunfavorableeffectontheInstitute.‘BrainDrain’began,thenumberofspaceproj-ects implementedat the IKI Institute,wentdownnoticeably.Themarket economybroughtthemajorityofscientistsonthebrinkofpoverty.

InAugust, 1991,due toA.A.Galeev the Institute adoptedanunambiguousattitudeduring the putsch, having refused to fulfill the ‘GKChP’ (the State Committee forNationalEmergency)directions.

ThenextyearswereshadowedbyalossoftheMars-96automaticmission,intowhichA.A.funneledalotofhisefforts.UndertheleadershipofA.A.,theInstitutemanagedto achieve serious successes. During those years, a few projects were successfullyrealized—theX-rayastronomystudieswereperformedbyusingtheGRANATspace-craft,whilethesolar-terrestrialphysicsresearchwasimplementedbyfourspacecraftoftheInterballProject.

The Interball Project became an important part ofmy scientific career. Already in1980,at theearliest stageof theproject,A.A. invitedme toparticipate in selectionofscientificexperimentsforit.In1982,athisrequest,Iorganizedascientificwork-shop in Plovdiv, devoted to the Project tasks,measurement procedures and selec-tionofthemostoptimalorbits.ThelaunchoftheInterballsatelliteswasbeingcon-stantly delayed. After the Soviet era was over, the Project was inherited by Russia,survivedduring the breakdowns andunifications of theparticipating countries buttheProjectscientificandhumanpotentialturnedouttobesostrongthat,eventually,in1995,havingovercomeallthefinancialandorganizationalobstacles,thefirsttwospacecraft:Interball-1andtheCzechMagion-4subsatellitewerelaunchedfromthePlessetsklaunchingpad. Itbecameabig victoryofscientists,engineers,technicians,preparingtheProjectinthemostdifficultpost-‘perestroika’years.DeputyDirectorofIKIGennadyMikhaylovichTamkovichplayedamostimportantpartinthisstruggleforlaunchofthefirstInterballProjectspacecraftin1995,andinthatofthesecondcouplein1996.Withouthisvitalpower,hisdriveandextensivecontactsbothamongtheRussianandtheUkrainianspaceBigLeagues,thesatellitescouldhaveneverlefttheshopsoftheS.A.LavochkinNPOScientific-ProductionAssociation.

Thesubsequentyears turnedout tobenoless difficult — the Project financing gotsuspended a few times, staff members ofa subcontractor, responsible for receiv-ingdownlinkeddataattheCenterofDeepSpace Communication in Eupatoria, wentonstrikes.Onceagain, thedrivingenergyof G.M.Tamkovich and the status of theProjectStateCommission,headedbyhim,assistedinovercomingthesedifficulties,aswell.TheProjectwassuccessfullycomplet-edin2001.TheInterballsatellitesbecameapartoftheinternationalfleetoftheISTPProgram(InternationalSolarandTerres‑trial Physics Program) and, in collabora-tionwiththeJapaneseGeotailsatelliteandtheUSWindandPolarspacecraft,alloweda unique number of new scientific resultstobeobtained.

Beginningfrom1988,Igotanexitpermitto travel abroad. My collaboration withspecialists from the Max-Planck-Institut(J.Buchner)andtheCaliforniaUniversity(MahaAshour-Abdalla,RayWalker,VahePeroomian)wasveryfruitful.Meetingtwoliving classics, E.N.Parker, the ‘Father’

of the solarwind theory, andJ.Axford,oneof the co-authorsof classical theoryofmagnetosphericconvection,wasununforgettableexperience.At theendof2002,IbecameaDirectoroftheIKIInstituteafterelectionsheldattheInstituteandbeingauthorized by the Department of Physical Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sci-ences. Almost 5 years have passed since that time. As usual, we havemanaged toachieve much less than we wanted and planned. The main mischief being that ourmain projects: Fobos-Sample Return, Spectr-RG, and Resonance are being post-ponednon-stop to still furtherduedates.Thehardware is gettingobsolete, peopleareloosingtheirenthusiasm,andourfriends-rivalsfromothercountriescatchuponusandget aheadofus.As thenew ten-yearFederalSpaceProgramwas launched,thereappearednewhopesthatduringtheseyearsourinstruments, installedonthevehiclesbeingpreparedattheS.A.LavochkinNPOScientific-ProductionAssociation,wouldfinallystartworkinginspace.

Howwillthespacesciencebedevelopingfurtheron?Inananti-utopiaReturnFromtheStarsbyStanislawLemmankindgotdisappointedaboutspaceexplorationandsetforthtocreateafullandcalmlifeontheEarth.Itisnotquitesciencefiction–infact, thatwasexactlyhowspaceandscience ingeneralwere treated in90’s (to tellthetruth,itdidnothelpthemajorityofoutcitizenstoachievehappylife).Ahumanbeingisacomplicatedcreature,forwhomjustbreadwouldneverbeenoughand,ascountedofffromOctober4,1957,spacehasbecomeanew(andachievable)horizon,aboundaryofunexploredandchallengingworldsforthehumanrace.

But, besides the Space, which is a symbol of challenge, giving romantic feelings ofnovelty and mystery, being of vital importance if not for each individual but for

NearthelaunchpadbeforeInterballspacecraftlaunch

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mankindas awhole, there is space, inparticular, our ‘Earthly’ near-the-earthone,whichwillbecomestillmoreandmorea stageofactivitywherepracticalandevenhumdrumeventswill be takingplace.Here, there is a certaindeep-seateddialecti-calrelationshipbetweenhigh-styleromanticismandearthlypragmatics.Theformeralwayspaysback(butnotimmediately)andbringsaboutrealpracticalresults.Thosecountries,which layaclaim to leadership,alsoneedambitiousspaceprojects. It isnotfornothingthatduringtherecentdecadetherewereafewcountrieswhichsimul-taneously announced their plans of exploration and even colonization of the MoonandMars.

Itisdoubtfulthattherewouldbeanyspacetasksthatrobotsoftomorrow(atleast,thedayaftertomorrow)wouldnotbeabletosolve.Buttherewouldalsobeaplacefor a man there. Because the mere fact that the chess world champion suffers adefeat fromachesssupercomputerdoesnotstoppeople fromplayingchess!With-outcompetingwithrobotsbutrelyingontheirassistance,peoplewouldlaunchstillmoreriskyspacemissions,perhaps,notforthesakeofsciencesomuchbutratherforthemselves,fortheirownself-affirmation.Therefore,Itreatspacetourism,whichisnegatedbymymanycolleagues,withunderstanding. It ‘humanizes’ space,make iscloserandmoreunderstandable.But itwouldbe incorrect to letonlymultimillion-airesenjoythisopportunity.EachEarthinhabitantiseligibletohis/herownchance,evenatinyone,toperformsuchaflight.Maybe,itwouldbeworthwhiletoconsiderasystemoflotteries,contests,andyouthOlympiads,thechampionsofwhichwouldwintheright(afterappropriatemedicalexaminations)tosuchatravel,evenifitisashortone.

E.N.Parker,L.M.Zeleny,I.Axford

Asforresearchcarriedbyautomaticspacestations,theywouldbecomestillmoreandmorespecialized.Ibelievethatwithtimealmostallthespaceexperimentsoninfra-red,ultraviolet,X-rayandradioastronomywouldbeimplementedfromapermanentbase installedon theMoon.Here,myopiniondiffers fromthatof someofmycol-leagues,sinceIcanseeno incentive forextractionof raremetalsontheMoon, thelessso,forfreezingofmicroscopicamountsofhelium-3isotopeoutoflunarsoil.ButtheMoonPolarRegions,apparently,containingconsiderableamountsofwater ice,mightbecomeawonderfulplatformforaninternationalastrophysicalobservatory.

Another trend in developing research space vehicles (in particular, those intendedfor localmeasurements)will dealwithminiaturization.Perhaps,nanotechnologies,whichhavebecomeparticularlypopularnow,wouldplayitsparthere.But,itshouldbementionedthatspaceengineeringspecialistshavebeendiscussingnanosatellites(≤10kg)foraverylongtime.Thisclassofsatelliteswouldformthebasisforaspacemeteorological fleet (~afew hundreds of SC), intended for monitoring and fore-castingof ‘spaceweather’.Sofar,westillmanagetoarrangeareasonablysufficientnomenclatureofinstrumentsonlyonasomewhatheavierclassofSC,beingmicrosat-ellites.TheChibismicrosatellite(≤50kg),beingpreparedforthenext-yearlaunchbyspecialistsoftheIKIInstitute,theMoscowStateUniversity(MSU)andtheP.N.Leb-edevPhysicalInstitute,alsobelongstothisclass.It’schiefgoalwillbetostudyveryfinephysicalprocesses,accompanyingtheonsetofalightningdischargeandgenera-tionofsufficientlypowerfulsurgesofthe‘Earth’gamma-radiation.

There is anotherfield,which I believewouldpass through a rebirth in thenearestyears—Imeanactiveexperiments inthenear-earthspace.Thenear-earthspaceisaperfectplasma-physicslaboratoryfilledwithhot,almostcollisionlessplasma.Hereitispossibletostudymanyphysicalprocesses,whichareofprincipalimportanceforcreationofcontrolledthermonuclearfusionreactors,e.g.abnormaltransferprocess-esplayingaveryimportantpartattheboundaryoftheEarthmagnetosphere,aswell.Now,whenweunderstandthestructureanddynamicsofthewholenear-earthplas-maconfigurationmuchbetterthaninthe70’s,perhaps,itishightimetogobacktoperformingcontrolledexperimentsinit: injectionofbeamsofparticles,wavepack-agesandgasclouds.

And,finally,thelastcomponentoftheinventoryoffuturesciencespaceplatforms–complicatedmultifunctionalsystemsforstudyingatmospheres,surfacesandinternalpropertiesofallyetunknownsmallandlargebodiesoftheSolarsystem.Inthiscase,one cannot get alongwith small vehicles and remotemethods. The S.A.LavochkinNPO Scientific-Production Association has undertaken development of landingmodulesonceagain. Ihope that,alreadyduring the lifetimeof thecurrentgenera-tion,theselandingmoduleswouldbringusnewdatafromthesurfacesofMercury,Europe,IoandotherintriguingplanetsandsatellitesofourSolarsystem.

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Mikhail panasyukRUSSIADirectoroftheSkobeltsynInstituteforNuclearPhysics,LomonosovMoscowStateUniversity(SINPMSU),since1992.DoctorofScience.

BorninMoscowin1945.

AdiplomainPhysics(MSU,1969).DoctoratethesisonringcurrentsandEarthionradiationbelt(1988).

Expert in physics of cosmic rays and magnetosphere of the Earth.Chairmanof theSpacePhysicsDepartmentat theFacultyofPhys-ics,MSU.

Awarded the MSU Lomonosov Prize(1999).HonouredhighereducationexecutiveofRussiasince1998.

RAdIATIon REFlECTIonS

ourcardashedalongthenew‘concrete’road—abeltroadroundMoscow.TheIndiansummersurroundinguswascharming.Quiteofasudden,therethunderedfromthespeaker,‘Moscowspeaking…TASSannounce-ment…’ThatwasLevitancommunicatinghotnewsoftheSecondartificialEarthsat-ellite(Sputnik-2)launch.Myfatherstoppedthecarandwebecameallears.

NomorethanafewweekspassedaftertheFirstSputniklaunch,sothenewssoundedincredible.IttookSovietdesignersaboutthirtydaystoflyanotherman-madedeviceintospacecarryingadog inside.The life inthecountryseemedtobeontheeveofgreat changes,we felt ready towitness themost daring fantasts’ dreams of space-flightscomingtrue.

Now that I lookbackat thepast trying tofigureouthow it couldhappen that justtwelve years after a devastating war, with empty stores and total lack of comfort,boldest enterprises thatmight be beyond the present generation’s capacity provedtobepossible.Themainofvariousanswers is that in those timespeople lived inaspecial atmosphere imbued with hope, expectations and enthusiasm. They stronglybelieved that their knowledge and labour were able to transform their country, tomakeitastateworthbeingproudof.

There isnodoubt that theFirstSputnik launch—aswellasnuclearandhydrogenbombexplosions,thefirstjetlinerflight,nuclearsubmarineandnuclearice-breaker(all these—withinonedecade!)– encouragedourpeople’s lofty spirits. I am sureitwasthisspiritofcreationthatgeneratedallincredibleachievementsofthefifties.Peoplefeltproudoftheircountry.

Iwasinthe5thgradethenandcertainlycouldn’tseriouslythinkovermyfuturepro-fession.However,thefactthatmyfatherwasaphysicist,alongwithreallystunning

spaceeventsofthelatefiftiesandearlysixties,determinedmyoccupationalchoice.Itwasablessedtimeforthescienceofphysics:thenuclearprogram,thermonuclearresearches,spaceachievements—schoolstudentscouldhardlyremainindifferenttoallthese.Afewyearspassed,andwhenSergeyVernov(hewasthenCorrespondingMemberandlaterbecameAcademicianoftheAcademyofSciences),headofCosmicRayChairatthePhysicalDepartmentofMoscowStateUniversity,askedme(whileIwasapplyingtojoinhischair), ‘Whatwouldyouliketodo?’—Ianswered,‘Prima‑rycosmicrays’,beingnaivelypositivethatsincetheywere‘primary’,theyexistedinsomeplacefarawayfromtheEarth—andIwouldbeallowedtoparticipateinsatel-liteexperiments.

Andthatwasthecase—Iwasallowed.ButassoonasIgotabsorbedinthework,IrealizedhowfarIwasfromunderstandingthecosmicrayclassicalstudies.Isetaboutradiationbelts.

Iwaslucky,becausecoryphaeiofthisscience—B.A.TverskoyandV.P.Shabansky—workedinMoscowUniversityInstituteofNuclearPhysics,whileS.N.Vernovwithhisirrepressibleenergyprovidedatmospheremostfavorableforcreativeactivities.Ver-nov’sseminarsalonewereinvaluable—inhisfuggyoffice,withchronicallydisputingtheoristsandexperimentersstrivingtoenricheverybodywithnewempiricresults.

I’llnever forget theyearsofmypost-graduatestudy. Itwasmysecondpost-gradu-ateyearthatImanagedtolaunchmyfirstinstrumentonboardofthespacecraft.Myfirstvisittothelaunchingsite—Plesetsk,topreflight-readinesstest,wasalsoetchedforeverinmymemory.Inmysuit-caseIhadmyownradiationmeasuringdevicethatinacoupleofdayswastobeinspace.Highspiritsisnotthewordformycondition—Ifeltreallyeuphoric.AndofcourseIcouldn’tcompletemyprogramwithoutencoun-teringadventures…

…Afreshmorning,groundandtreesarefrostywhite.Twofiguresaresneakinguptotherocket launchsite.That’smypartnerandme–againsttherules,wedecidedtoavoidcompulsorypre-launchevacuationfromthehotelandwitnessthehugeSoyuztake-off.

Westoodona steep riverbank leaningagainstagiantpine-tree.TheYemtsa-riverflewunderneath. Itbegandawning. In frontofus,ascloseas300metersorso,onthelaunchpad,therocketintherisingskeinoffire-smokedominatedoverthewholeplace.Itwasanunforgettableview…

Count-downstarted.Acoupleofminutesbeforelaunchwebegantomovebacktryingtohidebehindthepine-tree…But…therocketdidnottakeoff.Soonwerealizedthatsomethingwaswrongwithit.Itstruckus:whatifitblowsup?Butnothinghappened:thelaunchfailed.Mydevicedidnotfly.Leavingthetaigaweranintoapatrol.Hoursofquestioningandexplanationsinthemilitarysecretserviceofficelayahead.Lateron,sleepinginmyhotelroom,Isuddenlyfeltthatmybedwas…moving.Itwas–atlast–therocketlaunch…

* * *If now we try to analyze events of the early

spaceera,theylookshockinglyamazing—believeme,Idonotexaggerate!Iamnottalkingof technicalachievements—theywillbeassessedbyexperts:designersandengineers.Scientificresultsobtainedat theearlieststageofspaceresearchwereon

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thehighestworldlevel.Justrecall:radiationbelts,solarwind,magnetosphere…AllthesewereaccomplishedwithinafewyearsaftertheFirstSputniklaunch.Moreover,consideringinitialresearchesof,say,theEarthradiationbelts,wewillseethattheo-retical comprehensionof theirnature (main sourceoriginandparticle accelerationmechanisms)wasachievedinanunexampledshortperiodoftime.Thefirstmecha-nismof trappedradiation formationbasedonalbedoparticlegenerationbycosmicrayswashypothesizedalmostatthesametimebySoviet(S.Vernov,A.Lebedinsky)andAmerican(F.Singer)scientistswithinafewmonthsafterthetrappedradiationdiscovery.Andcomprehensivetheoryofparticletransportandaccelerationinageo-magnetictrappingregionwasdevelopedjustafewyearsafterthefirstsatelliteshadbeenlaunched.Allradiationbeltphysicsaccomplishmentsachievedsincethenarenomorethanadditionsandspecificationstoexperimentalandtheoreticalresultsofthefirstyearsofspaceexploration.Eventhoughsomeofthoseadditionsandspecifica-tionswereveryimportantandimpressive.

TheEarthmagnetosphereexplorationduringthefirstfifteenyearsofspaceeramadeagoodbasisforfurtherplanetexplorations.PioneerandVoyagerflightstotheSolarsystemouterplanetsmadeitpossibletodiscovermightymagnetospheresofthegiantplanets: Jupiter, Saturn,NeptuneandUranus.Theyall havehugemagnetospheresandofcourseradiationbelts–muchbiggerthanthoseoftheEarth.Buthowdiffer-enttheyprovedtobe!Thiswasoneofthemostremarkablediscoveriesoftheseven-tiesandtheeighties.

Butourplanet,too,keptanumberoflarge-scaleblankspotsforresearchersto‘cover’during thoseyears.Forexample,discoveryof terrestrial (ionospheric) trappedpar-ticle source could be mentioned in this context. It emerged that along with albedoparticles and solar plasma, the ionosphere alsofills themagnetosphere cavitywithparticles,thuscompetingwithanothermightysource–theSun.Thisfacthadbeenwellcomprehendedmuchlater,intheseventies–eighties.

Butnevertheless,wecansaythatthemainstageofdevelopingthephysicsofparticlescapturedinthenear-earthmagnettrapfellonthemiddleofsixties,withinjustafewyearsafterthespaceerabegan.

Whydid itbecomepossible?One—and inmyopinion theprincipal—reasonhasalreadybeenmentionedhere.Itiseverybody’senthusiasmthatwasanintegralpartofbothSovietandAmericanscientists’work.

Thesecondreason is that thenewspacescience—spacephysics—attracted,bothintheSovietUnionandintheUnitedStates,alotofthoroughlyeducatedandhighlyqualifiedexpertsinplasmaphysics,andmorespecifically—innuclearandthermo-nuclearfields.Thementionedcircumstancesundoubtedlycontributedtoimpetuousprogressofspacephysics.

But there is onemore aspect— themilitary one.Throughout thefirst years of thespaceera,fundamentalinvestigationsproceededinparallelwiththearmsracebothcountries—theUSSRandtheUSA—wereinvolvedin.Andinterdependenceofthesetwovectors,theirreciprocalsupportandexchangeofresultsplayedasignificantpartinextraordinarilyfastprogressofbothscientificstudiesandarmedforcesofthetworivalcountries.

Thisisastonishing,buttrue:itwasnothingbutatomicbombspaceexplosionof1958thatarmedphysicswith thefirstcogentexperimental confirmationofpossibilityof

charged particle capture in the magnetic trapping region. Unfortunately, the firstatomicweapontestbroketheexistingenvironmentalbalanceforyears—thenaturalinnerradiationbeltremainedbeyondthereachofexplorersforseveralyearsfollow-ingthoseexplosions.

ProfessorJ.VanAllenrecollectedthatupto1959Americanphysicistshadnottakenitimprobablethatallradiationbeltswereactuallyafter-effectsoftheUSSRandtheUSAnucleartests.

Iwouldalsoliketomentionanotherremarkableexampleofcloseconnectionbetweendefenseindustryandfundamentalresearchesseeminglyquiteirrelativetoit.

Unexpectedly,inthesixtiesSovietscientistswereaffordedanopportunitytousemil-itary rockets for cosmic ray exploration. Thatwas the periodwhennuclear-missilepotentialofthetwosuper-states–theUSSRandtheUSA–increasedinespeciallyfuriouspace.Ballisticmissiletestswereconductedoneafteranother.

Anditwasduringthe ‘coldwar’ thattwoMoscowUniversityscientists—S.VernovandN.Grigorov— succeeded in persuading themilitary authorities to use experi-mentalequipment(ionizationcalorimeters)insteadofsimulatednuclearwar-heads.Theirproposalwasaccepted,andscientistsgainedareallyuniqueandunexampledopportunitytolaunchseveraltonsofhardwareforhighenergyparticleexploration.Theydidnot fail to takeadvantage—Sovietscientistsflewfourdifferentmodifica-tionsofProtonexperimentalspacecraft.Tillsixtiestherehadremainedablankspotin thecosmicrayenergyspectrum:anareanotfilledwithexperimentaldata—theone for energy values below 1015eV. Proton experiments for the first time coveredbroadbandwidthparticle spectrum—1011 to 1015eV. Itwasagreat triumphof theSovietscience.Noonehaseverconductedsimilarexperimentsofar!

…The first discovery of Soviet and American scientists that goes back to the verybeginningofspaceexploration,namelytheEarthradiationbeltdiscovery,essentiallychangedtheconceptionoftheouterspace.Itshistory,asIseeit, isarealdramaofspacepioneering.InNovember,1957intheSovietUnionandinJanuary–February1958 in theUnitedStates,physicists received thefirst information fromnear-earthorbits, but both Vernov’s, and Van Allen’s groups failed to correctly interpret theobserved phenomenon based on the first experimental data. In their space experi-mentalworktheyencounteredanabsolutelyunknownnaturalphenomenon—highenergy charged particle flux trapped in geomagnetic field. But they did not realizethatduring theirfirst experiments.Vernovwroteof solarflareparticles,whileVanAllenspokeoflow-energyauroralradiation.Itoftenhappensthattheoriginalexperi-menteventuallyleadstoquiteunexpectedresults,butinterpretationoftheresultsissometimesinfluencedbytheexistingscientificnotions.

Nevertheless, by themiddle of 1958, i.e. just a fewmonths after the beginning ofspaceexperimentation,webetterunderstoodphysicsofthenewphenomenon.Actu-ally, it was the third Soviet satellite and American Explorer experiments as well asthe discovery of the first physicalmechanism (albedo neutron decay) thatmade itpossibletoexplainthephenomenonofagianttrapcapturingchargedparticlesneartheEarth.

Aboard the third Soviet satellite launched on May 15, 1958, a scintillation detec-torflewalongwithotherMoscowUniversityInstituteofNuclearPhysicshardware.Itwasthedetectorthatprovedtheexistenceoftwoseparateareasinthenear-earth

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space:outerelectronbeltfilledwithelectronsofabout100keVorhigher,andinnerprotonbelt,itsenergybeingmuchhigherthanthatoftheouterone(about100MeV).Besides,analtitudedependenceofthestreamswasdiscovered,provingthatthepar-ticlesarecapturedinthemagnetictrap.

Nowadays it seems obvious that the first Soviet and American space experimentsmutuallycomplementedeachother.Butinviewofspecificinternationalrelationsofthosedays,anyinternationalcooperationwasoutofquestion,andspacephysicswasspringing up in the environment of vehement competition between scientists ofthetwosuper-states.ItwasundoubtedlyaNobelresult,butthehistorypickeditsownway.

IhavearecollectionofdebatesatVernov’soffice—forme,ayoungstudentthen,itwasactuallykindoffamiliarizationwith‘bigscience’.AdecadepassedaftertheEarthradiationbeltdiscovery,andscientists involvedinMars interplanetaryspaceprobeexperimentmetat theofficeofInstituteofNuclearPhysicsdirector.Theyreviewedradiationdataobtainedonthestageofapproachtotheredplanet.NoMarsradiationbeltswerefound—theplanetmagneticfieldistooweak.

Now,afteralapseofmanyyears,IthinkIcanunderstandemotionsandexpectationsofthosewhowerethenatVernov’soffice—aswellasofVernovhimself.Andindeed,ifatleasttracesofMarsradiationbeltshadbeendiscoveredthen,itwouldhavebeenasufficient‘compensation’forSovietscientistsaftertheirnotquitesuccessfulexperi-mentaboardthesecondsatellitein1957.Nature,however,didn’tgiveourSolarsys-temmateamightymagneticfieldcapabletoholdchargedparticles.

In this regard,VanAllen— strange as itmay seem—proved to be luckier: in themiddle of seventies he launched (once again, years afterExplorer-1!)Geiger coun-teraboardPioneer-10anddiscoveredJupiterradiationbelts—thesecondaftertheEarth’s ones.Anyway, their existencewas pretty predictable— Jupiter possesses averystrongmagneticfield,andithadbeenkindofcommonknowledge.

* * *What are future development trends for the

spacephysics—andinparticularforradiationfieldandcosmicrayinvestigationsIhavebeenreflectinguponinthisarticle?BynomeansamIgoingtoprophesythattheGoldenAge of this sciencewill be followed by exponent of recession. I believethatanequallyinterestingphasebegan—aphaseofapplications.Indeed,weknowalotaboutradiationenvironmentnearbyourplanet,inthevicinityofotherplanetsandininterplanetaryspace.Weknowcharacteristicsofradiationbelts,galacticandsolarcosmicrays.Butpotentialoffuturemissionradiationconditionestimation,i.e.offorecast,isstilllimited.Theproblemisthatradiationfieldtemporalvariationpat-ternshavebeen insufficientlyexploredso fare—weatherwespeakofchargedpar-ticlestrappedbymagneticfield,orenergeticparticlesacceleratedduringsolarflares.Exhaustivesolutionof thisproblemcanberathercreationofglobalspacecraftnet-work— radiation hazardmonitors located on different distances within the helio-sphere, than interpretationof experimentaldataandmakingphysicalmodels.Thistask isonlyadequate forseveralstates.Without thiscooperationneither long-termMarsexpeditions,norsettlingtheMoonseemtobepossible.

Nor can I regard as complete the space physics section related to its fundamentalpart. The theme of particle acceleration as well as correlation between active phe-

nomena on the Sun and inside planet magnetospheres, i.e. solar-magnetosphereinterrelation, should start sounding differently. This part remains ‘immature’ anditwillrequireyearsofinvestigationsandfavourableenvironmenttocomenearertothenextstageofperceivingthistinypartoftheUniverse—ourSolarsystemwithitsplanetsgoingroundthestarclosesttous—theSun.

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stamatios M. kRIMIGIsUSAAcademician, Chair of Science of the Space Academy of Athens,Greece. Emeritus Department Head, Space Department, AppliedPhysicsLaboratory/JohnsHopkinsUniversity,USA.

PrincipalInvestigatoronseveralNASAspacecraft,includingVoyag‑ers-1and-2totheOuterPlanetsandtheVoyagerInterstellarMis‑sion,andtheCassinimissiontoSaturnandTitan.

Dr. StamatiosKrimigis receivedhisM.Sc. (1963) andPh.D. (1965)in Physics from the University of Iowa. He is recipient of NASA’sExceptional ScientificAchievementMedal twice, is a Fellow of theAmericanPhysicalSociety,AmericanGeophysicalUnion,AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience,andAmericanInstituteofAeronautics andAstronautics, recipient ofCOSPAR’s Space Sci-enceAwardin2002,arecipientoftheBasicSciencesAwardoftheInternationalAcademyofAstronauticswherehechairstheBoardofTrusteesforBasicSciences.

yEARS oF REmARkAblE ACHIEvEmEnTS

– What do you remember about the 4th dayof October, 1957, and what were your feelings and thoughts? How has this eventaffectedyourlife?

Inthefallof1957,Iwasanincomingfirstyearstudent inElectricalEngineeringattheUniversityofMinnesotaInstituteofTechnology,notknowingmuchaboutengi-neering, andeven less about rockets, other thanwhat Ihad read inComicsbooks.Everythingwasnewanddifferent,andfascinatingabouttheworldoftechnology.So,Iwasill-preparedtounderstandwhatanartificialsatellitewas,letalonecomprehendandappreciateitssignificance.

I was, however, most impressed with the newspaper headlines. ‘SOVIET FIRESEARTHSATELLITEINTOSPACE;ITISCIRCLINGTHEGLOBEAT18,000M.P.H.;SPHERE TRACKED IN 4 CROSSINGS OVER US’ screamed theNew York TimesonSaturday,October 5, 1957.The launchwas topnewsonall televisionnetworks,all radio stations, and in every gathering on the campus, including the classroomsandlecturehalls.Needlesstosay,IbegantoreadeverythingaboutthesubjectthatI couldfind, andbefore long, I hadbecome a space enthusiast,without really rec-ognizing what a historic step in human history this was. Soon, I was attracted totheballoon investigationsofhighaltitude radiationbeingconducted in thePhysicsDepartmentbyProfessorsJohnWincklerandEdwardNey,and transferred to thatDepartment.Withinanotheryear,IwasbuildingionchambersasamemberofPro-fessorWinckler’s research teamthatwasengaged in the studyof solar cosmic raysthroughballoons,flownfromtheabandonedAnokaairportnearMinneapolis.Itwasan exhilarating experience and provided me the initial tools that served me well indesigningandbuildingdetectorsforspaceexperimentswithinthenextfewyears.

Myrealopportunitycamewhenastudentcommitteeinvited,atmysuggestion,Pro-fessorJamesVanAllenfromtheneighboringStateUniversityofIowa(SUI)togiveapubliclectureonthenewlydiscoveredRadiationBeltsencirclingEarth.HegaveacaptivatinglectureandthenvisitedProfessorWinckler’slaboratorywhereIwassit-ting atmybench assembling an ion chamber.He stoppedby, askedme to explainwhatIwasdoing,andtheninquiredifIhadconsideredgoingtoGraduateSchool.IsaidthatIhad,andhesuggestedthatIapplytotheStateUniversityofIowa.That’showIarrivedinIowaCityinSeptember,1961andbeganmygraduateworkinphysics.

TheUniversity’sPhysicsDepartmentwasaveryexcitingplace toworkat the time.Therewereseveraldatasetsfromspacecrafttoworkon,andnewmissionopportu-nities for answeringmany of the scientific questions thatwere generated from theanalysesoftheearlydata.IfinishedmyMastersthesis inlate1962ondatacollect-ed fromadetectorflownby theSpacePhysicsGroupat theAppliedPhysicsLabo-ratory(APL)oftheJohnsHopkinsUniversity(GeorgePieperandCarlBostrom)onthe first SUI-built satellite (Injun-1). Immediately thereafter, Dr. Van Allen askedmetobuilda ‘solidstate’detectorforthefirstNASAmissionstoMars(Mariners-3and -4) to look forMartian radiation belts. In addition, there was an opportunitytofly an instrumenton theSUI-built Injun-4 (Explorer-25) satellite and I thoughtofdesigning adetector to attempt to answer thequestionof the sourceof theVanAllenBelts:wasitthesolarwind,theionosphere,orsomecombinationofthetwo?AllthreespacecraftwerelaunchedinNovember,1964–anamazinglyshorttimebytoday’s standards.The shroudofMariner-3 did not detach, and the mission was afailure(myfirstandonlydisappointmentformanyyears);Mariner-4succeededandreachedMarsinJuly1965(noradiationbelts�,butdiddiscoversolarelectronemis-sions��);Injun-4succeededanddiddiscovertrappedHenuclei��.

Well,aftermanymoremissionsatIowa(Mariner-5,OGO-4,Injun-5,Explorers-33(IMP-D)and-35(IMP-E)andsincethefallof1968atAPL(Explorers-43,-45,Voy‑agers-1, -2, AMPTE Charge Composition Explorer, Galileo, Ulysses, NEAR, ACE,TIMED,MESSENGER,New Horizons, STEREO), I can truly say that theSputniklaunchindeedchangedmylife.Iwasfortunatetobeattherightplace,attherighttimetoengageinoneofmankind’sgreatestadventures,theexplorationofthespacefrontier.Thiswasa terrificprivilege, forsomeonebornonasmall island inGreece(Chios),toparticipateintheadventureofexploringeveryoneofthe(eight)planets,andwithamissiongoingtotheninth(untilrecently)planet,Pluto.Nonecouldaskforamorefulfillingdreamtocometrue.

’— Howwasthiseventreflectedindifferentspheresofhumanactivity;ourworld‑view, scientific and technical progress, international relations, conditions of life,humanpsychology,culture?

Onecouldwriteanessayabouteachofthesesubjects.Forthesakeofbrevity,Iwillcomment ononly someof these.Clearly, humanity’sworld viewhasbeen changedforever.Sputnikanditssuccessorspacecraftdemonstratedthatbordersaremeaning-

� AllenVanJ.A.,FrankL.A.,KrimigisS.M.,HillsH.K.AbsenceofMartianradiationbeltsandimplicationsthereof//Science1965.V.149.P.1228–1233.

�� AllenVanJ.A.,KrimigisS.M.Impulsiveemissionof~40keVelectronsfromthesun//J.Geophys.Res.1965.V.70.P.5737–5751.

�� KrimigisS.M.,AllenVanJ.A.Geomagneticallytrappedalphaparticles//J.Geophys.Res.1967.V.72.P.5779–5797.

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lesswhenviewedfrom300kilometersaltitude,andtherewasnothinganyonecoulddoaboutthat.Ourvulnerabilityandnakednesstothepeeringeyesfromtheskyandtolisteningearsdemonstratedtheglobalcontextofhumanity’sexistence.Overall itexacerbatedthesenseofinsecurity,especiallyintheUnitedStates.

The first reaction at the governmental level was actually very positive. The SovietUnionhaddemonstrateditstechnologicalprowess,andtheUSfelttheneedtoredou-ble its efforts in scientific and technical education at all levels. I was one of thou-sandsofbeneficiariesbybeingselectedforaNationalDefenseEducationFellowship(NDEA)tocontinuemygraduatestudiesinphysicsatthePh.D.level.Opportunitiesfor graduates in engineering,mathematics, physics, and technical fields in generalwereplentiful.Government-fundedresearchprogramsproliferated,notjustforspacebutalsoformanytechnicalareasacrossalldisciplines.Thus,thelaunchofSputnikcausedagreatleapinresearchanddevelopmentthatwouldnothaveoccurredoth-erwise.Theresultingtechnologicalprogressisatthefoundationoftoday’seconomicdevelopmentthroughouttheworld.

Butthemostprofoundimpactwasthatoninternationalrelations,especiallyamongthethensuperpowers,theUSandtheUSSR.Eachwasvyingforsupremacy,andeachvieweddemonstrationsoftechnologyasatoolinassertingtheirsuperiorityasasocialandeconomicsystem.TheUSSR’saccomplishmentwithSputnikcausedare-exami-nationintheUSofmanyassumptionsonitscapabilities.Thesenseofinvulnerabil-ity, being on a different continent, was shattered; the potential for nuclear weapondeliverythroughhighspeedrocketswasnowanear-termrealityforbothsidesofthecoldwarconflict.Theinabilitytohideforcebuildupsandmilitarybasesfromspaceimaginghadasoberingeffectontheconductofinternationalaffairs.Althoughtheseassessments were slow in being realized, they ultimately contributed to stability inthe nuclear standoff, in that neither side would develop an advantage without theother’sknowledge.Thusspacebecameasubstituteasanavenueforcompetitionanddiplomacybecametheonlyviableavenueinconflictresolutionfortheremainderofthe20thcentury. It also openedup scientific exchangesbetween theUSSRand theUS.IrememberwellmyfirstvisittotheUSSRin1969attheinvitationofAcademi-cianS.N.Vernov for a conferenceat the IoffePhysico-Technical Institute in (then)Leningrad.Therewereonlyafewscientistsfromthewest(H.Alfvén,K.G.McCrack-en,W.R.Webber,J.R.Winckler,D.J.Williams)andwehadanexcellentsetofdiscus-sionsandthefirstcomparisonsofsolarenergeticparticledatafromUS�andUSSRsatellites.

Finally,theimpactonthelivesofpeopleeverywherewasprofound.Itwasmanifestedfirst insatellitecommunications,but itspreadquicklytootherapplicationssuchasweatherforecastingandnavigation,tonamejustafew.Imagescouldtravelaroundthe world at nearly the speed of light, and watching sport events a continent awaybecame commonplace. Live dispatches changed the way broadcast news was deliv-ered,andtheworldbecamea‘globalvillage’indeed.Developingstormsweretrackedfromspace,andpeopleontheirprojectedpathwereevacuatedsafely.Shipsatseanolongerneededthesunandthestarstonavigatewithgreatprecision.Distanceeduca-tionlearningwasestablishedformanyoftheworld’sremoteareas.Nopersonontheglobeneededtofeelisolatedanymore.

� KrimigisS.M.ObservationsoflowenergysolarprotonswithMariners-4and-5//TrudiMez-dunarodnovoSeminara,Proc.oftheIoffePhysico-TechnicalInstitute,AcademyofSciencesoftheUSSR/Ed.G.E.Kocharov.Leningrad.1969.P.43–86.

Conversationwith Academician S.N.Vernov outside the Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute inLeningradduringthemeetingJune3–7,1969.Fromleft,frontrow:G.Kocharov,K.Gringauz,

J.Winckler,I.Podgorny,D.J.Williams,S.N.Vernov,S.M.Krimigis,K.G.McCracken

WhatIhavecitedaboveareafewofthedirectapplicationsofspace,withoutrefer-ence to innovations of all types enabledby space technologies ranging fromearth-based communications to medical devices, computers, wireless phones, and micro-chipsofallkinds.Thus, the impactofSputnik’s launch has affected a multitude ofhumanactivitiesandhasbecomeapowerful,butseeminglyordinarycomponentofoureverydaylives.

’— Whathasmankindgainedandlostfromhavingbegunspaceresearch?

Inthinkingbacktoimagesfromspace,IrecallonetakenbyastronautsontheMoonastheEarth’sbluesphererisesabovethemoon’shorizon.Itisabeautifulpicture,notjustbecauseoftheblueEarth,butbecauseitshowshumanity’shomeasasingleenti-ty inthevastnessofspace.Nohumanbeingcould lookatthatpictureandstill feelthat their neighbor or person in another country or another continent is somehowaforeigneroranenemy.Itisreallyhardtomissthemessageofunityandonenessthatisconveyedfromthisimageforallhumanitytosee.This,Ibelieve,istheonekeymessagethatmankindhasgainedfromthespaceprogram.Whatmankindhaslostisourignoranceandsuperstitions:ourknowledgeoftheworldaroundushasincreasedimmensely,fromthesurfaceoftheEarthtotheedgeoftheUniverse.Themostvividdemonstrationisthatevenpopularbookstodayaretotallydifferentfromthoseofthedecadeof the 1950’s.Forexample inGoodwin’sbook (TheRealBookAboutSpaceTravel,byHalGoodwin),Venus isdescribedas ‘ayoungplanet,probablycoveredby hot swamps teeming with the kind of life that vanished from earth millions ofyearsago’,togetherwithanillustrationofa‘Venusianswamp’withamonsterwalk-ingthrough.EventhefirstflightofVenera-4in1967toVenusprovidedthephysicalmeasurementsthatdidawaywiththosespeculationsthathadmisledpeopleformanycenturies.CanalsonMarsareanotherexamplereferredtointhesamebook.

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’— Howwillspacetechnologiesbedevelopedinthenearandlong-termfuture?

Unfortunately,thecollectivebudgetsofspace-faringnationshavedecreasedsubstan-tiallyfromthepeaksofthe1960’s.Thisdecreasereflectsthefactthatspaceresearchis viewed as routine and politicians do not seek the necessary popular support toadvance space activities. This is very unfortunate, and has slowed down substan-tially thedevelopmentof space technologies in thenear term.Theendof the ‘coldwar’has contributed to this trend.So, theoutlook for the foreseeable future isnotencouraging,because the necessary investments aremade elsewhere, drivenby theclearneedforenergyresources,environmentalcleanup,andhealthresearch,amongotherthings.

Never the less thespaceenterprisecontinues tocapturepeople’s imaginations,andthere may well be a revival of interest in the intermediate term. The technologiesneeded formodeling newandbold initiatives, suchashuman travel toMars, com-prehensiveexplorationofEuropa,Titan,orTriton,anInterstellarProbe,etc.involvenuclearpowerandpropulsion.Becauseofbothfundingandsafetyconcerns,Idonotbelieve these technologies will be seriously developed until 2020–2030. So, theremaybeanotherburstofexplorationbythemiddleofthiscentury.Hopefully,human-itywillhavesolveda lotof itschronicandpressingproblems,suchaspoverty,dis-ease,energy,environment,overpopulationsoastobecomemoreinterestedinlook-ingoutwardagain.Perhaps,entrepreneurswillfindwaystomakeprofitsfromspace,andtheywillbegintopushthefrontier.Thatseemslikeaforlornhope!

Concluding Remarks

Inreflectingontheonsetof thespaceage,oneisstruckbythefactthatthe‘coldwar’playedapivotalrole.Itishardtoimaginethatthe heavy-lift rockets that enabled the launch of satellites and space probeswouldhavebeendeveloped,absentthearmsracedrivenbysuperpowercompetition.Per-hapssuchrocketswouldhavebeenbuilteventuallyevenwithoutthe ‘coldwar’,butitmayhavetakenmanymoreyears,andthebeginningofthespaceerawouldhavebeendelayed.Thus, inastrangeway, spacesciencehasbeen thebeneficiaryof the‘coldwar’,strangeasthatmaysound.Thereisnoquestion,however,thatthespaceage was an inevitable next step in the development of human civilization, and thatit has been tremendously beneficial for all of humanity. Thus, wemust salute thevisionaries andpioneers of the age:korolev, von Braun, Van allen, Vernov,andalltheircolleagueswhopursuedtheirdreamandpossessedtheimaginationandskillstomakeitcometrue.

Finally, it isworthcontemplatinghumanity’ssteps inaeronauticsandspaceduringthepastonehundredyears.Theflightof theWrightbrothersatKittyHawk,NorthCarolina,onDecember17,1903toanaltitudeofa fewmeters;somefiftyyears lat-er, the launch of Sputnik to orbitEarth at946kmaltitude; and recently�, the exitofVoyager-1fromtheSun’satmosphereattheTerminationShockonDecember16,2004atadistanceof14.1billionkmfromourhomeplanet.Whataremarkableonehundredyearsthesehavebeen!

� Decker R.B., Krimigis S.M., Roelof E.C., Hill M.E., Armstrong T.P., Gloeckler G., Ham‑ilton D.C., Lanzerotti L.J. Voyager-1 in the Foreshock, Termination Shock and Heliosheath//Science.2005.V.309.P.2020–2024.

Anatoly CherepaschukRUSSIADirector of the Sternberg Astronomical Institute, Lomonosov Mos-cowStateUniversity(SAIMSU).DoctorofScience.AcademicianoftheRussianAcademyofSciences.Expertinastrophysics.

DepartmentDeputyChairmanintheFacultyofPhysics,MSU

HeadofRussian leadingscientificschool inphysicsofclosebinarystellarsystems.

Deputy Editor-in-Chief of Astronomy Magazine and internationalmagazineAstrophysicsandSpaceScience,FellowoftheInternationalAstronomicalUnion,vice-presidentoftheEuropeanAstronomySoci-ety(2000–2005),FellowoftheRoyalAstronomicalSociety,DeputyChairmanoftheAstronomyCouncil(RussianAcademyofSciences).

AwardedtheLomonosovawardatMSU,theBelo-polskyawardfromtheRussianAcademyofSciences

STERnbERg ASTRonomICAl InSTITuTE And THE bEgInnIng oF SPACE ExPloRATIon ERA

InthebeginningoftheInternationalGeophysi-cal Year (1957–1958) the launch of a scientific satellite was announced. A net ofgroundobservationstationswasbuildwhichenabledtomonitortheflightofthesat-ellite,topredictitsmotionandcalculateitsorbit.�

Astronomerswerealwaysattractedbytheideaandpossibilitytostudyradiationfromastronomicalobjectsintheentirespecterofelectromagneticwaveswithnointerfer-encefromouratmospherewhichisactuallytransparentonlyinthevisualpartofthespecteropentohumaneye.Thelaunchofthesatelliteunfoldedanewerainastrono-my.

Iosif Samuilovich Shklovsky, in charge of radio astronomy department of theP.K.Sternberg Astronomic Institute (SAI) Lomonosov Moscow State University,wasamong thefirst scientistswho realized thewideprospectsof satellite launchesintermsoftheiruseforobservationsoutsideatmosphere.HisyoungcolleaguesfromnewlyorganizedDepartmentofradioastronomysupportedhimenthusiastically.

Thefirststepwastodevelopproceduresandequipmentforobservationofthesatel-lite.Thelaunchprovedthattherocketcarrierwasbrightenoughforfilming,andthatwasdonebyP.V.ShcheglovwhousedExactacamerawith1:1.5relativefocallength.ThefirstpictureofaspaceobjectwaspublishedinSovietUnionmonthly.

� C0-authorshipwithV.F.YessipovandV.V.Shevchenko.

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Fig.1

Fig.2

NAFA-25/3c aerocamerawas the first device they used. The casewith a photofilmwasreplacedwithacasewithanastronomicalphotoplate,andanewsystemofshut-teropening/closingcontroltimewasdesigned.Infraredlampwasputinfrontofthelensandnexttothephotoplatetherewasaphotocellwhichsignalwasregisteredbyalooposcillographwithaccuracyof0.01s.Thecamerawasmountedonabigphotoholderandwascapableofrotatingandtargetingatthecarrierandsatellitetrajectorypath. The observation was successful. The use of the photoplate enabled the scien-tiststomeasureobjects’coordinateswithaccuracyof5secondsofthearc.Twomoredeviceswereproducedtoobservethesatellite:oneusingtwo-stageimageconverterfor hardly visible satellites and the other using photoelectric multiplier and photo-platewithaslittoregisterexactmomentofthesatellitepassingthroughtheslitwithcoordinatesbeingdeterminedusingthestars.

TheresultsofthеworkweremadeavailableatthemeetingofScientificandTechnicalCouncilforSpaceResearchheadedbyMstislavKeldysh.Afterthecompletionofcon-trol tests inTashkent thereportcovering thoseactivitieswasapprovedmyMikhailK.Tikhonravov,SergeiP.Korolev’sFirstDeputy(Fig.1).

FullyawareofSAIpotentialKorolevvisitedtheinstituteonMarch22,1958.Havingtakenacloselookatthedeviceforobservationofweakastronomicalobjects(usingmultistageimageconverter)hedwelledonvarioustasksofspaceexplorationwhichcouldbe joinedby I.Shklovskyandhis radioastronomyteam.Korolevseta task toperformobservationof thevehiclesflying to theMoon.For thispurposeShklovskysuggestedtousetheso-calledartificialcometmethod—evaporationofsodiumattheflightpathtotheMoon.SAIdevelopedobservationfacilitieswhileSpecializedDesignBureauNo.1 (OKB-1) equipped the rocket with the sodium evaporator which wassupposedtocreateanartificialcometatacertaintime.Theobservationwasintendedtodeterminecoordinatesofthecomet,i.e.ofthespacecraft,andverifyitstrajectory.

Soviet industrypromptlyproducedhardwaredesignedatSAI:doublephotographiccamerawithanorangefiltertogetashotofthecometamongthestarsandasetwithathree-stage imageconverterdesignedtogetapictureofsodiumclouddispersion.For the second unit the Optics Department Faculty of the Physical Faculty of theMoscowStateUniversitymanufactureddielectricmultilayerinterferencelightfilters(Fig. 2) for the yellow lineof sodiumdoublet.Themethodproved tobe a success:thecoordinatesofthespacecraftwereobtained,andthecometevolutionprocesswasregistered.

Imageconvertersalloweddisplayingartificialcometevolutiononthescreenandtak-ingpictures.

All themembersof thedepartment involved in thiswork (P.V.Shcheglov,V.I.Mo-roz, V.G.Kurt, V.F.Yessipov, I.S.Shklovsky) received gifts from S.Korolev— pen-dantsanalogous to theones launchedonLuna-1andLuna-2 spacecraft.Moreover,I.ShklovskywasgrantedtheLeninAwardin1960(Fig.3).

The sixth space craft successfully launched in the USSR was supposed to solve theMoon’s enigmaof the century and survey its far side.Luna-3 automatic interplan-etarystationafterhavingroundedtheMoononOctober7,1959tookthefirstpicturesofthefarsideoftheMoon.Theweredownlinkedusingphoto/TVsystemfromvari-ousdistancesupto470,000km.Theinitialpictureswereheavilyaffectedbyinterfe-rencewhichnecessitatedthedevelopmentofaspecialproceduretogetridofthem.One should keep inmind that no computers or imagery processingmethods nowcommonlyusedexistedthen.

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Fig.3. Fromlefttoright:V.I.Moroz,V.F.Yessipov,I.S.Shklovsky,V.GKurt,P.V.Shcheglov

The pictures were to be processed by a team of SAI scientists headed by ProfessorYu.N.Lipsky.ThetaskwassuccessfullyaccomplishedandtheresultssupplementedthefirstAtlasof theFarSideof theMoonpublishedby theUSSRAcademyofSci-encesin1960(Fig.4).

a) b)

Fig.4.Left—thepicturetakenbyLuna-3spacecraft,right—thesamepictureaftertheprocessing

Fig.5 Fig.6

Also,atthattimethefirstmapofthefarsideoftheMoonwaspublishedandthefirstMoonglobewascreated.TheglobewasupdatedlaterusingthepicturesobtainedbyfromZond-3in1965(Fig.5,6).

Analysisof thefirst spacepicturesof theMoon formeda teamof specialistswhichlater,inmid-sixtieswastransformedbyinitiativeofAcademicianS.KorolevintoSAIDepartmentofphysicsoftheMoonandplanetswithProfessorYu.Lipskyatthehead.Withinthenext13yearsSAIincooperationwithotherspecializedorganizationspre-paredandpublished7editionsofvariouslunarmaps,5editionsoftheMoonglobeandcompleteda3volumeeditionofTheAtlasofFarSideoftheMoon.

AtthesametimetheDepartmentofphysicsoftheMoonandplanetscooperatedwiththeDesign Bureau headed byG.Babakin. Yu.Lipsky and V.Shevchenko designed,prepared and carried out a photometric experiment on Lunokhod-2 Moon rover in1973.Thegoalofthisworkwastostudyphotometriccharacteristicsofthinsoilfrac-tioninitsnaturallaying(Fig.7,8).

In 1990 Russian-French project called Spectral Observation of the Moon started.AnumberofinterestinginvestigationsoftheMoon’sdiffusivestructureswerecarriedout in 1994usinggroundand space (Clementine spacecraft) spectral images.LaterthoseworkswerefollowedupbySMART-1launchedbyESAin2005–2006.

In 2004 a team of scientists from the SpaceResearch Institute under theRussianAcademy of Sciences, Academician R.Sagdeev and his colleagues (University ofMaryland),NASAGoddardSpaceFlightCenter,SAIandsomeotherinstitutionswontheNASA tender foranewpolar lunar satellite (Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter orLRO)whichisscheduledtobe launchedin2008.InpreparationoftheexperimentthescientistsofMoonandplanetaryDepartment(SAI)studiedtheconditionsoftheMoon’spolarregions.Theworkresultedinidentificationoftheso-called‘coldtraps’,i.e. continuously shaded regionswhichmight containvolatiles, includingwater ice.TheseregionsgotthestatusoffirstprioritytasksinLRO-LENDexperiment.

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Fig.7.PhotometricstandardonLunokhod-2

Fig.8.SpectralpicturesfromClementinespacecraft

SAI also organized a continuous scientific workshop, called Joint AstrophysicalWorkshop.Itwaslaunchedin1967byinitiativeofthreeoutstandingscientists:Aca-demicianVitalyGinzburg,AcademicianYakovZeldovichandCorrespondingMemberoftheUSSRAcademyofSciencesIosifShklovsky.Owingtoits interestingtopicsandveryhighscientificleveltheworkshopgainedsolidnationalandinternationalrecognition.

Theworkshopwasheldonce in twoweeksonThursday. ItwasattendedbyalmosttheentireMoscowphysicalandastronomicalcommunity.SAIconferenceroomwasalwayscrowdedwhentheworkshopwason,excitingdiscussionsgoingoninthelob-byduringthebreaks.YakovZeldovichwasthesoulandthemaindrivingforceoftheworkshopuptohisdeathin1987.

OutstandingSoviet and foreign scientistspresented theirprojects at theworkshop.Itsparticipantsdiscussedlatestdiscoveriesinastronomy:quasars,relictmicrowaveradiation, pulsars, spacemasers, compactX-ray sources—accretiveneutron stars,blackholes,etc.

Owing to space explorations astronomyhadbecome all-wave in 1960–1970,whichexpandedascopeofastronomicalobservationsandmadetheir interpretationmorereliable.Althoughtheworkshopwasoriginallydesignedasatheoreticalseminaritsworkgot indirecttouchwithspaceexperimentsandenrichedthemwithnewtheo-reticalfindings.

BrilliantpresentationsonvariousaspectsofX-rayastronomymadebySovietscien-tistscausedspecialattentionoftheparticipants.TheeraofsystematicX-rayobserva-tionsoftheskybeganin1972withthelaunchofUHURU,USorbitalX-rayobserva-tory. Its scientificsupervisorwasNobelPrizewinnerR.Giacconi.UHURUmade itpossible todiscoverabout100compactX-raysources inbinarystarsystemswhichfunction as accreting neutron stars and black holes. Therefore, discovery of blackholesiscloselyconnectedwithX-rayastronomy.

AseriesoftheoreticalpapersprecededthesediscoveriesinthefieldofX-rayastron-omy.ManyofthemwerepresentedattheworkshopandallowedtounderstandthenatureofcompactX-raysourcesasaccretingrelativisticobjectsinclosebinarysys-tems.Back in 1964Ya.ZeldovichandE.Salpeter (USA)predictedpowerful release

ofenergyduringnon-sphericalaccretionofthemattertoablackhole.ThetheoryofdiskaccretionofmattertorelativisticobjectswasfurtherdevelopedbyN.Shakura,R.Sunyaev,D.J.PringleandM.Rees,I.NovikovandK.S.Thornintheirworks.

In1973N.ShakuraandR.Sunyaevdevelopedthetheoryofdiscaccretionofthemat-terinbinarysystemtoablackhole(includingsupercriticalbehavior).Theycalculat-eda specterofX-ray radiationwithdueaccountof comptonizationeffectsandputforwardstandardmodelofα-disc.Itisstillthemostfrequentlyquotedpaperintheworldastronomicalliterature.

AlltheseworksreviewedattheworkshopwerecarriedoutbeforesystematicstudyofcompactX-raysourcesbegan.Theirtheoreticalpredictionswerefullysubstantiatedin the course of furtherX-ray surveyof the skyby specialized space observatories.Further launches of spaceX-ray observatories (such asHEAO-2,Ginga, RoentgenonKvantmoduleoftheMirspacestation,Granat,ROSAT,ASCA,RXTE,Chandra,XMM-Newton, INTEGRALandothers) resulted indiscovery ofmore than a 1,000X-raybinarysystemswhichenabledthecommunitytoputthesearchofblackholesonasolidobservationbasis.FurtheropticalidentificationandinvestigationofX-raybinary systems made it possible to develop powerful methods for determination ofblackholesmasses inbinarysystems.Bynowmassesofabout twodozensofblackholeshavebeendeterminedinX-raybinarysystems.

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s. Fred sInGeRUSAAtmosphericandspacephysicist,ProfessorEmeritusattheUniver-sityofVirginia.

HereceivedanelectricalengineeringdegreefromtheOhioStateUni-versityandearnedaPh.D.inphysicsatthePrincetonUniversity.

The first director of theUSWeather Satellite Service (now part ofNOAA) and a former vice-chairman of the US National AdvisoryCommitteeonOceansandAtmosphere. Inhigh-altitude rocket ex-perimentswithJ.A.VanAllen,hedeterminedtheenergyspectrumoftheGalacticCosmicRadiationanddemonstratedtheexistenceoftheElecrojetCurrentflowingintheequatorialionosphere.LaterheservedasprincipalinvestigatorontheLDEFinterplanetarydustex-periment,whichdiscovered the existence of artificial debris cloudsinEarthorbit.

HehasheldanumberofuniversityandgovernmentalpositionsandconductedresearchattheInstituteofthePhysicsoftheEarth(Mos-cow)in1972asaguestoftheSovietAcademyofSciences.

Hedevisedthecosmic-raymethodofdatingmeteoriteages.Morere-cently,hehasbeenstudyingcausesofglobalwarmingandpublishedseveralbooks–includingUnstoppableGlobalwarming–Every1500Years,whichwaslistedasNewYorkTimesbestsellerin2007.

THE PRE-SPuTnIk yEARS And EARly SPuTnIk dISCovERIES

AbSTRACT

beginningin1946,spaceresearchwithcapturedGermanV-2rockets(andlaterUS-madeAerobeerockets)producedresultsonprima-rycosmicradiation,ozonedistribution,thesolarultravioletspectrum,andmagneticfieldsandionosphericcurrents.Thelimitedtimeofexposure,oftheorderofminutes,ledtothedesireforinstrumentedEarthsatellitesforextendedscientificapplications,witheventualapplicationstometeorology,communications,andnavigation.

The rocket experience also taught experimentershow tobuildminiaturized instru-mentations. By 1954, the concept of an instrumented unmanned satellite began totake shape, in competitionwithpopular accountsof space stationshousingdozensofastronauts.In1954also,internationalscientificorganizationslikeIUGGandURSIadopted resolutions promoting the use of satellites during the 1957–1958 Interna-tionalGeophysicalYear.

Still,itcameasagreatsurprisetotheworldcommunitywhentheUSSRlaunchedthefirstsatellite,Sputnik-1,onOctober4,1957atthebeginningoftheIGY.ItwassoonfollowedbySputnik-2,whichcarriedimportantscientificinstrumentation, included

cosmic-raydetectorsbuiltbySergeyNikolaevichVernovandAleksandrEvgenyevichChudakov.Theseinstrumentsdetectedforthefirsttimetheprotonsoftheinnerradi-ationbelt,althoughthediscoverywasnotrecognizedatthattimebecauseofaseriesof circumstances. The US satellite Explorer-I, carryingGeiger counters tomeasurecosmicraysdidencounterthehighcountingratestypicalofthelargefluxofradiationtrappedinthegeomagneticfield.Toexplaintheseresults,theauthordevelopedthe‘neutron-albedo’theory,andsodidS.VernovandA.Chudakovquiteindependently.

Theouterradiationbeltconsistingofenergeticelectrons,wasalsoseenbyValerianIvanovichKrassovskiiandYuryIlyichGalperin,andstudiedextensivelyinlaterSput‑niksatellites.

InTRoduCTIon: PERSonAl RECollECTIonSStarting in 1946, afterhaving served in theUS

NavyduringWorldWar-II,Iwas intimately involved indevelopments inspacesci-ence in the pre-Sputnik years. At the Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) of JohnsHopkinsUniversityinSilverSpring,Maryland,JamesA.VanAllenandIdeterminedthe energy spectrum of the primary protons of the galactic cosmic radiation beforetheseprimariesweremodifiedbynuclearreactionsintheupperatmosphere�.UsingtheEarth’smagneticfieldasaspectrometerweinterpretedtheincreaseinmeasuredfluxwithgeomagneticlatitudeintermsofprimaryenergy.Iwasawareofthefactthatourmeasurementsof theprimaryprotonswerecontaminatedbyanunknowncon-tributionfrom ‘albedoprotons’ thatemanated fromnuclearreactionsof theprima-riesintheatmospherebelowourinstruments.GuidedbytheEarth’smagneticfield,theseprotonswouldemergeabovetheatmospherebutthenreentertheatmosphereanddisappear.EarlyeffortstodistinguishprimaryprotonsfromalbedoprotonsaredescribedinareviewarticleonCosmicRays��.

Our research group at APL also measured the concentration of ozone at high alti-tudes,and later Iwas successful in locating the strongelectric currents in the low-erionospherethatproducethelong-predicted‘equatorialElectrojet’��.Ourresearchgroup also took the first pictures of Earth’s cloud systems from altitudes of up to100km,whichgaveusafirst inklingofthevalueofspacemeteorology(Byafortu-nate set of circumstances, 15 years later, I became the foundingdirector of theUSWeatherSatelliteService��).

� AllenVanJ. A.,SingerS. F.//Phys.Rev.1950.V.78.P.819;V.80.P.116;Idem//Nature.1952.V.170.P.62.

�� SingerS. F.ThePrimaryCosmicRadiationanditsTimeVariations//ProgressinElemen-taryParticleandCosmicRayPhysics/Ed.byJ.G.Wilson,S.A.Wouthuysen.No.-HollandPubl.Co.,Amsterdam,1958.V.4.P.203–335.

�� SingerS. F.DynamoCurrentsandConductivitiesintheEarth’sUpperAtmosphere//Nature.1952.V.170.P.1093–1094.

�� Singer SF., Rao P.K. History of Weather Satellites//Wiley Space Encyclopedia/Ed.H.Mark.N.Y.:JohnWiley,2002.

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InSTRumEnTEd SATEllITESone of the great handicaps of high-altitude

rocketswas the fact that the exposure time above the appreciable atmospherewasonlyafewminutes,whichlimitedmanyexperiments inanimportantway.Inaddi-tion,therocketandall the instrumentsweregenerallydestroyedonimpact.There-fore,theideaofasatellitecarryingthesamekindofinstrumentationcameaboutinaverynaturalway.SincethepublicviewofEarthsatelliteswasdominatedbyfuturisticdescriptionsofmannedspaceshipscirclingtheEarth,whichwereclearlyoutofreachofthethen-currenttechnology,itbecameimportanttoemphasizetheunmannedfea-ture—hencethedesignationofMOUSE(MinimumOrbitingUnmannedSatelliteoftheEarth).FirstpublishedintheJournaloftheBritishInterplanetarySociety�,theconceptgainedpublicexposureinaspacesymposiumheldattheHaydenPlanetari-uminNewYorkCityin1954.ProminentgeoscientistslikeLloydBerknerandAthel-stanSpilhauschampionedtheconcept,andwiththeirhelpresolutionswerepassedin the summer of 1954 at the internationalmeetings ofURSI (InternationalRadioScienceUnion)andIUGG(InternationalUnionofGeodesyandGeophysics).TheseresolutionsrecommendedtheuseofinstrumentedsatellitesduringtheIGY(Interna-tionalGeophysicalYear)1957–1958��.

TherewasalsooppositiontosatellitesandaturfbattlebetweentheNavalResearchLaboratory, favoring the Vanguard design, and the US Army Redstone Arsenal,favoringadesignbasedontheRedstoneballisticmissile.PresidentEisenhower,anx-ioustoavoidanymilitaryconnotationstosatellitesandtotheIGY,gavethenodtotheVanguardproject,whichwasbasedonayet-to-be-developedboosterrocket.Ulti-mately,however,itwastheArmyconcept,basedontheRedstonemissile,whichputthefirstUSsatelliteintoorbitin1958.OnemayspeculatethathadtheWhiteHousefavoredtheRedstoneproposal,theUSmighthavelaunchedasatellitein1957,moreorlessatthesametimeasSputnik.Inanycase,thelaunchofSputnikcameasahugesurpriseandshocktosomepeople—andhadagreatimpactonworldopinion.IwellremembertheannouncementoftheSputniklaunchbyAcademicianLeonidIvanov-ichSedovatthe1957conferenceoftheInternationalAstronauticalFederation(IAF)inBarcelona��.

� SingerS. F.AMinimumOrbitingUnmannedSatelliteoftheEarth(MOUSE)//J.Brit.In-terplan.Soc.1952.V.11.P.61.

�� GreenC. M.,LomaskM.Vanguard:Ahistory.Washington,DC.:SmithsonianInstitutionPress,1971.P.22.

�� SedovandIbecamegoodfriendsovertheyears,meetingatvariousIAFconferences,whichheattendedasthechiefoftheSovietdelegation.Earlier,ithadincludedBlagonravovandOgoro-dnikov,lateralsoKrassovskii,Galperin,Gringauz,Kurtandmanyothers.WhentheIAFmetinWashingtonDC,SedovandKrassovskiivisitedmylaboratoryatthenearbyUniversityofMary-landwherewewerepreparingminiaturizedinstrumentationtobelaunchedinsmalltwo-stagerockets(Terrapin),one-and-a-halfstagerockets(Oriole),andaircraft-launchedmeteorologicalrockets(Rock-Air).Afteradmiringoureffortstobuildacompleteinstrumentpackageforcos-mic-raymeasurementtofitintotheFARSIDErocketvehicle,SedovinvitedmetosubmitittoflyinafutureSovietsatellite.IneverknewwhetherhewasseriousbutoftenwonderedwhatmighthavehappenedifithadflownonSputnik.IlastsawSedovin1997(inthecompanyofVladimirKurt)whenwewerebothinvitedtoBarcelonatocelebratethe40-yearanniversaryoftheSputnikannouncement.

EARly SPACE SCIEnCEIn 1956, I published a review paper that

described various scientific projects that might be done by an unmanned instru-mentedEarthsatellite�.Earlier,Ihadcontributedseveralstudiestoabook�� thatdis-cussedpossibleexperimentsthatmightbeflowninsatellites.Itisofsomeinteresttoreviewthemanypossiblescientificapplicationsandtoseewhichoneshaveactuallybeencarriedout.My topicsdealtwithmeasurementsof theexosphere, solarultra-violetradiationandX-rays,ionosphericcurrentsthroughtheirmagneticfieldeffects,interplanetary dust, and evenmeteorology and climate studies, such as the earth’sradiationbalanceandcloudalbedo.Forourpurposeshere,themostinterestingmea-surementrelatedtothedetectionofgeomagneticallytrappedradiation.By1956Ihaddevelopedatheoryofgeomagneticstorms��thatreliedontrappedradiationtoforma‘ringcurrent’aroundtheearthtoproduceoneofthemajorfeaturesofamagneticstorm,adecreaseinthemagneticfieldlastingforseveraldays��.

Theconceptofgeomagneticallytrappedradiationwasdifficulttopropagate.Myfirstfullresearchpaperonthesubject,submittedtotheJournalofGeophysicalResearch,wasrejectedbyrefereesandtheeditor.ButitwaspublishedintheTransactionsoftheAmericanGeophysicalUnion��.IwasthenabletopersuadetheAirForceOfficeofScientificResearchin1955thatanexperimenttodetectandmeasuretrappedradia-tionwasworthwhile.We set up a project, termedFARSIDE, basically an extreme-high-altitude rocket. It consistedofa4-stage rocket system, launched fromahigh-altitudeballoontoavoidtheatmosphericdraglossesoftheloweratmosphere��.Ipre-paredinstrumentationusingthesameinstrumentthatVanAllenusedinExplorer-1,athin-walledGeigercounterandscalingcircuit,plusasimpletelemetrysystem.Theinstrumentation package would have reached an altitude of one Earth radius, or6400kmabovetheEarth’ssurface.FollowingthelaunchofSputnik,theAFOSRtriedtolaunchFARSIDEfromthePacificislandofEniwetok.Unfortunately,theirhurriedattemptstolaunchthiscomplicatedsystemfailedandnoscientificresultswereeverobtained.

� Singer S. F. Geophysical Researchwith Artificial Earth Satellites//Advances inGeo-physics/Ed.H.ELandsberg.N.Y.:AcademicPress,1956.V.3.P.302–367.

�� VanAllenJ. A.//Ed.ScientificUsesofEarthSatellites.UniversityofMichiganPress,AnnArbor,1956.

�� SingerS. F.MyAdventuresintheMagnetosphere(withAddendum:AStudent’sStory,byR.C.Wentworth)//DiscoveryoftheMagnetosphere/Eds.C.StewardGillmor,J.R.Spreiter,HistoryofGeophysics7,Amer.Geophys.Union,WashingtonD.C.,1997.P.165–184.

�� Duringsuchmagneticstormsoneoftenmeasuredadecreaseinthecosmicrayflux,thesocalled‘Forbushdecrease’.Therewasmuchdebateatthetimewhetherthemagneticringcur-rentwouldberesponsibleforthecosmicrayeffect.ThisdebatewassettledconclusivelybydatathatshowedaForbushdecreaseoccurringatthegeomagneticpolewhereoutwardgoinglinesofmagneticforcewouldnotintersecttheringcurrent.Ithereforeformulatedatheorythatcalledforthedecelerationofcosmicraysbymagneticfieldscatteringcenterscarriedoutwardbythesolarwind.Thistheoryhasnowfoundapplicationtohelpexplaintheinfluenceofcosmicraysonclimatechanges.

�� SingerS. F.AnewModelofMagneticStormsandAurorae//Trans.Am.Geophys.Union,1957.V.38.P.175.

�� SingerS. F.ProjectFarSide//MissilesandRockets.Oct.1957.V.2.P.120–128.

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Theneutronalbedotheoryarosein1958,followingthelaunchofExplorer-1anditsdiscoveryofextremelyhighfluxesofionizingparticlesataltitudesof1000kmabovetheEarth’ssurface.The instrumentcouldnot identifytheirnatureorenergy,but itbecameobvioustosomeofusthattheymustbeprotonshavingalargerangesoastosurviveforlongtimesinthetenuousexosphere.Buthowcouldprotons,presum-ably‘albedo’particles,betrapped?Comingupfromtheouteratmospheretheywouldhave to re-enteragain, guidedby thegeomagneticfield.Theonlypossibilitywouldbeiftheywerealbedoneutronsfromthesamenuclearreactions.Thesewouldnotbeaffectedbyamagneticfield.Butthelifetimeofneutronsagainstdecayintoprotonsisquitelong—andthereforethefractionofneutronsdecayingwhilewithinthegeo-magneticfieldisextremelysmall.However,therangeofthedecayprotonislargeandso is its lifetime.Therefore, itshouldbepossible toobtainsizablefluxesofprotonsintheenergyrangeof100millionelectronvolts.Thecompleteneutronalbedotheo-ry,givingtheenergyspectrumandspatialdistributionofthesetrappedprotons,wascompletedandpublishedwhilethedetailedexaminationofthedatawasstillinprog-ress�. IndevelopingthetheoryIbenefitedfromaseminalreviewpaperbyV.Ginz-burg, which discussed the theory of diffusion in energy space. It is of interest thatVernovandChudakovdevelopedtheconceptofneutronalbedoindependentlyandataboutthesametime.Theypublishedtheirworklaterbutshouldbegivenequalprior-ity��.

Onemight raise the questionwhySputnik-2 did not discover the radiation belt. IaskedthisquestionofProfessorHarryMesseloftheUniversityofSydney,Australia,atacosmic-rayconferenceinMoscowin1960.Sputnik-2,launchedfromKazakhstanhad itsperigeeovertheUSSRanditsapogeeoverAustralia.VernovandChudakovdid see an increase in counting rate in their data collected over the USSR and evi-dently penetrated the lower edge of the radiation belt. But the high counting ratesthatwouldhaveledthemtothediscoveryoccurredoverAustraliaandwererecordedbyMesselinhisradioreceivers.However,ashetoldittome,hecouldnotobtainthecodefor interpretingtheradiosignalsandthereforerefusedtotransmithisdatatotheSovietexperimenters.SoitseemsthattheundueemphasisonsecrecypreventedVernovandChudakovfrommakingthediscoveryandreceivingcreditfortheirpio-neeringwork��.

ConCluSIonSpace science in satellites started as a natural

extensionofhigh-altituderocketresearchanddrewonsimilartechniquesofinstru-mentation.Itwentontospaceastronomy,whichexploitedthewholeelectromagnet-ic spectrum and toplanetaryandsolarexplorationwithadvanced instrumentsandrobots. Progress has been remarkably swift andmay expand further withmannedmissions to the Moon and Mars. In particular, a manned base and laboratory on

� Singer S. F. Radiation Belt and Trapped CosmicRayAlbedo//Phys. Rev. Letters. 1958.V.1.P.171–173; Idem.TrappedAlbedoTheoryof theRadiationBelt//Op. cit. 1958.V. 1.P.181–183.

�� Formoredetaileddiscussion,seeSingerS. F.,LenchekA. M.GeomagneticallyTrappedRa-diation //Progress inElementaryParticle andCosmicRayPhysics.V. 6 /Ed. J.G.Wilson,S.A.Wouthuysen.NorthHollandPublishingCompany,Amsterdam,1962.P.245–335.

�� DesslerA. J.TheVernovRadiationBelt(Almost)//Science.1984.V.226.P.915.

theMartianmoonDeimosmayallowamoreefficientstudyoftheplanetMarsthaneitheraseriesofunmannedmissionsoramannedbaseonthesurfaceoftheplanet�.

Acknowledgments:IamindebtedtoProf.JosephLemaireforcontributingimportantinformation��andtoAlexDessler,MartinWalt,andRobertWentworthforusefuldis-cussion��.

CopyofaletterwrittenbyS.F.SingertoA.J.DesslerGeorgeMasonUniversity, 15September1986

Dr.A.J.DesslerDepartmentofSpacePhysics.RiceUniversity.Houston,TX77005

DearAlex:

FornearlytwoyearsnowIhavebeenmeaningtowriteyouandcommendyouontheeditorialTheVernovRadiationBelt(Almost),whichappearedintheNov23,1984issueofScience.

Yourpointisabsolutelycorrect.VernovlosthisprioritytothediscoveryoftheradiationbeltbecauseofRussiansecrecy.Vernov’sinstrumentonSputnik-2recordedradiationbeltparticlessixmonthsbeforeVanAllen’sinExplorer-l.ButtheSputnik’sellipticorbitpenetratedthebeltsignificantlyonlyintheSouthernhemisphere,andtheRussiansdidnotreleasethetelemetrycodetoanyone.

Prof.HarryMessel, a noted cosmic-ray researcher and head of the School of Physics at theUniversityofSidney, toldme thewhole story inaMoscowhotel room(theHotelMoskva, Ibelieve)duringtheCosmicRayCongressin1959.HerecordedtheSputniksignaleverytimeitpassedoverAustralia,buttheywouldn’tsendhimthecode.Whentheyfinallyaskedforacopyoftherecordeddata,hetoldthemtogotohell(asonlyHarryMesselcould).Harry,youmustremember,isaUkrainianfromCanada;hetoldthestorywithgreatglee.

Butthefullstoryisalittlemorecomplicated.Vernovdidrecordtheradiationbeltbutneverinterpreted his results properly. I have analyzed the matter in a review article on Geomag‑neticallyTrappedRadiation,publishedinProgress inElementaryParticleandCosmicRayPhysicsVol.VI. (NorthHollandPubl.,Amsterdam, 1962). I enclosepp.249–258, ‘HistoricalIntroduction,’anddrawyourattentiontop.254.Vernovetal.reportedin1958a40%increaseincountratebetween500and700km. Butonly12%canbeduetocosmicrays;therestmustberadiationbeltparticles.Ofcourse,hadtheygottendatauptoSputnik’sapogeealtitudeof1680km,thentherewouldhavebeennodoubt.

ButVernov is not the only onewhomisseddiscovering the trapped radiation. I don’t knowaboutothers,butIamcertainlyoneofthem—fourtimestobeexact!

1) Ina1950AerobeefiringoffPeru,Imeasuredtheeast-westasymmetryofcosmicrayprima-ries,mostlyrelativisticprotons.ButIalsomeasuredtheionizingefficiencyoftheparticlesandfoundacomponentofhighiondensities(presumablylow-energyprotons)withareversedE-Wasymmetry.(Theseweretrappedprotons;IlaterdevelopedatheoryfortheirE—Wasymmetry(seep.274),eventuallyconfirmedbyHeckman’sobservations.)

� SingerS. F.MannedLaboratoriesinSpace//Reidel.July1969.ISBN9027701407;MannedMissionstotheMoonsofMars//Cosmos.2002–2003.V.12;ThePh-DProject:MannedExpe-ditiontotheMoonsofMars//SpaceTechnologyandApplicationsInternationalForum-2000/Ed.M.S.El-Genk.AmericanInstituteofPhysics,2000.

�� LemaireJ. F.FromtheDiscoveryofRadiationBeltstoSpaceWeatherPerspectives//SpaceStormsandSpaceWeatherHazards/Ed.byI.A.Daglis.KluwerAcademicPublishers,Dordre-cht,2001.P.79–102.

�� Formoredetailsseealso:PanasyukM. I.,VernovS. N.Atthefoundationofnationalspacephysics//ActaAstronomica. 1998.V.43.P. 51–56;Panasyuk M. I.Breakthrough intoouterspace//Science.2000.V.4.P.61–66(inRussia).

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My 1950 notebook indicates that I considered albedo protons emanating from and curvingbackintotheatmosphereasanexplanation.Butstatisticsofthedatawerenotgoodenoughtodrawfirmconclusions.SomedetailsaregiveninanotherreviewarticleonThePrimaryCosmicRadiationanditsTimeVariationinProgress...Vol.IV(1958),pp.263–276.(Seeesp.p.264).

2) In the summer of 1950 I flew thin-walledGeiger counters in balloons launched from anicebreakerbetweenBostonandThule.Intheauroralzone,offLabrador,thecountratewentcrazy.IconcludedthatIwasseeingnoisefromhigh-voltagedischargeintheinstrument,astheairpressurereachedacertainlowvalue.Ineverpublishedtheresults;butevidentlyIwassee-ingtrappedelectronsoftheouterbelt.IshouldhaveeitherhadastudentlikeCarlMcIlwain,orflownthick-walledcountersalongwiththethin-walledvariety.

3) By1956Iwasquitesureabouttheexistenceof trappedradiation(althoughIhadnotyetthoughtof theneutronalbedomechanism).Idesigneda4-stageballoon-launchedrocket fortheAirForceOSR,togoto4000milesaltitude.Ithengotthecontracttosupplyascientificpayload,asimpleGeigercounter.TheAirForcecalledtheprojectFarSideanddiddledalot.ButrightafterSputniktheytriedtolaunchitinagreathurryfromEniwetok.Ineverlearnedofficiallywhy theproject failed;all Iknow is that Inever receivedanydata frommy instru-ment.Toobad;becauseIhadpublishedanarticleinMissilesandRocketsmagazine,around1957,thatwewouldmeasuretrappedradiationintheFarSideproject.

IwasoneofthecontendersforaspotonExplorer-l,withanexperimenttomeasuremeteoricerosion,usingaGeigercounter.Itwouldhaveseentrappedradiation,buttheexperimentgotbumped. Endofstory.

IthinkthisisthefirsttimeIhavewrittenallthisdown,oreventhoughtaboutitinacoherentway.Youreditorialstimulatedallthis;IknowhowVernovmusthavefelt.

IsupposeIowemostofmyradiationbeltinsightstoHannesAlfven,fromwhomIlearnedagreatdealaboutchargedparticlemotion.Evenearlier,JohnWheeleratPrincetontaughtmesomeusefulthingsaboutergodicmotionofparticlesinatrappingregion.SomedayI’lldocu-menttheevolutionoftheideasandtheoryalittlebetter.Forthetimebeing,theenclosedwillhavetodo.

Mybestwishestoyou,

Cordially

S.FredSinger,VisitingEminentScholar

yuri loGaCheVRUSSIAChiefResearchFellowoftheSkobeltsynInstituteofNuclearPhysics,LomonosovMoscowStateUniversity(SINPMSU).

BorninLeningradin1926.

GraduatedfromFacultyofPhysicsoftheMSUin1952.

Doctor of Science. Professor. Author of lectures on experimentalspacephysicsforstudentsoftheCosmicRaysDepartmentattheFac-ultyofPhysicsMSUin1982–1992.Researcherinfieldsofmagneto-sphericphysics,physicsofinnerspace,galacticandsolarcosmicrays.Whileinvolvedintheprojectofthe3dEarthsatellite(May1958),theouterradiationbeltoftheEarthwasobserved.ParticipatedinseveralexperimentsatthePROGNOZsatellitesonresearchofcosmicrays,generatedbysolar-flares.

AwardedSignofHonorandStateAwardoftheUSSR.

THE bEgInnIng oF SPACE ERA AT THE SkobElTSyn InSTITuTE oF nuClEAR PHySICSTocommemoratethe50thanniversary ofthefirstEarthsatellitelaunch

In the spring of 1956, SergeyNikolaevichVer-nov, Director of the Skobeltsyn Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Moscow StateUniversity(SINPMSU),thenacorrespondingmemberoftheUSSRAcademyofSci-ences,proposed that I shoulddevelopan instrument tobe installedonanartificialEarthsatellite.Probably,Iwaschosen,sinceIhadalreadyhadsomeexperiencewithautomatedinstrumentsinstalledonplanes.Iagreedwithouttheslightesthesitation,although,IunderstoodthatIwouldfaceseriousdifficultiesandthatIwouldhavetosay‘farewell’mydissertationtheses.Itshouldbenotedimmediatelythateverythingwas totally classified: Iwas given a roombehind closed doors, all the negotiationswereclassifiedassecret,etc.Later,thatsecrecycostusverymuchbutIwillcometothatlater.

Thefirst trip to theDesignBureauOKB-1headedbySergeyPavlovichKorolevdidnot impressmeatall:wewerenotallowedtogoanywhere, justsomepeoplecameintoaroomandsettheirrequirements—theinstrumentmassshouldnotexceed2.5kg,thepowerconsumption—2W,thetelemetry—one‘dry’channelwithascanrateof50Hz(a‘dry’channelmeansthatarelayinstalledattheinstrumentoutputmakesandbreaksacontactwithnovoltageapplied,while the telemetryrecords themak-ing-breakingtime).Theinstrumentshouldbeabletoworkforafewmonths.Similar

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‘input’dataweregiventootherparticipantsofourproject.Itwasplannedtolaunchan orbital laboratory with a large set of research instruments to explore the atmo-sphere,magneticandelectricfields,ionosphere,cosmicraysandanumberofotherproblems.

Besidesus, itwasalsoagroupledbyL.V.KurnosovafromthePhysicalInstituteoftheUSSRAcademyofSciences(FIAN).Theyintendedtomeasurefluxesoflithium,beryllium and boron nuclei abundances of cosmic rays, which was of paramountimportanceatthattime.Theirinstrumenthadamuchbiggermassandgreatercapa-bilities,sincethestudyofvariationsofcosmicrays(beingourspeciality)wastreatedasmuchlessimportant.

Suchanorbital laboratorywithafullscopeofinstrumentswaslaunchedintospaceonMay15,1958(thethirdSovietartificialEarthsatellite).

DuringameetingchairedbyS.N.Vernov,aworkstrategywaschosen.ItwasdecidedthataGeigercountertubewouldbeadetectorofcosmicparticlesandthecountofitspulses,originating,as itwas thenassumed,onlyunder theeffectofcosmicraysparticles, would be recorded. As for recording electronics, three main options wereconsidered:theuseofminiaturelow-powerelectronictubes,no-filamentthyratrons(MTKh-90) and semiconductor elements. It shouldbementioned that at that timethesemiconductortechnologywasattheverybeginningofitsdevelopment(backin1956)andwewerevaguelyawareofit.Therefore,greateffortswereundertakenbyustouseno-filamentthyratrons.Almostimmediately,itwasdecidednottouseelectron-ictubesfortheinstrument,sinceitwasshownbycalculations:theirpowerconsump-tionwassohighthatwewouldnotbeabletostaywithintheallocatedlimitsunderanyconditions.AninstrumentmodelwasbuiltaroundthyratronsMTKh-90,whichsatisfiedus,asfarasthemassandenergyconsumptionwereconcerned,butitturnedouttobeabsolutelyinappropriateduetoaveryunstableoperationofthyratrons.Andexactlyatthattimewefinallyobtainedthelong-awaitedsemiconductortriodesanddiodesandbeganthemostinterestingwork:itwasrequiredtobuildaninstrumentsimilartoelectronic-tubecounters,usingtheseelements.And—weweresuccessful!Itwaspracticallyanelectronic-tube-basedschematiccircuitbutusingsemiconduc-torsinsteadoftubes.Itworkedwell,verystable,inabroadtemperaturerange,wasnotatallaffectedbyvibrationsandhadaverylowpowerconsumption.IrememberdiscussingthissituationwithSergeyNikolaevich.Noneofusclearlyunderstoodhowasemiconductorworked,thereforeitwassomewhatscarytotrustthistechnologybutwetookourchance.Wehadcarriedoutanextensivecycleoftests,recordedallfail-ures,foundthestableoperationtemperatureboundary.

After that, setting aside all our doubts,we finalized the use of semiconductors. Bythattime,S.N.Vernovhadalreadyinvitedthe‘Fizpribor’Plant(PhysicalInstrumentsPlant)toparticipateinthiswork,wherethefirstinstrumentsweremanufacturedandcalledKC-5:version-5ofourinstrument.Thefirstfourversions(builtaroundtubes,thyratrons,etc.)wereturneddownforthereasonsmentionedabove.Itiscuriousthattheveryfirstversionoftheinstrumentwasclassifiedassecretanditwastransported,protectedbyarmedsecurityguards.Itwassuchanuisancethenandevenafter,whenwewithdrewthesecrecylabelfromtherestofourdevelopments.

InSeptember,1957,theinstrumentswerepracticallyready.Onlytheservicelifetestsremainedtobeperformed,afterthattheinstrumentwouldbereadyforflight.ButonOctober4,thewholeworld,includingus,learntthatthefirstsatellite(Sputnik-1)waslaunchedintheUSSR.Therewerenoscientificinstrumentsonthesatellite—more

than60kgofstoragebatteriesandatransmitterwithnon-stop‘beep-beep-beep’sig-nals. Just imagine our indignation and resentment of SergeyNikolaevich:wehaveourinstrumentreadyforflightwiththemassofjust2.5kg,whilethesatelliteisflyingempty,informingthewholeworldthatitisaliveandmoving.Thissignalwasreceivedall over theworldand,hadour instrumentbeen installed,— radiationbeltswouldhavebeendiscoveredalreadyatthattime,withoutanydoubt.

Afterashortmeeting,itwasdecidedtotrytogetmorecompleteinformationaboutthe plans of our rocket specialists. Thenwe found out that they are preparing foranotherlaunchwithadogonboard.Theyfailedtokeepitsecret,sincelargeteamsparticipatedinthatwork:medicalbiologists,headedbyO.G.Gazenko(Academician),solarphysicists,headedbyProfessorS.L.MandelshtamfromtheFIAN,andtheircol-leagues.Afterthat,SergeyNikolaevich‘foughthisway’tobereceivedbyK.D.Bush-uev,S.P.Korolev’sDeputy,andwewenttothetownofPodlipkiwiththeinstrument’sdrawings.Weexplainedthesituation,emphasizedtheimportanceofourintents,reli-abilityoftheinstrumentandobtainedadirectiveresolutionaddressedtothedesign-ersto‘workon’ourissue.

SergeyNikolaevichwasveryhappybutK.D.Bushuev somewhat cooledhisardour:‘Ididn’t say ‘toupgrade’ thevehiclebut ‘to explore’ thepossibilityof installing theinstrumentanditmakesagreatdifference.Onlyifthedesignerstellmethatthehard-wareallowsitsinstallation,weshallgotoS.P.toresolveapoliticalissue–whetherweinstalltheinstrumentornot’.Buttherewerethreeweeksleftbeforethelaunch.AndheretheenergyofSergeyNikolaevichwasmanifested:he‘mounted’thedesign-ersandtechnicalspecialistsgavetheir‘go’alreadyinthreedays.

TheyvisitedS.P.withoutme,IonlyknowthatKorolevdidnotgivehisconsentimme-diatelybuttheargumentsthatradiationshouldbemeasuredtoincreaseflightssafetyconvincedhim.Therewasacommandissued–toupgradethevehicle,i.e.toarrangetheseatsformountingtheinstrumentandtelemetryconnections.Wehadtoinstallastand-alonepowersupplysourcefortheinstrument.Itconsistedofstoragebatteriesthatarecurrentlyusedforpocketflashlightswiththevoltageof6V,theircapacitancewasenoughforamonthofflight.

To summarize: we got ‘go’ resolution for the experiment, the Chief Designer gotfamiliarwiththenotionof‘penetratingradiation’anditseffectonlivingbeingsandhardware,which,toagreatextent,definedfurtherspaceactivitiesattheSkobeltsynInstituteofNuclearPhysics.

At the end of October, 1957 we prepared two similar instruments KC-5, fit to beinstalledon the intended ‘vehicle’, andwentwith it to theballistic range.Thepar-ticipantsofthisexperimentwere:S.N.Vernov,N.L.Grigorov,A.E.Chudakovandtheauthorofthesememoirs.WetookaspecialflightbyaTu-104planefromMoscowtoTashkent.FromTashkentall theTu-104passengersflewtotherangebysmallLi-2andIl-14planes.Ourteamwasaccommodatedinaseparateroominahotel,beingasingle-storeywoodenbarracks.Intheassemblyandtestbuildingwewerealsogivenaroom,wherewereallocatedour‘facilities’andperformedallthechecksandupgradesof the instruments.Here theperseveranceand foresightofSergeyNikolaevichalsomanifested themselves.Heanticipated thatwewouldhavemuchwork todoand itwouldhavebeennotveryconvenienttopositionourselvesinalargeroom,likealltheotherparticipantsofthesatellitelaunch.

The‘upgrade’ofthevehiclewasbeingcarriedoutrightnexttothelaunchpad,attheintegration and test building, and we had a chance to participate in it. Our instru-

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mentwasinstalledintheenginecompartmentoftherocketsecondstage,which,inthiscase,wasasatelliteitself.Wesawthattherewasquiteenoughspaceinthatcom-partmenttoinstallourtwoinstrumentsratherthanone.CanyouimaginehowSergeyNikolaevichrespondedtothat‘discovery’?Inlessthan24hourswegotanapprovalto install two instruments. But there remained an issue of connecting them to onetelemetrychannel,tothe‘dry’contact.HereitwastimeforA.E.Chudakovtosayhisword.Heproposedasetupensuringconnectionoftwocounterstoonechannel.Iamnotwillingnowtogointotechnicaldetailof thissetup.It isenoughtosaythatthesetuprequiredcoordinationofoutputrelays’actuationtimesforourtwoinstruments.It was required tomatch resistors and capacitors, to solder everything and check.Andeverythingwasimplementedrightnexttothelaunchpad,theinstrumentswereinstalled and operated perfectly. And there was no military acceptance inspection.Mind that theywere the very first instruments launched to theEarth orbit, totallybuiltsemiconductors.

Ourwholeteamsharedoneroomofthehostel-hotel.Weworkedhardbutnotroundtheclock.Therefore,apartofthedaywasspenttogetherininformalsurroundings.ThisiswhenIwasimpressedbythefactthatSergeyNikolaevichandhiscolleagueskept talking only about science all the time. They discussed Chudakov’s experi-ments,anetworkofneutronmonitorsthatwasbeingcreatedatthattime,theresultsobtainedbyA.N.Charakhchyan,DirectoroftheFIANscientificstationinthetownofDolgoprudny,wherecosmicrayswereexploredbyflyingballoonprobes. IrecollectthatsometimesIwassuccessful indirectingtheirattentiontosportgames(checks,chess)butithappenedveryseldom.AnditwasverydifficulttoplaychesswithSergeyNikolaevich,hehesitatedtomakethenextmove,keptponderingoverit.OnceIaskedhimwhyhewas‘dragging’so.‘IttakesmesolongtothinkitoverbecauseIdon’tliketomakeweakmoves’,—answeredSergeyNikolaevich.Inmyopinion,thistraitofhisalsorevealeditselfbothineverydaylifeandinhismanagementoftheInstitute.OnceIproposedtoplayatrapgame,forwhichitwasneededeithertoknowthesecretortofinditoutintheprocessofplayingthegame.Mypartnerswerenotsuccessfulindoingthatandtheyallbackeddown,except forSergeyNikolaevich.AndChudakovevensaidinagitation:‘There’snoneedtowasteourwitsonyourwhims’.Thiswastheirdecision.Once,whenwehadanopen-hearteddiscussion,N.L.Grigorovmen-tionedthathewasawfullysorryforthosepeoplewhowerenotinlovewithphysics:theywastedtheirliferatherthanenjoyedlivingit…

A whole week passed like that and the time for the launch had come. Here goesanother recollection but this time about S.P. Korolev. The point is that our instru-ments were installed next to the engines and it was possible to access them onlyfromtheviewingpointnexttotheengines.Itwasdecidedthatwewouldactivatetheinstrumentsattheverylastmomentrightbeforethelaunchinordertosavethebat-teriesand Iwas chosen toperform themission.Tocheckwhether the instrumentsdidgetactivated,Ibroughtaradioactivesourcenexttothemandlistenediftheout-put relayswere clicking.Waiting for the rightmoment toactivate the instruments,Iwalkedalongtherailroadtrackontheplatform,usedtoinstalltherocket,carryinga long rod with the source at the end. Another civilian participating of our epopeewas alsowalking along the neighboring railroad track (during the preparation andlaunchesontherangeeverythingwasdonebymilitarypersonnel–everywhereonecouldseelieutenants,captains,andmajors),wearingapilothelmetandafurjacket.Itwasacoldnight,Iwasfreezingandwaitedimpatientlytillitwouldseemformetherighttimetoactivatetheinstrumentsandleave.Allofasudden,myneighbormadeamotionwithhisfingerinvitingmetocomecloserandaskedwhatIwasdoingthere.

I explained. ‘Don’t you know that it’s only me who is allowed to stay here? Go tothebunker,you’llbeinformedwhenyouaretodoyourjob…’ItwasSergeyPavlov-ichKorolev.Asitturnedout,itwasreallyonlyhisprivilege,healwayssecludedhim-selfinthisplacebeforethelaunch–anditwasnotallowedtodisturbhim:‘hewasponderingovertheprospects…’WhenlaterItoldaboutthisencounterathome,mymother-in-lawsharedanoldjoke:‘Aserfbraggedbeforehisfriends:‘Iwasspeakingwiththelandlordtoday….Whatdidhetellyou?Gotothedogs!–saidthelandlord…’Itwaskindofroughbutreproducedthesituationclosely…

Ididnot return to thebunkerbutwent to the rocketunnoticed (thatwaspossibleatthattime!),activatedtheinstrumentsandonlythenwenttotheobservationplat-form.At thatmoment the rocketwasbeing fuelledwith liquidoxygen, snowflakeswerefallingdownfromtheskyandeverythinglookedunusualandexotic.Thelaunchpicture iswonderful beyonddescription: a satellite is born from smoke andflame,accompaniedbyafrighteningroaringoftheengines.Atfirsttherewassmoke,thenflameand then thereappeared the rocketbow–exclamationswereheard: ‘Here itgoes,hurray!’,etc.Thentherewasauniquesightofseparatingstages:fivetorchesatatime,divergingfromoneanother,aglowingcrossinthenightsky,and,finally,onetorchflyingawayfromthecentralstageengines.

Nevertheless, I, apparently, got cold during these operations. The next day I had astrongthroatacheandarunningtemperature.SergeyNikolaevichsummonedmed-ical doctorswhoprepared the experimentwith thedogLaika tohelp.O.G.Gazen-koturnedouttobeoneofthem.Ihavenoideahowhetreatedmebut,inanycase,Iwenthomeaccompaniedbyhimratherthanourteam,sothathecouldobservemeduringtheflight.WeflewtothetownofKuibyshev,andthentookatrain.Bytheway,themedicalteamwasdirectlyoppositetoourteam:theyweredrinking,playedpref-erencecardgameanddiscussedgeneraltopics.

InthemorningofNovember3,1957,allthenewspapersandradiostationsinformedabout the launchof the secondartificial satellite (Sputnik-2) in theUSSR, carryingthedogLaikaandsomescientificinstrumentsonboard,aswell.OnecanstillseeLai-ka’sphotoonpacksofcigarettes,namedafterit,butonlyafewpeoplerememberthescientificachievements.Laikawasaliveaslongasourinstrument—untilthepowerexpiredinthebatteries,i.e.abouttendays…

Then, there was a period of data receipt and processing done by the military per-sonnelwithoutourparticipation.Unfortunately, the information fromthat satellitewas transmittedonlywhen itwasflyingover theUSSR territory, in theorbit peri-geeregion(250-500km),whileattheareas,wherethesatellitewentuptohighalti-tudes(theapogeeheightofabout1670km),therewerenoourreceivinggroundsta-tions, while it was impossible for other countries to receive this information, sincethetelemetrysystemandwavelengthswereclassified:thesignalwentintonowhere.Thus,thesecondopportunityatdiscoveringtheradiationbeltswasalsolost.

However,theinformationavailabletouswasalsoextremelyinteresting.Nobodyhadeverperformedmeasurementsofcosmicraysat thosealtitudeswithinsucha largeinterval of latitudes and longitudes. Instruments operated perfectly. The measuredfluxofparticlesturnedouttobeclosetotheanticipatedone.Isocosms(linesofequalfluxes)ofcosmicrayswerebuilt,altitudebehaviorwasdefinedwithintheintervalof300…700km,whichwasreliablyexplainedbytheEarthshieldingandbydecreaseofgeomagneticcutoffwithincreasingaltitude.However,atthealtitudeof700kmourpoints displayed a tendency to a higher increase than that anticipated theoretically

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butwedisregarded it— the increasewaswithin themeasurementmarginoferror.As it is clear now, that increase was due to the particles of radiation belts, whichjustbegin tomanifest themselvesat thesealtitudesover theUSSRterritory. In theSouthernHemisphere,atthesamealtitudesand,themoreso,wherethesatellitewaspassing,thefluxesofradiationbeltsparticlesalreadyexceededthefluxesofgalacticcosmicraysbymanytimes.But,sincetherewerenodatareceivedfromoursatellitethere,welearntaboutitonlyin1958aftertheflightsofUSExplorersatellitesandourthirdsatellite.

On November 7, 1957, our counters recorded an unusual count rate behavior ononeoftheorbits.Pronouncedfluctuationswerenoted,theincreasewasmuchmoreathigh latitudes than thatanticipateddue to the latitudeeffect.Thatwas specifiedby precipitating of particles from the external radiation belt due toweakmagneticperturbation. Unfortunately, at that time these notions were not included into thescopeofour interestandwe interpreted theobservedeffectaspenetrationof solarparticles into theEarthatmosphere. Itshouldbenotedthatalreadyat thePhysicalDepartmentoftheMSUwe,nuclearphysicists,alwaysslightlymockedgeophysicists,nottreatingtheirfieldofscienceseriously.Asaresult,wefailedtoreacttothismostinterestingphenomenon.

Thus,despitethefactthatwewerethefirsttorecordtheparticlesoftheEarthradi-ationbelts, itwas JamesVanAllenwhowas thefirst to understand that there areintensivefluxes of chargedparticles in the equatorial regions around theEarth.Atfirst, VanAllen did not understand the nature of the recorded particles either, theexplanationforthedetectedphenomenonappearedlater.TheExplorer-1andExplor‑er-3satellitesdidnotflyathighlatitudes,whilethehighintensityofparticleshadtodowiththeinternalbelt,discoveredbyVanAlleninFebruary–March,1958.Hecor-rectlyinterpretedhisresults(althoughhiscountersgotsilent–were‘boggeddown’duetoaveryhighintensity).VanAllenmadeapresentationaboutthephenomenondiscoveredbyhimattheUSAcademyofSciencesonMay1,1958.Theorbitsofoursatellitesallowednotonlyequatorialregionsbutalsosubpolaronestobeinvestigat-ed, thus,making it possible todetect an external radiationbelt by the thirdSovietsatellite(Sputnik-3),launchedonMay15,1958.

The results of the second Soviet satellite flight indicated that, as the instrumentsdetected the increases of particles onNovember 7, 1957, besides cosmic rays, theyrecordedbremsstrahlungofelectrons(withvery lowefficiency)ratherthanprotonsorelectrons(theaverageshieldthicknessoftherocketwallsandourinstrumentwallsamountedtoafewgramspersquarecmandonlysufficientlyenergeticparticleswereabletopenetratethisprotection).Therefore,onourSputnik-3weinstalledaninstru-mentwithascintillationcounterandarather large (40×40mm)crystalof sodiumiodide,whichwasabletodetectnotonlyprotonsorelectronsbuttheirbremsstrah-lung as well. This instrument was designed and manufactured in a short space oftime.A.E.Chudakov(lateranUSSRAcademicianoftheAcademyofSciences)invitedhiscolleagueP.V.VakulovfromtheFIANInstitutetoparticipateinthiswork.Sincethisworkwasbeingcarriedout,tryingtopracticallycatchupwiththefaradvancedSputnik-3,itwasrequiredtoovercomeawholenumberofobstacles,whileinstallingandconnectingtheinstrument,beingconsiderablylargerandheavierthantheKC-5instrument.

Wemanagedtosuccessfully install thenewinstrumentonthesatelliteoutercover,whileemployingthesameMayaktransmitter,usedtosendonlythe‘beep-beep’sig-nalsontheSputnik-1,todownlinkdata.Itwaspreciselythissetupthatensuredthe

success of our experiment on Sputnik-3, since all the stations in the world, all thehamradiostationswereabletoreceivetheMayaksignals.Andtheydidreceivethisinformation,whilesubmittingtherecordstous.Thiswashowwereobtainedthedatafrom almost the whole surface over the globe, including the Southern Hemisphere.Therewassomuchinformationthatwehadtoinvitenewstaffmemberstoprocessit.E.V.Gorchakov,whoseparticipationwasparticularlygreat,wasoneofthem.Thiswashowtheteamofthemainparticipantswasdefined:S.N.Vernov,A.E.Chudakov,P.V.Vakulov,E.V.Gorchakovandme.

It became clear that our results clearly distinguished between the internal andexternal radiation belts: in the internal one, the energy ismainly carried by fluxesofprotonswithE>100MeV,while in theexternalones,by thoseofelectronswithE>100keV(ourinstrumentallowedtheenergycarriedbyoneparticletobedeter-mined).Sincewewerethefirst tofly inthoseregions,wheretheexternalradiationbeltislocated,webelieveditappropriatetorecordthefactofdiscoveringtheexternalradiationbeltoftheEarth.Theauthorsaretheabove-mentionedfivepeople,Patent#23withtheprioritysetasofJune1958(thedatewhentheexperimentresultswerepresentedatthesessionoftheGeophysicalUnioninMoscow).

Attheendof1958,threeabortedattemptsweremadeatlaunchingarockettotheMoon.Butonlytheforthonewassuccessful,onJanuary2,1959.TheLuna-1station(thatwashowthatmissionwascalled)carriedourinstrumentsonitsboard,aswell.Theradiationbeltwascrossedthrough– fromtheEarth to theutmostexternalareas.After that,theinstrumentswererecordingstablefluxesofcosmicraysformorethan24hours.

Fortheirworkdoneonthesatellitesandlunarvehicles,S.N.VernovandA.E.Chuda-kovwereawardedtheLenin’sPrize(in1960).

ThisstagecanbetreatedasthatofestablishmentofspacephysicsattheSINPMSU.Beginningfromthoselaunches,S.N.Vernovappliedaconsiderablepartofhiseffortsto exploration of the discovered radiation belts and magnetosphere of the Earth.TheElektron satelliteswereanexampleof thisactivity.TheywereusedtoperformextensiveresearchoftheEarthradiationbelts.TheElektronsatellitesareanepopeeintheresearchoftheradiationbelts.TheywereconceivedbyS.N.Vernovimmedi-atelyaftertheflightsofthelunarstations,whenthelarge-scalepatternofthebelt’sdesign became evident. In order to perform a comprehensive study of the internalandexternalbelts,S.N.VernovandA.E.Chudakovproposedtolaunchtwosatellitesatthesametime,sincenosingletrajectoryofonlyonesatelliteallowedsuchatasktoberesolved.ThehighcredibilityofSergeyNikolaevichandtheimportanceofthetaskplayedtheirimportantpartandthedesignersacceptedthatprojectfordevelopment.Itwasimplementedin1964(theElektron-1andElektron-2satellitesinJanuary,theElektron-3andElektron-4ones,inJune).Itwasforthefirsttimethattwosatelliteswerelaunchedbyusingonerocket.Alargesetofhardwareforstudyingtheinternalandexternalbeltswasinstalledonthosesatellites.Asadetectorofparticles,usewasmadeofgas-discharge,scintillationand, for thefirst time inourpractice,semicon-ductorcounters.Thoseinstruments,thetotalnumberofwhichexceeded20,workedreliably, a vast amount of informationwas obtained, and it took us a few years toprocessit.AfewPh.D.,DoctorateandBachelordegreesforthestudies,basedontheresultsoftheseexperiments,werereceived.

HereIcouldhavefinishedmymemoirsaboutthefirstspaceexperiments.However,itisworthwhileatleasttomentionthoseexperimentsthatwerecarriedattheSINPMSUthereafter.

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William Ian axFoRdNEWZEALANDBornin1933.EducatedattheCanterbury(NewZealand),ManchesterandCambridgeUniversities (1951–1960).Employed in theRNZAFDefenceScienceCorps(1957–1963),theCanadianDefenceResearchBoard,TheoreticalStudiesGroup(1960–1962).ProfessorattheCor-nellUniversityandtheUniversityofCaliforniain1963–1974.Direc-toroftheMax-PlanckInstituteforAeronomyin1974–2003.

Vice-PresidentofSCOSTEP(1986–1992).PresidentoftheCommit-teeonSpaceResearch(COSPAR,1986–1994)andof theEuropeanGeophysicalSociety(1992–1994).

Vice-Chancellorof theVictoriaUniversityofWellington,NewZea-land(1982–1985).ForeignMemberoftheUSNationalAcademyofSciences,FellowoftheRoyalSocietyofLondon,HonoraryFellowoftheRoyalSocietyofNewZealand.Tsiolkovsky Medal of Cosmo-nauticalFederation(USSR,1987).Asteroid5097isnamed after him(1993).

THE bEgInnIng

Ourspecializationiscosmicrays.Anditwaspreciselyfromthemthatwebeganourspaceexploration.OntheProtonandKosmossatellites, thecontentsandspectrumofparticlesof cosmic raysweremeasuredup to theenergiesof>1015eV,whileonthe Interkosmos-6 satellite, an emulsion unit was exposed that was subsequentlyprocessed insixcountries.And itwasprecisely in thatexperiment that thehighestenergyelectronwasrecorded(≈2·1012eV).

TheSINPMSUwasengagedintheresearchofEarthmagnetosphereoanditsradia-tionbeltsmore thananyother instituteof thecountry.TheElektron satellitespro-videduswithcomprehensiveinformationaboutthestructureofthebeltsandsomeoftheirvariations.AtheoryoftheEarthradiationbeltswasdevelopedattheInstitute(byB.A.Tverskoy),explainingallthephenomenaobservedinthem,thebehaviorofcapturedparticlesduringgeomagneticstormswasstudiedexperimentally,particlesof the ionosphere regionof theEarthwerealsodetected in theplasma layer,as itscomponentpart,inadditiontothoseofthesolarwind.

Enormous attention was paid to solar cosmic rays.We performed experiments inflightstoVenus,MarsandtheMoon.ItwaspreciselyduringtheseflightstoVenus,that G.P. Lyubimov, a staff member of the SINPMSU, discovered deceleration ofSun-generatedshockwavesastheyareleavingtheSun,byusingtheForbush-effectsobservedincosmicrays.ThesolarcosmicrayswereinvestigatedonthePrognozsat-ellites,specificallycreatedundertheinitiativeoftheSINPMSU,aswellasonmanysatellites of the Kosmos series. It was already the third Soviet satellite that record-edapowerfulsolarflareforthefirsttimeinspace.Wealsoreviewedpropagationofflare-acceleratedparticlesandprocessestakingplaceintheflareitself,aswellastheconcomitantX-rayandgamma-radiationandprocessesofparticleescapefromtheSun.

Fromtheveryonsetofspaceexploration,theSINPMSUtookpartinassessmentofradiation hazard of space flights. Beginning from 1960, the instrumentation of theSINP MSU was/is installed on each manned spacecraft (and on some unmannedones).AModelofSpacewascreatedattheInstitute,whileAModelofSpectrumofSun-AcceleratedParticles,developedattheSINPMSU,hasthestatusofaCOSPARdocuments.

SuchleadingscientistsasS.N.Vernov,A.E.Chudakov,whocloselycollaboratedwithus,althoughbeingastaffmemberoftheFIANInstitute,N.L.Grigorov,theoreticiansV.P.Shabansky and B.A. Tverskoy were engaged in studying particles in space atSINPMSU.Itwaspreciselythosefivepeople,whowerethe ideologistsandorgani-zersofalmostalltheexperimentalandtheoreticalresearchesattheSINPMSUandwho,muchtoourregret,arenolongerwithus.

SpaceresearchisthemainareaofscientificfocusattheSINPMSU,inwhichfrom25to50%oftheInstitutestaffmemberswereengagedindifferentyears.Considerableachievementsgainedinthisareasuggestthatduringthefirst50yearsafterthesatel-litelaunchwehavebeenworkingdecentlyinthefieldofspacescience.Wehopethatthenext50yearswillbestillbetter.Asshownbytheabove-mentioned, the launchof thefirstartificialEarthsatelliteprofoundlyaffected thescientificprogramof theSINPMSU.Ibelievethatthewholemankindexperiencedasimilareffect.

InOctober,1957Iwasastudentjustbeginningmy doctoral research in the Mathematics Department of Manchester University inEngland.IhadarrivedonlyafewmonthspreviouslyfrommyhomecountryofNewZealandwhereIhadstudiedaeronauticalengineeringandappliedmathematicsandexpectedtocontinueinthisgeneraldirection.Bysomepieceofgoodluck,whichisalwaystobehopedforasone’scareerdevelops,mynewsupervisor,JamesLighthill,decided that aerodynamics did not have to be about aeroplanes and that my thesistopicwouldbeconcernedwith‘cosmical’gasdynamics,involvinginterplanetaryandinterstellar space. Iknewnothingabout thesesubjectsbut,with thecourageof theyoungandignorant,waswillingtolearn.InfactbyOctober4Ihadlearnedquitealotbutnotenoughtoexpectthatanythingunusualmighthappeninspacesosuddenly.AccordinglythesuccessfullaunchofSputnik-1wasagreatsurpriseandIsatbeforethetelevisionsetwithmyeyesandearswideopentryingtomakesenseofwhatwasclearlyagreatevent.

Of coursewhenyoung Iwas justas fascinatedasanyotherboywith space stories.Themost famous of these concerned ‘Buck Rogers’ as a hero of the 25th century,who,togetherwithhiscurvaceousgirlfriend‘WilmaDeering’,conductedsuccessfulbattlesagainst evil-doers in space.Their chiefweaponswere ‘ray’ gunswhichwereusedeffectivelyagainsttheirenemiesastheycareeredaroundinspacewiththeaidofflightpackscarriedontheirbacks.Theirspacesuitswerequiteminimalandtheydidnotseemtohaveaprobleminbreathingevenwithouthelmets.Infactthestoriesweresimplyourfamiliar‘CowboysandIndians’inadifferentenvironmentbuttheywerevastlypopular,cateringastheydidtotheneedsofthe1930’swhendepressingsocialconditionsmadealmosteveryonewanttodreamaboutdifferentplacesanddif-ferenttimes.

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Thefirstrealspacetraveller,theunfortunatedogLaika,didnotmeasureuptotheseheroesbutwefeltforherallthesame.Thefirsthumanbeinginspace,YuriGagarin,wasadifferentmatterbutwecheeredhimforhisbraveryandtookhimtoourheartsdespitethetendencyofourwesternmediatodownplaythesignificanceoftheeventswhereverpossible.Formehoweveritwasthescientificaspectsoftheearlymissionsintospace thatmatteredmost:myreadinghadbroughtmesomeknowledgeof theworkofChapmanandFerraroonthemagnetosphere(asitwaslaternamedbyGold),onBiermann’s‘solarcorpuscularradiation’(Parker’ssolarwind),oncomettailsandon collision-free shockwaves. The latterwere explained byGold in 1953 to be theexplanationoftheveryabruptincreases(‘suddencommencements’)inthegeomag-neticfieldobservedatthestartofageomagneticstorm.

AsanewcomertothefieldItooktoreadingeverythingIcouldfind.EachdayIwouldpassthroughtheUniversitylibrarysearchingfornewjournalsandbooksthatmightoffersomefreshcrumbsofknowledge.Therewerenotsomanyjournalsatthattimeandthosethatexistedweremuchthinnerthantheirsuccessors today.TheJournalofGeophysicalResearchforexampleappearedquarterlyandcoveredalltopicsinatotaloflessthanabout1000pagesperyear.HowevertheinterestingjournalsformewereDoklady�,SovietAstronomyandUspekhi��whichappearedintranslatedformquitepromptly.Theycontainedsatisfyingarticlesonthenewobservationsof inter-planetaryspaceandontheideasthatwerebeingdeveloped,particularlywithregardtoin-situmeasurementsoftheplasma,energeticparticlesandfields.

ItwastheresultsobtainedbytheGringauzgroupthatIfoundmostinteresting.Theyinvolved a quite simple and robust technique based on directional ion ‘traps’ withmodulated potentials which could be used to distinguish between positive ion andelectron fluxes above a certain energy threshold.With thesemeasurements,madefromthespacecraftLunnik-2,-3andVenus-1,thefollowingdiscoveriesweremade:

1) profilesofthetopsideionosphere,theplasma-sphereandplasmapause.2) thenightsideplasmasheetandthedaysidetransitionregionwiththelatterbeing

interpretedastheconsequenceofabowshockintheupstreamsupersonicplasmaasfirstsuggestedbyZigulevandRomishevski.

3) intheregionoftheouterradiationbelt,whichwasdiscoveredfromExplorer-1byVanAllenandhisassociatesasasaturationoftheirGeigercounters,theparticlefluxdidnotexceedabout108cm–2s–1,confirmingthat theparticlescouldnotbeassociatedwiththeauroralphenomenon(i.e.10…20keVelectrons),whichwouldhaverequiredthefluxestobemanyordersofmagnitudegreater.

4) thesolarcorpuscularradiation,whichwasfoundatsufficientlylargedistancesfromtheEarthtobedirectedfromthesunasafluxofpositiveions(108…109cm–2s–1),presumablyprotonswithenergiesgreaterthan40eV.

Thereappearedtobenostationarycomponentoftheplasma,thefluxwasrelatedtogeomagnetic activity and was present whenever the spacecraft could be interrogat-edfromtheEarth.FortunatelyGringauzhadtakencaretopublishhisresultsintheannualCosparProceedingssothattheywereavailableinEnglishandwidelyread.

Gringauzhadsometroubleconcerningthesemeasurements,particularlyoftheplas-ma-sphere,becausehis colleaguespointedout that theywerenot confirmedbyUS

� Fullname:DokladyAkademiinauk(ProceedingsoftheRussianAcademyofSciences).

�� Fullname:Uspekhifizicheskihnauk(AdvancesinPhysics;publishedinEnglishasPhysics-Uspekhi)

measurements, particularly from Explorer-1 and -2 and IMP-1 and -2. However Ihappenedtowriteanextensivereview�ofallobservationsoftheinterplanetaryplas-maupto1967andstatedthattheseparticularUS‘measurements’wereclearlyincor-rect.Asa result IbecameGringauz’s friend for life andwas laterpleased tobehiscollaboratorinVegas-1and-2wheretheplasmastructureoftheenvelopeofCometHalleywasdeterminedforthefirsttime.

Observationsofparticles andfields in themagnetosphereand interplanetary spacehave since been carried out in extraordinary detail and have given us a wonder-fulappreciationof thephenomena involved.Theonly regionswhichhaveyet tobeexploredfullyareclosetotheSun,whichwillrequirea‘SolarProbe’,andatlargedis-tancesintheouterheliosphereandbeyond,whichareatpresentbeingtraversedbyVoyagers-1and-2.

Detailed observation of the planets and their satellites began with Lunnik observa-tionsof the farsideof theMoon.HereManchesterUniversityplayedarole in thatSirAlecLovell,theDirectoroftheUniversity’sradioobservatoryatJodrellBank,hadtheideaofusinghisnewlargetelescopetotracktheLunniktransmissionsassome-thingofapublicrelationsexercise.Thiswasunderstandableinviewofthedifficultyhe had had in raising money for the telescope and the enormous public interest inlunarobservations.Heeven‘published’thedataonBBCtelevisiontothechagrinofitsrealowners.Howeverhedidnotknowhowtosizethepictureshehadreceived,whichconsequentlylookedalittleodd.Intheendnoharmandmuchgoodwasdone.

Theadvancesthathavebeenmadeinplanetaryresearchhavebeenamazing–theseinvolvetheterrestrialplanets, theouterplanets, theirsatellites,asteroidsandcom-ets.There canbenoquestion that thiswork shouldbe continued and extended asfar as it is possible to do so. However we should not neglect the Earth itself, espe-ciallytheatmosphere.Wearefacingaverygreatdangertotheexistenceofmankindasweknowitasaresultofclimatechangeassociatedwithglobalwarming.Therearenowplentyofsignsofthebeginningoftheexpectedchangesfromextendeddroughtaccompaniedbybushfiresinsusceptibleregions(Australia,Spain,Portugal,Califor-niaandsoon),stormsandextremeweather(withHurricaneKatrinaaclearexample)and loss of snow cover in favourite ski resorts. There aremany other effects to beexpected,mostofthemunpleasant.Russiaisinthefrontlineanditistobeexpectedthat,ifweareluckyandtheaverageannualglobaltemperatureanomalyisrestrictedto2°C(the limitconsideredacceptableby theEuropeanUnion).Theaverage tem-perature inSiberiawill increasebyabout6°Cwhichwill causehavoc inregionsofpermafrostwheremethaneclathrateswillmelt,emittingmethane(aparticularlydan-gerousgreenhousegas),andremovingthesupportbeneathbuildingsandroadsbuiltonthepermafrost.

It is important that Russia should monitor and investigate the situation very care-fully,initsowninterestsaswellasthoseoftherestoftheworld,andofcoursemanyof therelevantobservationsshouldbemadefromspace.UnfortunatelyIamapes-simist:inmyopiniontheworldwillfailtocontrolgreenhousegasemissionsuntiltoolateandwemustthereforealsopreparefortheworst.Thiswillbecomeapparentdur-ingthenext20…30yearswithunavoidablyseriouseffectsbecomingwidespreadby2050.WewillnotbesavedbyBuckRogersandhisgirlfriendWilma—mannedspaceflightcannothelpus—wemusttakeallsensiblemeasurestoavertacatastrophe.

� SpaceScienceReviews,8,331–365,1968.

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Bengt hultqVIstSWEDENSecretaryGeneraloftheInternationalAssociationofGeomagnetismandAeronomy(IAGA)since2001.

In1957–1994—thefirstdirectoroftheKirunaGeophysicalObserva-toryinSweden,whichchangeditsnametoKirunaGeophysicalInsti-tute(in1973)andtotheSwedishInstituteofSpacePhysics(in1987).In1995hebecameoneofthetwofirstdirectorsoftheInternationalSpaceScienceInstitute(ISSI)inBern,Switzerland.

In theearly sixtieshe initiated theprocessofhaving theEuropeanSoundingRocketRangelocatedinKiruna,HealsoinitiatedtheSwed-ishnationalsatelliteprogramme,withVikingasthefirstsatellite,andtheEuropeanIncoherentScatterFacility(EISCAT).

He is a member of different Scientific Academies, a Fellow of theAmericanGeophysicalUnionandhasreceivedmedalsfromCOSPAR(Committee on Space Research), European Geosciences Union(EGU),RussianAcademyofScience,theKingofSweden,and several SwedishAcademies and otherinstitutions.

ConSEquEnCES oF SPuTnIkImovedtoKirunawithmyfamilyinMay,1957

as director of the new geophysical observatory, which the Royal Swedish AcademyofSciencewasestablishing.Myimmediatetaskwastopreparefortheofficialinau-guration of Kiruna Geophysical Observatory (KGO), which took place onMonday,July2,1957,thefirstworkingdayoftheInternationalGeophysicalYear(theobser-vatory became a governmental research institute with the name changed to KirunaGeophysicalInstitute(KGI)in1973andtoSwedishInstituteofSpacePhysics(IRF)in1987).Wewerefivepersonsworkingattheobservatoryatthetimeofinaugurationand thenumber increased toelevenby theendof theyear.JohannesOrtnerandIwerethetwoscientistsduringthefirsthalf-yearandwewerepreparinganumberofground-basedmeasurements,includingmagnetic,opticalandradiowaverecordings,for investigationsofphysicalprocesses intheauroralregion.Noneofusknewany-thingabouttheSovietplanstolaunchthefirstartificialEarthsatelliteasapartoftheprogrammefortheIGY.

ForusinKiruna,asformostpeopleonEarth,thelaunchofthefirstSputnikwasanenormousevent.We,asmillionsofotherpeoplearound theworld,wereobservingthelittlebrightspotasitmovedacrosstheskynearsunriseandsunsetandwealsopickedupthesatellite‘beeps’ontheradio.Wefollowedwithgreatinteresttheenor-mouspublicitythattheeventgaverisetoinallsortsofmediaandwequicklystartedtoplanhowwecoulduse thesatellite radioemissions forscientificpurposes.WiththeuseoftheFaradayeffectwestartedmeasurementofthetotalelectroncontentintheionosphereandoneofthefirstPh.D.-thesesattheobservatorywasbasedonsuchmeasurementsonSputnik-3transmissions.

TheKirunaGeophysicalObservatorywasoriginallyintendedforspacephysicsstud-iesintheauroralzonebymeansofground-basedmeasurementsofvariouskindsof

radiations,whichcarriedwiththeminformationabouttheprocessesthathadaffect-edthemontheirwaydowntoourantennasanddetectors.Sputnikchangedoursitua-tionprofoundly.Notonlybecamespacephysicssuddenlyascientificfieldofgeneralinterestinsocietyandthescientificcommunityatlarge,butitopenedupthepossibil-itytohavesatellite-borninstrumentsformeasurementofphysicalvariablesinspacewhichcannotbemeasuredfromground.AsIhadabackgroundinmeasurementsofenergeticparticles,wedecidedtodevelopsatelliteinstrumentsfordeterminationofcharacteristics of the hot space plasma, which gives rise to aurora and many otherthings.WesucceededinhavingourfirstinstrumentacceptedforthefirstEuropeansatellite, ESRO-1. From that on we added to our ground-basedmeasurements thebuilding of satellite instruments for hot plasma measurements, including ion massspectrometers as timewent on. TheKiruna groupwas the only scientific group inSwedenthathadresourcesallowingparticipationininternationalsatelliteprojectsintheearlyspaceera,until thefirstSwedishscientificsatellite,Viking,wasdevelopedinthe1980’s.Thentheelectric-fieldmeasuringgroupinStockholmandtheplasma-wavegroupinUppsalajoinedthesatellite-instrument-buildingcommunity.

AlthoughthespaceresearchwasanaffairfortheSovietUnionandUSAinthe1950’s,Europeanscientistsstarted todiscussratherquicklyhowEuropecouldbe involvedin it and space research committees were established in many European countries,amongthemSweden,alreadyin1959.AnorganizationforplanningEuropeanspaceresearchwasestablishedin1961andIhadthepleasureofparticipatingintheplan-ningworkasarepresentativeofSwedenandasmemberofvariousexpertcommit-teesandlaterintheworkoftheEuropeanSpaceResearchOrganization(ESRO)anditssuccessorEuropeanSpaceAgency(ESA)from1961totheendoftheyear2000.Theplanningorganizationdecidedin1961thattheEuropeansoundingrocketrange(Esrange)shouldbe locatedinKiruna,whichwasvery importantforus.Thenum-berofpersonsinvolvedinsomekindofspaceactivity(includingeducation)inKiru-naincreasedfrom5attheinaugurationofKGOin1957toabout500whenIretiredfrom the directorship of IRF in 1994 (forwhomSwedish SpaceCorporation is thelargest employer). So inKirunawe have really been riding on the space bandwag-on through thehalf-century thathas elapsed sinceSputnik. Our collaboration withSpaceResearchInstitute(IKI)inMoscowhasbeenanimportantpartofKGI’sdevel-opment.

Spaceresearchhasfirstofallopenedupnewfieldsofsciencebutithasalsochangedthe viewof theworld for the general publicmore thanmost other scientificfields.Thepictures of theblueplanet taken fromspace,with the thin layernear the sur-faceastheonlyregionwherelifeofthekindweknowcanexist,hasmadeitcleartomostpeoplethatconditionsforlifearequitelimitedandhavetobeprotected.Spacescienceresearchhasalsobeenthedrivingforcebehindimportanttechnicaldevelop-ments thataffectmostpeople today(e.g. thedevelopmentofmicroelectronics)andspaceapplicationshavebecomeimportantpartsofthetechnologicalcivilisationthatdominates our planet (e.g. satellites for communication, navigation, and observa-tion).Newspacetechnologieswillcertainlycontinuetoprovidenewapplicationsinthefuture.

OurplanetEarthisthe‘spaceship’wherehumankindlivesandshallliveintothedis-tantfuture.Itislimitedinsizeandinresourcesandhastobeprotectedsothatitcanremainourhomeinfutureforever.Inthelongrunthiswillrequirethattheresourc-esoftheSolarsystemwillbeexploitedandthatstronglydisturbingactivitieswillbetakenawayfromEarthandbroughtintospace.Inmyandmanyothers’view,space

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Vladimir kuRtRUSSIADeputyDirectoroftheAstrospaceCenteroftheLebedevPhysicsIn-stituteoftheRussianAcademyofSciences.

Bornin1933inMoscow.

Graduated fromFacultyofPhysicsof theMSU.From1955workedin the Sternberg Astronomical Institute in radioastronomy depart-ment.In1967changedfortheSpaceResearchInstitutеoftheUSSRAcademyofSciences(HeadofDepartmentofX-Rayandultravioletastronomy).Since1991hasworkedintheLebedevPhysicsInstituteoftheRussianAcademyofSciences.

Expert in physics of the upper atmosphere of planets, cosmology,X-Rayandultravioletastronomy.DoctorofScience.ProfessorofAs-tronomyDepartment,FacultyofPhysics,MSU.

HonouredworkerofscienceinRussia.AwardedtheRedBannerofLabour,RussianStateAward.

THE FIRST STEPS oF ouR SPACE ASTRonomy

isthemainadventureofourgenerationandofmanygenerationstocome,anadven-turethatprovidessomehopeforthefuture(unfortunately,inthisbriefnoteitisnotpossibletopresentanddiscussthereasonsforsuchahope).Thathumanbeingswillgo into theSolarsystemisanecessarypartof theadventure.Successcertainlywillrequire thatmost resourceful countrieswill cooperate, as theneeded resources arevery large. There are unfortunately many problems in the world that may hinder alarge-scalecooperation,oneofwhichisreachingageneralagreementthatgoingintotheSolarsysteminagrandwayshouldbealong-termhighprioritygoalofhuman-kind.Amost serious risk is that coming to suchanunderstandingwill take suchalongtimethatwhenmostpeoplefinallywillagreeabouttheneedtogointospaceinaveryseriousway,itwillbetoolatebecausetheresourceswillnotbethereanymore.Inspiteoftheproblemsthevisionhastobekeptalive.

department No.3 or Department of Astro-physics of Space Research Institute ofUSSRAcademy of Sciences (IKI)was orga-nizedfollowingtheinitiativeoftheAcademyPresidentM.V.Keldyshin1966.IosiphSamuilovichShklovsky,thecorrespondentmemberoftheUSSRAcademyofSciencesledittillhisdeathin1985.Thiswas,nodoubt,thebrightestastronomerofourcoun-try. The base of the department was a strong and well pulled team of astronomersatP.K.SternbergStateAstronomicalInstituteofthePhysicsdepartmentofMoscowStateUniversity (SAIMSUorGAISh). Ithadbeen10yearssince the launchof thefirstartificialsatellite,whichopenedour‘space’life.

It might have started by meeting the Academician, admiral and deputy Minister ofDefense Axel Ivanovich Berg, a man of an extraordinary life and various talents inawide rangeof scientific applications and life in general.We, I.S.Shklovsky andafewGAIShemployeeswereintroducedtohimbyourseniorfriendandmentor,pro-fessorValerianIvanovichKrasovsky,headof theupperatmospherephysicsdepart-mentattheGeophysicsInstituteofUSSRAcademyofScience(GEOFIAN).ThiswasAxelIvanovichwhointroduced,orratherrecommendedI.S.Shklovskytothenabso-lutelyunknown,exceptafew‘initiates’,SergeyPavlovichKorolev,toworkonopticalobservationsoftheartificialEarthsatellite,whichwasthengettingreadyforlaunch.Me,P.V.ScheglovandV.F.Esipovwereassigned todevelopaphotographymethodforsuchobservationstodeterminethesatellitecoordinatesandaccuratelyrelatethespherical coordinates to the time.Weusedaerophotographic cameraNAFA for thepurpose.Thecamerahad10cmlensandmarinechronometerwithelectricconnections.

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Thecameraallowedblockingthelightfromthesatelliteatprecisetimeintervals,sothe satellite track consistedofdotted lines, the tails ofwhichwere referencedwiththeprecisiondowntofractionofasecond.Thefilmwasdevelopedimmediatelyafterthe observation, the tracks were referenced to the stars on the measuring micro-scope, and for arithmometer Felix or Rheinmetall computer it took fromhalfhourtoanhourtodeterminesixparametersofthesatelliteorbit(ittakesasecondortwoforamodernPC).Thismethodensuredatthetimemoreaccurateorbitalparametersthanradiomeasurementoftherangeandradialvelocityofthesatellite.Naturally,wecouldonlymaketestobservationsofthestarsbeforethelaunch,imitatingthesatel-litemotionbyswayingthecameratogetthestartracksoftherequiredlength.VasilyIvanovichMorozexperimentedwiththephotoelectricsensorofthesatellite—photo-multipliertubeand,Ithink,withtheTVhardware.

I andP.V. Scheglov took aflight toTashkent in a couple of days after the satellitelaunch(October4,1957),whereScheglov’sfatherVladimirPetrovichwasthedirectoroftheastronomicalobservatoryoftheAcademyofSciencesoftheUzbekSSRforpho-tographicobservations.ItwasthetimewhenfirstpassengerjetTu-104startedregu-larflights,andweboardedthedirectflightMoscow-Tashkentwithourinstruments.Allpassengersweretreatedtoblackcaviar,thejetwasflyingat11000maltitudeatabout1000km/h—itwas likebeing inasciencefictionmovie.Wecouldcalculatethe timing and the coordinates of the satellite and told this to the pilots of the jet.Irememberwellasweweretakentothepilots’cabinandthesatellite(thelaststageoftheboosterrockettobemoreprecise)passedrightacrossourflightpathagainsttheverydarkskyatdusk,whichcompletelyastoundedtheflightcrew.

P.V.Scheglov and I made excellent photos of the Sputnik on theveryfirstdayandsent them to Moscow. These were the exact photos that were published in all thepapers! Papers, of course, didnot report how andwhyweneeded to get the shorttracks.

Forabout twoweekswewere inTashkentwehavebeenmakingdailyobservationsand calculated orbital parameters in order to calculate the atmospheric density atthesatelliteflightaltitude(300…400km).Highdensityandsignificantsatellitedragwereacompletesurpriseforthegeophysicists.Ibelievenooneexpectedsuchahighdensity(about108atoms/cm3)atthishighaltitude.Thegeophysicistswerenotevenawareoftheturbulentmixingintheatmosphereupto100kmand,asaconsequence,permanentmolecularweightoftheatmosphereat29.9.Neithertherewereanydataaboutthechemicalcompositionoftheatmosphereatthesatelliteflightpathaltitude.Wesoonlearntthattheprimaryatmosphericcomponentatthealtitudewasatomicoxygen,whichwasalsoagreatsurprise.Theideathenwastherewasadiffusionpar-titionalmostfromtheEarthsurface,inwhichcasetheatmospherewouldbealmost100%purehydrogenat400km!CelestialmechanicsatAcademicianD.E.Okhotsim-sky’sdepartment(Drs.T.M.Eneyev,M.L.Lidov,E.L.Akim,V.S.Egorov)determinedtheatmospheredensity.OurbrilliantmechanicM.L.Lidov,withwhomweextendedthecooperationthroughoutallofhislife,laidthefoundationofthesatellitedragthe-ory.However,onlywehadtheproperinstrumentsanddataprocessingmethods.

A.G.MasevichandA.M.LozinskyattheAstronomyCounciloftheUSSRAcademyofSciencesworkedon this task inparallelwithus.Their ideawas to equip all astro-nomical observatories, universities, planetariums, teacher training universities andevenastronomyarmatureclubswithsimple‘spyglasses’mountedonthestandsandstarmaps.Whenthesatellitepassednearsomestar,theobserverwouldpressabut-tonandthechronographwouldrecordthefactontherollchart,andthestarandits

coordinateswouldberecordedbyhandintheobservationlog.Ofcourse,this‘primi-tive’methodwasmuchlessprecisethanourphotographicmethod,butitensuredthelargescaleoftheobservations.Ouropticalfactoriespromptlymanufacturedthe‘spyglasses’andtheoperationalmanualsfortheobservers,andhundredsofenthusiastshavebeenmakingtheseobservationsuntiltheradiomethodsprovidedtherequiredprecisionandensuredtheobservationscouldbedoneinanyweatherandthecover-agewascompletefromByelorussiatoVladivostok.

However,werealized that the faint satellitesandbleakbooster rocketswereoutofreachforus.Bythattime,analmost1mBekker-Nunnmirror-lenscamerawasmanu-facturedintheUS,whichwascapableofspottingsatellitetracksuptostellarmagni-tude11,i.e.itwasahundredtimesmoresensitivethanourNAFAcamerawith10cmlens. We got in touch with our famous opticist, Correspondent Member of USSRAcademyofSciencesD.D.Maksutov,andhemadeanestimateofsuchacamerainasurprisinglyshorttimewith,ofcourse,withMaksutov-typemirrorlens.Thecamerawasnotbuiltatthetime,butafewsuchseriousmachines(VAU)werebuiltmuchlaterandarestillusedforalotofgeodesicandotherpurposesinvolvingsatelliteobservations.

After the optical observations of the satellite were successfully accomplished andtheirorbitalparameterswere identified in 1958,S.P.Korolevoffered I.S.Shklovskyto accomplish the optical observations of an object on the trajectory flight to theMoon.OKB-1wasalreadybusyworkingtoarrangealaunchaMoonstationinordertoflyaroundtheMoon,takepicturesofthebackinvisibleside,landonthesurface,takeasampleoftheLunarsoilandflybacktoEarth.Threecompetingprojectswerereviewed at themeeting of Technical and Scientific Committee for Space Explora-tionchairedbyM.V.Keldysh,whowasalsotheDirectoroftheDepartmentofappliedmathematicsoftheUSSRAcademyofSciencesandthePresidentoftheUSSRAcad-emy of Sciences. Our project involved building an artificial sodium comet, i.e. anevaporationofafewkilosofsodiumorlithiumontheorbit.Thiscloudwassupposedto resonance scatter the solar radiationand shine theway the cometsdo. I.S.Shk-lovskypreferredsodiumoverlithium,althoughthelithiumcometwouldshinetwentytimesbrighter,asthereisalotofsodiumonthesolarsurfaceandvirtuallynolithi-um.However,onthewavelength6708Å(lithiumabsorption line) thesensitivityofboththehumaneyeandthephotomaterialsavailableatthetimeweretentimeslow-er thanat the sodiumabsorption lines (wavelengths5890and5896Åon the solarspectrum)andthatiswhywechosethe‘sodium’option.Twootherprojectslosttousduetofollowingreasons.Thefirstprojectproposedsprayingafinealuminumpowderandthesecond,too‘sciencefictional’tobetrue,proposedexplodinganucleardevice.ThebasiccalculationsperformedbyI.S.Shklovskyindicatedthatthecloudwouldbeexpandingtooslowly,wouldhavesmalllinearandangularsizeanditsstellarmagni-tudewouldnotbesufficientforobservations.Thenuclearoptiongaveonlyamillisec-ondshortflash.AhugemassofhotionizedairshinesinanuclearexplosiononEarth,whereasinspaceatinymassoftheevaporatedspacevehiclewouldbeenough.

Astheresult,ourprojectwonthecompetitionfastandeasy.Rightaway,westartedworking on its implementation. Several directions were determined. The first wastodevelopandmanufacturesodiumevaporators.Thesecondwastorunatestonageophysicalmissile in theupperEarth atmosphere at 400…500km.The thirdwastodevelopandmanufactureabout10telescopesoftwotypeswithshortbandinter-ferencecolourfilteronthesodiumline.Oneofthemhadaluminanceamplifier—athreecascade image-converter tube.Thesecondwasasimplephotocamera.Based

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HeadofthelaboratoryV.ENesterov,AcademicianR.A.Syunyaev,AcademicianYa.B.Zeldov-ichandHeadoftheDepartmentCorrespondentMemberI.S.Shklovsky(fromleft)

HeadoftheAstrophysicsdepartmentofSpaceResearchInstituteofUSSRAcademyofScienc-es,CorrespondentMemberI.S.Shklovsky,ProfessorLeoGoldberg(USA)anddeputydirector

ofSpaceResearchInstituteAcademicianN.S.Kardashev,1970’s(fromleft)

onS.P.Korolev’srequest,A.N.TupolevagreedtoconvertastrategicbomberTu-4forsuchobservations.Thedesignedtelescopesweresupposedtobemountedatthelat-eralwindowoftheaircraftorcouldperformobservationsfromtheground,atwhichtheweatherwouldbeidealwhenthe‘comet’wouldgooff.Weweregiven4aircraftsbasedatamilitaryairfieldatBelayaTserkovinUkraine.OurcolleagueV.F.Esipovwasincharge.TheacademicianVassilyGavrilovichGrabin,thedirectoroftheinsti-tute that designed artillery systems, started working on the design of the sodiumevaporators.S.P.KorolevassignedhisdeputyA.M.PetryakhintorunthetestsonR-5rocket. S.P.Korolev personallymonitored the work on the project. The optics wasmanufactured at Krasnogorsky optical factory, image converter tubes were manu-facturedatNII-801andMoscowelectric lampfactory.A.N.TupolevandhisdeputyL.L.Kerbermonitoredtheaircraftconversionandtelescopesinstallationactivities.

Everything was ready 8…10 months and the evaporators were flight tested on18thSeptember at Kapustin Yar rocket range. The R-5 rocket carried two thermitesodium evaporators which activated at the zenith of the rocket trajectory flight at430km altitude. I.S.Shklovsky came to witness the launch and saw the fantasticview,whichtransformedhisideaandestimatesintotherealityagainstthemorningsky.Thebrightorangewasshiningforalmosthalfhouruntiltherisingsundidnotoutshineit.Theseobservationsallowedustoestimatetheevaporatorefficiencyandtheexpectedstellarmagnitudeofthesodiumcloudatthelunardistance.

V.I.MorozandV.F.Esipovmadesuccessfulobservationsof thesodiumcometdur-ingLuna-2lunarstationlaunchonSeptember15,1959.Observingtheexpansionofthe sodium cloud at 430km altitude allowed determining the density of theEarthatmosphereforthefirsttimeatthishighaltitude.ObservationsmadebyV.I.MorozandV.F.Esipovhelpeddevelopingthegasexpansiontothevacuumtheoryandtestitexperimentally.I.S.ShklovskywasawardedtheLeninprizeforhisideaofthesodiumcometandthesuccessfulexecutionoftheprojectin1960.

AclosecooperationwithaprominentengineerandscientistandS.P.Korolev’sasso-ciateGlebYurievichMaksimovmadeitpossibleforustoparticipateinrocketlaunch-estoresearchthehydrogengeocorona,density,chemicalcompositionandthetem-peratureof theupperatmosphere,and later inexperiments investigating the inter-planetary media and the upper atmosphere of Venus and Mars. Our UV hardwarewasinstalledonallthestationstravelingtoMarsandVenus.

At thesame time the futureacademiciansofRussianAcademyofSciencesbeganaseriesofsuccessfulobservationsofthelowfrequencyradioemissionatthebandsthatdonotreachtheEarthsurfaceandarereflectedbytheionospheric layer, i.e.below30MHz.Forthispurpose,OKB-1designedafewmeters-longantennas,unfoldedlikea reel tape, and the InstituteheadedbyM.S.RyazanskyCorrespondentMemberoftheUSSRAcademyofSciences,developedthereceiversforthisband.

Thelargeworkscopeintermsofthehardwaredevelopmentforsatellitesandinter-planetary stations, processing of the incoming data and the ambitious plans of thefutureresearcheswerehamperedbythetraditionsandcapabilitiesofGAISh.WhenfollowingM.V.Keldysh’sinitiativetheSpaceResearchInstituteatUSSRAcademyofScienceswasfoundedin1966,itwasnaturalthatI.S.ShklovskyreceivedaproposaltoorganizethedepartmentofSpaceAstronomyattheInstitute.Itgotnumber3,asnumbers1and2werealreadyreservedforthewellknownresearches.Ofcourse,notalltheGAIShRadioastronomydepartmentemployeesdesiredtogetatransfertothenewlyestablishedInstitute.However,thecoreemployeesreceivedthisproposalwith

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HeadofthelaboratoryG.B.Sholomitsky,HeadofthedepartmentI.S.Shklovsky,Dr.BillHow-ard(NationalRadioAstronomicalObservatory,USA).HeadofthelaboratoryL.I.Matveenko,

Headofthelaboratory,CorrespondentMemberV.I.Slysh,1960’s(fromleft)

Director of Space Research Institute Academician R.Z.Sagdeev, Head of the departmentI.S.ShklovskyandHeadofthelaboratory,Prof.V.G.Kurt,1970’s(fromleft)

I.S.Shklovsky

Director of Space Research Institute Academician R.Z.Sagdeev, Nobel prize laureateProf. Arno Penzias (Bell Laboratory, USA), Academician Ya.B.Zeldovich and cosmonaut

V.I.Sevastyanov(fromleft)

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Director of Space Research Institute Academician R.Z.Sagdeev,Headofthelaboratory,Prof.V.G.KurtandDirectorofJodrellBankObservatory(UnitedKingdom),Prof.SirBernardLovell(fromleft)

enthusiasm.YoungDoctorsofSciencesN.S.Kardashev,V.I.Moroz,V.I.Slyshandtheauthorofthisarticleheadedtherespectivelaboratories.Otheryoungeremployeesgotajobatourdepartmentaswell,includingthefutureDoctorsofScienceM.V.PopovandG.B.Sholomitsky,withsomeotheremployeestransferredfromotherInstitutes.The department hosted 150 employees andup to 14 laboratories at the peak of itsexistence. We made radio observations at the antennas of the Long Range SpaceCommunicationCenterinEupatoriaandUssuriysk,theopticalscientistsmadetheirobservations inCrimeaandCaucasusat theobservatoriesof theUSSRAcademyofSciencesandtheAcademiesofsciencesoftheSoyuzRepublics.Inotherwords,theyearsfrom1968totheendof1980’sweretheheydayofthedepartmentNo.3!Thisisquiteaterm—over20years.N.S.KardashevwaselectedtheCorrespondentMemberoftheUSSRAcademyofSciences;afewemployeesreceivedtheStateAwardoftheUSSR(N.S.Kardashev—twice,V.S.Etkin,V.I.Moroz,V.G.Kurt),andmanyemploy-eeswereendowedwithgovernmentawards.

Backinthoseyears,ourcountrywaslaunchingtwoorevenfourinterplanetarysta-tionsayeartoVenusorMars,notmissingasinglegoodlaunchwindow,1-2Prognozsatellites,apart froma fewUOSsatellites(universalorbitalstation) tosurvey iono-sphericlayer,earthradiationbelt,magnetosphereandothergeophysicalphenomena.Generallyweweremanagingandprocessingthedatareceivedfromtwoormoresate-llitesorautomatic interplanetarystations, twoinstrumentsweretestedattheman-ufacturer’s plant or the test range, the new instrumentswere developed,manufac-turedorwentthroughtheacceptancetestsatthemanufacturer’sworksorontheIKIInstitutegrounds,wherewehadKISandLIS(controlandteststationandflight-testcenter)operating.Thisworkunderpressurewasnominalandroutineforallexperi-mentalandengineeringdepartmentsofIKIInstitute.Weoftenhadnoweekendsorvacations,andwecouldbeeasilycalledbacktoworkfromthevacationincasetherewasaproblemwithaninstrumentattheplantorthetestrange,whichwasaroutinethingbackthen.

Of course, one should remember this was all top secret, although no one couldexplainwhatcouldbesomuchconfidentialaboutsurveyingtheMoonandtheplan-ets intheSolarsystem, interplanetaryand interstellarmedia,galaxiesandquasars.Manyemployeescouldnotgetapermit togoabroad,although,again,nooneeverexplained the reasons for this discrimination. The head of the Department, corre-spondent member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Laureate of Lenin prize,couldnotgooutside theUSSRfor19years.To thisdayIamnotawareof therea-sonforthat.Ourdepartment,aswellasotherdepartments,hada ‘social’andcom-munist party activity program, we issued a wall news poster, had political trainingsessions,wereawardeda ‘redchallengebanner’etc.,and,finally, thewholedepart-mentvolunteeredtoworkatthevegetablestoragefacilities,cleanthestreets,workat‘subbotniks’and ‘voskresniks’(volunteerclean-ups).Eachdepartmentwasassignedthe ‘streetpolenumber’,wherewewouldstandforhoursonendgreetingthe lead-ersofthefriendlyCentralAfricancountries.Letaloneweek-ortwo-weeklong‘busi-nesstrips’tosovkhozestocollectthebeatrootandregularworkatthe‘beloved’veg-etablestoragebase.However,thiswasthewaythewholecountryusedtolivebeforeB.N.Yeltsinera,whichopenedin1991.

TheerawhichstartedwiththelaunchoftheSputnik-1,firstartificialEarthsatellitewas,Ithink,thehappiesttimeinourlives.WewerenotlosingtheracewiththeUSAandEurope,andoftenwereahead.ThankstotheeffortsmadebyourdirectorAcade-micianR.Z.Sagdeev,westartedasuccessfulcooperationwiththeUSA,allthecoun-triesofthesocialistblock,France,andlaterwiththerestoftheEuropeancountries.Ofcourse,thereweretwosidestothiscooperation.Ontheonehand,wegotanaccesstothecutting-edgetechnology,gotachancetouseforeign-manufacturedelementsinour on-board instruments, processors,memory, steppingmotors etc.We graduallystartedusingcompletelyorpartiallyforeignbuiltinstrumentsatourvehiclesinsteadoftheonesmanufacturedinourOKBoratthefactoryinFrunze(nowBishkek).Wealsohadsome‘intermediate’cases,whenoneorafewunitsoftheinstrumentsweremanufactured in the Soviet Union, and a few were made abroad. This required ajointeffortattheinstitutesabroadandfrequentvisitsoftheforeignspecialiststoIKIandeven themanufacturerplantand the test rangeswherewemade the launches.DespitethefactthatourInstitutewasa‘securefacility’weworkedonextendingthelistofouremployeeswhohadapermittotravelabroad.

However, this also had a negative impact on the local instrument building indus-try.Ofcourse,itwasmuchbettertogofortwoorthreeweekstoParis,Budapestor

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Prague,than,say,drudgealonginhotFrunzeorTashkent.Besides,theinstrumentsdeveloped inToulouseweremorereliable thanhomemadeunits,weighed lessandconsumedmuchlesspower.Whatdidthisleadto?Apparently,thisledtodisplace-ment and demise of our local instrument building industry. This was exactly the‘reverseofthemedal’.

Certainly,IwouldnotratetheIKImanagementpolicybackinthosedays.Itisclear,though, that the scientific research results we got in 1970’s and 1980’s were veryimpressing.Itwouldbesufficienttonameafew.Venusradarmap(automaticinter-planetarystationsVenera-15andVenera-16,1984).LandingonVenus,startingwiththefirst successfulVenera-4 (1967) project.Artificial satellites ofMars andVenus,deliveryof the lunar soil samples toEarth (Luna-16 in 1970andLuna-17),balloonflightinVenusatmosphere.TwovehiclessenttoHalley’scomet(Vega-1andVega-2,1986), thefirst inourcountryartificialEarth satellite forUVandX-rayastronomy(Astron,1983)andGranatwiththeFrenchmadeaperturegridcamera(1987).Thesatelliteswhichsurveyed theEarthmagnetosphereandsolarwindeffects (Oreol-3,1983,ARKAD-3, 1981, and Interball-2, 1995–2000). Department N0.3’s share inthesesuccessstorieswasquitesignificant.

Thelaboratoryoftheoreticalastrophysics,headedbyI.D.Novikov,joinedtheDepart-ment in1980.I.D.Novikovwas thecloseassociateofYa.B.Zeldovich,Academicianand tree timesHeroofSocialistLabour.HewaselectedCorrespondentMemberofRussianAcademyofSciencesin2004forhisdistinguishedcontributiontodevelop-mentoftheoreticalcosmology.

The last 50 years since the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, as evidentfromtheabove,hadadramatic impacton the livesofall theemployeesof the for-merDepartmentNo.3 at IKI.Most of their creative andprivate liveswere relatedtospace.Notalloftheirdreamscametrue,butstillalothasbeenaccomplished.ItwouldbegoodiftheGovernmentandtheManagementoftheAcademychangedtheirattitude to the science in general and space science in particular. The future of thewholehumankindandourcountry,nownewRussia,inparticular,iscloselyrelatedwiththisresearch.Thisisnotonlyaboutthebasicandcleardirections,suchasspacecommunication(Internet,telephoneandTV,meteosatellite),butitismoreaboutdis-coveringtheWorld,thestructureandtheoriginsoftheUniverse,thestructureandthe physical properties of the superdense substance in white dwarfs and neutronstars(millionstonespercubiccentimeter),superfastrotatingstarsrotatingattensofthousandkilometerspersecondattheirequator,superhotplasmaatbilliondegreestemperatureetc.

Only by investing in building telescopes and accelerators, launching satellites withtelescopesforallspectralranges,ourcountrycanexpecttobeamongtheworldlead-ers,suchasUSA,JapanandtheEuropeanUnion.Letushopethesedreamswillcometrue!

yan zIManRUSSIAChiefResearcheroftheSpaceResearchInstitute,Russia.DoctorofScience.Professor.

TheopticalspaceinstrumentsdepartmentatIKIheadedbyYanL.Zi-man has prepared and implemented many space research experi-ments, including multi-spectral imaging of the Earth, the HalleycometandtheMartianmoonPhobos.

Bornin1922.GraduatedfromthePilot’sTrainingSchoolin1939,theKharkovMilitaryAircraftNavigationSchoolin1941andtheMoscowInstitute forEngineers inGeodesy,AerialPhotosurveyingandCar-tographyin1951.

TookpartintheSecondWorldWar,made311flightsasabombard-mentforcepilot.

HonouredworkerofscienceofRussia.FullmemberoftheTsiolkovskyAcademyofCosmonautics.AwardedbytheUSSRStatePrize.Honoured1st-levelflightnavigatorofthecivilaviation.

HoW THE oPTICo-PHySICAl dEPARTmEnT ovERCAmE ConSEquEnCES oF ‘PERESTRoIkA’DedicatedtoYuriS.Bykov,thefirstchiefdesignerinspacecommunicationssystems

The rebuilding of the Russian economy,launchedbyMikhailGorbachiovandcontinuedbyBorisYeltsin,didnotleavespaceresearchuntouched.Almost all the scientificprogramswere suspended and in factthey were terminated. Hundreds of institutions and thousands of specialists in thespaceresearchfieldwerewithoutwork.

Our Institute�, which was established for preparing and conducting fundamentalstudiesdirectly inspace, found itself inaverydifficult situation. Inaddition to theresearch segment the Institute also had a comprehensive computing base, highlyskilledmathematiciansandprogrammersandinventivedesignersaswellasmodernproductionanduniquetestingfacilities.MoreovertheInstitutewasawardedthesta-tusoftheleadinginstitutioninthefieldofspaceresearch.AlltheprojectspreparedattheInstitutewereimplementedbyinvolvingspecialistsfromotherRussianinsti-tutesandforeignstates.ThiswidecooperationarrangedandheadedbytheInstitutewasexemplifiedinthewell-knownVenera-Halleymission.Withintheframeworkofthisprojectscientificcomplexesfortwospacecraftwerecreatedbythescientistsand

� SpaceResearchInstituteofRussianAcademyofSciences,abbreviationIKI.

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designersfromtheresearchandindustrialinstitutionsofourcountryandHungary,Germany,FranceandothercountriesundertheaegisofIKI.

Withintheframeworkofthisprojectinadditiontothescientificinstrumentationcon-trolsystemtheSpaceResearchInstitutehascreatedaconstellationofuniquespaceinstruments for carrying out fundamental research in various fields. In particular,ourOptico-PhysicalDepartmenthasdeveloped three instrumentation complexes—twomulti-spectraltelevisionsystemstogetherwithHungarianspecialists,onewithaFrenchandanotherwithRussiantelescope,aswellastwoTVandtwoanalogpoint-ingsensors.The latterprovidedfortargetingthethree-axialplatformwiththetele-vision and imaging spectrometric instrumentation to the Halley comet nuclei. Thisuniqueexperiment, includingTV-imagesof theHalley cometand itsnuclei aswellas their scientific analysis, is sufficientlywell highlighted in scientific publications.Itshouldbenotedthatwithinthismissionthesocalledchargecoupleddevices(orCCDs)wereappliedasphotoreceiversintheTV-camerasforthefirsttime.Thismadeitpossibletobothimprovetheacquiredimageryqualityandeasethisimagerytrans-missiontoEarthviatheradiochannel.SincethenGenrikhA.Avanesovhasbecomeanirreplaceablechiefdesignerofallourinstrumentationdevelopments.

The destructive ‘perestroika’ of the country’s space sector, togetherwith the tragicwreckof theMars-96 interplanetaryspacestation,confrontedthedepartmentwiththedifficultproblemofhowtoexistinthefutureandhowtoretainthequalifiedsci-entificandengineeringstaffwithanabsenceofnewspacemissionsandtheavalanch-ingfundingdecrease.

Professor Genrikh A.Avanesov, who headed the Department at that time, foundauniquesolution to thiscomplicatedsituation.Basedon thehighdeviceengineer-ingexperienceoftheDepartment’sstaffhetransformedtheDepartmentintoasmalldesignbureau.BythattimetheDepartmenthadbegunthedevelopmentofstarcoor-dinators— instruments providing for both spacecraft precision (up to the units ofangularseconds)attitudedeterminationandreferencingimagesandmeasurementsacquiredfromthesespacecraft.Atthebeginningconventionalastro-sensorsintegrat-ed twoor threegimbaledviewing tubes.Each tubewaspointed toaparticularstarandtrackedit.Asdistinctfromtheseinstrumentsstarcoordinatorshavenomovingdetailsandfulfillframedigitalimagingofarbitrarysegmentsofthestarryskybeingobserved for a particular moment by the coordinator’s TV-camera. As a rule, theacquiredimagescontainatleasttenstars.Thestarcoordinator’sprocessoridentifiestheregisteredstarsinthebuilt-instarcatalogforthewholecelestialsphereandcal-culatesorientationparameters.Thissolutionhasmadeitpossibletoimprovethestartrackers’accuracyandreliabilityaswellas reduce theirmassandpowerconsump-tion.

ThestarcoordinatorsdevelopedatIKIwerecalledBOKZ.Differentmodificationsofthisinstrumenthavebeenoperatingintheattitudecontrolcircuitsofvariousspace-craftsince1999.Bythemiddleof2007thirteenBOKZinstrumentswereoperatingonsixspacecraft,includingtwoinstrumentsontheYamal-100spacecraftsince1999andthreeBOKZ instrumentson the InternationalSpaceStation since2000.FivemoreBOKZinstrumentswerepreparedforlaunch.TheRussianspaceindustry’sneedforourBOKZstarcoordinatorshasmadeitpossibletoretainalmostallthedepartment’sstaffaswellastoprovidejobforthedesigners,productionworkersandtestengineersoftheInstitute.YoungspecialistshavebeguntocometotheDepartment.

Thenthetimecamewhenourcountrybegantodragitselfoutofthedisastercausedby ‘perestroika’. Thefirst significant scientificmissionPhobos-Soil appeared in the

nationalspaceprogram.NaturallytheDepartmentisactivelyinvolvedintheimple-mentation of this mission. The star coordinator’s next modification BOKZ-MF isincludedintheonboardinstrumentationbeingdevelopedforthespacecraft.

TheDepartmentcontinues theBOKZinstrument familymodificationaswellas therelevant software and algorithms. The BOKZ principal change consists in integra-tionathree-axialangularvelocitysensortosignificantlywidenthisstarcoordinatorapplicationfield.Auniversalnavigationinstrumentisbeingdeveloped.ItintegratesaBOKZinstrument,athree-axialangularvelocitysensorandthenavigationsatellitesignalreceiverinasinglebody.Thisinstrumentistoreplacetheavailablemeasuringsystemsofmotioncontrolsystemsforvariousdestinationspacecraft.

* * *nowletusturntothe50-yearhistoryofthestar

coordinatorcreation.Attheendof1957thereoccurredaneventwhichconsiderablydeterminedmysubsequentlifeandisprobablydirectlyconnectedwiththestartrack-ersbeingcreatedinourdepartment.Thefirstchiefdesignerofthespacecommunica-tionssystems,amemberoftheKorolev’sCouncilofChiefdesigners,aHeroofSocial-ist laborandawinnerof theLeninprize,YuriS.Bykov,exchangedNII-1(ResearchInstituteNo.1) forthesub-facultyofaerialphotosurveyingof theMoscowInstituteofEngineersinGeodesy,AerialPhotoSurveyingandCartography(MIIGAiK),whereIworkedatthattime.BykovofferedmycolleaguesandmetostudytheproblemofEarthphoto-imagingfromspaceinordertomaptheterrestrialsurfaceandgeo-ref-erencetheobjectsimaged.

TheideaproposedtousbyYuriBykovshowshisgenius.Infactatthattimeonlythefirst twoSoviet satellites had completedflights to space andhe already sawmulti-faceted prospects for astronautics, including mapping the terrestrial surface fromspace.Thistaskwassolvedafterhisdeath.YuriBykovdiedin1970beforehewas55yearsold.MoreoverinthelastyearsYuriBykovwasremovedfromhisbelovedspaceresearch for someunknown reason.He toldus: ‘Ihave injected you intoorbit andburntmyselfasalauncher’.

YuriS.Bykovwasapleasantand interestingcompanion. Itwaspossible todiscusswithhimanyproblems—fromalpinismtowhichhedevotedhissparetime,tothepoliticalandeconomicproblemsoftheworld.Hetoldmanyinterestingthingsaboutthespacesegmentofourcountry.Iwillneverforgetthisremarkableman.

Yuri Bykov not only put forward the task to be solved but also found a customerfor thiswork.Anagreementwas concludedand theprojectwas implementedwithenthusiasm.Weconsideredalltheaspectsofphoto-imagingfromspace,payingmostattentiontodesigning imaginginstrumentation,analyzingoptic-physicalconditionsofimagingfromspaceandgeo-referencingoftheobjectsimaged.

BorisN.Rodionovheadedthedepartmentandtheworkasawholeanddevotedhim-selftothedevelopmentofimaginginstrumentationandsimulationtheimagingfromspaceplatforms.Atthebeginningof1960’sYuriChesnokovcametothedepartmentandgotinvolvedinthework.Hedevelopedatechniqueforobtainingimageswiththemaximalspatialresolution.Thisrequiredanalysisoftheopticalandphysicalcondi-tionsofimagingaswellastheoptimizationofboththeimagingphotocameraparam-etersandacquiredimageryphoto-chemicalprocessingmodesbasedonthisanalysisresults.

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Ihad todetermine thegeodeticcoordinatesofobjects located invariousregionsoftheworld,basedonphoto imageryacquired fromspace. Ialsohad tooptimize theorbitsforanimagingsatellitetosurveythespecifiedregion.

Iproposedcarryingoutgeo-referencingbasedonsynchronousimagingoftheterres-trialsurfaceandthestarryskyandasimultaneoussatellitein-orbitpositioningusingthegroundorbitalmeasurements.Thisapproachmadeitpossibletosolvethetask—todeterminethegeographicalcoordinatesoftheimagedsurfaceobjects.

BorisNepoklonov and I developed the algorithm for this task solution and got aninventor’s certificate for the developed technique of coordinate determination. Tomyregretthiscertificateaswellasallthereportsonthisthemeweresecret.Atthattimealmostallthedevelopmentsinspaceresearchfieldwerenotallowedtobepub-lished.For thefirst timewe stated theprinciple of determining spacecraft attitudeparametersbasedonimagesofastarryskyandthesubsequentgeo-referencingoftheEarthsurfaceimagesacquiredfromthesespaceplatformsin1958.Thiswasthefirstanalytical and engineering report on the subject. Soon a similar solution appearedinwesterncountries,whereitwasimmediatelypublished.Imanagedtopublishthemainideasofthismethodanditsalgorithmin1969onlyintheKosmicheskieIssledo‑vaniya(SpaceResearch)magazine.

Withinthesameresearchprogram,inadditiontoimagingstarsIproposedandcal-culated an orbit for imaging the given region. In this orbit a satellite passed abovethespecifiedgeographicallatitudeforthegivenSunangle.Lateronnamelythisorbitwascalledsun-synchronousandthemajorityof theEarthremotesensingsatellitesarelaunchedintoit.Afinalreportontheprogramwaspublishedin1961.ThesetwodevelopmentsprovidedthebaseformyPh.D.thesis.Thepaperwiththetitle‘Ongeo-referencingspaceimagesandimagingsatelliteorbitchoice’hadastampofsecrecy.In1962Idefendedthethesis.ProfessorAlekseiS.Skiridov,awell-knownphotogram-metristwasmyofficialopponent.HeadvisedmetosubmitthisthesisasapaperforD.Sc.inparallel.HetoldthatImayneveragainhavesuchanoriginalidea.Hewasright,butIdidn’twanttopostponethethesispresentation.SoIdefendedmyD.Sc.thesisatIKIin1987.

Thefirst large-scaleexperimentonsynchronous imagingof theEarth’ssurfaceandthestarryskywiththesubsequentgeo-referencingof theobtained imageswaspre-pared and implemented on the first orbital station Salyut. This instrumentationdevelopment for this experiment was supervised by Boris Dunaev. Two aerophoto-camerasAFABA-40wereredesigned.OnenewcameraservedforimagingtheEarth’ssurfacefromspace,theother—forimagingthestarrysky.Bothcamerasoperatedinspacefailure-free.

Thestation’screw(V.Volkov,G.DobrovolskyandV.Patsaev)cametoa tragicend.However the filmwas preserved and our experiment was completely fulfilled. Theexperimentresultsprovedthepossibilityofsolvingmanytasksbysynchronousimag-ingof theEarthandstars. Inparticular thenight-time images revealedfiresof themissileslaunchedandmadeitpossibletodeterminecoordinatesofthelaunchpadsas well as to assess accuracy of the orbital station orientation in various operationmodes, including manual control by the astronauts. And finally we succeeded insolvingthemaintask—determinationofgeographicalcoordinatesoftheongroundobjects,whichwereofinterest.TheEarthsurfaceimagesacquiredprovedthespaceimaging efficiency for solving many economic, scientific and applied tasks. ThisbecamethebeginningoftheworksonEarthresearchfromspaceatourDepartment.

ThewordsbyYuriS.Bykovonour injection intoorbitprovedtobeprophetic.Thestudies fulfilledwerepositively assessed anddespite the secrecyof our reports ourworkwas acknowledged in the space sector andwe got proposals to participate inotherspacemissions.

Oneofthefirstsuchproposalswegot fromthewell-notedcosmo-physicist,Profes-sorAlexanderI.Lebedinsky,whoheadedthelaboratoryofradiationattheResearchInstituteforNuclearPhysics.

AlexanderLebedinsky supervised the scientificprogramofMoon studies onbehalfoftheAcademyofSciences.TheprogramwasfulfilledwithinthemissionofLuna-9stationflighttotheMoonandsoftlandingontoit.Hechargeduswithdevelopingthetechniqueandfulfillingthephotogrammetricprocessingofthepanoramasacquiredbythestation.Inadditionwehadtocompileatopographicplanforthelunarsurfacesegmentshavingbeen imaged.Wefulfilledthisworkandtheresultsobtainedwerepublished.

AlexanderLebedinskypavedourwaytotheSpaceResearchInstitute.Whilewepro-cessedpanoramasfromtheLuna-9stationheacquainteduswiththisstationdesign-ers—YulyK.KhodyrevandArnoldS.Selivanov.

YulyKhodarevbecameaDeputyDirectoroftheSpaceResearchInstitute.Heinvitedthe leading specialists of our sub-faculty to transfer to the Institute. Itwas a chal-lenge.TheproblemwasthatVasilyD.Bolshakov,therectorofMIIGAiKandIhadaratherdifficultrelationship.Sohewouldnotallowmetoleave,asIwasamemberoftheUSSRCommunistParty.ThuswedecidedthatIhadtobethefirsttoleave,asifIwasleavingfornowhere.ThenRodionovandalltheothers,whowerenotpartymem-bers,hadnoobstaclestoleave.TheoperationwasconductedandIbecamethelabo-ratoryheadonDecember27, 1967.This laboratorywas thepartof thedepartmentheadedbyB.N.Rodionovwhoinventedforitaverystrangename–theDepartmentofIconicsandCosmometry.‘Iconics’meantimageryacquisitionfromspace,and‘cos-mometry’— theirmeasurement, referencing aswell as determining coordinates oftheobjectsimaged.Iwastobeheadofthelaboratoryofcosmometry.

LateronB.Rodionov’sandmyroadsparted.InadditiontothetraditionalplanetaryresearchanewbranchofstudyingEarthfromspacewasformedatourInstitute.Wewere invited to join this newfield.Rodionov refusedflatly but I agreed and in thebeginningheadedasectorforsimulatingEarthstudiesfromspace.Soonin1973byanorderofSpaceResearchInstitutedirectorRoaldZ.SagdeevIcreatedandhead-edtheDepartmentforEarthstudiesfromspace.G.AvanesovandmyMIIGAiKstu-dents:Yu.M.Chesnokov,B.S.Dunaev,V.Sevastianovjoinedme.

In 1988 I passed theDepartment’s leadership toGenrikhAvanesov. Then in 2003A.Forsh became head. The main merit in creating and putting into operation theBOKZ family star coordinators belongs namely to them. These developments havemadeitpossiblefortheDepartmenttoovercometheseriousproblemsof‘perestroika’.

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oleg VaIsBeRGRUSSIAChiefResearcherintheSpaceResearchInstituteoftheRussianAcad-emyofSciences.DoctorofScience.

PrincipalInvestigatorofmanyspaceplasmaexperimentsinvestiga-tion testswith atmore than20 spacemissions, includingPrognozandInterballsatellites,Mars-2,-3,-5andVenera-9,-10,Vega-1,-2.

Bornin1935.

GraduatedfromtheFacultyofMechanicsandMathematics,Depart-mentofAstronomyatLomonosovMoscowStateUniversityin1957.WorkedintheInstituteforPhysicsoftheAtmosphereoftheUSSRAcademyofSciencesin1957–1967.EmployeeoftheSpaceResearchInstitute(Russia)since1967(Headofthesolarwindlaboratorysince1976). Project Scientist of the Solar Probe project in 1980–1990.WorkedattheMarshallSpaceFlightCenter(USA)andintheGod-dard Space Flight Center (USA) in 1999–2001. Regular researchfellowintheSouthwestResearchInstituteinSan-Antonioin2004–2006.PresentlyhedevelopsplasmaexperimentsforthePhobos-Soil,BepiColombo(ESA),andResonanceprojects.

FullmemberoftheInternationalAcademyofAstronautics.AwardedtheSignofHonourforworkinVenera-9and-10.

SPuTnIk And SomETHIng ElSE

TotheMemoryofmyTeachers: I.S. ShklovskyandV.I. Krasovsky

It so happened that my interest to space arosebackinthelate1940’s,whenIwasapupilataschoolinNizhnyTagil,acityintheUrals.My parents would buyme popular-science books, subscribe to popular sci-ence journals such as Tekhnika—molodezhi (Technologies for Young People) andZnanie – sila (Knowledge is Power). Then Iwas given a book by Sternfield aboutspaceflights.Istillkeepthispresentaswellasthejournalswithpicturesofrocketsonthefrontpages.IaskedmyparentstosubscribetoAstronomicheskizhurnal(JournalofAstronomy)but itwastoodifficultareadingforaneighthgradepupil.Togetherwithmyfriend,YuraFreidenzon,wemadeasmalltelescopethroughwhichwewouldobservetheMoon.Andwhenthepostmanbrought journalswiththedescriptionofthenewbuildingofMoscowStateUniversityanditspicturesIdecidedtogotoMos-cowtoentertheAstronomyDepartmentoftheUniversity.Iwassomehowconfidentthat astronomy would allow me to go to space. I cannot say that my parents werehappyaboutmychoiceanddeparturetoMoscowbuttheydidnottalkmeoutofit.

IcountmyselfluckythatPetka�Shcheglov,that’showwecalledPetrVladimirovichShcheglov,whowasthenProfessorofMoscowStateUniversity(MSU),invitedmeto

� AcolloquialdiminutiveformoftheRussiannamePyotr(=Peter).

jointheRadioastronomyDepartmentoftheStateAstronomicalInstitutenamedafterP.K.Shternberg (the so-calledGAISh) that functioned under the auspices ofMSU.Radioastronomydepartmentwasheadedbyabrightandtalentedman,ouridol,IosifSamuilovich Shklovsky. He would walk along the corridors of GAISh and hold usspellboundbythesummariesofhisrecentarticles.PetkawasinchargeofoursmallstudentgroupthatincludedValentinYesipov(heisnowtheheadoftheRadioastron-omyDepartmentofGAISh),RudikGulyaev,whocurrentlyworksattheInstituteofGeomagnetism,IonosphereandRadio-wavePropagationoftheRussianAcademyofSciences(IZMIRAN)andwasanofficialmemberofthecosmonautcorps,andmyself.Wegotanicknameof‘infraredboys’forworkingwiththennewimageconvertersforapplicationininfraredastronomy.Shklovskyhadagutfeelingabouttheprospectsofnewspectrumrangesinphysicalastronomy.Ourteamsharedgreatinterestinspaceflights and I still remember ourheateddebates abouthowmany yearswehad leftbeforethefirstmannedflighttospace.

WegraduatedfromMSUin1957,theyearwhenthespaceerabegan.AlthoughIhada letterofrecommendationsignedbyShklovsky(thehandwrittencopyof the letterisoneofthemostvaluablethingsinmycollectionofmemorabilia)andbytheGAIShAcademicCounciltodopostgraduateposition,theGAIShadministrationobstructedmyenrollment into thepostgraduateprogramwithIosifSamuilovichasascientificadvisor.ShklovskyintroducedmethentoValerianIvanovichKrasovsky,aprominentspecialistininfraredtechnologyandazealousgeoscientist.Shklovskyactivelycoop-erated with him. Valerian Ivanovich headed the Department of Upper AtmospherePhysicsattheInstituteofAtmospherePhysics(IFA)oftheUSSRAcademySciences.SoIfollowedtheadviceofIosifSamuilovichandstartedtoworkatIFA.

AftertheTelegraphAgencyoftheSovietUnion(TASS)announcedthattheFirstsat-ellite(Sputnik)hadbeenlaunchedIwaseagertoseeitandcloselyfollowednewspa-perreportsonwhere itwouldbepossible tosee itflyingoverMoscow.But theskywasovercastwithcloudsand itwasonly lateatnightonOctober11 that itbecamepossibletoseeitflyinginthesky.Iwentoutofthehouseandwatchedaflashingdotmovingslowlyacrossthedarksky.AtthattimetheAstronomicalCounciloftheUSSRAcademyofScienceswascollectingdataaboutSputnik’svisualobservationsasitdidnotpossessspecializedopticsyet.Isentthetimeofmyobservationsandtheapproxi-matedirectionoftheSputnik’strajectorytotheAstronomicalCouncilandinreturnIreceivedabeautifulpostcardwithapictureoftheSputnikandwordsofthanks.It’salsopartofmymemorabilia.

I.S.ShklovskyandV.I.Krasovskyofferedmedirectionofresearch—infraredspectraofpolaraurora.IworkedoneobservationalseasonattheIFAstationinRoshchinointheLeningrad region,within the frameworkof the InternationalGeophysicalYear,andonemoreseasonattheLoparskayastationnearMurmansk,observingthespec-traofpolaraurora.TheseobservationslaidthegroundworkformyPh.D.(candidateofscience)thesis.

When I returned toMoscow from theLoparskaya station I foundmyself ina teamofveryenthusiasticyoungscientists,membersofthedepartmentheadedbyValeri-anIvanovich.YuriIlyichGalperin,NikolaiNikolaevitchShefov,TatianaMakarovnaMuliarchik,NikolaiViktorovichDzhordzhio,ValyaProkudina,AntoninaDmitrievnaBoljunova, Faina Shuiskaya,my fellow student, and Vladimir Valdimirohich Tem-nyi—weallwerecarriedawaybyKrasovsky’senthusiasmanddedicatedourselvestoresearchofaurorapolarisandairglow.KrasovskywastheonlyscientistintheUSSRwho had a rather clear understanding of the connection between polar aurora and

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precipitationofenergeticchargedparticlesintotheEarth’supperatmosphere.TheywerethoughttobetheparticleejectedbytheSun.Yu.I.GalperinandIwereparticu-larlyinterestedinprecipitationofprotonsintoupperatmosphere.Asweworked,wereceivedaseriesofnewresults,independentlyfromeachother.Istilltakesomeprideinthefactthatusingmyownobservations,Ideterminedtheenergyspectrumofpro-tons that penetrate atmosphere in the auroral oval and showed that it is similar tothespectrumofprotonsflowingaroundtheEarth’smagnetosphere,asmeasuredonsatellite.

Mynext ‘contact’ with space happened in 1961, afterGagarin’s flight in space.Mycontemporaries and I remember what a day of great rejoicing it was. Now we canseeonTV these kindandhappy faces of cheerful people rejoicing in the streets inthesedays.It’sapitythatwehavelosttheabilitytorejoicesosimplyandgenuine-ly—besidestherearefeweroccasionstorejoice.ThenIwrotealettertoKhrushchevaskinghimtoenlistmeasamemberofthecosmonautscorpsandreceivedaformalletterwithpoliterefusal.

Howevertheopportunitytogetthetasteofspacepresenteditselfverysoon.In1962Cosmos-3andCosmos-5,twosatellitesmissionsofValerianIvanovich,werelaunchedinto orbit: they carried instrumentation for measurements of comparatively low-energy charged particles fluxes. Krasovskywanted tomeasure the flux of particlesthat,inhisopinion,causedpolaraurora.ActuallyheconductedthefirstexperimentofthiskindonfirstspaceresearchlaboratorySputnik-3in1958.AswasthecasewithSputnik-3,preparationofexperimentsforCosmos-3andCosmos-5wasconductedinstrictsecrecy:mostdepartmentmemberswerenotawareofthem.ValerianIvanovichhadaspecialemployeewithassesstosecrets—anengineerSvetlichny,whopreparedexperiments alongwith him. Probably, Yu.I.Galperin participated in those experi-ments too, at least I know thatYura tookpart in analyzis of data of theSputnik-3experiment.AfterthelaunchofCosmos-3andCosmos-5mostofouremployeespar-ticipatedintheanalysisoftheexperimentaldata.Icouldn’tstandasideeither–alongwithmyworkonthethesisonpolarauroraIalsoanalyzedthesedata.V.I.Krasovskygavemethetaskofdeterminingsatellitesorientationinspace.MeanwhileIgotinter-estedinelectronsdriftinthemagnetosphereandtheirlossesasaresultofinfluenceofionosphericelectricfields.

NorwasIabletoresistthetemptationofparticipatingintheworkwithcosmonauts.In1962theAcademycalledforproposalsofexperimentstobeconductedbycosmo-nauts.ThefirstSovietcosmonautspracticallydidnotparticipateincontrollingtheirspacecraft (that was Korolev’s policy). I proposed an experiment to measure theupper atmosphere’s emissions from the satellite. Idesignedaphotometer, selectedaphotomultiplier,avoltmeter,andbatteries.TheboxwasmadeintheIFAshopandtwoelectroniccardsweremadeattheplantinKiev,wherethehardwareforKrasov-sky’ssatelliteshadbeenmadebefore.ThephotometerwascalibratedattheCrimeanAstrophysicalObservatory. Iwent toZvezdnyGorodokseveral times toexplain theexperimenttotwogroupsofcosmonauts:agroupofmalecosmonauts(V.Bykovskyamong them) and a group of female cosmonauts (V.Tereshkova among them). InJune,1963IwassummonedtoBaikonurCosmodromewiththatphotometer.ThosewhonowprepareexperimentsforspaceresearchwillprobablyfinditinterestingthatI was neither given any documentation for preparation of the experiment, nor wasIrequiredtosubmitanydocumentationforthepreparedexperiment.ThereatBai-konur Cosmodrome I saw S.Korolev, Yu.Gagarin, G.Titov, A.Nikolaev. I refusedtocameclosetoKorolev:peoplesaidthathewasaverytoughandexactingperson.

Imanagedtohidetwiceinsidetheinstallation-testfacilitysoasnottobetakenawayfarfromtheplaceofthelaunch.Iwatchedthelaunchoftwomannedspacecraftfromthewindowofthefacility.Theimpressionwasfantastic:thepower,thenoiseandtheextraordinarybeautyofthesight.

I was promised that the photometer would go on Vostok-5 (piloted by Bykovsky).HoweverafterthelaunchIwastoldthephotometerwasnotlaunchedonVostok-5.Igotveryupset.TheyreassuredmethatinstrumentwillbeputinVostok-6.Indeed,photometerwasonboardthespacecraftthatcarriedValentinaTereshkovatospace.Iwasnottoldwhatweretheresultsoftheexperimentforalongtime.ApproximatelyinamonthIreceivedaphonecallfromPodlipki,atownintheMoscowregion,andlocationofwhat isnowRocket-SpaceCorporationEnergia. Iwas told thatTeresh-kovahadmadeone(!)measurementwithmyphotometer,andIwastoldwhatwasthereadingofvoltmeter.Resultofthemeasurementwaswithintheexpectedlimitsbut,naturally,onemeasurementwillnotmakearesearchpaper(although,followingmodernPRtrends,IcouldhavecoauthoredanarticlewithValentinaTereshkova).

Iundertookanotherattempttoassociatemyselfwithspaceflightsbyrespondingtoanothercallof theAcademyofSciences in1962: ‘Scientists toBecomeAstronauts’.Isubmittedanapplicationandpassedthepreliminaryhealthevaluationatthehos-pitalonPirogovskayaStreet.SoonIwasinvitedtoahospitalinSokolnikiwhereourgroup (Boris Yegorov, future doctor–cosmonaut among them) were to go throughmoreextensivehealthevaluationandperformancecheck.Ihadnotreachedthelev-elofthecentrifugetest:IwaswrittenoffbecauseofmyexcesssensitivitytoBaranychair rotation test of vestibular system (doctors called it an instrumentof torture).Anyway,mylastnamehardlywouldallowmetobeselectedforspaceflightinthoseSoviettimes(though,insomeoccasionsinappropriatenameswerechanged:Bulgar-iancosmonautGeorgiKakalov�hadhislastnamereplacedtoIvanov).

OurnextspaceadventurewaswithElektronproject.ThiswasthefirstintheworldspacesystemoftwosatellitesplacedondifferentorbitsintheEarthmagnetosphere.Thesystemwaslaunchedtwice,foursatellitesallinall.Thesatelliteshelpedtocon-ductmuchinterestingresearchinthe1960’s.Krasovskyandweparticipatedinstud-iesofmagnetosphericparticlesandperformedveryinterestingstudyofringcurrent.WesuccessfullycompetedinsciencewithmuchlargerresearchteamofS.N.Vernovfrom the Institute of Nuclear Physics ofMoscow State University (NIIYAF). Afterdefending my Ph.D. thesis, I completely turned from polar aurora studies to spaceresearch.

AfterElektronsKrasovskydecidedtoencouragetheyoungermembersofhisteamtoleadtheirownprojects.YuraGalperinbegantoprepareaprojectofanEarth’ssatel-lite to studypolaraurora.As forme,Valerian Ivanovichadvisedme to thinkofanexperimenttostudythesolarwind.Ibeganreadingscientificworks,therewerenotmanyofthemonthetopic,publishedbySovietandforeignscientistsandthinkingonnewapproaches to solarwindmeasurements. Initially Iwanted toadaptYuraGal-perin’sexperimentsdesigns,butsoonIdevisedmyowninstrumentsconcepts.Atthattime,inthesecondhalfofthe1960’s,theLavochkinResearchandProductionAsso-ciationinthetownofKhimkioftheMoscowregionstartedtodesignsatellitePlas‑ma,ahigh-apogeesatellite,whichsoonwasrenamedtoPrognoz.StanislawIvanov-ichKarmanov,amemberofSkuridin’s team,played important rule indeterminingtheconceptofthesatellite.G.A.SkuridinwasanassistanttoMstislavVsevolodovich

� Thelastname‘Kakalov’soundsinappropriatelyinRussian.

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Keldysh,PresidentoftheUSSRAcademyofSciencesandtheHeadoftheScientificSpaceProgram.

Weproposed solarwindexperiments forPrognoz satellite, but encountered strongopposition to that froma teamofscientists thathadstarted toexplore thatareaofresearchearlier.TogetherwithValerianIvanovichandYuraImanagedtoshowourability toperformsensibleexperimentsandourproposalswereapprovedforProg‑nozprogram.

Valerian Ivanovich introduced YuriGalperin andme to Boris IsaakivichKhazanovand Lev Solomonovich Gorn, who worked at the All-Union Research Institute ofInstrumentsDevelopment (SNIIP) under auspices of theMinistry ofMiddle Engi-neering.B.I.KhazanovandL.S.Gornheadedtwolaboratories inwhichfrom1960’sto1990’smostofscientificinstrumentsforspaceresearchweredevelopedandfabri-cated.Thesetwotalentedanddedicatedmenwiththeircolleaguesessentiallylaidthenational space instrumentation industry. The instruments that they had developedwereinstalledonthemajorityifscientificspacecraftofthosedecades.FirsttoworkwithSNIIPwasVladimirGdalevichKurt,aprominentastrophysicist,andbothYuraandIhadthepleasureofmanyyearsofworkwithSNIIPengineers.MyprofessionalandpersonalrelationshipwiththelateBorisIsaakivichKhazanov,anextraordinarypersonandagreatengineer(hepassedawayin2006)wasoneofthemostsignificanteventsinmylife.

ItwasassumedthatV.I.Krasovskyandhisteamwouldbeginworkingatanewlycre-atedSpaceResearchInstitute(IKI)oftheUSSRAcademyofSciences.Howeversome-thingwentwrong,andValerianIvanovitchdecidedtostaywithIFAand‘handover’to IKI the major part of his team that was involved in space research. This is howthe Polar aurora laboratorywascreated in IKIwithYuri IlyichGalperin incharge.I startedworking at IKIback in 1966andonMay 15, 1967 I becamea staffmem-ber inG.A.Skuridin’s department. Soon Iwasnominated theheadof a sector andcollectedmyown team.G.A.Skuridinwasagreatenthusiastof space researchandhelpedresearchersa lot.Hecameupwith the initiativeof comprehensive researchofsolarwindinteractionwiththeEarth’smagnetospherewiththreesimultaneouslyoperatingPrognozsatellites(RussianTroikaproject),longbeforesimilarmulti-sat-elliteprojectsappearedintheWest.Unfortunately,hedidnotmanagetoimplementitduetostrongopposition.

Mars-69becameIKI’sfirstscientificresearchproject.ItwasanambitiousprojectofaMars satellitewithmany scientific instruments and IKI’s data processing systemonboard.We enthusiastically cooperatedwith theLavochkinAssociation andotherinstitutes to design and test two identical spacecraft. Unfortunately, both launcheswereunsuccessful:oneProton rocket failednot farKyzil,acity inKazakhstan.Thesecondrocket felldownon the launchpad.During the launchIwas in theControlCenterinKhamovniki,asouth-westerndistrictinMoscow,andtwiceIleftthisplaceinaterriblemood.Mychancetolaunchthesolarwindmass-spectrometerinspacebeforeUSAwaslost.

Verysoon,anewproject,Mars-71,withanewscientificprogramwasunderdevel-opment. Unfortunately, planetary research scientists were against the installa-tionof plasma instruments on those satellites– they claimed that theyhavenoth-ingtodowithplanetaryresearch.AtameetingchairedbyM.V.KeldyshIpreparedasetofposterstoshowthatourexperimentsweredirectlyconnectedwithplanetaryresearch: theyallow tostudyatmospheric losses resulting fromthesolarwindflow

aroundMars.Keldyshlistenedtoanaudaciousyoungmanattentivelyandrequestedthatplasmaandmagneticfieldexperimentsshouldbeincludedinthescientificpro-gramoftheproject.ThisishowSh.Sh.Dolginov’smagnetometer,ourgroup’splasmaanalyzerandK.I.Gringauzteam’splasmainstrumentswereonboardofMars-2andMars-3.TheseexperimentswithintheframeworkofMars-71programlaidthebasisofwhatwenowknowabout interactionofsolarwindswithatmospheresofplanetswithoutintrinsicmagneticfield.Thatmomentbecamethestartingpointofmyinde-pendentlifeinspace.

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Mikhail MaRoVRUSSIACorrespondingMemberoftheRussianAcademyofSciences.

BorninMoscowin1933.

Graduated from the Bauman High School of Technology in 1958.Research Fellow of the Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics(RussianAcademyofSciences)since1962.

Expertinmechanicsofspaceenvironments,radiationhydrodynam-icsofmulticomponentreactionmixtures,planetaryphysicsandaer-onomy.

FellowresearcherinaseriesofprojectsonMarsandVenus.Editor-in-ChiefofthemagazineSolarSystemResearch,issuedbyRussianAcademyofSciences.FullmemberoftheInternationalAcademyofAstronautics,FellowoftheBritishRoyalSocietyofAstronomy.

PresidentofthePlanetarySciencesDepartmentoftheInternationalAstronomicalUnion.

MemberofAcademicCounciloftheInternationalSpaceUniversity.

AwardedbytheLeninPrizeandtheUSSRStatePrize,theInternationalGalaberPrizeinAstronautics,theSignofHonour(2003).

THE dISCovEREd SPACE

In the lifetime of every generation remarkablesocialandeconomicalchangesoccurthataresubstantiallyinfluencedbythescienceandtechnology,bythescientificandtechnologicalprogress.Itspaceispermanentlygrowing,withitsresultshavingahugeeffectnotjustontheworldorderbutalsoonoureverydaylivingconditionsandrelationshipofpeople.Theglobalandlocalpro-cessesarebecomingmoreandmoreinterconnectedduetotheall-roundpenetrationofinformationtechnologies,enhancingeffectivityoftransportation,increasinginter-action of noosphere with the natural environment. Outstanding role in these pro-cessesisplayedbythespacesciencesandtechnologieswhoseinitialfoundationwaslaidbytheepoch-makingevent—launchofthefirstartificialEarthsatelliteinUSSRmerely50yearsago.

Forthefuturegenerationsthehistoricalstageofgoingbeyondthelimitedhabitationsphereonourownplanetwillforeverstayinmemoryasthelargestachievementandprogressofhumancivilizationinthelastcentury.Ithasmarkedthebeginningofthesystematicresearchandexplorationofthenearestspaceneighborhood—Solarsys-tem,openingtheprincipallynewpossibilitiesinthestudiesofconstitutionofmatter,originandevolutionoftheUniverse.

TheTASSmessagewhichinformedtheworldaboutthelaunchofthefirstsatellitehasliterallyshockedme,thegraduatestudentattheMechanicalfacultyoftheN.E.Bau-manMoscowHighSchoolofTechnology(nowN.E.BaumanMoscowStateUniversityofTechnology).Andthougheverythingwastheoreticallycleartothetechnicallyedu-catedspecialist,theeventseemedtobeincredible.Itwasamazingtosearchthenight

skyforthemovingartificiallittlestarand,leaningtotheradio,hear‘beep-beep-beep’signals. This occasion has definitely influencedmy choice of the follow up career,though in the conditions of the strict security I did not get to the Design Bureau(DB)calledOKB-1andleadbyS.P.Korolevrightafterthegraduation.Nonetheless,sincethattimemy‘enteringthespace’hasstartedwhichwasnotsmoothbutallowedmeinarathershorttermtogetinvolvedinanumberofresearchprojects,promot-ed to studynew topics and seriously enlargemyknowledgeof classicalmechanics,gas dynamics, navigation/control, astronomy, electronics. And, perhaps, of no lessimportancewasgettingacquaintedtothewonderfulpeople fromwhomI learnedalot.ThattimeIaddressas‘myuniversities’,theschooloflifeindeed.Asaparticipantof thenumerouseventssincenearlybeginningofspaceexploration,Iwould liketosharemymemoriesattheanniversaryofthefirstartificialsatellitelaunch.

Thedeeperinhistoryrecedestheperiodofthesecondhalfofthepastcenturyincred-ibly full of daring projects and outstanding discoveries, the sharper one recognizeshishappyinvolvementinthisunforgettabletimethatbroughttogethermanydistin-guishedscientistsandGeneralDesigners.I’vebeenfortunatetocooperatewiththosepeople working on solving a number of complicated scientific and technical prob-lems.TheperiodofmyespeciallyclosecooperationwiththemfellonthemostfruitfulepochofstudyingtheMoonandSolarsystemplanetsin1960–1970’s.Itwaswonder-ful timewhen theSovietUniongovernmentstronglysupportedspaceresearchandtheleadingpositionsofourcountryinthisareawasworld-recognized.OccupyingthepositionofaHeadoftheDepartmentofAppliedMechanics,PlanetarySciencesandAeronomyattheInstituteofAppliedMathematics(IAM,nowM.V.KeldyshInstituteofAppliedMathematics,orKIAM)oftheUSSRAcademyofSciences,I’vebeenalsodeeplyinvolvedinthedevelopmentandimplementationofspaceprogramservingasaScientificsecretaryoftheInterdepartmentalScientific-TechnicalCouncilonSpaceResearch(MNTSonKI)whichwassetupintheUSSRAcademyofSciencesbodyandentrustedtheseresponsibletasks.TheCouncilwasdirectedbytheformerPresidentofAcademyofSciences,AcademicianMstislavVsevolodovichKeldyshwiththemem-bershipofsuchdistinguishedpeopleasSergeyPavlovichKorolev,ValentinPetrovichGlushko,NikolayAlekseevichPilyugin,VladimirPavlovichBarmin,MikhailSergeev-ichRyazansky,AlekseyFedorovichBogomolov,YuriAleksandrovichMozzhorinandmanyotheroutstandingheadsofDesignBureausand scientific research institutes.Theycanbecalledthespacepioneersbyright.

Basically,Iturnedoutinthecoreofspaceeventswhicharestrikinginretrospectiveby its range andpower.Everythingwasdone for thefirst time, thedaring innova-tionswereconnectedtoalargerisk,butthemorevaluablewerethesuccesses.SoonafterourfirstLunnikslaunches,sendingtoEarththeimagesofinvisible(andthere-fore, previously unknown) far side of theMoonwithLuna-3, first launches of thefirst spacecraft towardsMars andVenus (1Mand 1VA)were performed inwhich Iwasluckytoparticipate.ThatwasaperiodofmycloserelationshipsatS.P.Korolev’sOKB-1withmanywonderfulpeople,amongthoseIwouldnamefirstofallB.E.Cher-tok,V.P.Mishin,K.D.Bushuev,B.V.Rauschenbach,G.Yu.Maksimov.Induecourseof two years I acquired excellent experienceworkingwith the outstanding special-ist inrocketryG.A.Tyulinbeing involvedin launchesofballisticmissilesandspacelaunchersincludingdetailedanalysisoftheperformanceandinvestigationoffailures.

At theverybeginningof 1960’s I closely relatedwithYuzhnoe DB in Dnepropetro-vskheadedbybrilliantChiefDesignerandgreatpersonalityMikhailKuzmichYan-gel. Ihadachance toparticipate in thedevelopmentof small satellites intended to

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investigate thenear-earth space.Thatwas theperiodof close cooperationwith theoutstanding constructors in thatDBV.F.Utkin,V.M.Kovtunenko,Yu.A. Smetaninandmanyothers.Thefirst launchgivingrise to theKosmos seriesof satelliteswasperformedonMarch16,1961.Oneyearlater,whilepreparingmyPh.D.ThesisintheInstitute ofPhysics of Atmosphere, Iwas participating in the experiments onboardKosmos-3 and Kosmos-5 satellites under the auspices of Professor V.I. KrasovskywhowasmyadviserandtowhomIamobligedwithmydeeperknowledgeinspacephysics.

TheexperiencegainedfromthedevelopmentofKosmosseriesatYuzhnoeDBgavebirthlaterontheunifiedAUOSsatelliteswhichwereusedinparticularfortheinter-nationalcooperation inthe frameworkofIntercosmosprogram.Thephasesofsuc-cessful realizationof thisprogramarerelated to theeffective leadershipof thefirstPresidentofIntercosmosCouncilBorisNikolaevichPetrov,awonderfulmanwhomIhadaluckofknowingwell.Thesameunforgettabletracehasbeenleftinmythankfulmemoryafterratherfrequentmeetingsandfruitfuldiscussionsofvariousproblemswithourdistinguishedleadersinthefieldofmechanics—L.I.Sedov,A.Yu.Ishlinsky,D.E.Okhotsimsky,whowereextremelydedicatedtospace.

But, of course,my greatest school of science and lifewas taken during 17 years ofworkundertheleadofMstislavVsevolodovichKeldyshwhomIaddressasmymainTeacher.Thelifeofthisoutstandingmancannotbeseparatedfromtheepochhewasliving inandcreating itbyhimself.Theclosecommunicationwithhimhadbeenatrue gift of heavens. Strict and unsociable outside, he was suddenly opening manysidesofhispowerful talent inthecontactwithpeoplebesidehim,showingtherealattentionandbenevolencetothem.Hishumannessandwiderangeofinterestswereespeciallyfeltininformalsetup,inparticularathishome,whereIvisitedhimmanytimes.

M.V.Keldyshwasleadingthespaceresearchandspaceutilizationforthewholefirsttwentyyearsofcosmonautics.DespitetheenormouspreoccupationatthepositionofthePresidentofUSSRAcademyofSciences,thespacealwaysremainedtheworkofhislife.Hewascaringaboutthemostactualresearchesallofthetime,paidalotofattentiontotheissuesofdevelopingthenewrocketsystemsandthemodernizationoftheexistingones,upgradingtherocketengines,creatingthemoderncontrolandmeasurementfacilities,constantimprovementoftheoverallreliabilityofspacesys-tems.HehassupportedthedevelopmentofProton launcherattheDBofV.N.Che-lomeydespite the obstruction against this project fromotherGeneralDesigners inthe rocketry sector and evenhigh level authorities. Thanks to his firmpositionwenow possess this unique tool of delivering the large payloads into space.MstislavVsevolodovichwasinterestedinformallyinproblemssoseeminglyfarfromhispro-fessional interestsas spacebiologyandmedicine,discussing themwith the leadingspecialists V.I.Yazdovsky, V.V.Parin, O.G.Gazenko. On his initiative the experi-mentsonspacematerialsciencewerestartedwithB.E.PatoninchargeinvolvedbyM.V.Keldyshinthearea.Aftereveryflighttospacehewasnotlimitedtotheformalpress-conferencesbutinsteadinvitedthecosmonautstohisplacecarefullylisteningtotheiropinionsonflight,systemsoperationandspacecrafthardware.

WorkingwithMstislavVsevolodovichwas hard but always interesting, and havingdonesomethingwrongorirresponsiblywasjustimpossible.Hewasequallyexactingtohimselfandhisassistants.Inhisactivityhewasdirectedexceptionallybytheinter-estsofbusiness,decidedlyrejectingeverythingpersonalorissuesofsecondaryvalue.Hewasatrue leaderhavingahugerespectandcredibility, inspiring largeteamsof

like-mindedpeople.He sincerelybelieved that theflights to spacewillbecomeoneof the greatest ambitions of our civilization and worked hard onmaking K.E.Tsi-olkovsky’sdreamofcontentingthewholecircumsolarspacecometrue.Onthesametime,hewaswell awareof thehighest responsibility for theutilizationof scientificachievementsinpeacefulpurposes,totheprofitofallpeopleonEarth,andwascon-vincedthatspaceexplorationshouldhelpinachievingthisgoals. ‘Themankindhasenteredthenewepochofpossessingtheintimatemysteriesofnaturehiddeninthedepths of space’,M.V.Keldyshwas saying. ‘New phenomena we will meet on oth‑erplanetswillbeused for improving lifeonEarth…’Suchwas the lifepositionofhim,anoutstandingscientistandcitizendeeplydevotedtotheideasofthepeaceandprogress,caringaboutthegooddestinyofourplanet.

OntheinitiativeofM.V.KeldyshtheSpaceResearchInstitute(IKI)ofUSSRAcad-emyofScienceswasfoundedin1966.Itsformationwasoccurringliterallybeforemyeyes.ForthispurposeadepartmentwasfirstcreatedwithintheIAMstructurethatbecametheembryoof IKI.Thus,firstemployeesof thenew institutewereresidingin the IAMstaff for about a year, until thefirst ‘temporary’ buildings (of the stan-dardhairdresser’skindofthosetimes)wereconstructedonProfsoyuznayastreet,88andbythecommandofAcademyofSciencesthisdepartmentofIAMwastransferredthereinMay,1967,thushavingstarteditsownexistence.Bytheway,Iwasalsofirstsent to IKI, to the newly founded department of space gas dynamics. Its other col-laborators were my good colleagues — V.B.Baranov, V.V.Leonas, I.M.Yavorska-ya. However, about two months later M.V. Keldysh has changed this decision andreturnedmebacktoKIAM.

The first Director of IKI (and earlier Head of the relevant IAM department) wasassigned Georgy Ivanovich Petrov, a renowned scientist in the field of aero-gasdynamics, supersonic flows and heat-and-mass transfer. Surely M.V.Keldysh hasmade this choice not by random occasion: first of all, he was well acquainted toG.I.PetrovyetsincethecommonworkatTSAGIandthenatNII-1(latertheInstituteofThermalProcesses—NIITP,nowadaysM.V.KeldyshResearchCenter),andsec-ondlyhewantedtocombinethespacescienceandtechnologyascloselyaspossible.AndwhoelsebutGeorgyIvanovichcouldhavetakenupforsolvingmanynontrivialproblems,criticallyreviewingtheproposalsanddevelopmentsofscientists inspacephysicstakingintoaccounttherealpossibilitiesandtheprospectsofspacetechnolo-gies growth and constraints. But he went much further in this, completely new forhim,fieldofactivitydeeplycomprehending thewide topicsof research, integratingtheoretical and experimental concepts on the strict mathematical background andgeneratingnewideas inplanningandperformingthescientificprograms.I’vebeencommunicatingwithG.I.Petrov formany years, not onlyproviding the connectionof IKI toMNTSonKI,butalsoparticipating inhisseminaronhydromechanicsheregularlyconductedattheComputingCenterofM.V.LomonosovMoscowStateUni-versityformorethan15years.

IthastobenotedthathavingbecometheDirectorofIKIGeorgyIvanovichhasimme-diately facedmanyproblemsof themanagementnature.Thescientificand techno-logical/productionstructureoftheinstitutewascreatedduringthisperiodbasedontheprincipalconceptofcollectingunderthesameroofthespecialistsofverydiffer-ent specialties from other related institutes either already having experience inthe space research or interested in carrying them out. This seemingly good ideaturnedoutnoteasytoputintopracticesincearatherartificialconglomeratewascreatedofthematicallyunrelatedgroupswiththeirowntraditions,approachesand

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ambitions. Discontents and conflicts were appearing whose regulation was usuallyrestonG.I.Petrov’sshoulders.

UnfortunatelytheauthoritiesofSovietAcademyofSciencesdidnotensuredthenec-essarysupport toG.I.Petrov insolving thisproblems.Thecommissionassigned in1972fortheplannedreviewofthefive-yearIKIactivityhasveryformallyapproachedto theevaluationofresultsof itswork.Manypositionsof thestrategic lineandthecurrentpoliticsofIKIwerenotapprovedforcingG.I.Petrovtoinsistonleavingthepost about a year later despite the requests of someAcademy leaders to stay.Thisstephasonceagainshownthestrengthofhischaracter,honestyandhighcommit-menttoprinciples.MeanwhileG.I.Petrovhasmanagedtodothemainthing:hedidnotonlycreatethecapablecollectiveof the instituteandcompletetheconstructionof itsbuilding,but alsoestablished the new formsof interactionbetween Academyof Sciences with the industry, including creation of the division for the integratedtestsofscientificpayloadwiththespacecraftandthedevelopmentofnewprogressivetrendsinthespacehardwaredesign.Itappearstohaveassistedinnosmallmeasuretothesuccessfulrealizationofaseriesofspaceprojects,firstofallVEGArendezvouswithHalleycomet,during the laterperiodof the institutedirectorshipbyR.Z.Sag-deevinvitedtothispositionbyM.V.KeldyshonL.A.Artsimovichadvice.

Looking back today at the glorious years after the first satellite launch one can’tbut remember onemore outstandingmanwhom Ihad a chance to knowperfectlyandcloselycommunicatedwith–GeorgyNikolaevichBabakin.Due to tremendouseffortsofhimandhisskilledteamourcountryhasachievedthegreatsuccessesintheMoon,Venus,andMarsexploration.Babakin ‘skyrocketed thespace’ in 1965whentheworksonlunarandplanetaryresearchweretransferredfromS.P.Korolev’sDBtotheS.A.LavochkinAssociationbythedecreeofGovernment,andG.N.Babakinwasappointed the Chief Designer. Enormous technical experience and high productioncultureoftheaviationDBandfactorywhichplayedahugeroleduringtheWorldWarIIandwasworkingon theunmannedBurya aircraft in thepost-waryearsallowedthemtocontinuethelunarE-6programandcometosuccessintheshortestterms.ItwasinJanuary,1966whentheautomatedLuna-9spacecrafthasperformedthesoftlandingontheMoonwithsendingbacktoEarththehigh-qualitypanoramicviewofitssurface,determiningthemechanicalpropertiesofthelunarsoilandthusputtingtheendto themulti-yeardiscussionon itssurfacebearingcapacity.Thenextmile-stoneoftheMoonstudiesafterLuna-9wasthedevelopmentandsuccessfullaunchofitsfirstartificialsatellite—Luna-10fromwhichthenatureoflunarsurfacerockswasdeterminedusingtheideaofA.P.Vinogradovbymeasuringthenaturalradioactivityconditionedbyuranium,thoriumandpotassiumcontainedinthoserocks.Thelunarrocksturnedouttobeanalogoustoterrestrialbasaltsintheircompositionunliketheexpectedgranites.Coupledwiththedataonthereflectivecapability(albedo)ofdif-ferentareasoftheMoonthisallowedustoimprovethelunargeologicalmapsignifi-cantly.

TheissuesoftheSovietlunarprogramstoodupespeciallysharpwhenitbecameevi-dentthatwereunabletocompeteUSAintheraceoflandingthemanontheMoon.ItwasnecessarytocounterresistsomethingtoAmericanssinceitwasofhighpoliti-calvalue.HeretheS.A.LavochkinAssociationcametothefirstplace.FollowingtheG.N.Babakin’sproposalwhichwasactivelysupportedbyM.V.Keldyshandapprovedbythehighlevelauthorities,thedevelopmentofanewgenerationoflunarspacecrafthasstartedfortheautomatedlunarsoildeliveryandself-propelledvehicles(rovers)remotecontrolledfromtheEarth.TheflightsofourLuna-16,-20,-24automatedsta-

tionsthatdeliveredthelunarrocksamplesfromthemarineandcontinentalregionsoftheMoon,aswellaslongoperationsoftravelinglunarroversLunokhod-1and-2havemadeenormouscontributiontothestudyofournaturalsatelliteandtheEarth-Moonsystem.Thecraftsthemselvesturnedouttobeuniqueintheirtechnicalexcel-lenceandwerenotreproducedanywhereintheworldsofar.

It iswithadmirationandproudthatIrememberthe24thofSeptember,1970whenthe automated Luna-16 station has returned back to Earth the container with thelunar rock samples from the Sea of Fertility. I remember the shining with happi-ness eyes of GeorgyNikolaevichwho spent several unsleeping nights at his office,his slightly confused voice when he got a call with the congratulations on the suc-cessfromtheSecretaryofCPSUCentralCommitteeD.F.Ustinovwhowassupervis-ing thedefenseareasof industry.And thepriceless load itself,accompaniedby thepolice escort in thenightMoscow, todeliver it fromS.A.LavochkinAssociation tothespeciallypre-equipped laboratoryat theV.I.VernadskyInstituteofGeochemis-tryandAnalyticalChemistrywherethecontainerwasopenedinthecamerafilledupwithneutralgas.Soonafterthe‘highestlevelauthorities’hadseenwhatthelunarsoillooks like, itssystematicanalysishasstarted followed lateronbythesamples fromtheotherlunarregions.TheseworksweredirectedbyA.P.Vinogradov,thefollowerofV.I.VernadskywhowasheadingtheLunar-PlanetarysectionofMNTSonKI.Theclosecommunicationwithhimformanyyearshasleftinerasabletraceinmylife.

Butmy closest contactswithG.N.Babakinwas certainly related to the programofVenusstudy. Its long-timesuccessful implementationhasbegunwith thehistoricalflightof theVenera-4automatedstation. Itwasshortlybefore thatwhenM.V.Kel-dysh assigned me the coordination of these works. In the same time he has alsoapprovedtheideaofstartingatIAM,alongwiththetheoreticalworks,theworksonperforminganumberofexperimentalresearchofplanets.Forthisgoalaspeciallab-oratorywassetup inthestructureofmydepartmentwhichshouldbecarryingouttheseworksintheclosecontactwithNIITP.Thisinitiativehasdeterminedformanyyearsmyfruitfulcooperationinthisareaofspaceresearchandlongstandingfriend-shipwiththedistinguishedscientistandthewonderfulmanV.S.Avduevsky.AseriesofuniqueexperimentsonVenusandMarswasrealizedbyustogetherwithclosecol-laborationwithourcolleagues.

IhaveforeverrememberedthedayofOctober18,1967whenthedescentmoduleofVenera-4automaticstationforthefirsttimeintheworldparachutedonotherplan-etandtransmitted theuniquedataof thedirectmeasurementsof the temperature,pressure, density and the chemical composition of its atmosphere not available tostudyfromEarth.The initialanalysisof theobtained informationturnedout,how-ever,dramaticbecausethespacecraftdesignedfortheambientpressureof18atmo-spheresdidnotreachedthesurfaceasoriginallythought.Instead,itwascrushedattheheight of 23km.Ambiguousnesswas added into thedata interpretationby theerroneous readings of the onboard radio altimeter. The matching of measurementswiththealtitudebecamepossibletoobtainbythecombinedanalysisofthedatafromVenera-4,AmericanMariner-5spacecraft(havingperformedthealmostsimultane-ousVenusflyby), and the radarmeasurements of the radius of planet.As a result,therealsurfacepositionwasdetermined,andthemeasureddatafrom23kmwherethespacecraftstoppedfunctioningwereextrapolatedtotheground.Thisallowedustodetermine that the temperatureat thesurfaceofVenus is475°C, thepressure is90atmospheresandthisextremelydenseandhotatmosphereconsistsalmostentire-lyofthecarbondioxideandisalmostcompletelydevoidofoxygenandwater.Thus

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theclosestplanettoEarthturnedouttobeanincrediblyhostile,unusualworldcom-pletelydissimilartoourearthlyone.Ifonerecalls thatthedataonVenusianatmo-sphere were very limited before the flight ofVenera-4 (for instance, the estimateuncertaintiesofthesurfacepressureinvariousmodelsweredifferingbymorethana hundred times, from a fraction to several hundred atmospheres) and the mainatmosphereconstituentwasthoughttobenitrogen,thevalueoftheobtainedresultswasreallyhardtooverestimate.OurnextexperimentsonVeneraspacecraftwiththemoreadvancedsetsofscientificinstrumentshavingperformedmeasurementsattheplanetary surface have fully confirmed these results, totally disproving the existingconceptsofVenusasatwinofEarth.

ThefirstflightsofVenerastationswereperformedtowardsthenightsideoftheplan-et,andthoughthemodelestimatesshowedthatthedifferenceofparametersonthenightandday sides is insufficientunder the conditionsofhigh thermal capacityofVenusianatmosphere,itwastemptingtoperformlandingonthedaysideofVenus.Thegoalwasalsotomeasuretheilluminationand‘see’thesurface.M.V.Keldyshwasinsisting on the necessity of solving this complicated scientific and technical task,and Ihavediscussed it several timeswithG.N.Babakin. Iperfectly rememberoneofmyvisitstohisDBintheautumnof1969whereI’vebeenalmosteverydaythoseyears.When entering the office ofGeorgyNikolaevich I havewitnessedhimbend-ingabovethedrawingssurroundedbythecolleagues.Havingseenme,hesuddenlystoodupandsaid: ‘Well,wegotthedaysideforyou!’ThesolutionoftheproblemwhichrestedinprovidingthereliabilityofthepermanentradiolinkofthelanderwithEarthfromthemorningterminatorregionandnearlyontheedgeofplanetarydiscwasnon-trivial. Itwas found in the supplementof anadditional (redundant to theprimary)antennawithanalmosthorizontalomnidirectionaldiagramjettisonedfromthespacecraftafterits landing;wetenderlycalledit ‘fryingpan’.ItwasthankstoitthatthelargeresearchprogramonVenera-8wascompletelyperformedin1972.

OriginaldesigndevelopmentsandtechnicalsolutionshaveprovidedformanyyearsourundisputedleadershipinVenusresearch,includingthosewiththeaidofnewgen-erationofspacecraft.ThiswasmainlyconditionedbythatenormousattentionwhichG.N.Babakinpaid to thediligentground testingof thehardware.Onour initiativewithV.S.Avduevskyandwiththeall-roundsupportofG.N.BabakinattheS.A.Lav-ochkinAssociationfacilitiesthespecialstand(autoclave)wasbuiltupthatallowedustofullysimulatethescenarioofspacecraftdescent intheatmosphereofVenusandlanding. Along with the complex of original solution on the thermal exchange andinsulationproposedbyusandutilized in the spacecraftdesign, itprovidedanout-standingtechnicalachievement—operationoflandersatthesurfaceofVenusundertheexceptionallyharmfulenvironmentalconditionsduringonehourandahalf.Asaresult,first theblack-and-whiteand lateronthecolorfulpanoramicsurface imageswere sent to Earth, the element composition and physical properties of the surfacerocks, illumination andwind velocities weremeasured in-situ. Also the propertiesandcompositionofcloudswerestudiedduringthespacecraftdescentwiththeaidofIAM-developednephelometersusedforthefirsttimeintheplanetaryexploration.

Unfortunately, our Martian program has become less successful than research ofVenus.Theaccentwasmadeonthecomplexstudiesofatmospherewiththeremote(from the orbit) and directmeasurements from the landers, as well as surface TVimages. On behalf of M.V.Keldysh I was coordinating the preparation of programandcarryingouttheexperimentsontheMartianspacecraftwithG.I.Petrov,includ-ingtherealtimeexchangeofmeasurementdatafromtheMartiansatellitesMars-3

andMariner-9whichoperatedsimultaneously,within the frameworkof theAgree-ment between the Soviet Academy of Sciences and NASA on the cooperation intheresearchofspace,MoonandSolarsystemplanetssigned in1971 inMoscowbyM.V.KeldyshandG.Low.Asagreedbythesides,meandNASAAssistantAdminis-tratorNoelHinnerswerenamedtheco-chairsoftheWorkingGroup.OneshouldsaythatthecooperationwithinthisWorkingGroup(althoughratherlimited)continuedsuccessfullyuntilthenewUSadministrationledbyR.Reagancametopowerin1977.Oneshouldadmit,ofcourse,thattheeffortsandresourcesspentforthewhole‘fleet’of Mars-2-7 spacecraft were incommensurable with rather poor results, especiallywhen compared to the data from experiments onboard American Mariner-9 andespeciallyViking-1and-2.Thelargedisappointmentforuswasthefactthatin1971afterthesuccessfullandingofMars-3landerontheMartiansurfaceunderthecondi-tionsofenormousduststormthecommunicationwaslostonlyin20s,thisiswhynomeasurements and panoramic imaging were performed. The attempt to repeat thisexperimentwithMars-6 spacecraft in 1974hasalso failed.On theotherhand, thistimemeandcolleaguesobtainedtheuniquedataontheparametersofatmosphereofMarsmeasuredduring thespacecraftdescentwhichallowedus tobuild thefirstmodelofMartianatmospherebasedonthedirectmeasurements.

Rememberingnow, in50years, thefirst twodecadesof thespaceage incredible intheirintensity,thedaringideas,courageandenthusiasm,onemightbesurprisedandexcitedhowmuchhasbeendone,whathorizonsoftheunknownwereopened,whichtechnicalsolutionswereput inthereality.Duringthoseyears itseemedthatevery-thingispossible,therewasakindofeuphoria,thoughthesuccesseswereaccompa-niedbythetragicalepisodes.Iknewwellthemembersoftwofirstcosmonautcorpsand still have friendly relationships with them. I have experienced the feeling ofworry incomparablewithanythingelseduringYu.A.Gagarin’sflighttospacewhichwasreplacedbythewilddelightafterhislanding.Thenthetimeofbitterlossescamestartedwith the absurd death of YuraGagarin. I have deeply sorrowed the loss ofVolodyaKomarov,whomIknewwell,attheSoyuz-1tests,deathofmyfriendKolyaRukavishnikovwithwhomweonceworkedtogetheratS.P.Korolev’sDB.Havemanytimesexperienced theunrestandworryduring theflightsofourautomated space-craft to the Moon, Venus, Mars which were carrying, without exaggeration, a partof thesoul.Andthedelightandhappiness incomparable toanythingelsewhentheflightswere successful.Forexample, for thewhole life left inmemoryare the feel-ingsof1975summerwhenwestood intheFlightControlCenter inEupatoriawithA.S.Selivanov beside the graph plotter which was slowly giving out the panoramicview of Venusian surface transmitted by Venera-9. This was something nobody onEarthhadyetseenbeforeus!

Ourspaceprogramofthoseyearsundoubtedlyhadlucksincethereal leaderswerestandingatitsrootswhowereultimatelydevotedtotheinterestsofspaceendeavors,totheideaofspacediscoveriesanddidnotsparethemselvesforthesakeofthisgreatgoal.Thesewere,firstofall,S.P.KorolevandM.V.Keldyshwhobothnotincidentallyhavepassedveryyoung,fullofcreativeplansandideaswhichwerenotrealizeddur-ingtheirtime.S.P.Korolev,forexample,wasdreamingofthehumanflighttoMarsanddevelopingtheexplicitprojectofitsrealizationasearlyasin1970’s.Hissuddendeathin1966haswithnodoubtsmadethedecisiveimpactonthefailureofdevelop-ingtheheavyN-1launcherandundertakingtheflightoftheSovietmantotheMoonwithinN-1-L3project(probablybeforetheAmericans)thathasnotbeenperformedandfinallyabandoned.Amongtheenthusiastswhowereliterallyburningthemselvesfor the ideaG.N.Babakin should also bementioned. It is amazing that in only six

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S.P.KorolevandM.V.KeldyshinspectacabinofaspaceshipinOKB-1DesignBureau.

MoscowRegion,1962

yearsofhis leadershipat theDBofS.A.LavochkinAssociationadozenof thefirst-class spacecraftwere created.With thepassing awayofM.V.Keldyshwehave lostnotjustaleaderintheadvancementofspaceprogramsbutalsoaresistantfighterforthemostchallengingideasandprojects.Thehistory,asitisknown,doesn’tadmittheconditional mood, but I am sure that neither M.V.Keldysh nor S.P.Korolev wouldhavepermittedthefalldowninspacescienceandindustrywhichoccurredtousdur-ingthesevereperestroikayearsandwhoseconsequencescanbehardlyredeemed.

Mycontemporariesrelatedtospacefromtheverybeginningoftheircareershadbeenundoubtedlyfortunateofbeing‘bornintime’andstandingamongtheparticipantsofthisepoch-makingachievementofthehumancivilization.Muchmoresophisticatedspacecraftarebeingdesignedandlaunchednowadays,theavalancheofdiscoveriesindifferentareasofspacescience,planetaryexplorationandastrophysicsiscontinuing,cosmonauts crewsarepermanentlyworkingon theEarth’sorbit, spacehaspower-fullyinvadedourlifeduetothewideusageofcommunication,navigationandmete-orological satellites, surveillance and remote sensing satellites which facilitated thecontrolovertheobservanceoftreatiesontheweaponcutsandglobalstatusofeco-systems.Thefollowingdevelopmentofthisfieldalongwiththewidespreadofinfor-mationandnano-technologiesisbreathtaking;itopensthereallyexcitingprospectsforthemankind.Butthatuniquetimeandflavorofthefirstspacedecadeswillhardlycomeagainwhichhasnomatchinitsnovelty,creativestressandinspirationandwillforever stay in memory of people who has experienced it as the happiest period oftheirlives.

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StateCommission,thatleadedworksondevelopmentandlaunchofFirstandSecondArtificialEarthSatellites.Baikonur,November3,1957

arthur C. ClarkeUNITEDKINGDOM,SRILANKATheachievementsoftheworld’sbestknownwriterofsciencefiction,SirArthurC.Clarke,bridgetheartsandsciences.Hisworksandhisauthorship, ranging from scientific discovery to science fiction andfromtechnicalapplicationtoentertainment,havemadeaglobalim-pact on the lives of present and future generations. In a landmarkpaperExtra-TerrestrialRelaysin1945,hewasthefirsttosetouttheprinciplesofsatellitecommunication.OneofhisshortstoriesinspiredtheWorldWideWeb,whileanotherwasexpandedtomakethemovie2001:ASpaceOdyssey,whichheco-wrotewithStanleyKubrick.

BorninSomerset,England,in1917,SirArthur’sliteraryachievementswererecognizedbyQueenElizabethIIwhenshehonouredhimwithaKnighthoodin1998.SirArthurhaslivedinSriLankasince1956.Hehasbothanasteroidandadinosaurnamedafterhim.

FIFTy yEARS oF THE SPACE AgE: THE bEST IS yET To ComE!one weekend in 1939, shortly before the out-

breakofWorldWarII,visitorstoLondon’sScienceMuseummighthavecomeacrossadozenyoungmenpeeringthroughacontrivanceofrotatingmirrorsataspinningdiscafewmetresaway.HangingjustabovethemwastheWrightbiplane—buttheexperimentershadsettheirsightsonsomethingfarmoreambitiousthanflightintheatmosphere.Theybelievedthatonedayitwouldbepossibletotraveltootherworlds.

IamnowtheonlysurvivorofthatlittlegroupofBritishInterplanetarySociety(BIS)members:noneofuscouldhaveguessedthattheSpaceAgewoulddawnmerely18years later, or that humans would land on the Moon in just three decades. But wewere already concerned with the problems that might arise during such a voyage.Oneofthese—wellknowneventoJulesVerne,whenhewroteFromtheEarthtotheMoonin1865—wasthatformostofthetimetheoccupantsofaspaceshipwouldbeweightless.

BecausethisconditioncannotbereproducedonEarthformorethanafewseconds,nooneknewhowthehumanbodywouldreacttoit.Somehorrifyingscenarioshadbeenpredicted:onemedical‘expert’statedthattheheartwouldraceuncontrollablyin zero gravity, so that any foolhardy astronauts could expect a swift but hopefullymercifuldeath.

However, there appeared to be a simple solution: make the living quarters of thespaceshipaslowly revolvingdrum,so thatcentrifugal forcegave theoccupants thesensationofweight,allowingthemtowalkonwhatwasnowacylindrical‘wall’.Stan-leyKubrickshowedthis,onaratherlavishscale,in2001:ASpaceOdyssey’sorbitingHiltonHotel.

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AHEAd oF TImESo we premature ‘space cadets’ had designed

a spinningspaceship—buthow toobserve theMoonandstars, ifwewere revolv-ingseveraltimesaminute?Fortunately,astronomershadlongagosolvedthisprob-lemfortheonce-a-dayturningEarth,withaninstrumentknownasacoelostat.Thisemploysmirrorsmovinginsuchawaythatthereflectedskyappearsstationary.

TodemonstratetheBIS’sconsiderablyhigher-speedversion,weusedaspinningdiskonwhichthreelettershadbeenpainted.Thesewereunreadableuntilonepeeredintothe coelostat; then themotionless letters ‘BIS’ appeared. I am indeedhappy to saythattheSocietyisstillveryactive,andisnowtheworld’soldestorganisationdevotedtospaceresearchandadvocacy.

Andwhatatransformationwehaveseeninthattime!Aslateas1940’s,eminentsci-entistscontinuedtoderiderocketpioneersandscoffedatanydiscussionsontravel-ling tospace.Forexample, in theJanuary,1941PhilosophicalMagazine,CanadianAstronomerJ.W.Campbell‘proved’mathematicallythatitwouldtakeamilliontonsof take-off weight to carry one pound of payload on the round trip. TheSaturn-Vmanagedtodoseveralbillion-foldbetterthanthis.

Perhaps themost famously reportedcriticismof space travelwas thatmadeby theAstronomerRoyal,RichardWoolley (1906–1986). IhadmethimatMountStrom-loObservatoryinCanberra,Australia,onlytheyearbefore.Istillrememberhowhewasgallopingoverthemountain,lookingforalostcow:asafarmer’sboymyself,thisinstantly endeared him to me. However, when he arrived in England from Austra-liain1956,exhaustedaftera36-hourplanejourney,hewasreportedassayingthatspacetravelwas‘utterbilge’.Heneverabletolivethatdown!

Ilaterfoundoutwhathisactualwordshadbeen:‘Allthiswritingaboutspacetravelisutterbilge—togototheMoonwillcostasmuchasamajorwar.’Notethathedidnotdismisstheidea—ifhehadsaid‘90percentofthewriting’,anda‘minorwar’,hewouldnothavebeenfarwrong.

None of us then knew that the SpaceAgewould dawnwithin a fewmonths— on4October1957,withthelaunchofSputnik-1.

WEEk oF SPuTnIkAlthoughIhadbeenwritingandspeakingabout

spacetravelforyears,IstillhavevividmemoriesofexactlywhenIheardthenews.IwasinBarcelonaforthe8thInternationalAstronauticalCongress.Wehadalreadyretired to our hotel rooms after a busy day of presentations by the time the newsbroke.IwasawakenedbyreportersseekinganauthoritativecommentontheSovietachievement.

Forthenextfewdays,theBarcelonaCongressbecamethesceneofmuchanimateddiscussionaboutwhattheUnitedStatescoulddotoregainsomeofitsscientificpres-tige.While manned spaceflight andMoon landings were widely speculated about,manystillharboureddoubtsaboutanAmericanleadinspace.Onedelegate,noticingthat therewere23AmericanandfiveSovietpapersat theCongress, remarkedthatwhiletheAmericans talkeda lotaboutspaceflight, theRussians justwentaheadanddidit!

Somuchhashappenedsincethatmomentousweek,andmanydreamsofsciencefic-tionwritershave come topass— includinga fewofmyown.Wehavebeen to theMoon,andcreatedapermanentspacestation.AfewhundredmenandwomenfromdozensofnationshavebeentoEarthorbit.Unmannedspaceprobeshaveeitherland-edon,orflownpast,allplanets,returningawealthofinformationandthousandsofstunning images. Orbiting space telescopes are investigating the deepest reaches ofourUniverse,andtheirresultsareavailableforallofustoaccessontheWorldWideWeb(which,incidentally,wasinspiredbyoneofmyshortstories).

Closer home, the communications satellite I invented more than 60 years ago(throughmypaperinWirelessWorld,October1945)haschangedourworldbeyondrecognitioninjusttwogenerations.Ithashelpedcreateaninter-connectedandinces-santly chattingglobal village,which isnowevolving into the tele-familyofhuman-kind.

Wearestilltakingstockofhowspaceexplorationhasimpactedourspeciesandcivili-sation,andperhapsweshouldallowmoretimefortheperspectivesofhistorytosetin.Butit’simportanttodocumenteverythingforthebenefitoffuturehistorians.Forexample,itwasonlyrecentlythatIfoundoutthatDr.WernhervonBraunhadusedmy1951bookTheExplorationofSpace to convincePresidentKennedy that itwaspossibletolandmenontheMoon.(Yetanearlyreviewerofthebookhadconcluded:‘MrClarkeisnotaveryimaginativeman’.Iwonderwewheremightbenow,ifI’dbeenabitmoreimaginative…)

Thefirsthalfcenturyofspacetravelhasseenmanytriumphsandtragedies.Nooneexpected thefirst chapter of lunar exploration to endafter only adozenmen fromasinglenationhadwalkedupontheMoon.Neitherdidweimagine, inthoseheadydaysoftheSpaceRaceinthe1960’s,thattheSolarsystemwouldbeabandoned—atleast forawhile— in thepaddyfieldsofVietnam.Or that thenation thatusheredhumanityintoSpacewoulditselfdisintegratewithinfourdecades.

Butinthelongterm,thesesetbacksanddistractionsdon’treallymatter.Inthecom-ingyearsanddecades,wewillconsolidateourstilltentativeholdonspace.

Andlet’smindourselvesthatthisisnotthefirsttimethatourambitionhadoutrunour technology. In theAntarctic summerof 1911–1912, tenmen reached theSouthPole, and only five returned. They used only themost primitive of tools and ener-gysources—snowshoes,dogsledsandtheirownmuscles.Oncethepolehadbeenattained, itwasabandonedfornearlyhalfacentury.Andthen, intheInternationalGeophysical Year (1957–1958), humans returnedwith all the resources ofmoderntechnology— and they stayed. For half a century now, summer andwinter, a fewthousandmenandwomenhavebeenlivingandworkingattheSouthPole.

SoitwillbewiththeMoon.Whenwereturninthenearfuture,itwillbeinvehiclesthatmake theSaturn-V rocket look like a clumsy, inefficient dinosaur of the earlySpaceAge(whichitwas).Andthistime,wewillstay—andslowlyextendonwardtotheplanets,beginningwithMars.

nExT FIFTy yEARSI believe that theGoldenAgeof space travel is

aheadofus.We can see a goodparallelwith thedevelopmentof commercial avia-tion.Thefirsthalfcenturyofairtravelwasdominatedbygovernments,militaryand

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therichwhocouldaffordit.Thejetengineandlong-haul,fuelefficientaircraftthenenabledeconomiesofscale,bringingitwithinreachofmanyordinarypeople.Asimi-larscenarioissettounfoldinspacetravel.

Duringthefirst50yearsofspacetravel,lessthanonethousandpeoplehavegonetospace,mostofthemhighlytrainedandallattremendouscost(exceptingafewrecent‘space tourists’,allothershavebeenfinancedby taxpayers).Technological innova-tionsandinvestmentsnowbeingmadewillusherinaneweraof‘citizenspacetravel-ler’inthenexthalfcentury.

Beforethecurrentdecadeends,fee-payingpassengerswillbeexperiencingsub-orbit-al flights aboard privately funded passenger vehicles, built by a new generation ofengineer-entrepreneurswithanunstoppablepassionforspace.Andoverthenext50years,tensofthousandswillgainaccesstotheorbitalrealm–andthen,headonwardto theMoonandbeyond. Itwon’tbe too longwhenbrightyoungmenandwomenwouldsettheireyesoncareersinEarthorbit(‘Iwanttowork200kilometresfromhome—straight up!’).

Looking into the future,whatmaywe expect in space during the century that hasnowdawned?Well,tourismmaybeoneofthemostimportant,andofcoursethefirstspacetourist,Tito,hasbeenuptotheInternationalSpaceStation.Anotherapplica-tion would be space hospitals. Although zero gravity has some disadvantages, justthinkofallthethingsthatcouldbedoneinaweightlesscondition—whataboontoburnpatients,orpeoplewithmusculardefects.Inarotatingspacehospital,onecouldhaveanyvalueofartificialgravity,fromzerotoevenmorethanEarthvalue.SomeofthesepossibilitiesIdescribedinalittlesquibcalledNASASutrawhichisincludedinmycollectionofessays,Greetings,Carbon-basedBipeds!

For all this to happen, we have need reliable, economical ways to reach orbit. Therocketgotusintospace,justashot-airballoonsgotusstartedinaviation.Andittoowillbesuperseded—butbywhat?

Atthisverymoment,hundredsofverybrightpeoplearetryingtodevelopbetterpro-pulsionsystemsthatcantakehumansandpayloadsintospace.Myviewisthattherewillsoonbeavarietyofmethodstotraveltoorbit,tosuitdiverseneedsandbudgets.Amongthem,Iseeatleastoneideathatcanultimatelymakespacetransportcheapandaffordabletoordinarypeople:theSpaceElevator.

ElEvAToR To SPACEIt was first imagined in 1895 by Konstantin

Tsiolkovsky,whowas inspiredbytheEiffelTower inParis toconsidera tower thatreachedall theway intospace.ButconceptwasdevelopedbytheRussianengineerYuriArtsutanovintheearly1960’s.

Today’scommunicationssatellitesdemonstratehowanobjectcanremainpoisedoverafixedspotontheequatorbymatchingitsspeedtotheturningearth,22300miles(35780km)below.Nowimagineacable,linkingthesatellitetotheground.Payloadscouldbehoistedup itbypurelymechanicalmeans, reachingorbitwithoutanyuseofrocketpower.Thecostoflaunchingpayloadsintoorbitcouldbereducedtoatinyfractionoftoday’scosts.

TheSpaceElevatorwasthecentralthemeinmy1978sciencefictionnovelTheFoun‑tains of Paradise. When I wrote it, I considered it little more than a fascinating

thought experiment.At that time, theonlymaterial fromwhich it couldbebuilt—diamond—wasnotreadilyavailableinsufficientmegatonquantities.Thissituationhasnowchanged,withthediscoveryofthethirdformofcarbon,C60,anditsrelatives,theBuckminsterfullerenes.Ifthesecanbemass-produced,buildingaSpaceElevatorwouldbeacompletelyviableengineeringproposition.

WhatmakestheSpaceElevatorsuchanattractiveideaisitscost-effectiveness.Atick-ettoorbitnowcoststensofmillionsofdollars(asthemillionairespacetouristshavepaid).Buttheactualenergyrequired,ifyoupurchaseditfromyourfriendlylocalutil-ity,wouldonlyaddabouthundreddollars toyourelectricitybill.Anda round-tripwouldcostonlyaboutonetenthofthat,asmostoftheenergycouldberecoveredonthewayback!

Onceitisbuilt,theSpaceElevatorcouldbeusedtoliftpayloads,passengers,pre-fab-ricatedcomponentsofspacecraft,aswellasrocketfueluptoEarthorbit.Inthisway,morethan90percentoftheenergyneededforexplorationoftheSolarSystemcouldbeprovidedbyEarth-basedenergysources.

Lookingevenfurtherahead,onecouldseethevirtualeliminationoftherocketexceptforminororbitadjustments.Byextendingtheelevator,itwouldactasagiantsling,andpayloadscouldbeshotofftoanywhereintheSolarsystembyreleasingthematthecorrectmoment.Ofcourse,rocketswouldstillberesponsibleforthejourneybacktoEarth—atleastuntilelevator/slingswereconstructedontheotherplanets.Ifthiseverhappens,themostexpensivecomponentoftravelaroundtheSolarsystemwouldbeforlifesupport—andinflightmovies.

Asitsmostenthusiasticpromoter,IamoftenaskedwhenIthinkthefirstSpaceEle-vatormightbebuilt.Myanswerhasalwaysbeen:about50yearsaftereveryonehasstoppedlaughing.

Well, the laughingstoppeda fewyearsago,andsomeserious investmentsarenowbeingmadeinbuildingaprototype.SoIwillnowrevisemytimeframeto25years.

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nikolay anFIMoVRUSSIADirectorGeneralofTsNIIMASH(theCentralResearchInstituteforMachineBuilding).Doctor of Science. Academician of theRussianAcademy of Sciences. Top scientist in aerogasdynamic, heat trans-port, ground testingof rockets and spacecraft, systemdesigningofspacetransportationsystems.Expertinboundary-layertheory,heattransportandheatprotectionofhigh-speedflightvehiclesandther-malcontrolatautomatedinterplanetarystations.

Bornin1935inMoscow.

GraduatedfromtheMoscowInstituteofPhysicsandTechnologyin1958.Worked in the Research institute of thermal processes. Em-ployedinTsNIIMASHsince1974,Directorsince2000,DirectorGen-eralsince2002.

AwardedtheRedBannerofLabour(1971),NationalOrderofRussia(IV level, 1996), Legion ofHonour (France, 2003), Professor Zhu-kovskyAward(1969),USSRandRussiaStateAwards(1980,2002),RussianGovernmentalAwardinScienceandTechnol-ogy(1996).

Symbol oF THE SPACE ERA TAkE-oFF PoInT

…mylifewasnotdirectlyinfluencedbytheSput‑niklaunch:Ihadgotintospacerocketsystemsfouryearsbeforethisevent.ButIhaveadistinctrecollectionofthedaywhenthefirstartificialEarthsatellitewaslaunched.Atthattime,Iwasasixth-yearstudentofMoscowInstituteofPhysicsandTechnolo-gy,Aero-MechanicalDepartment—andspentallmytimeinthesocalledNll-1GKAT(Research Institute-1 of the State Committee forAeronautical Engineering)— cur-rently M.V.Keldysh Research Center. My research manager was Georgy I.Petrov,Corresponding Member of the Academy of Sciences, subsequently Academician,managingdirectorandfirstdirectoroftheSpaceResearchInstituteoftheAcademyofSciences.ThefamousTASSradio-announcementwascommunicatedbyYuryLevi-tanintheuniquesolemnwayofourannouncer№1.FromGeorgyPetrovIknewthatasatellitelaunchwasbeingprepared,butstillitwaskindofshocktohearthatoffi-cialannouncementanditwillremainengravedinmymemorytilltheendofmylife.Therewasanotherthingtoremaininmymemoryforever—senseofinvolvementintheevent; itwassharedbyallmycolleaguesinthesmallgroupofNll-1Laboratory№4,eventhoughnooneofthemdirectlyparticipatedinthelaunchpreparation.

It was mentioned in the TASS announcement that the Sputnik (satellite) could beobserved through binoculars, and the list of cities/times was also given. I remem-beredwhentheSputnikwouldbeseenfromMoscow,andthateveninglefthomeforSerpukhovskaya squarewith ratherweakbinocularshoping towitness theSputniktraveling across the sky.Tomy great disappointment, I failed, and for a long timesincethen,IusedtotakeanybrightdotmovingacrosstheskyfortheSputnik.This

idea,however,usedtobeimmediatelyrejectedbymyinnervoiceofreason(enrichedwiththephysicalandtechnologyeducationIhadgot)sayingthatthesewerejustfly-ingjetlights.

* * *The first artificial Earth satellite’s launch of

October4,1957becameamilestoneonthehumanwaytospace,thebeginningofanew–space–eraofourcivilizationdevelopment.

Ontheonehand,spaceflightscanberegardedasalogicaldevelopmentofaviationwhosemottohasalwaysbeen‘higher,faster,farther’.Aviationandrocket-and-spacetechnologyhavealotincommon:theoreticalbasis,anumberofsimilaronboardsys-tems,someofthepurposes.But,ontheotherhand,aviationalonewouldhaveneverovercomethelasttrajectorysectionbeforeenteringtheouterspace,throughlow-den-sityatmosphere,reachingtheEarthorbitalvelocity.Andofcourse,boththefirstsat-ellitelaunchandhumanspaceflightbynomeanscouldhavebecomepossiblewithoutrockettechnologydevelopment.Asacarrierrocketforthefirstartificialsatellite,P-7thefirstintercontinentalballisticmissilewasused.

TheSputniklaunchprovedthathumanbeingsarecapabletocreateartificialcelestialbodies.Atthesametime,itshowedtoeachEarth’sinhabitanthowsmallourplanetis, if itonly takesaman-madedeviceonehourandahalf tocompletearevolutionaroundit.And,finally,thiseventmeantthatthecountryshotaheadinthescientificandtechnologicalrace,andeventheRussianword‘Sputnik’wasimmediatelyassimi-latedbymanyforeignlanguages.

Thefirstsatellitewasverysimpleindesign.It’snotfornothingthatitwascalledPS-1(simplestsatellite-1).Nevertheless,ithadthehonortobea‘forefather’ofmanygen-erationsofartificialEarthsatellitesdevelopedandproducedinthecountry—atfirst,at Dnepropetrovsk OKB-586 (Experimental Design Office-586, currently YuzhnoedesignBureauoftheAcademyofSciencesoftheUkraine)andatotherexperimentaldesignorganizations.

ThemindbogglesattheincrediblepaceofnewspacecraftimplementationafterthefirstSputniklaunch.LessthanamonthpassedafterOctober4,whenthesecondarti-ficialEarthsatellitewiththefirstlivingcreature(adognamedLaika)aboardwassetintonear-earthorbit.Anothersixmonths—and the thirdsatellite,of 1327kg,wasflowngenerouslyequippedwithhardwareforouterspaceexploration.

Thefirstthreesatellitesweremainlydesignedtoproveinpracticeviabilityofspace-craft forphysical,medical andbiological researchworkdirectly in theouter space.It couldbe visuallypresentedby a ‘tree’whosebrancheswould stand for scientificdisciplinesderivedfromthe‘maintrunk’—thefirstartificialEarthsatellite.Theyallareverywellknown.Ofcourse,speakingofthefirstSputnikroleandsignificance,wemeanthespacemissilesystemR-7carrierrocketandtheSimplestSatellite-1intan-dem.

Unfortunately,withinthelast50yearsourprogressinlaunchmeans(carrierrockets,boosters, space tugs)developmenthasnotbeen fast enough: improvementof theirperformance characteristic is too slow, there is no qualitative leap in developmentofenginesofpromising technicalpotential,and, lastly,payloadascentcost is inad-equatelyhighwhichisamightylimitingfactorforfurtherspaceactivities.Butatthe

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sametimewearewitnessinghugeprogress inthedevelopmentofspacecraft them-selves–andthisbecamearealrevolutioninallspacedisciplines.

Wecouldmarkout threebasic scientificand technicaldirectionswhose realizationbecamepossibleaftertheSputniklaunchandduetorocket-and-spacetechnology.

• basicspaceresearch:Solarterrestrialsystem,cosmicrays,planets,smallbodiesoftheSolarsystem,deepspace,etc.;

• space technology use for the sake of socio-economic development (or ‘people’seconomy’,asweusedtosaysometimeago);

• spacetechnologyuseformilitarypurposes.

Basicandappliedspaceresearchesweretheinitialtaskaccomplishedbymeansofthefirstsatellites.Andindeed,beforeissuingthechallengeofsolvingquitecomplicatedbasic and applied problems by means of satellites, we should have obtained moreinformationonnear-earthspace itself,aswellasonmechanismandsystemopera-tionintheouterspace.Forthispurpose,asearlyasonDecember10,1959,Govern-mentregulationtitledOnSpaceExplorationDevelopmentwasissued.Itmentioned— among other tasks — automated interplanetary station missions to Venus andMars.Moreover, this regulation established Interdepartmental Scientific andTech-nology Committee for Space Exploration chaired by Academician Mstislav V.Kel-dysh.Alotofgreatlarge-scaletaskswereaccomplished:thefirstflightstotheMoon,to Venus and Mars, launches of Elektron and Proton spacecraft for exploration ofnear-earthspace, including theEarth radiationbelts.Andat last,onApril 121961,thefirstmanned spaceflight tookplace. ItwasYuryGagarin,our compatriot,wholaidfoundationofoneofthemostimportantspaceexplorationprograms—theoneofmannedcosmonautics.

Widepossibilitiesofspacetechnologyuseforthesakeofthecountry’ssocio-econom-icdevelopmentalsobecameevidentafterthefirstSputnik launch.Spacecommuni-cations, Earth observations from space, all transportation means and special tech-niquenavigationwith thehelpof satellitenavigational systems– thisenumerationincludingbothroutinethingsandthingsstillwaitinginthewingscouldbe infinite.And experience showed that space technology use for economical purposes is mostefficientwhen it is commerce-based.Moreover, in theUSAandanumberof otherwestern countries, characteristics of some commercial, ‘household’ technique (likeelectronic components, computer hardware, digital cameras, etc.) are considerablysuperiortotheonesofsimilardevicesdevelopedasmilitaryproduction.Thereevenaroseaspecialterm–‘re-conversion’meaningmilitaryuseofcivilianeconomysectordevelopments.

Spacetechnologymilitaryusewaskeptinmindattheverybeginning—whiledeci-sionsonfirstsatellitelaunchesweretakenbothintheUSSRandtheUSA.�Bynow,itbecameevidentthatmilitaryspacecraftdevelopmentwaskindofrevolutioninthemilitaryactivities—indeed,it’snotfornothingthatOctober4wasdeclaredRussianSpaceForcesDay!Informationalsupportprovidedfromspaceisadeterminativefac-tor that enablesArmedForces to accomplish strategic tasksusing so called ‘smart’weaponsandgivingupnuclearammunition.

� BaturinM.SpaceDiplomacyandInternationalLaw,Yu.A.GagarinRGNIITsPK,140pages,StarCity,2006.

ThefirstartificialEarthsatellitelaunchgreatlyinfluencedsciencedevelopment,tech-nologicaladvanceandgeopolitics.Satellitelaunchradicallychangedmankindviewson state sovereign right to ambient space and environment. Before the Sputnik, itwastakenforgrantedthatastatesovereignrightisvalidwithinthestateboundaryforfirmground,bodyofwaterandairspace.Satelliteflightissubjecttothelawsofballistics and mechanics; its velocity is many times as high as the one of any land,waterorairtransport,sothesatellitefrequentlycrossesstateborders,andthenotionofstatesovereignrightforouterspacelosesitsmeaning.Itresultedinappearanceofaspecialfieldoflaw—spacelaw,andadoptingapostulateofstateboundaryabsenceinthespaceandofallstates’equalrightstothenear-earthspace.

Itisobviousthatthesatellitelaunchhadagreatinfluenceonengineeringprogress.To begin with, it owes to developing and creating technical means of orbital inser-tion;moreover,thesemeansshouldhavebeenaseconomicallyefficientaspossible.In thenextplace, it isconnectedwithpossibilityof launchingspacecraftofvariouspurposes,whiledevelopmentofthesevehiclesundoubtedlyrequiresessentialtechni-calprogressinvariousscienceandtechnologyfields,since,asageneralrule,techni-calrequirementstotargetspacehardwarearemuchmoresophisticatedthantothegroundone.

The first artificial satellite was launched via R-7 intercontinental ballistic missiledesignedshortlybeforethat,anduptonowithasbeenaroutinepracticetousebal-listic missiles withdrawn from standby alert for spacecraft’ launches, but later ondesignof specialmeans forpayloadorbital insertion took its rise, like for exampleZenit rocket, currently Russian-Ukrainian, using environmentally friendly propel-lantcomponents,automatedpre-launchsetup,etc.Morethanthat,airspaceorbitalinsertionmeanscametobedesignedsothatthespacerocketislaunchedonaprettyhighaltitudefromaplanewhichallowstoavoidwastingtherocketpropellantbudgetforinitialaccelerationandovercomingdenseatmosphereresistance.Weshouldalsomentionextensiveresearchfrontandcommencementofpracticalworkonreusablespacetransportationsystems—i.e.partiallyreusable(likeAmericanSpaceShuttleorRussianEnergia-Buran)and,inprospect,fullyreusableones.

And, lastly, it isabsolutelyevident that thesatellite launchopenedquitenewpros-pects for space science development, for refining our knowledge of the Earth, theSolar system and the Universe, since it meant the possibility to perform spaceresearch via contact methods as well as improved the remote research method:reduced the distance and released researchers from the Earth atmospheric inter-ference. Besides, it became clear that human beings are able to perform in-spaceresearchesanddifferentkindsofoperations,aswellastoseetheEarthfromoutsidewhichwilldramatically changeglobalphenomena investigation: large thingsare tobelookedatfromafar!

Space activity results are regularly reflected in all kinds of scientific and technicalpublications,discussedatannualcongressesoftheInternationalAstronauticalFed-erationandtheCommitteeofSpaceResearchandatotherscientificforums.Onecanfind detailed space activity analysis in the analytical report of theK.E.TsiolkovskyRussianAcademyofCosmonautics�.Butfordiscussionof‘mostmomentousresults’atouchofsubjectivityisinevitable.ThatiswhyIwilljustcounthere–notinorderof their significance— those ten resultsof spaceactivities that I consider tobe the

� Teamofauthors.AnalyticalreportoftheRussianAcademyofCosmonautics‘CurrentstateandprospectsofspaceactivitiesinRussia’,2004,РАКЦ.

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mostimportant:globalspacecommunications;globalpositioningsystemandglobalnavigationsatellitesystem(GPS,GLONASS,Galileoinfuture);globalhydro-meteo-rologicalmonitoringof theEarth;spacemonitoringof theEarthusinghighresolu-tioncapabilitiesandinvariousspectralranges;internationalspacesystemfortrack-ing and rescue ships and aircrafts in distress (KOSPAS-SARSAT); long durationmannedmissionsandin-spaceactivities;man-on-the-Moonmission;spacescientificlaboratories— longdurationorbital stations, ‘flying telescopes’, etc.; interplanetarytransfersandexplorationoftheMoon,Venus,MarsandminorSolarsystembodiesviaautomaticinterplanetarystations;firstdeepspacephotographicimagesshowingobjectsthatcannotbeseenfromtheEarth—farsideoftheMoon,topographyandsurfacestructureoftheMoon,Venus,Mars,finetextureofSaturnianrings…

Outer space exploration prospects are promising enough, but unfortunately I havetoadmit that their initialassessmentprovedtobe toooptimistic.Bynomeanscanspaceexplorationkeepupwiththeforecastsmadebyscientistsattheverybeginningofthespaceera.AsanexampleIcouldmentionforecastsfor2001fromproceedingsoftheAmericanAeronauticalSocietyMemorialSymposiumheldincommemorationofRobertGoddard,rocketrypioneer, inWashington,DCin1966,i.e.morethan40yearsago�.TheirtranslationintoRussianwaspublishedbyMirpublishinghousein1970.

Readingreportscontainedintheproceedings,onecanonlybeastonishedattheopti-mismofcosmonauticdevelopmentfastpaceexpectationssharedatthedawnofspaceeraevenbyexperts.Hereis,forexample,oneoftheforecasts–madebyanemployeeofMartincompany,WilliamPerdy:

• MannedflightwithVenusfly-by—1980–1985• MannedMoonobservatory—1985–1990• MannedflightwithMarsfly-by—1985–1990• MannedflighttoMars—1990–2000

Nooneofthecountedeventshasevertakenplace.Andplentyoftimewillpassuntilweevidencethem…

Butletusconsideramoreauthoritativeandweightyopinion.EugeneKonecci,HeadoftheAmericanCouncil forAeronauticsandAstronautics, inhisopeningspeechattheabovementionedsymposiumsaidthatby2001majoradvancescouldbeexpectedinthefollowingdirections:

• Flightsofrobotexplorerswithoperationperiodof5…10yearstoallzonesoftheSolarsystemanditsnearestneighborhood—thisforecastisrealized.

• Multiple use of spacecraft in manned space transportation systems with costreduceddownto20dollarsper1kilo—itwasimplementedbytheSpaceShuttleorbitalspacecraftdesign,buttheactualcostof insertingonekiloofcargo intoaloworbitishigherbyafactorof103.

• A low-consumption manned transportation system for flights to the nearestplanets will be in operation or under construction. A nuclear pulse rocket, orelectricpropulsionwithnuclearreactor,ornuclearenginewithgas-phasecorewillbeusedasapropulsiondevice.Andbymostpessimisticestimate,nuclearjet

� SpaceAgeinFiscalYear2001.ProceedingsoftheFourthAASGoddardMemorialSympo-sium,15–16March1966,Washington,D.C.AnAmericanAstronauticalSocietyPublication.

withgas-phasecorewillbeputintooperationby1990—notrealizedandsofarit’snotclearwhenthisforecastcanbeimplemented.

• In2001thelong-expectedsuccessinthefieldofthermonuclearfusionwillatlastmaterialize.Inthiscaseactivedevelopmentofthermonuclearrocketsmaybegin,while the issue of inter-stellarflights may become vital enough and subject toconsiderationanddiscussion—success inthefieldof thermonuclear fusionhasbeenlong-expecteduptonow,astointer-stellarflights,bynomeanscantheybeamatterofanyseriousdiscussion.

Inconclusion,reflectinguponremotefutureoftheprocessandresultsofpenetrationintooutworldsecretsandlawsofthe,Iwouldliketoexpressmybelief:humanbeingswillneverperceivetheUniverselawsinfull.Butbynomeansisthisbeliefpessimis-tic,onthecontrary,itisdefinitelyoptimistic,becauseitimpliesthatspaceresearchwill keep calling forthnewandnewdiscoveries.Mankindhas alwaysneeded themandwillalwaysneed them,and thehigher it isascending the ‘progressstairs’—themore.

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Mikhail VInoGRadoVRUSSIALieutenant General of the Russian Air Defence Forces. Professor.AcademicSecretaryoftheCommitteeofScientistsforInternationalSecurityandArmsControl(theRussianAcademyofSciences),Chair-manoftheRussianCommitteeofScholarsforGlobalSecuritysince2003.HonorarymemberoftheRussianMilitarySciencesAcademy.

Bornin1924inMoscow.

Graduated from theRyazanMachine-gunMilitary college in 1943.Tookpart in theSecondWorldWar inAir force (May1943–1945).LaterservedintheMoscowairdefensedistrict(divisionsandhead-quarters). In 1961 graduated from theAir ForceMilitaryAcademy(now the Zhukov Military Air and Spacecraft Defence Academy).ServedascorpsDirectorofOperations,militaryexpertintheAirDe-fenseandAirForcesheadquartersinCuba(1963–1964),thenChiefofStaffoftheAirDefenseForcescorpsandDirectorofOperationsintheAirDefensedistrictheadquarters.

ServedintheGeneralStaffofArmedForcesoftheUSSR(intheMainOperationsDivisionbefore1985,intheCenterofStrategicResearchin1985–1989).Totalmilitaryexperienceequals47years.

Awarded5ordersandanumberofmedals.

50TH AnnIvERSARy oF THE ARTIFICIAl EARTH SATEllITEonOctober4,1957,Iwasinthestreetofatown,

thennamedafterKalinin,nowbeingthetownofTver,whenIheardthenewsaboutthe launchofanArtificialEarthSatellite, thefirst inthehistoryofmankind.Itwasthefirstmonthofmystudiesatamilitaryacademy,nowcalledAerospaceDefenseAcademy. I was still in high spirits because I had successfully passed my initiationperiod,while themessageheardover theradioaboutournativeAESaddedup thefeelingofpridetomyprivatejoy.Iwasproudofmycountry,itsscience,itsdesigners,engineers,andworkers,whousedtheirbrainsandhandstocreateit.

Despitethe50yearsthathavepassed,IclearlyrememberhowpeopleinthestreetsweresincerelyhappyabouttheheardnewsandshortbeepingsignalsfromtheboardofSputnik.Thewayintotheouterspacehadbeenpaved!Inthreeandahalfyears,onApril12,1961,theflightofYuriAlexeevichGagarininitiatedthedirectpenetrationofpeopleintospace.Andbackin1969,theUSastronautsN.Armstrong,B.AldrinandM.CollinsperformedthefirstexpeditiontotheMoon.Theseweremilestoneeventsforsuccessfuladvancesintheouterspaceexploration.And,althoughIdidnotpar-ticipateinthespaceepopeepersonally,Ihavebeencloselyfollowingthereversalsoffortuneinspaceduringallthese50years.

Itismyunderstandingthat,byvirtueofitsvolumetricandphysicalparameters,theouter space plays an extremely important part in the life of the world community.Aftertheappearanceofspaceinformationsystems,thecontributionofspaceintothedevelopmentofeconomyhasbecomeverylarge,inparticular,forleadingcountries.Communicationisimpossiblewithoutspace,inparticular,afterthetransfertodigitaltechnique.Earthremotesensingplaysanimportantpart.TheGPS-andGLONASS-

typenavigationsystemscannotoperatewithoutspacecraft.It is indicativethatcur-rentlyaboutahalfoftheobjectsdeployedinspacearecommercial, includingthosebelongingtociviliancorporations.

The outer space has become particularly important for ensuring universal interna-tionalsecurity,includingthemilitarysphere.SinceI,asamilitaryprofessional,wasengagednotonly in theanti-aircraftbutalso in theanti-missileandspacedefense,aswell as in information systems in these fields, I had to go deeply intomilitary-spaceproblems.Forme,thefollowingstatementhasbecomethebasicprincipleforusing theouter space formilitarypurposes:unlike land, seaandair, this sphere isstillweapon-free,andweshouldpreventitfrombeingturnedintoaseatofwarforaslongaspossibleandbetternever.

It should be acknowledged that, potentially, the outer space displays great optionsforcarryingoutsuchactivities.Space-basedweaponscanhittargetsinspace,onthegroundsurfaceandintheairwiththeuseofconventionalammunition,nuclear,laser,electromagneticandothermeans.Thisweaponbelongstoastrategicclassbecauseitwillbecapableofstrikingstrategicglobalinformationnetworks.Itispreciselybecauseoftheabovethatitisnotpermissibletolaunchweaponsintotheouterspace.

There is nothing blameworthy about the fact that motives of using space for mili‑tarypurposesarealwayspresentinspaceprograms.Protectionofnationalinterestsbymilitarymeansanddesire to reliablyensure thecountry’s safety remainahigh-priorytaskinthepolicypursuedbyanystate.However,oneshoulddistinguishtwoapproachestothemilitaryuseoftheouterspace.Onethingistodeploycommuni-cation,reconnaissance,missile-attackwarning,navigation,topographyandland-sur-veying,Earthremoteprobing,meteorologicalandothersystemsinspace,i.e.whatistreatedasapassivemilitaryuseofspacemeans.Anotherthingistodeployweaponsofdifferentclassesinspace: ‘space-to-space’, ‘space-to-ground’,aswellastodeployweaponofthe‘ground-,air-,andsea-to-space’classontheground,intheair,andinthesea.Otherwise,itiscalledanti-missileweapon.Inthisconnection,Ihavedoubtsabouttheappropriatenessofsuchafrequentlyusedsloganas‘Non-MilitarizationofSpace’,sincemilitarizationofspaceisafactofourlife.Thepassiveuseofspaceformilitary purposes is not only permissible but is also necessary to preserve nationalinterestsofstatesinthefieldofsecurity.Butitisnotpermissibletodeployweaponsinspace. It isnot fornothing thata fewyearsagoaslogan ‘Non-WeaponizationofSpace’becamepubliclyusedintheUSA.

Backinthe60’softhepreviouscentury,thefirstdecisivestepwastakenalongthatroad,followingthedamagecreatedbynucleartestsperformedbytheUSSRandUSAoutsidetheEarthatmosphere.Asaresultofexplosionsofnuclearammunition,sig-nificantturbulencesoftheEarthmagneticfieldswererecorded,radio-andTV-com-municationwasdisrupted,operationofsomeimportantmilitarysatelliteswasviolat-edand,once,thatofanelectricpowersupplygridontheHawaiiIslands.Duringthetalksthattookplaceatthattime,boththesideshadtoadmitthatnuclearexplosionsinspacecouldsignificantlyhindernormaluseofnear-earthorbitsduringtheflightsof the AES, disrupt operation of important communication systems, interfere intothespacereconnaissanceandthemissile-attackwarningsystems,whiletheradiationemissionwouldclosetheprospectsforflightsofmannedspacecraft.

Therefore, taking into account the essential national interests, theUSA, theUSSRand the Great Britain carried negotiations and in August 1963 signed in MoscowTreaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and

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UnderWater.Thisallowedacertain‘safetyzone’tobecreatedinspaceforachievingscientific,commercialandpassivemilitarygoals.Attheendof1963,theUNGeneralAssemblyendorsedaDeclarationwhichcalleduponthenations—UNparticipantstorefrainfromdeploymentofmass-destructionweaponsonanyorbitsandnottolaynationalclaimsoncelestialbodies.

Furtheron,theseeffortswereconfirmedbysigninganumberofinternationalagree-mentsonthelegalaspectsoftheuseofspaceformilitarypurposes.Outoftheabove,theTreaty signed in 1967On Principles Governing Activities of States in Explora‑tionandUseofOuterSpace,IncludingtheMoonandOtherCelestialBodiesshouldbesingledout.Themain thingabout it is theprohibitionon launchingofweaponsofmassdestruction intospace. In thesameyear, theUNadoptedaConventiononexplorationanduseofthenear-earthspace,allowingitsuseforpeacepurposesonly.Atthesametime,theUSAandtheUSSR,whovotedforadoptingit,hadbeensecret-ly conducting activities on development of space weapons, beginning as early as inthe50’s.Apparently,tojustifythesesteps,itwasstatedthatatthebeginningitwasground-basedweapon.

Beginningfrom1957, theBoldOrionaviation-basedanti-missileweaponwasbeingdevelopedintheUSAwithoutsignificantadvancestowardsthedesiredgoal.

Other activities were conducted on the basis of groundmissiles: on the Quajelainatoll,followingthe505Program,onthebasisoftheNikeZeuscomplex,andontheJohnstonatoll,followingthe437program,onthebasisoftheThorballisticmissiles.Inthefinalanalysis,theAmericansturnedtheseprogramsdown.

In theUSSR, thisproblemwas tackled since thebeginningof the60’s.From1963to 1982, during the tests of the Satellite Fighter (SF) complex, 40 vehicles werelaunched into space to verify this system: 20 targets and20 interceptors. In 1968,theSFcomplexdestroyedthesatellitetargetforthefirsttimeintheworld.AndfromJuly1,1979,theweaponwasaddedtothecountry’sarmoryandplacedonacombatdutyafterapilotoperationperiod.

At theendof the1970’s, theUSSRand theUSAbegannegotiationsaboutprohibi-tionofanti-satelliteweaponsbuttheyproceededwithoutsuccess.In1983,theUSAwalked out of the negotiations and continued to active development in this field.In1985,theUSsideperformedthefirsttestsofanewaviationanti-satellitesystemASAT,whichhadbeen initiatedback in1977,withtheuseofmissileswithconven-tional ammunition. A two-stagemissile SRAM-Altair was launched from the F-15fighter,which hit theSolwind AES at the altitude of almost 450 km (according toothersources,atthealtitudeofabout1000km).In1997,aground-basedlaserfacil-ityMIRACLhitting theMSTI-3AESwasdemonstrated.Theexperiment resultwasclassifiedbutitisknownthatthesatellitewasnotdestroyed.ThedevelopmentoftheKE-ASATanti-satellitevehiclewascontinued.

IntheUSSRthelasttest launchoftheupgradedSFanti-satellitevehicletookplaceonJune18,1982.AndonAugust1983,mass-mediapublishedYu.Andropov’sDecla-rationaboutaunilateralcancellationoftheanti-satelliteweapontestingprogramintheUSSR.InApril,1993,adecisionwasmadeaboutdecommissioningoftheSovietSFsystem.

But in January, 2007, China alerted the whole world when a ballisticmissile waslaunchedatnightofJanuary12fromtheSichantestpadintheprovinceofSichuan.It destructed the old Chinese weather satellite Fengyun-1C, launched to the orbit

backin1999,atthealtitudeof865kminspace.AccordingtoUSsources,threepre-viousattemptswereaborted,whilethefourthwassuccessful.Chinathathasalwaysoptedfornon-weaponizationofspacetogetherwithothercountries,cannowopenlyannounceitsspaceambitions.

Onthewhole,thesituationwithreachingtheinternationalagreementonprohibitionofdevelopment,testingandoperationofanti-missileweaponsofanytypeofdeploy-ment,includingtheouterspace,hascometoadeadend,which,apparently,isofnointerestfortheUN.

Thereisonemorelossinthefieldofrenderingtheouterspacefreeofweapons.WheninDecember,2001,theUSAsteppedoutfromtheTreatyonLimitationofAnti-Bal‑lisitcMissileSystems,signedin1972,thebanonlaunchinganyanti-missiledefenseweapons to space was actually removed, including the weapons with conventionalammunition,whichisusedbytheAmericansintheirworkonthedevelopmentofthenationalsystemofanti-missiledefense.

Amongotherinternationallegaldocuments,oneshouldnotethe1976ConventiononRegistrationofObjectsLaunchedintoSpace;the1977ConventiononBanningMili‑taryorAnyOtherHarmfulMeansActingontheEnvironment(spaceincluded);the1979Agreement on the Activity of States on the Moon and other Celestial Bodies,containingabanontheuseofanytypesofweaponsoncelestialbodies(butnotintheouterspace).Unfortunately,togetherwithstatingtheimportanceoftheabove-men-tioneddocuments, one shouldnote their significantdrawback: theydonot containa ban on launching conventional weapons or their components to space, as well asweaponsbasedonnewphysicalprinciples.

It is not coincidental that already at the beginning of the 80’s, practical attemptswereundertakenbytheUSAatspacedeploymentofweapons.R.Reagan’sStrategicDefense InitiativeProgramwas thefirst in thisfieldbutafter its failure, thepavedroadwasindirectlyfollowedbyPresidentBushSr.andPresidentClinton.However,themaximumactivitywasachievedduringtheeraofPresidentBushJr.TheDirec-tiveNationalSpacePolicy,signedbyhiminOctober,2006,becametheapotheosis.Itexcludesthepossibilityofsigningnewtreaties,limitingtheUSAactivityinspace.AsstatedintheDirective: ‘ProposedarmscontrolagreementsorrestrictionsmustnotimpairtherightsoftheUnitedStatestoconductresearch,development,testing,and operations or other activities in space for U.S. national interests’. TheDirec-tiveallowstheUSAto ‘deny, ifnecessary,adversariestheuseofspacecapabilitieshostile to U.S. national interests’. It is for theUSA todecide independently,whichcountriescanbeincludedinthislist.ItisstatedinthedocumentthattheUSA‘pre‑serveitsrights,capabilities,andfreedomofactioninspace’.But,currently,asesti-mated by experts, it is already 15 countries that can independently perform spacelaunchesandoftheorderof40states,evensuchcountriesasNigeria,thathavetheirownsatellites.Itisnotedinthedocumentthattoprotecttheirnationalinterests,theUSAwould‘takethoseactionsnecessarytoprotectitsspacecapabilities;respondtointerference;anddeny, ifnecessary,adversariestheuseofspacecapabilitieshos‑tile to U.S. national interests’. Therefore, theUSDefenseMinisterwas directed to‘developcapabilities,plans,andoptionstoensurefreedomofactioninspace’.IntheopinionofTheresaHitchens,DirectoroftheCenterforDefenseInformation,thedoc-ument,signedbyBush,opensthedoortothewarstrategyinspace.

Russiastilladvocates‘spacewithoutweapons’.TheMinistryofForeignAffairsoftheRFpreparedadocument,publishedintheInternetsiteonSeptember20,2006:Onthe

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susan eIsenhoWeRUSAChairman Emeritus and former President of the Eisenhower Insti-tute.

Ms.Eisenhower has spentmore than20 yearsworking in the for-eignaffairs.Bestknownforherwork inRussiaandthe formerSo-vietUnion.Currentlyservingthe4thtermintheNationalAcademyofSciences’standingCommitteeonInternationalSecurityandArmsControl(CISAC).

In2001,afterserving2termsontheNASAAdvisoryCouncilshewasappointedtotheInternationalSpaceStationManagementandCostEvaluationTaskForce.ShehasalsoservedasanAcademicFellowoftheInternationalPeaceandSecurityprogramofCarnegieCorpora-tionofNewYork,andisadirectorof theCarnegieEndowment forInternationalPeaceandtheNuclearThreatInitiative.

PresidentoftheEisenhowerGroup.SeniorDirectorofStonebridgeInternational.

Inthe1970’ssheworkedasastringerforTheSaturdayEveningPost,laterwroteacolumnforWolfeNewspapers.Theauthorof2regionalbestsellers:BreakingFreeandMrs.Ike.Shehasalsoeditedfourcol-lectedvolumesonregionalsecurityissues–themostrecent,PartnersinSpace(2004).

InTERnATIonAl RESouRCE AvAIlAblE To All nATIonS

positionofRussiaatthe61stSessionoftheUNGeneralAssembly.Itisstatedinthedocumentthat:‘Preventionofdeploymentofweaponsinspaceisoneofthetoppri‑oritytendenciesoftheRussianforeignpolicyinthefieldofstrengtheningstrategicstabilityandinternationalsecurity.TheRussianleadersbelievethat‘itisnotjusti‑fiedthatthekeyissuesofthedisarmamenttopichavepracticallydroppedoutoftheglobalagenda,whileitisprematuretospeakabouttheendofthearmsrace’.

On February 10, 2007, President of the Russian Federation V.V.Putin, taking thefloorattheMunichConferenceonsecuritypolicyissues,declared:‘…morethanoncewehaveputforwardtheinitiativedirectedatnon-admissionofweaponsinspace…WehavepreparedadraftofaTreatyonpreventionofdeploymentofweapons inspace.Inthenearestfutureitwillbesubmittedasourformalproposaltothepart‑ners.Letusworkonittogether’.

IfullysupportthepositionoftheRussianleadersonthisissueandsharetheopinionofthosepeoplewhoareconvincedthatattemptsofestablishingmilitarysuperiorityinspacewouldbringaboutaresponse,whichmightunleashanewarmsrace.Initsturn, suchapositionwould increase thevulnerabilityof the importantspace infra-structure,used inthespheresofbusiness, telecommunications,passiveuseofmili-taryspace,etc., thuscreatingconditionsforunderminingthestrategicstabilityandinternationalsecurity.Itisnotpermissibletoletithappen.

Thistime50yearsagoSovietlaunchofSputnikchangedtheworldandcalledintoquestionthestrategicvisionofspaceinamostfun-damentalway.NowhereelsedoesinternationalcooperationcometogetherwiththenotionofinternationalsecurityasitdoesinSpace,theonlyglobalcommonsthatbor-derseverycommunity,simultaneouslyaffectseverycountryandprovidesanunprec-edentedpotentialnexusofsocial,economic,andmilitarypower.Todayspaceisbeingutilized in ways never before considered possible. It allows us to track of bankingrecords, tocommunicateglobally, tomonitorweathersystems, topredictandwarnagainstcatastrophicenvironmentaldangers,totradewithothers,andtotravelsafe-lyacrosstheglobe.Spacehasrapidlybecomeanintegral,fundamentalpartofeverynation’sinfrastructure,includingandperhapsmostcritically,themilitaryones.�

Alas,atthesametimethesemostvaluablespaceassets,whosemovementsaregov-ernedbythe lawsoforbitalmechanicsandfollowapredeterminedandpredictablecoursethroughspace,arevulnerabletoeventhemostprimitiveofattacks.Thisvul-nerabilityhaspromptedpolicy-makersthroughouttheworldtoconsiderhowwecanmosteffectivelybalancetoday’scivil,commercialusesagainstourgrowingrequire-ments to use space for the conduct of military operations. However, real multilat-eraldebate, involvingallmajorspace-faringnations,onsuchmostcrucialstrategicquestions is all but absent. This iswhy itwould not be a stretch to argue that therecentChineseanti-satellitemissile testcameasaresultofourownfailuretoeven

� BasedonSpeechtoNationalDefenseUniversity’s(NDU)SpacepowerSymposium,April25,2007.

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talkaboutthesecurityofspacewithotherspacepowers.(IwondersometimesifitisacoincidencethatthisChinesetesttookplacethisyear—2007).

ThelaunchofSputnik,weknow,wasparticularlyalarmingtotheUnitedStatesanditsmilitaryleaders.Somewhowerearoundatthattimewillrememberthatthecre-ation of a CIVILIAN space agency rather than a military one was NOT a foregoneconclusion.Eisenhowerfacedpressurefromthemilitaryservicesandtheaerospacecommunity tomake the space program a predominantlymilitary organization.Hewasworriedabouttwothings:thereactionoftheinternationalcommunityifourmil-itaryestablishmentweregivenresponsibilityforactivitiesrelatedtopeaceful,coop-erativeventuresinspace.Notonlywouldtheprogrambehamperedbythenecessitytoclassifycertainadvancements,itwouldberegardedwithsuspicioninternationally.TheveryestablishmentofNASAandthestatementofnationalspacepolicyin1958underscored the desire for international cooperation and charged the new agencywith thedutyof ‘maintaining the US position as the LEADING ADVOCATE of theuseofouterspaceforpeacefulpurposes.’TheUSwasalsopreparedto‘joinwithoth‑ernations,includingtheUSSR,incooperativeactivitieswithrespecttoouterspace.’

In theearly1990’s, theUSandRussiawereat lastopen tocooperate inabigway.ThedecisiontoestablishtheShuttle-MirprogramandthenbringtheRussiansintotheInternationalSpaceStationprogramheraldedanentirelynewageinspacecoop-eration.

Asspace-faringnationsweredeeplyengaged inbuilding theSpaceStation,howev-er,changeswerealsounderwayinthemilitarysphere.Themostpublicandcontro-versialeventinthisareawasnewpolicydirectionin2002,USwithdrawalfromtheAnti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.The ABM Treaty had been in force for three decades.Themove was the first time inmodern history that America had backed out of amajor international arms agreement. In addition to these political moves, the USincreasinglyarticulatedavisionforspacethatappearedasaggressivetomanyintheinternationalcommunity.TheUnitedStatesAirForceDoctrineDocumentonCoun‑terSpaceOperationsstatedin2004thattheUSwouldachieveandmaintainspacesuperiority,andthe‘freedomtoattack…aswellasthefreedomfromattack’�.Thiswas published at the same time, that the United States had consistently refused toenter into internationaldialogueon ‘rulesof the road’ forSpace. Is it thebestwaytoprotectourspaceassetsata timewhenasinglerelativelyprimitivebutproperlyguidedmissilecanholdourentirecommercial,scientific,andmilitaryinfrastructurehostage,asChina’srecenttestsoprofoundlyemphasized?

Forthelastthreeyears,theEisenhowerInstitutehasbeenengagedinaprojectseek-ing to address these questions. Its approach has been based on a vision that inte-grates the interests of all space stakeholders—military and civilian, domestic andinternational—within a new security framework that underscores the principle ofspaceasaninternationalresource,availabletoallnations.Inpursuitofthisgoal,wehave established and convened the International Space Expert Panel, consisting ofsomeoftheworld’sforemostexpertsonspace.

Itisapragmaticapproachforachievingaconsensusamongspace-faringnationstomaintainand‘lockin’Americanadvances,but,atthesametime,thuspreventingthefullweaponizationofspace.It isnotanattempttoscalebackground-basedtempo-raryandreversiblesystemsalreadyinexistence.Norisitanefforttocurtailthemili-

� United States Air Force Doctrine Document 2-2.1: Counter Space Operations. August,2004.

tarizationofspace.WeenvisionittobeavoluntaryassociationliketheMTCR,notanewandcumbersomeinternationaltreaty.TheFrameworkisanattempttodefineapoliticallyplausible‘middleway’forpolicy-makersofallcountries.

Our strategy, applicable to both established and emerging space powers, wouldreward responsible countries that choose to join the regime voluntarily and isolatethosechoosingnottojoinorabidebytheregime’sprinciples.Atthesametimetheplanwouldnotprohibit complementarymeasuresundertakenby thesignatories inorder tomake their space assetsmore secure and redundant.Key to this proposalis the establishment of a multilateral regime based on an international agreementbanningon-orbitoffensiveweaponsand the testingofanydestructiveanti-satelliteweaponbasedonland,sea,air,orspace.

The creation of this framework would be a critical first step toward ensuring thatspace remains a secure environment for the assets of all space-faring nations. Thegroupwouldthenbeinastrongpositiontoengagenewemergingspacepowersandtoaddressotherimportantspacesecurityissuessuchasminimizingspacedebris.

Thereislittlequestionthatspacesecurityhasbecomeafundamentalcomponentofinternational stability. As the current predominant space power, the United Stateshasthemosttoloseinspace,andtherefore,hasthegreatestincentivetoprotectitsspaceassets,buttheyarenottheonlyoneswithsomethingtolose.Alloftheworld’snationshaveastake inmakingsure thecurrent tenuousstability inspacedoesnotdegenerateintoaweaponsraceoroutrightmilitaryconfrontation.

Whenwe lookbackat the late1950’s,wesometimes forget that theensuing ‘SpaceRace’ couldhave just as easily turned into a ‘spaceARMSRace’.YuriGagarin andNeilArmstrongcouldjusthaveeasilybeensubstitutedforanti-satellitesystems,mil-itaryspacestations,orpossiblyevennuclearweaponsinorbits.EisenhowershrewdlyfoughtofftheambitionsofmanywhocompetedvigorouslyfortheownershipofthespaceprojectsthatwouldeventuallyemergefromtheSputnik launch.Eisenhower’spolicyofadvancingcooperationcouldstandagainasamodelintoday’sworld.InhisAtomsforPeacespeech—anothereffortbythePresidenttocraftanewwayoflook-ingattheterriblepotentialofanotherdisaster,theusenuclearweapons—Eisenhow-er outlined the leadership role theUnitedStates couldplay infinding constructiveways toaddressoneof thegreatest threats tomankind.Hesaid: ‘Occasionalpagesofhistorydorecordthefacesofthe‘greatdestroyers’,butthewholebookofhistoryrevealsmankind’snever-endingquestforpeaceandmankind’sGod-givencapacitytobuild.Itiswiththebookofhistory,andnotwithisolatedpages,thattheUnitedStateswilleverwishtobeidentified.Mycountrywantstobeconstructive,notdestructive.Itwantsagreements,notwars,amongnations…Inthisquest,Iknowthatwemustnotlackpatience.Iknowthatinaworlddivided,suchasourstoday,salvationcannotbeattainedbyonedramaticact.Iknowthatmanystepswillhavetobetakenovermanymonthsbeforetheworldcanlookatitselfonedayandtrulyrealizethatanewclimateofmutually peaceful confidence is abroad in theworld.But I know, above all else,thatwemuststarttotakethesesteps—now.’

50yearsafterSputnikwetoohavetheopportunitytotakesuchsteps,atatimefarless complicated.The ‘coldwar’ is history; thenumber of spacepowers is few andnearlyallofthespacepowerstodayareimbeddedincooperativeprojects.Everyonewillgainfromastabilizingframework;fornoonewillwininaspaceconfrontation.Finding a viable consensus among space-faring nations is strategically important.Itisdoable.Butaboveall:ithasneverbeentimelier.

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tobias C. oWenUSAProfessorattheUniversityofHawaii(InstituteforAstronomy).

Hehasconductedstudiesontheoriginandcompositionofplanetaryatmospheresandcomets,includingdiscoveriesofHDO(fromEarth)andnoblegases(fromtheVikingspacecraft)onMars.HeledteamsthatdiscoveredtheringsofJupiter.

AmericanChairoftheNASA-ESAteamthatdevelopedandinitiatedtheCassini-HuygensMissiontotheSaturnsystem.Extensiveexpe-rience in planetarymissions:VikingMission toMars (1969–1978)withresponsibilityforatmosphericanalysis,VoyagerImagingTeam(1972–1990);GalileoMission(1977to2000),InterdisciplinarySci-entist and member of different experiments for Cassini-HuygensMission, Associate Investigator on the ESA Rosetta Mission, Inter-disciplinaryScientistontheRussianPhobosMission.

HonoraryDoctorateattheUniversityofParis.FellowoftheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience.FellowoftheAmericanGeophysicalUnion.

ListofhisawardsincludeGrandPrixMarcelDassault(withJ.P.Le-bretonandD,Gautier)AcademiedesSciences2006;Regents’AwardforExcellenceinResearch,UniversityofHawaii,2006;NASAmedalforexceptionalscientificachievement,analysisofMartianatmosphere,1977

THE WoRld SInCE SPuTnIkThesuccessfullaunchofthefirstartificialsatel-

liteby theSovietUnion in 1957wasawatershedevent in thehistoryof theworld.Mankindhadmadeamoon!Inonegiantstep,wesuddenlyenteredthe‘SpaceAge’andlifeonEarthwouldneverbequitethesame.

ThepoliticalconsequencesintheUnitedStateswereimmediateandpainful.Ameri-canshadgottenaccustomedto the ideaofbeingfirst,ofbeing theworld’s technol-ogyinnovators.Herewasacleardemonstrationforalltheworldtoseethatthiswasnolongerthecase.Suchembarrassment!Panicsentin!CoursesinRussianlanguagesuddenlysprangupatcollegesanduniversities.EditorialsinnewspapersdecriedthepoorstateofAmericaneducationandclamouredformoreemphasisonmathematics,physicsandengineering,‘thewaythesethingsaretaughtintheSovietUnion!’

The dawn of the space age was soon followed by another dramatic achievement:in1959,theUSSRobtainedthefirstimagesofthefarsideoftheMoon!

Exploration has always been a deeply seated drive in human beings. The ancientGreeksexploredtheMediterraneanSea,MarcoPolofoundChinafortheEuropeans,Columbus brought Europe to the Americas, the Polynesians discovered Tahiti andHawaii,etc.ButthefarsideoftheMoon!OnlysciencefictionwriterslikeJulesVerneor visionaries like K.Tsiolkovsky had considered an adventure like that. Suddenlyexplorationhadbeenliftedintoanewdimension.Theskywasnolongerthelimit.

Itisimpossibletotracethedetailedeffectsofthisnewawareness,butexperiencewithpastdiscoveriesof‘newworlds’suggestsastrongstimulustothecollectiveimagina-tion.Thosesciencefictionstoriesnolongerseemedsofar-fetched.Seriousscientists

andengineerscouldbeginplanningevermoreambitioustripsintospace.WhatwashiddenundertheperpetualcloudcoverofVenus?HowdidtheEarthgetsuchalargeMoon?IstherelifeonMars?WhatkindsofprimitivechemistryarestilltakingplacetodayintheouterSolarsystem?Thesequestionsandmanymorewerenolongersim-plythesubjectsofspeculation—wecouldbuildspacecraftthatwouldventureforthtofindtheanswers.

The effects of Sputnik on humanity at large have been more subtle but even moresignificant.Asatellitethatcirclestheglobereducestheplanettoasingleentity.TheEarth was no longer one country here, one continent there, but an entire world,wholeandcomplete.Itwouldbesometimebeforethisrealitywouldbecomepartofpeople’sconsciousness,butSputniksetthestageforthisprofoundchangeintheper-spectiveofEarth’sinhabitants.

Nowwecantakeourplaceasoneplanetamongtheothersinoursystem.Aswecel-ebratethisanniversary,everyotherplanethasbeenvisitedbyourspacecraft,chang-ingforeverfrommovingpointsoflightinournightskiestoworldsintheirownright.

This heightened awareness of our place in a planetary system has led to an ever-intensifying search forother such systems.Wenowknowover200stars thathaveoneormoregiantplanetsinorbitaroundthem.Atthesametime,theseexplorationsoftheSolarsystemandtheGalaxyhavefailedtofindevidenceofanylifeotherthanthelifeweknowonEarth.

Thus in the 50 years since Sputnik, our sense of what constitutes our habitat hasenlarged dramatically. School children now grow up with colorful pictures of ourplanets and a perspective on our place in the cosmos that was completely hiddenfromtheirgrandparentsatthesameage.Togainavividpictureofthischange,itisonlynecessarytolookintoacollegetextbookwrittenin1936byadistinguishedpro-fessorofastronomy,ForestRayMoulton:

‘There is no hope for the fanciful idea of reaching the moon,’ Moulton boldlydeclared,‘becauseofinsurmountablebarrierstoescapingtheEarth’sgravity.’

Fortunately,theSovietteamthatlaunchedSputnikwasnotimpressedbysuchdecla-rations!ProfessorMoulton’ssenseofcertaintywasbasedongoodphysicsbutaverypoorsenseoftechnologicalprogress.Heteachesustobehumbleaboutourabilitiestopredictwhatthefutureholdsinstore.

HavingbrokenthebondsofEarthandexploredourplanetaryneighbours,whathasthisnewperspectivedoneforhumanity?Therecordismixed,butweseemtobeonthe threshold of some dramatic developments whose origin can be traced back tothosefirst‘beeps’fromthelittleSputnik,saying‘hello!’fromspace.Ontheonehand,we can deplore the fact that with all these extraordinary technological accomplish-ments,wearestilltryingtosolveourlargestsocialproblemsinthesamemannerasourcave-dwellingancestors—byforce.Hydrogenbombsarenothingmorethanthebest clubswehave learned tomake so far. It is truly appalling that the irrefutableawarenessoftheEarthasaplanet,whichholdsanextraordinarypotentialforunitingalltheworld’sinhabitants,isconstantlybeingtorntoshredsbytheravagesofwars.Thishasgottostop!

Andthereareglimmeringsofhopethatonedayitwill.WearepresentlyenjoyingthelongestperiodofpeaceamongtheperpetuallywarringtribesofEuropeinthehistoryof theworld.Withsomededicatedeffort, thisharmonycanbeextended to includeothernationsaswell.

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Similarly,aftercenturiesofexploitingthetreasuresoftheEarthforourownselfishpurposes,wearewitnessingagrowingconcernaboutthemesswearemakingofourenvironment.Ourbeautiful blue andwhiteplanet, perhapsunique in theUniversefor its possession of intelligent inhabitants, deserves better treatment. The steadilygrowingrealizationthatweliveonasingle,vulnerableworldthatisameredustmoteinagreatuncaringcosmos,isamongthegreatestgiftsthatthespaceageinitiatedbySputnikhasgivenus.Thisawarenessisslowly,butineluctablyengenderingagreatersenseofourresponsibilityforourenvironment.Wecannowseeclearlythatweour-selvesconstituteoneofthegreatestthreatstolifeonourpreciousplanet.Themostrecentmanifestationofthisgrowingplanetaryperspectiveisthemajoreffortgettingunderwaytoavoidthecatastrophicchangeinglobalclimatewehumansarecausing.Thisisathreatthatisnotlimitedtoonecountryoronecontinent;itisaglobalprob-lemthatrequiresaglobalresponse.

Thenextenormousstepwemusttakeistostop,orevenbetter,reversetherampantgrowthofthehumanpopulation.Peoplehavebeenmultiplyingatanever-increasingrate,suchthatthedoublingtimefortheworldpopulationisnowlessthanahumanlifetime.Toputthisinmoregraphicterms,considerthatithastakenoveramillionyears toproduce thepresentpopulationof theworld.Wearepoised toachieve thesamenumberofpeopleinjust45years!AtthetimeSputnikwaslaunched,therewere2.9billionpeopleontheplanet.Today(6/4/2007)thereare6.6billion.Tobuildthebalancedworldwithoutwarswedesire,allofthesepeopleshouldbeabletohavethesamestandardoflivingasthecitizensofhighlydevelopedcountries.Forthistohap-pen,thepressureontheenvironmentwillbeenormous.

ThinkoftheEarthasitwaseven200yearsago—abeautiful,life-givingworld,cir-cling the Sun at just the right distance to provide the proper range of temperatureneeded by the immense variety of its living inhabitants. The nature of life itselfremainsmysterioustous,butit iseasytoseethatthesurvivalofthisphenomenonatitspresentlevelofrichnessrequiresadelicate,yetsturdyequilibriumbothamongthedifferentspeciesandwiththeenvironment.

Theproblemweconfrontisthatthisbenignrangeoftemperaturesisalsocontrolledbythecompositionoftheatmosphereandwehumanshavebeenirresponsiblyalter-ingthisduringthelastfewdecades.Thinkwhathashappenedin200years:Oneofthe formsof life thatmakes theEarth sovery specialhas totallyupset thedelicatebalance that keeps all life in harmony increasing in numberwithout any apparentlimit,consumingeverythingitcanfind.Intheprocess,ithaschangedthecomposi-tionoftheveryairwebreathe.We,humans,arebehavinglikeametastasizingcancer,itscellsproliferatinguntiltheydestroyitshost.InourcasethehostistheEarth,andwhileweare innodangerofdestroying theplanet,wearesteadily reducing it toamuchlesslivableplace.Inthecaseofacancer,whenthehostdies,thecancerdiesaswell.Inourcase,weareatriskofprovidingserioushardshipfor largesegmentsoftheworld’spopulation.

Thismust stop!There isnowhereelse togo.And thatknowledge is anotherof theimportantgiftsfromSputnikanditsdescendants.Wecancertainlydreamofcover-ingMarswiththesameshoppingmalls,apartmentblocksandarraysofhighwaysandhotelswithwhichwearedecoratingtheEarth,butsendinghumanstoMarswillnotsolveourproblems.WehavetodothatonEarth,andthesoonerthebetter!

AllthismayseemafarcryfromthebravelittleSputnik,circlingtheEarthandbroad-castingitspresencefortheentireworldtohear.Butthesesignalsfromspaceprovide

anotherperspective:wehaveanexistentialimperativetotakecareofourplanetandeach other, because beyond Sputnik, beyond orbiting space stations or outposts ontheMoonandMars,thereisonlythedark,unspeakablycoldandunforgivingvacuumofspace.

It is time to turn again to thedreamers, the kindofmenandwomenwhodidnotaccept thedogmaofso-calledexperts,andgaveusSputnik.Weneedacomparableachievementtorefreshourthinkingandshowusonceagainthatpeoplewithwingscandoremarkablethingsfortheplanetonwhichtheylive.PerhapsthisisthemostimportantmessageofSputnik:Whatseemsimpossibletosomejusttakesalittlelon-gerforothers.After50years,thisfirstbright,cosmicadventurer,circlingtheplanethighaboveourfamiliarsky,canstillinspireus.

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leonid GoRshkoVRUSSIAChiefResearchOfficerattheS.P.KorolevRSCEnergia,DoctorofSci-ence,Professor.

FullmemberoftheTsiolkovskyRussianAcademyofCosmonautics.OneofthechiefoftheMartianprogramattheS.P.KorolevRSCEnergia.

ResearchfellowinthedesignationofSoyuzvehicles,theSalyutandMirorbitalstations,theRussiansegmentoftheInterna-tionalSpaceStation.

DeputyDirectorintheRussianpartoftheInternationalSpaceStationProgramin1994–1997.

SPuTnIk-1 ExTEndEd THE WoRld boundARIES

– How did the launch of the Sputnik affect theworldview,thescienceandcultureandthetechnologicalprogress?

TheorbitalinsertionoftheSputnik-1wasjustanothermilestoneoftherockettech-nology in theSovietUnion.However, thismilestonemade a revolution inpeople’sminds. Of course, everyone realized people will sooner or later fly in space. Butunderstanding isonething,beingawitnessat thetimewhenit isdone—is totallyanother.

Theancientvisionofvisitingextraterrestrialworldswasturningintoreality.Eventhedreamoffindingintelligentbeingsdidnotseemtobeunrealisticanymore.

AfterthefirstSputnikwaslaunchedtoorbit,usingspaceopportunitiesforeverydaylifebecamearoutine.CommunicationandTV,monitoringoftheEarthsurfacefromspace, scientificresearch inspacebecameapartofour life.Today, space technolo-giesareamongmostcrucialelementsofthescientificandtechnologicalpotentialindevelopedcountries.However,most importantly, thisopenedanewareaofhumanactivityandcreatedanewvectorincivilizationprogress.

’— WasSputnik-1reallyanewthinginspacetechnology?

Thesatellitewasprettyunsophisticatedintermsofdesignandsystems.Itwasevenamply named PS, meaning simplest satellite. The launch of the first satellite wasaboveallthetriumphoftherockettechnology.TheboosterR-7,famous‘semyorka’,wasthefirstintheworldtosupportthelaunchoftheartificialsatellitetoEarthorbit.However simple, this satellite demonstrated the first steps in creating ‘space’ sys-

tems—thermalcontrol,powerandothers.Morecomplexspacecraftwerethemile-stonesof thespaceexploration.But thisdoesnotdiminish thehuge importanceofthefirstartificialEarthsatellite:itwastheFirst!

’— ItisoftensaidthatthelaunchofSputnik-1wasapoliticallymotivatedeventintheSovietUnion.Isthistrue?

Itmakesnosensetolookattheeventsofthismagnitudethroughtheeyesofthepoli-ticians.Theyseepoliticsineverything.ManypeopleinourcountrysaythattheApol‑loprogramtoreachtheMoonintheUSwaspurepolitics.Certainly,thisprojectwaspoliticalforPresidentKennedyandhisteam.Itwasofanutmostimportancetohimtoshowthewholeworldhowpowerful theUnitesStateswas.WhereasNASAengi-neerssawthefirsthumanflighttotheMoonasanexcitingchallenge.ApolloprogramwasagreattechnologicalbreakthroughforAmericanindustry.Thefirsthumanland-ingontheMoonsurfacewasamilestoneforthewholecivilization,whichwillstayinthehistoryforever.ThesamereferstotheSputnik-1.Weshouldnotonlyseepoliticsinthis.

’— Wetakeprideinthefactthatourcountrywasthefirstinspaceexploration.Thefirst satellite was Soviet, thefirst cosmonaut was Soviet,first orbital station wasSoviet–wewerethefirstatmanystagesofthespaceexploration.Doyouthinkthishappenedbychance?

I think thiswasvery logical.Of course, government supportwas critical.However,Iwouldsaythemainsuccessfactorsweretechnologicalandintellectualpotentialofourcountry.

’— Yes,buteverythingalteredlateron,whenthefirstmanontheMoonwasAmeri‑can,thefirstSpaceShuttlewasalsoAmerican.Itseemedwehavelosttoourcom‑petitorsbeyondanyhope.Isthistrue?

Notquite.Wewantedardently thefirstmanon theMoon tobeSoviet.Butwedidnotmanagethatduetoafewreasons.Wesetthecoursein1969forconstructionoforbital stations.Certainly,wewanted to build the first orbital station ahead of theAmericans.Andwesucceeded.Thepurposeoftheorbitalstationswasawiderangeresearch program in various areas of the science and technology. Years of researchresultedinvastamountofscientificdatawhich,aswehope,wouldsupportmanysci-entificandtechnologicalcontributions.

One of the critical activities onboard the orbital stations was the preparation forfutureinterplanetarymissions.Thesystemssupportingtheextendedhumanflights,whicharethemainissuesforinterplanetarymissions,canonlybecreatedandmas-teredonboardtheorbitalstations.NoothercountryonEarthhasgainedthisexperi-enceaswedid.Manyelementsofthefutureinterplanetarysystemsweredevelopedwhile supportingoperationof theorbital stations. In termsofMarsmannedflight,Russiaistechnologicallyaheadofmanyothercountries,whichamongotherfactors,hasbeencontributedbyactivitiesat thespacestationsaswell.So,Ibelieve,sayingwearehopelesslybehindwouldbeamajorunderestimation.

’— Whatdoyouthinkofcompetitioninspaceexploration?Wouldnotitbebettertocooperateandintegrate?YoumentionedMarsmannedspaceflight:woulditnotbelogicaltomakethisaninternationaleffort?

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Certainly,wearedevelopinginternationalcooperationinspaceexploration,andwillcontinuedoingso.However,weareboundtohavenationalspaceprogramsaslongaswehavedifferent countries.Each individual country is committed todevelopingitsowncuttingedgetechnologiesbasedoninternalexperienceandprojects.Itisspe-cificallytrueifthetechnologyisindemandontheworldmarket.Forthisreasonthespace exploration is shared by international and national programs. The competi-tionisagreatincentiveintechnologydevelopmentanditwillcertainlystayinspaceflights.

Mars exploration is a long term process, and virtually every country possessingappropriatetechnologywilltakepartinitatcertainstages.Marsflightsprogramwillrequire various vehicles, bases, and research and construction tools.National pro-gramsofindividualcountriesmeetindividualchallengesinMarsexploration.Everycountrywilltakeshareofthepathtothelongexpectedfinaldestination.

TheUShasrecentlydeclaredthattheflighttoMarstobethenationalprogram.Basi-cally, Americans can engage other countries at the participant countries’ expense.However,oneshouldspendhismoneywithmaximumefficiency.It’squitepossibleRussiawillfinditmoreeffectiveandpromisingtodevelopitsownkeytechnologiesformannedflighttoMars,whichwillopenanopportunityforextendingthenationalprogramsintothefuture.

’—There isapopularviewnow that thespaceexploration isnotapriority in thecommercial activity in the world. Would it be more prudent to address the mostcriticalissuesfortheworldpopulation?

Yes, there are many problems in the world that need investment. Even feeding theEarthpopulation is a farmore critical issue than, say,mannedflight toMars.But,fortunately, thehumanityneverwentby thisseeminglyapparentprinciple, inspiteof the fact that the life forworldpopulationhasneverbeen trouble-free.However,thisispreciselythereasonwhywedonothavetositatthefirecladinanimalhidesanymore. The humanity did not ‘waste’ the opportunities it had in front of it. Theexplorationofthesurroundingsnearourown‘house’—fromtheworldoceantotheouterspace—isapartofdevelopingourcivilization.Thisisnottheonlypurposeofthespaceexploration,thereareotherverypracticalpurposes,andspaceexplorationhelpstacklemanyglobalissues.

’—Whataretheseglobalissues,andwhatisthepotentialofthespaceexploration?Howwillitaffectthehumanity?

Someofthemcannotreallybehandledwithoutthetoolsprovidedbythespacesci-ence.Hereisanexample.Asyouknow,environmentalresourceoftheplanetEarthhasit’slimits.Theincreasedflowoftheenergy,howeverclean,intotheEarthenvi-ronment,cannotbeindefinite.Ontheotherhand,onecanhardlycurbtheevergrow-ingappetitesofthehumanity.Moreover,ifwedonotactappropriately,wecouldendup at the point of no return, when humanity will have depleted the environmentalresourceoftheEarth,andthesituationwouldbeirreversible.

There is a lot of discussion about the search of ‘clean’ energy sources, fighting thegreenhouseeffectetc.Thisshouldbedone,buttheseactivitiescanonlypostponethepointofnoreturn.Soonerorlaterpeoplewillhavetostartremovingpowerconsum-ingandenvironmentallyunfriendlyindustriesfromtheEarthsurface.

Thatiswhywecannotavoidbuildingstructuresandsettingupproductioninspaceinthefuture.Orbitalstationmissions,buildingspacecraft,deploymentofhugetrans-forming structures, development of life supporting systems, missions to planets intheSolarsystemandexplorationsofotherplanets–theseareallstepsonthispath.

Speaking of the potential, the humanity is doomed to continuous expansion andextensionofour‘ecumene’.Thisprocessisindefinite.

’— Youhavementionedglobalproblems.DoesRussiahavetospendlargeassetsonspaceexploration?Theseassetsareverylimited.

Firstofall,Russia’spovertyisabsolutelynottrue.Thecountry,aswellasthegovern-ment,hasconsiderableassets.Theseassetsshouldbeinvestedinthecountry’secon-omy.

Despite the positive economical growth, Russia’s vulnerability is in orientation onnaturalresources(outputandexportofthehydrocarbons,metallurgyetc),whichthePresidentoftheRussianFederationhighlightednumeroustimes.Wehavenotbeenable to restore the economy after the crisis in 1990’s yet.Which industries shouldberestoredasapriority?Ibelievethoseindustriesthatusecuttingedgetechnologysoughtforontheworldmarket.Spaceindustryisoneofthem.Ourcountryhasbeenandstillisatthecuttingedgeinmanyspacetechnologies.

Thecauseofrestoringtheindustryhasasocialaspectaswell.Thenumberoforgani-sationsparticipating,say, inbuildingorbitalstationsSalyut,Mir,RussianSegmentoftheInternationalSpaceStationwasnearingtensofhundreds.Theseorganizationsaredistributedthroughoutvariousregionsandcitiesof thecountry.Buildingspaceequipmentrequiresmorethanjust‘space’industriesalone.Itrequiresvariousinstru-mentsandaccessories,materialsetc.Thisbringsjobsforspecialistsandemployslat-esttechnology,whichisalwayscrucialforanycountry.

Wehavebecomeusedtotheterm ‘braindrain’.Manyscientistsare leavingRussia,but,atfirstitdoesnotseemtobeaproblem.Inreality,itonlyseemsthatway.Theprocess,whenhighskilledworkersleavethecountryandaresubstitutedbyunskilledmigrants, ishighlyhazardousforthecountryandposesthreatto itsveryexistence.ThescientistsareleavingRussianotbecausetheyarebetterpaidabroad,butprimar-ily because our country does not have a program where young scientists can applytheirskills.Russianeedssignificantscienceprogramsasbreathoflife.Inparticular,mannedspaceflighttoMarswillrequireparticipationofvariouskindsofscientists—biologists,doctors,materialscientists,physicists,programmers,chemistsandmanyothers.

Youcanviewsuchaconceptasthe‘countryprestige’indifferentways.Butthepres-tigeofastate isaconceptthathaseconomicalaspectto it.Remember,howsoaredprestigeoftheUSaftertheApolloprogram.

’— Nevertheless,acommonpersonismoreconcernedabouthisownwell-being.DoyouthinkRussianpeoplewillsupportdevelopmentofthespaceindustry?

It all depends onwho you call a ‘common person’. If this is a personwho is onlyconcernedabouthisownwell-beingandwhodoesnot careabouthis childrenandgrand-children, then, thesepeoplewouldprobablynot support thedevelopmentofthe space technology. I sawat times thatpeople imagine a ‘commonperson’ as an

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William Vernon JonesUSASeniorScientistforSuborbitalResearchintheNASAHeadquarters.SeniorScienceProgramExecutive/Suborbital;ChiefScientist,SpacePhysicsDivision;ChiefScientistinCosmicandHeliosphericPhysicsintheNASAHeadquarters.VisitingSeniorScientistsince1985.

EarnedhisB.C.inEngineeringPhysicsfromtheUniversityofTulsain1963;Ph.D,inPhysicsfromtheLouisianaStateUniversityin1967.In1967–1968wasanAlexandervonHumboldtFellowintheMax-Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, Germany.WorkedintheLouisianaStateUniversityin1969–1988(Professor;AssociateProfessor;AssistantProfessor;ResearchAssociate).

VisitingResearchScientistintheLaboratoryforHighEnergyAstro-physics,GoddardSpaceFlightCenter,1975–1976.VisitingResearchScientistintheInsti-tuteforCosmicRayResearch,Univer-sityofTokyo:JSPS,1981.

FRom THE SPACE RACE To THE vISIon FoR SPACE ExPloRATIon

abstractbeingwithmotivationlevelclosetoinsects.Thisideaiswrong.Inanycase,governmentpolicyshouldnotusethisapproach.

In2002,thePresidentofthePublicOpinionFoundationA.A.Oslonpublishedpublicpoll results about thepublic support of designing amanned spaceflight toMars inRussia.ThiswasnotthehappiestyearforRussia.However,itturnedoutthatmajor-ityofRussianssupportedthisflight.Iquiterealizethatweshouldbecautiousaboutthepolls:alotdependsonthecontextandthewordingofthequestion.Butitstillisacuriousfact.

By theway, theemotional responseofmillionsof ‘commonpeople’ in theworld tothelaunchofthefirstsatellite,Gagarin’sflight,AmericanlandingontheMoonisalsoverysignificant.Iamsure,thatmajorityofpeopleinourcountrysupportthespacescience.Thisisdespitethefactthattheideaof‘insect-like’behavioriswidespread.

’— DidthelaunchoftheSputnik-1influenceyourlife?

Absolutely.Inaverydirectway.Allmylifeisrelatedtospacescience.AndIthinkIhavebeenveryfortunate.

I consider myself privileged to have lived dur-ingoneofthemostexcitingtimesinhistorythatIcanimagine,thebeginningofthespaceera.The launchofSputnik-1by theUSSRonOctober4, 1957and theeventsthatfollowedoverthenextfewyearswillbeforeveringrainedinmymemory.IbegantakingclassesattheUniversityofTulsa,OklahomaafewweeksbeforethelaunchofSputnik-1,whichwasfollowedonemonthlaterbythelaunchofSputnik-2onNovem-ber3.AfterthesuccessoftheSputnik launchesandtheembarrassingfailureofthefirstAmerican attempt to launch a satellite inDecember, 1957,Explorer-1 becameAmerica’sfirstsatellite,acoupleofweeksafterthestartofmysecondsemester.Thefirst major scientific discovery of the space age was based on data returned fromExplorer-1andExplorer-3,launchedinJanuaryandMarch,1958,respectively.Theintensebandsofradiationdetectedbythesespacecraftareknownas theVanAllenradiationbelts,inhonorProfessorJamesA.VanAllenwholedtheUniversityofIowateamthatdiscoveredthem.ManyyearslaterIwasprivilegedtomeetProfessorKon-stantin I.Gringauz,who toldme thatparticle sensorson theSputnik satelliteshadalsodetectedthoseradiationbelts.

The US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was created as aGovernmentAgencyin1958,inaclimateperceivedbymanyAmericanstobealmostanational emergency.NASA launched itsfirst satellite,Pioneer-3, onDecember6,1958.Pioneers-3and-4wereequippedwithGeigercountersintendedformeasuringthespaceradiationbetweentheEarthandtheMoon.Pioneer-3,launchedonDecem-ber6,1958,didnotreachtheMoonduetoaslighterrorinthesatellite’svelocityanddirection after burnout. However, it discovered a second radiation belt around theEarthbeforeitreenteredEarth’satmosphereadayafterlaunch.Pioneer-4,launched

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March3,1959,successfullyflewbytheMoonwithinadistanceof60000kilometersthefollowingday,tobecomethefirstUSspacecraftinsolarorbit.

OnOctober 7, 1958,NASAannouncedProjectMercury and its major objectives toplaceaspacecraftwithahumanonboardintoorbitalflightaroundEarth,toobservehuman performance under such conditions, and to recover the human and space-craft safely.At thatpoint itwasquestionablewhetherahumancould functionasapilot-engineer-experimenterintheharshconditionsofweightlessflight.However,itwas expected that spaceflight conditionswouldbe similar to those experiencedbymilitarytestpilots.InJanuary,1959,theservicerecordsofhundredsoftalentedtestpilotswereassembled.Throughavarietyof interviewsandwrittentests,thisgroupwaspareddownto 32candidates,whoenduredevenmorestringentphysical,psy-chological, andmental examinations.OnApril 9, 1959NASA introduced theMer‑cury Seven astronauts: ScottCarpenter, L.Gordon Cooper,Jr., JohnH.Glenn,Jr.,VirgilI. ‘Gus’ Grissom, Walter M.Schirra,Jr., AlanB.Shepard,Jr., and DonaldK.‘Deke’ Slayton.Theywere immediately adopted asheroes.By then theUS and theUSSRwereobviouslyina‘spacerace.’Iftherewasanydoubtaboutwhowasahead,itdisappearedwiththenewsonApril12,1961thatRussianYuriGagarinhadbecomethefirstmaninspace.

IrecalllisteningtomycarradiothroughoutAlanShepard’s15minsuborbitalflightonMay 5, 1961. It was incredible tome, an undergraduate student, that less thanthreeweekslateron25May1961inaspeechbeforeCongress,PresidentJohnF.Ken-nedychallengedAmericanstolandamanontheMoonandreturnhimsafelytoEarthbeforethedecadewasout!Howcouldanyonebelievethatitwouldbepossibletogofromonemanned 15-minute suborbitalflight to sendinganastronaut to theMoonandreturninghimsafelytoEarthinlessthan9years?ThesuborbitalflightpilotedbyGusGrissomonJuly21,1961wasanotherstepinachievingthefirstmannedorbitalflightofJohnGlennonFebruary20,1962.ThePresidenthadsaid,‘ItwillnotbeonemangoingtotheMoon, itwillbeanentirenation.Forallofusmustworktoputhimthere.’Amongotherthings,this impliedtomethateveryonewouldparticipateinthatvirtualtripbycontributingtothebudgetforagreatlyacceleratedprogram.Ofcourse,thedreamofexploringnearspacecametrueonJuly20,1969,whenApollo-11landedastronautsNeilArmstrongandBuzzAldrinontheMoon’ssurface.

TheUShadfinallyscoredafirstinthespacerace!But,itcameataprice.OnJanuary27, 1967 tragedy struck theApollo programwhenaflashfireoccurred in the com-mandmoduleduringalaunchpadtestoftheApollo/Saturnspacevehiclebeingpre-paredforthefirstpilotedflight,calledtheAS-204mission.Threeastronautsdiedinthattragicaccident:GusGrissomwasaveteranofMercuryandGeminimissions;EdWhitehadperformedthefirstUSextravehicularactivityduringtheGeminiprogram;andRogerChaffeewaspreparing forhisfirst spaceflight.The investigation reportmadespecificrecommendationsthat ledtomajordesignandengineeringmodifica-tions, in addition to revisions of test planning, test discipline, manufacturing pro-cesses andprocedures, andquality control.TheAS-204missionwas re-designatedApollo-Iinhonorofthecrew.MyPh.D.graduationceremonyoccurredonthesamedayasthattragicfire.

IrecalltheApollo-Soyuz TestProject inJuly,1975beingmarketedasademonstra-tionoftheabilitytorescueastronauts/cosmonautspotentiallystrandedinspace.But,itbecameasymbolof thedétentepolicybeginningaboutthattime.TheSoyuzandApolloflightsdockedonJuly17,afterhavingbeenlaunchedwithinhoursofeachoth-eronJuly15.Whiledocked,thetwocrewsspenttimeineachother’scraftandcon-

ductedjointscientificexperiments.Themissionwasconsideredagreatsuccessfrombothatechnicalandpublicrelationsperspective.Byeasingthetensionofthespacerace, it signaled thepossibilityofamove fromcompetition tocooperationbetweenthetwosuperpowers.TheoriginalSoyuzModuleandamock-upoftheApolloCom-mandModuleareondisplayintheNationalAirandSpaceMuseuminWashington,DC.TheApolloCommandModule isondisplayat theCaliforniaScienceCenter inLosAngeles,California.ThisApollo-SoyuzmissionwasthelastApolloflight,aswellasthelastmannedspacelaunchfortheUSuntilthefirstSpaceShuttleflightinApril,1981.TheSovietUnionflewitsnextmannedspaceflightthefollowingyearinJune,1976.

The greatly improved US-Soviet relations based on historic meetings of PresidentRonaldW.ReaganandGeneralSecretaryMikhailS.GorbachevinGeneva,Reykjavik,WashingtonandMoscowopenedupnewopportunitiesforcooperationinmanyareasofinteresttobothcountries,andindeedtomankind.The1987US-USSRCooperativeAgreementintheExplorationandUseofOuterSpaceforPeacefulPurposesrecog-nizedthelong-standingcommitmentofbothcountriestospaceandexploration.Thetwoleadersagreedtoanewinitiativetoexpandcivilspacecooperationbyexchangingflightopportunities forscientific instrumentstoflyoneachother’sspacecraft.TheyalsoagreedtoexchangeresultsofindependentnationalstudiesoffutureunmannedSolarsystemexplorationmissionsasameansofassessingprospectsforfurtherUS-Sovietcooperationonsuchmissions.ScientificmissionstotheMoonandMarswerenoted as potential areas of bilateral and international cooperation. It was furtheragreedtoenhancethescientificbenefitthatcouldbederivedfromthetwocountries’spaceresearchmissionsbyexpandingexchangesofscientistsandspacesciencedata.

Itwasnowcooperationinspaceactivitiesratherthancompetitionbetweenthetwosuperpowers! By this time, I had phased backmy academic career as Professor ofPhysics at Louisiana State University (in Baton Rouge) to become Chief Scientist,Cosmic andHeliospheric Physics at NASAHeadquarters inWashington, DC. Thisputme in the enviable position of being aUS delegate on one of the originalUS-Soviet (laterUS-Russian)JointWorkingGroups forscientificcooperation inspace.MikhailPanasyukoftheMoscowStateUniversityInstituteofNuclearPhysicsandICo-Chaired theCosmicRay ImplementationTeam,which reported to theWorkingGrouponSolar-TerrestrialPhysics.TheresultsfromthisTeamofscientistsprovideagoodexample,aswellasvalidation,ofthebroadgoalsofthe1987US-USSRCoop‑erativeAgreement.

OneofthisTeam’ssubgroupsofscientistsansweredatwo-decadeoldquestionaboutthe charge state of ‘anomalous’ cosmic rays that neither side working alone couldhave addressed. Simultaneously, it discovered a new radiation belt that is formedwhensomeanomalouscosmic-rayionsaretrappedintheEarth’smagneticfield.Thisproject used theEarth’smagnetic field as a particle analyzer to comparemeasure-ments from theUS IMP-8satelliteoutside themagnetospherewith trackdetectorsflownonSovietCosmosSatellites insideEarth’smagnetosphere.Anothersubgroupstudyingultra-heavycosmicrayswithtrack-etchdetectorsprovidedTREK,thefirstU.S.-designed instrument to fly on a Soviet spacecraft following the 1987 Agree-ment.TREKwaslaunchedbyRussiatotheMirspacestationinAugust,1991.Itwasreturned inpartby adedicated re-entry capsule in 1994and the rest by theSpaceShuttleAtlantisinNovember1995.

American presidentGeorgeH.W.Bush andRussian presidentBoris Yeltsin signedthe Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian FederationConcerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful

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Purposes in June, 1992. This agreement established a joint space program, duringwhich one US astronaut would board the Russian space station Mir and two Rus-siancosmonautswouldboardaSpaceShuttle.ThisshortprogramwasamendedinSeptember, 1993 when American Vice-president Al Gore and Russian PrimeMin-ister Viktor Chernomyrdin signed an agreement formajor cooperation in buildingwhatbecameknownastheInternationalSpaceStation(ISS).TheyalsoagreedthatAmericawouldbeinvolvedintheMirprogramunderthecodename‘PhaseOne’(theconstructionoftheISSbeing‘PhaseTwo’).Duringthecourseoftheprogram,elevenSpaceShuttlemissionsflewtothestation,carryingoutcrewexchangesandconduct-ingamyriadofscientificexperiments.ThesemissionsallowedNASAandtheRussianSpaceAgencytolearnhowtoworkwithinternationalpartnersinspace,andhowtominimizetherisksassociatedwithassemblingthelargeISSinorbit.

TheUSspacepolicyannouncedonJanuary14,2004byPresidentGeorgeW.Bushwas intended as a response to the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, the state ofhumanspaceflightatNASA,andawaytoregainpublicenthusiasmforspaceexplora-tion.ThisVisionforSpaceExplorationcallsforcompletionoftheISSandretirementof theSpaceShuttle by2010,withdevelopment of theOrion spacecraft (originallyknownastheCrewExplorationVehicle)by2008anditsfirsthumanspaceflightmis-sionby2014.ItalsocallsfordevelopmentofShuttle-derivedlaunchvehicles,explora-tionoftheMoonwithroboticspacecraftmissionsby2008,andwithcrewedmissionsby2020.TheVisionwasmetwithsomecontroversy,andthroughoutmuchof2004itwasunclearwhethertheUSCongresswouldbewillingtoapproveit.However,inNovember2004Congresspassedanomnibus-spendingbillthatgaveNASAthebud-getthatthePresidenthadrequestedtokick-starttheVision.Accordingtothen-NASAAdministratorSeanO’Keefe,thatspendingbillwasasstronganendorsementoftheVisionasanyonecouldhaveimagined.TheNASAAuthorizationActof2005explic-itlyendorsedtheVision.ThecurrentNASAAdministrator,MichaelGriffin,whotookofficeinApril2005,iscommittedtotheVisionandwantstoreducethefour-yeargapbetweentheretirementoftheSpaceShuttleandthefirstmannedmissionofOrion.

TheVisionhasputNASAandthenationonaboldpathtoreturntotheMoonandeventually put humans on Mars. This long-term endeavor is, however, subject tothe constraints imposed by annual funding approvals fromCongress. Furthermore,thereisconcernthatNASAmaynothavetheworkforceneededtoachievethatmulti-decade vision. Per NASA’s request, the National Academy of Sciences CommitteeonMeetingtheWorkforceNeedsfortheNationalVisionforSpaceExplorationhasexploredthescienceandtechnologyworkforceneeds.ItconcludedthatNASAdoesnotcurrentlypossesstherequisitein-housepersonnelwiththeexperienceinhumanspaceflight systems development needed to implement the Vision. However, theCommitteeacknowledgedthatNASAiscognizantofthisfactandhastakenstepstocorrectit,primarilybyseekingtorecruithighlyskilledpersonnelfromoutsideNASA,e.g., industry and retirees. On the other hand, the Committee questionedwhetherNASAisattractinganddevelopingthe talent itwillneedover the longterm.NASAlasthadsubstantialin-houseinvolvementinhumanspaceflightsystemsengineeringinthe1970’s,duringthedesignphaseoftheSpaceShuttleprogram,sopeopleskilledinhumanspaceflightarenowlikelytoexistonlyinindustry.NASAneedstoleverageitsroboticspacecraftworkforceskillstomeetsomeofthehumanspaceflightskillneeds.

Among other things, the Committee recommended that NASA increase its invest-mentinprovenprogramssuchassoundingrocketlaunches,aircraft-basedresearch,andhighaltitudeballooncampaigns,whichprovideampleopportunitiesforhands-onflight development experience at a relatively low cost of failure. Further, it rec-

ommendsthatNASAshouldalsorecognizetheabilityoftheseprogramstoprovidehands-onexperienceforitsyoungerworkers,andconsiderthatasanequalfactorinthecriteria fortheirselection.It is indeedtruethat theseprogramsprovidedtrain-ingformanyoftheleadersinspaceresearch.MostoftheprincipalinvestigatorsonNASAmissionsweretrainedineithersoundingrocketorballoonmissions.Notableexamples fromtheballoonprogram includeastronautand formerNASAChiefSci-entist JohnGrunsfeld, California Institute of Technology Professor and former JetPropulsionLaboratoryChiefScientistTomPrince,aswellas2006NobelLaureatesJohnMather(NASAGoddardSpaceFlightCenterandGeorgeSmoot),(UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley).Myowngraduate,post-doctoral,anduniversityfacultyresearchreliedheavilyonballoon-borneinvestigationsofhigh-energycosmicrays.

Anexplosionofmotivatedpeoplewantinganadvanceddegreeinscienceorengineer-ingso theycouldbepartof thespaceprogramfollowedthe launchofSputnik.Forexample,IattendedschoolinaruralareaoftheOzarkMountainsinArkansasbeforethe Sputnik launch.There, Iwasamemberof theArkansasStateChampionDairyCattleJudgingTeamandPresidentofthelocalFutureFarmersofAmericachapter.Ihadplanned tobecomeaveterinarian,butmymajorbecameengineeringphysicswhenSputnikwaslaunchedjustasIstartedcollege.IwenttograduateschoolonaNationalDefenseEducationActFellowship.AnAlexandervonHumboldtFellowshipallowedmetodopost-doctoralresearchattheMax-PlanckInstituteforExtraterres-trialPhysicsinGermany.AfterbeingaUniversityprofessorfor17years,IstartedmyNASAcareer in1985to leaddevelopmentofa largecosmic-rayresearchfacility fortheSpaceStation.ThatprojectwasterminatedwhentheSpaceStationwasrestruc-tured,butIstayedmorethanbusyservingasNASAProgramScientistfornumerousheliospheric missions, including Pioneers-10 and -11, Voyagers-1 and -2, Ulysses,SAMPEX,ACEandothers.

Infivedecades,wehavemadeunprecedentedprogressinexploringspace.Yet,thatbeginning is justasmall,albeit critical, step in the long journey toourbecomingaspace-faringcivilization.ReferringtowhatbecametheApolloprojecttolandamanon the Moon and return him safely to Earth, President Kennedy said, ‘No singlespaceproject…willbemoreexciting,ormoreimpressive…ormoreimportant…andnonewillbesodifficultorexpensive.’Thatendeavorwassuccessfultoalargeextentbecause Congress provided the funding necessary to achieve its goal, although thefundingrapidlydeclinedafterthegoalhadbeenachieved:otherpressingissuesneededtobeaddressed.PresidentKennedy’swordsmightalsoapplytoPresidentBush’sVisionforSpaceExploration,whichwouldundoubtedlybeexciting,impressive,important,dif-ficult,andexpensive.Likewise, IcouldparaphrasePresidentKennedy’swordsandsay‘TheVisionforSpaceExplorationwillnotbeonenationgoingtotheMoon,Mars,andbeyond,itwillbeanentireworld.ForallofusmustworktosendEarthlingsthere.’

Wehave seen severaldecadesof cooperation in space since the competitionof theSputnik-Apollo era. American, Russian, and international crews have lived andworkedtogetheronboardtheISS.RussianlaunchvehicleshavekepttheISSsuppliedduringthehiatusofSpaceShuttlelaunchesfollowingtheColumbiadisaster.TheJap-aneseandEuropeanshavedevelopedTransferVehiclestosupplytheirISSmodules.Thiseraofcooperationhasseenmanyexamplesofsuccessfulcollaborations.Itseemstome thatnowmaybe the time for internationalcooperationand/orcollaborationto pursuemankind’s goals for exploring space, as well as the Earth. Furthermore,eveninaneraoftightbudgets,collaborationsinsuborbitalprogramscouldfacilitateanotherboominthescienceandtechnologyeducationnecessarytorealizetheVisionforSpaceExploration.

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karoly szeGoHUNGARYHeadofDepartmentofNaturalSciencesintheOfficeoftheHungar-ianAcademyofSciences.Scienceadviser in theKFKI (CentralRe-searchInstituteforPhysics)ResearchInstituteforParticleandNu-clearPhysics.ProfessorattheRolandEötvösUniversitysince1998.

Bornin1943.DiplomainPhysics,theRolandEötvösUniversity,Bu-dapest,Hungary,1966.Ph.Din1972,D.Sc.in1987.

ResearchFellowinCERN(1972–1973).MemberoftheCommitteeonSpaceResearch(COSPAR)Bureauin1990–1998andNationalrep-resentativeinCOSPAR(1990–2002).FormerchairmanoftheCom-mitteeonAstronomyandSpaceSciencesoftheHungarianAcademyofSciences.

Scientificcontributionincludesobtainingfirstimagesofacometarynucleus(Halley).

Awarded byDiploma for International Cooperation (NASA, 1982);StatePrizeofHungary(1986);TokenofEsteem(USSR,1986);Gaga-rinMedal,(1987).GroupachievementawardsfromNASAforCassinimission (1998);Clustermission (2004).GroupachievementawardfromESA forRosettamission(2004).AlsoawardedbyZoltanBayaward,2007.

SPACE, 21ST CEnTuRy: CHoICE oF PRIoRITIESIn October 4, 1957, when Sputnik-1 was

launched,Iwas13yearsold.I,likeeverybodyelsearoundmewasmuchexcited,butIdoubtthatthesignificanceoftheeventwasimmediatelygrasped.Iwasradio-ama-teuratthattime,andIwouldhavelikedtoreceivethesignalsdirectly.Thatwascer-tainlyoutofquestionformeatthatmoment,andIlearnedmany,manyyearslaterfrom Prof. Konstantin Gringauz that he himself published a paper in the Russianjournalforradio-amateurs(notunderhisrealname)howthesignalscouldhavebeenreceived(Prof.GringauzwasamemberoftheteamwhodesignedtheradiosystemofSputnik-1).Certainlytherewasnoindicationinthatpaperheshowedmewheretheradiosignalswouldhavecomefrom,howtheywereemitted;butinthepapertherewasacompletedescriptionhowsuchareceivercouldhavebeenbuiltusingelectron-ic componentsavailable in thenext shop.Hence,whereasononehand thesecrecyaroundthe launchwashigh,ontheotherhandeffortsweremadethatSovietradioamateurscouldparticipateintheeventbyreceivingdirectlythefamous‘beep-beep’signals.Actually,Istillwonderhowmanypersonsreallyparticipatedinthatinterest-inggroundactivity.

Tomethesignificanceandimportanceofthefirstsuccessfullaunchunfoldedslowly.Not that I was not aware of the technical achievements. As a student interested inengineering andphysics I haveunderstoodwell the difficulty of rocket techniques.AsIrecall,Ihaveunderstooditsmilitarysignificanceaswellsimplybyfollowingtheworldwidereflections.What Iunderstoodpoorly that it reallymeans thebeginningofanewera,thebeginningoftheuseoftheouterspaceforthebenefitofthewholemankind.

ThelaunchofSputnik-2and-3madeitclearthattheOctober4eventwasnotasin-gularone;itwasreallythebeginningofsomethingastonishinglynew.Andtheracefortheouterspacebetweenthesuperpowerswasalsoswitchedintohighgear.Ifol-lowed with high interest each bits and pieces of the news about the new missions,andIwasexcitedtolearntheavailabledetails.Alas,thedetailsweresparse.Andinastrangewaymyheartandmindbothweresplitaboutspaceresearch.Doesitbelongmoretothearmsracethantoscience,orjusttheotherwise?Despiteallthatworries,me—andprobablythewholeworld—becamemoreandmoreinterestedaboutthenewhorizonopenedupbeforeoureyes,wewerethinkingaboutlifeonotherplanets,how people will travel in outer space, how aliens from distant stars could visit theEarth.Andinterestgrewtohearallstoriesaboutunidentifiedflyingobjects,tofindpossiblesignsofaliensvisitingEartheonsago,etc.Thesci-filiteraturehadbecomeverypopular,andmanyoftheexcellentauthorsintroducedinterestingquestionshowspaceexplorationcouldaffectourminds,ourthinking,andourlife.ThesignificanceoftheOctober4launchslowlystartedtochangehumanmindsovertheworld.

Ibecameaphysicist,andIstartedtoworkinthefieldofparticlephysics.Research-ersdetectingandanalysingcosmicrayswerenextdoor,butsomehowspaceresearchwasoutofourfocus.Wediscussedspaceasaninterestingpartofthenews,asapartofthemodernworld,asanexcitingfieldoftechnology,butnotasanemergingfieldof science to which we should jump in. Very likely the secrecy surrounding spaceresearchhadanimpactthere;butasamatteroffact, itseemedtobeimpossibletoparticipateinspaceexploration.ThissituationhaschangedsuddenlywhentheSovietUniondecidedto involveothercountries inspaceresearch inthe frameworkof theINTERCOSMOS cooperation. A rich window of opportunities opened up, and theHungarianengineersandscientistshavelearnedalotfromtherichexperiencemadeavailableforthem.Hungaryhasstartedtobuildspaceinstrumentation(theveryfirstonewas amicrometeorite detector). This has provided the solid foundation of ourcurrent space activities based on broad international cooperation; and very likelyHungarysoonwillbeamemberoftheEuropeanSpaceAgency.

ItisnoteasytotellwhenIstartedtorealisethatspaceactivitywaschangingnotonlythefuturebuttheeverydaylife,anditwasnotsomethingthatwouldimpactthedis-tantfutureonly.Thereweremanydifferentfactorsthatpointedintothissamedirection.

Onecomponentwasthespin-offsofspacetechnologythatreachedthecivilworld.Itisageneraleffectthatscienceresultshaveahighimpactontechnology,butmaybespacehadahigherimpactonmicroelectronics.Ourabilitytoputhumansintospacewasthenextcomponentthatstirredupnewhorizons.Theappearanceofspaceobser-vatorieshashadaveryhighscienceimpact.Buttome,telecommunicationandmete-orologywere those twoelements thathavemade ‘space’ reallypartof theeverydaylife.Whenwetalkedabouttheothercomponents,itwasalwaysevidentthatweweredoing something in space. Opposite to that, telecommunication and meteorologyareusedaseverydaycommodities,withoutknowingthatweareusingactuallyspacetechnology.Thespacearoundushasbecomeentangledwithgroundactivities,forev-er.Inthesamewayaswedonotknowinwhichpowerstationtheelectriccurrentweusewasgenerated,inthesamewaywedonotknowwhatelementsofcommunicationgo through space. Space has become an important component of our security. It iseasytoputtogetheralonglisthowspaceactivitymakesoureverydaylifeeasier,e.g.findingthewayfromonelocationtoanother,decreasingtheriskofmaritimetraffic,etc.Thisisthemostimportantdevelopmenttomymindwhengroundandspaceisnot distinguished, when the area of our normal activity is broadly expanded, when

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spaceispartofourconscious/unconsciouseverydaylife.Tomonitorandpredicttheglobalchangeofourenvironmentisimpossiblewithoutitsspacesegment.Our‘verti-calregionofinterest’iscontinuouslyexpanding.

Itwouldbeamistaketopretendthatspacetechnologydidnotbringaboutunfoundedhopes.UNconferenceswereorganizedhowtosharethebenefitsofspaceexplorationbetweendevelopedandlessdevelopedstates.Inmanycases,however,theexpectedbenefitswere unreal; especially in the field of remote sensing the economic returnvery likely was somewhat overestimated. Nevertheless, these and similar meetingmighthaveconvincedpoliticians thatspace isan importantmatter,andmanynewcountriesjoinedtothisclub.

Haveweused thespaceopportunities in therightway?Myanswer is thatwehaveused it in thesamemannerasweareusingourotheropportunities;neitherbetternorworse.Thepioneeryearsweredifferent fromthecurrentconsolidatedera.Thepioneeryearsofspaceexplorationwaspartoftheracebetweensuperpowers,andmyhunchisthattheracewasanimportantreasonwhyspacewasfunded.Intheconsoli-datedphasefundingandmanpowerdefinesthecontoursofspaceactivity.Wecoulddomoreinspace,similartomanyotheractivities.Butdreamsandrealitiesdiffer.

Thefutureofspaceactivitiesisstronglycorrelatedwiththefutureofallotheractiv-ities. As space is entangled with everything else, its future cannot be disentangled.This is the point where our vision about our future comes into the play in a verystrongway.Whataretherequirementsofasustainabledevelopment?Isenvironmentmoreimportantthandiseases?Shouldsocialinequalitiestakesprecedenceovertech-nicaloptions?Dowecompeteorcooperate?Theanswerswegivetothesequestionswilldecidethefutureofspaceactivitiesaswell.

Gerhard haeRendelGERMANYChairman of ACHME, the advisory committee of ESA’s HumanSpaceflight,MicrogravityandExplorationDirectorate.

Born in 1935,he receivedhisPh.D. inPhysics from theUniversityofMunich in 1963. Fellow of theMax-Planck Institute for PhysicsandAstrophysics in 1969,Director at theMax-Planck Institute forExtraterrestrialPhysics,MPEin1972–2000.HonourprofessorattheTechnicalUniversityofBraunschweigin1987,VicePresidentoftheInternationalAcademyofAstronauticsin1987,PresidentoftheCom-mitteeonSpaceResearch(COSPAR)in1994–2002.

VicePresidentandfoundingDeanoftheSchoolofEngineeringandScienceoftheInternationalUniversityBremen,nowJacobsUniver-sity, in 2000–2005. From 2003 up to 2007, Chairman of the Eu-ropean Space Science Committee (ESSC) of the European ScienceFoundation.

Hehasmorethan40yearsofexperienceinspaceresearch,includingthefunctionofPrincipalInvestigatorofseveralinternationalrocketandsatelliteprojects.

FIFTy yEARS AFTER SPuTnIk — A vIEW oF A PlASmA PHySICISTI was never a space romantic. I do not enjoy

science fiction.My entry into space science was entirely coincidental, perhaps notentirely.WhatdidI feelwhenI learntabout theSputnik-1 launch?Isimplydonotremember. Iwas a third-year student in Tübingen, focusing onmath and physics,singingandphilosophy.ProbablyI justtooknoticeofwhathadhappenedonOcto-ber4, 1957, not particularly surprised, since progress was so rapid in those years.Spacewasfarawayfrommyinterests.However,thatwassoontochange.

IntheyearfollowingthiseventitbecamecleartomethatIwantedtoapplyphysicsto astrophysical issues. In 1959 Iwent toMunich,where a year beforeHeisenbergandBiermannestablishedtheMax-PlanckInstitutfürPhysikundAstrophysik(Max-PlanckInstituteforPhysicsandAstrophysics).CourageouslyIapproachedBiermann,andheacceptedmeasdiplomastudent.IntheseminarthatLudwigBiermannandArnulfSchlüterheldtogether,IgottheassignmenttoreportaboutthediscoveryoftheVanAllenBelt.Andwhenbytheendof1959,forformalacademicreasons,Bier-mannhadtotransfermetoSchlüter,theGermanpioneerinplasmaphysicsandfullprofessorattheUniversityofMunich,thelatteraskedmetoelaborateonthephysicsof theradiationbelt.SoIdidandbecameoneof thefirstGermanstudentswritingtheirdoctoralthesisonaspacetheme.

Inthissituation,itwasnosurprisethatReimarLüst,whohadbeenchargedbyWer-nerHeisenbergandLudwigBiermanntobuildupaspaceresearchgroup,hiredmeasthe‘in-house’plasmatheorist.Alreadyinlate1962,thesmallgroupofReimarLüstset out to develop a new tool of studying theEarth’s environment, bariumplasmaclouds.Thesewereheroicyearsoffindingtechnicalsolutions,testingthemonsounding

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rocketsintheSaharadesert,inSardinia,KirunaandFt.Churchill,andleavingtomethetasktoextractthephysicsoutofthedata.

Now I was deeply engaged in space. Soon enabled to plan and carry out my ownrocketcampaigns,Iquicklygotusedtotwoessentialsofworkinspace,internationalcollaborationandglobalthinking.MoreandmoresatellitesencircledtheEarthirre-spectiveofnationalborders.ThenotionofacommonEarth,nowvisiblefromadis-tantvantagepoint,penetrateddeepintotheimaginationofmany.Spaceresearchersfelt that theyweremembersofonecommunityand,whencomposingmissionsandpayloads,quicklylearnttotakeadvantageofthetalentsoftheircolleagues,whereverlocated, inorder tobest satisfy thescientificneeds.Agreat spacebrotherhoodhadgrown, nowhere better manifested than at the COSPAR meetings, where even the‘ironcurtain’lostsomeofitsseparatingpowers.

Spaceplasmacannotbecharacterizedbyafewparameterslikeadensegas.Under-standing our active plasma experiments and their effects on the local environmentrequiredthemeasurementofahostofparticleandfieldparameters.Thusquitenatu-rally,mysoundingrocketpayloadsbecameinternationalspacelaboratoriesassistedby a widespread optical observations network on the ground, sometimes comple-mentedbyaircraft.ThemostelaborateprojectwasProjectPorcupine.Besidesscien-tificparticipationfromFrance,Austria,USA,ESAwealsohadaXenoniongunfromMoscowonboard.ItwasthefirstGerman-Sovietcollaborationinspace,casuallyini-tiateduponalectureofAcademicianRoaldSagdeevattheBavarianAcademyofSci-ences.Itwasthebeginningoflong-lastingfriendshipswithourRussiancolleagues.

What changes in our views of theworld did I experience in the course ofmy life?I like to classify them in three realms, thepractical side, the cultural side, and theadventurousside.Thebenefitsforourdailylifebythecommunication,theweather,the Earth observation, and navigation satellites, in spite of their enormous impact,arebeingacceptedbythepublicmoreandmoreassomethingordinary,thatoughttobeso.Butnotlongagothesailorsontheoceanhadtoinspecttheskyatthehorizonin search for thefirst signof anapproaching storm.Nowweather satellitesdelivermany times daily cloud images, also for the night sector, and many other weatherdata,andnobodywondersanymorehowthisisbeingachieved.Onecansaythesameaboutthewidenedviewofournear-earthenvironmentaswellasofthedistantuni-verse,broughtaboutbyspacemeans.Theexplosivelyexpandedknowledgehassunkintoourculture,fewaskthequestionhowandbywhatmeans.ThebeautifulimagesfromtheHubbleSpaceTelescopeprovideperhapsthebestremindertothepublicofthemarvelousadvancesofspacetechnologystandingbehind.Thedeepestawarenessof space,however, seems tobe conveyedby the frequent appearances, on the tele-visionscreen,ofastronautsandcosmonautsworkingintheirspaceshipsormarch-ing towards the elevator that will carry them to their capsule. And wherever theyappearinpublic,thesemenandwomenattractmuchattention.Aftersomanyyearsofhumanspaceflight,theyarestillbeingperceivedastheheroesofourtimes.Ontheotherhand,theviewsfromthespaceshipsdownonEarth,onthequietlyprogress-ingdeserts,mountainsandoceansunderneath,awakenanothersensation,thatofthebeautyoftheplanetwehappentoliveonandmayraiseinmanypeople,particularlytheyoung,thedesiretohavethisexperienceonedayontheirown.

WhenIthinkwhatchangesIexperiencedinmydiscipline,Ialreadyhaveahardtimetoremindmyself,howrecentlythespacebetweenSunandEarthhasbeenfilledwithmaterial,structure,andaction.WhenIattendedmyfirstspacesymposiuminParisin1962,itwasthetimeofCOPERS,thepreparatoryorganizationforESROandESA,

therewasstillalivelydebateaboutsolarwindorsolarbreeze,theonlymatterknownbeyond the visible corona being the zodiacal light. And then, in rapid succession,welearntaboutthemagnetopause,thetail,thesolarwind,thebowshock.Weweretaughthowthesolarwindbecomessupersonic.IrememberwellwhenthefirstcloseimagesfromMarsandMercurywereshown,howdeeply impressedwewerebythesuddenunveilingofthetruenatureoftheseheavenlybodies,whichhadbeenplayinggodlike roles in thedevelopment of our civilization.Meanwhilewehave, thanks tothenumerousdeepspaceprobes,vividimaginationsofthesurfaceoratmosphereofalltheplanets,oftheirsatellitesandplanetaryrings,ofasteroids,andevenofcomets.WehavewatchedrecentlywithexcitementthepenetrationoftheHuygensprobeintotheopaqueatmosphereofTitan.OurSolarsystemhasreceivedavisibleface,ismoreand more being sensed as our home in the Universe. And the space between thesebodies is now full of structures with shock waves and plasma clouds, cosmic raysmodulated by the solar wind, generated on the Sun or inside the heliosphere, dustgrainsfrominterstellarspace.Onespaceprobehasalreadycomeneartoitsbound-ary,theheliopause.Andinthecenterofallthis,residestheSunwhoseviolentexte-rioriscontinuouslyundersurveillancewithUV-andX-raytelescopes,slowlyreveal-ingthesecretsofthepowerfulflaresandcoronalmassejectionsandenablingpredic-tions of the spaceweather. Equally impressive is the progressive unraveling of thesolarinteriorbymeansofthehelioseismology.WearebeginningtounderstandtheSun’smysteriousdynamo.Spacetelescopesinconcertwiththeevergrowingground-basedtelescopeshaveexpandedourknowledgeoftheUniversewithabreath-takingpace.Perhapsmostexcitingistheinformationaboutitsoriginandgrosscompositionthankstothemappingofthecosmicbackgroundradiationandtheimproveddeter-minationofitsexpansionrate.Anunderstandingoftheformationofstarsandgalax-ies,of the roleofDarkMatter in thisprocess isemerging.X-ray,UV-,optical, andIR- space telescopeshavefilled thisUniversewithexoticobjectsof all kinds,blackholes, accretingneutron stars, supernova remnants and cosmic gammabursts.Welive,thankstospaceresearchinafantasticallyenrichedUniverse.Whatcansciencefictionadd?

Theplasmaphysicist,however,mustaddhowmuchwehaveprogressed indiscov-ering and understanding processes that are crucial for the dynamics of the matterbetween the stars and in their environments.Collisionless shocks couldbe studiedin-situinthesolarwindadvancingourunderstandingoftheirroleasacceleratorsofcosmicradiation.Theintriguingmagneticreconnectionprocess,onwhoseexistencemanycolleagueshad,foralongtime,severedoubts,hasnowbecomecommonlorehelpingtounderstandnotonlymagneticstormsintheEarth’senvironment,butalsothedramaticeruptionsofenergyinthesolaratmosphere.Afantasticzooofplasmawaveshasbeenfoundwithsatelliteantennastellingushowenergeticparticlecom-municate without colliding with each other. The fascinating auroral plasma phys-ics, inparticular theaccelerationprocess itself,hasbeenunraveledbyhundredsofsoundingrocketflightsathighlatitudesandlaunchesofsomewellinstrumentedlow-orbitingsatellites.Irememberbeingimmersedinthedebateinthe1960’sand70’sabouttheexistenceornon-existenceofparallelelectricfields,whicharenowgener-allyaccepted.Itisacontinuingjoyformetoworkinthiscommunityandsharethequestforafullerunderstandingofthehostofintriguingphenomena,someofwhichexhibittheirbeautytotheeye,liketheauroraborealisor,aidedbyx-rayimaging,thecomplexcoronalloopstructure.

Wherewillwego fromhere?Space inserviceofmankind,as tool toprobethedis-tantUniverse,willbewithusforlong.Spacetourismmaybecomeaseriousbusiness.

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Onthescience front, itwillnotbe too longuntilgravitationalwaveswillbe identi-fied,andgravitationalastronomywillwidenourinformationaboutthemostdramat-ic events in the universe. Nulling IR-interferometrymay identify earthlike planetsandsignaturesoftheirhabitability.RobotswilllandonsatellitesofthegiantplanetsanddrillthroughtheiceofEuropa.HumanbeingswillsteponotherbodiesthantheMoon,foremostonMars,searchingfortracesoflifeelsewhere.Theywillbethegreatexplorersofthefuture.Ibelievethatallofthiswilldevelopintoajointendeavorofmankind, rather thancontinuingascompetitiveactionsof individualnations.WiththerealizationthatmankindisboundforevertophysicallystaywithintheSolarsys-tem,travelingtodestinationswithintheaccessiblespacewillbecomeacommongoalofhumanity.

eric GalIMoVRUSSIADirectorof theVernadskyInstituteofGeochemistryandAnalyticalChemistryoftheRussianAcademyofSciences.AmemberofthePre-sidiumofRAS.

AcademicianoftheRussianAcademyofSciences.DoctorofSciencein Geology and Mineralogy. Specialist in carbon and isotope geo-chemistry,biosphereevolutionandplanetology,geochemistryoftheMoonandchemicalevolutionoftheEarth.

Bornin1936inVladivostok.GraduatedfromtheGubkinStateUni-versity of Oil andGas. Chief of carbon geochemistry laboratory inthe Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry(1973–1992),DirectoroftheInstitutesince1992.

Editor-in-ChiefoftheGeochemistrymagazine.PresidentEmeritusoftheInternationalAssociationofGeochemistryandCosmochemistry.ChairmanoftheRASMeteoritesCommittee.RASSpaceCouncilBu-reauMember.

AwardedtheVernadskymedalofRAS(1984),PrizefromtheInterna-tionalLunarExplorationWorkingGroup(2004),theSignofHonour(1986,1999),andTreibsMedal(2004).

THE moST ImPoRTAnT InduSTRIAl CHAllEngE oF THE 21ST CEnTuRyThereareperiodsanddayswhen themankind

doesnotsimplymakeaconsiderablestepforward,butaltersthewholetrajectoryofitsdevelopment.A linearstraight-ahead forecast turns thenout tobemuchpoorerthantherealitytocome.SuchadatewasthatofOctober4,1957,thedayoflaunchofEarth’sfirstartificialsatellite. Itwasreceivedwithrejoicing,seenasanevidenceofourmightandtechnicalpossibilities;representedastep inthestruggle forglob-al leadership. However, few could foresee at the moment that exploration of spacewouldchangeourverywayofliving.Nowadays,everymaninthestreetwhodoesnothave to bother about knowing finer technicalities, enjoys everyday, ‘matter-of-fact’useofmobiletelephones,theGlobalPositioningSystem,satellitetelevision,etc.

I believe that right now, we fail to fully grasp the opportunities exploration of theMoonwillofferus;thatiswhyweapproachthisenterprisesohesitatingly,gingerly,andlingeringly.Moonstudiesarevitalforfundamentalgeology.Ihaveonmanyocca-sionsemphasized inmypublicationsthatreconstructionofearlierhistoryofEarth,thatofappearanceofatmosphere,oceansandlife,isimpossiblewithoutstudyingtheMoon.Thatistrueiffornootherreasonthatalltracesofthefirst500or600millionyearsofEarth’shistoryhavebeencompletelyerasedfromitsgeologicalannals;nowintheMoon,suchtraceshavebeenpreserved.AnotherreasonisthattheMoonandtheEarthconstituteageneticallyunitedsystem.

Moreover,theMoonmaybeofenormouspracticalvalue.Linearimaginationseekstoexpandthescopeofconventionalpossibilities.Itishoweverpossiblethatthefuture

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doesnothidewhereweexpectitto.Thatiswhyitistoday,intheyearoftheanni-versaryofthefirstlaunchartificialEarthsatellite,thatIwouldliketodrawattentiontoanotheruniqueprospect,giganticinitsscaleandpossibleinfluenceonthefateofmankind;theprospectthatbecamevisiblealongwiththeexplorationofspace.

When considering exploration of the Moon and its resources, one should bear inmindthatnomineralproducts,nomaterialsatall,areeconomicallyworthwhiletobetransportedfromtheMoonbacktotheEarth.Thereisonlyoneexceptiontothisrule.Thisexceptionishelium-3.

We know that controllable thermonuclear synthesis has not yet been implementedindustrially, although thedevelopment in thisfieldalready starts toacquirepracti-cal aspect. Construction of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor(ITER)startsinFrance;thereactorwillbeabletoprovidethermonuclearsynthesispower.Itusesthedeuterium-tritiumreaction:D+T=n+4He(+17.59MeV).

The deuterium-helium-3 reaction, D+3He=p+4He(+18.35MeV), requires threetimes ashigha temperature forplasma ignitionas thedeuterium-tritium reaction.Besides,deuteriumreservesat theEarthare limitless,whilehelium-3 ispracticallyunavailable.Thatiswhythereactioninvolvinghelium-3appearedtobeofnopracti-calinterest.

However, thehelium-3reactionpossessesoneuniquepropertythatdistinguishes itfrommostnuclearreactionand, inparticular, fromthedeuterium-tritiumreaction:itinvolvesemissionofprotons(p)ratherthanneutrons(n).Nowneutronspenetratedeep into surrounding structural materials, make them radioactive, and destroythem.That iswhyrelatedstructureshave tobe replacedonceevery fewyears,andradioactivewasteburied.Protonsdonotpenetratedeepinsidestructures,nordotheyinduceradioactivity.Basicallyitisaflowofhydrogen.Therefore,structuralmaterialscanbeusedfordecades.Theproblemofradioactivewasteburialdoesnotarise.Itisrathersurprisingthatanuclearreactioncaninvolvevirtuallynoradioactivity.Thereisa low-level radioactivity related to the secondarydeuterium-deuteriumreaction.However,onthewhole, thereactionwithhelium-3is50times lessradioactivethatthedeuterium-tritiumreaction.

During the last few decades, it became evident that we are at the verge of a majorfuelandenergycrisis.Reservesofrawhydrocarbonsaredrawingtoanendandwillprobablybe exhausted in several decades.The so-called alternativepower sources:windpower,photoelectriccells,etc.,—canonlyprovidepartialsolutions.Accordingtoexistingcalculations, theywillnotbeable toreplace thehydrocarbonfuel in theEarth’senergybalance.Besides,wehavecoal.Itisbelievedthat,atthepresentrateofminingoperations,theavailableresourceswilllastforabout200or300years.Theshareofcoalinthemodernenergybalanceisabout20%.Ifitrisesupto70%withcoalreplacingthehydrocarbonmaterials,theresourcesofcoalwillalsoprovetolastforashortertime.Besides,itisaveryenvironmentallyunfriendlysourceofenergy.Theonlyotheroption is thennuclearpowerengineeringbasedonuraniumfission.According toourexperience,however, it involvesa terrible scourge:nuclearwaste.Currently,nuclearpowerproductionamountsto7%oftheenergybalancebut,iftheentire power demand, which is moreover constantly growing, were to be shifted tonuclearpowerengineering,themankindwouldsinkinthenuclearwaste.

Development of thermonuclear synthesis based on the helium-3 reaction, environ-mentallycleanandefficientinmanyotherrespects,wouldprovideaperfectsolution.However,rawmaterialsforthisprocessareonlyavailableattheMoon.

Lunarreservesofhelium-3areenormous:theyamounttoaboutonemillionmetrictons.Thatwillbesufficientformorethanathousandyears.Energyvalueofhelium-3isalsoimmense:1tonofhelium-3replaces20milliontonsofoil,i.e.yieldsabout10GWofpower.Providing forpowerdemandof theentirehumanitywill take200metric tons of helium-3 a year; current power consumption of Russia would takesome20…30tonsayear.

However,thehelium-3contentinlunarsoil(intheregolith)isverylow,about10mil-ligramspermetricton.Thatmeansthatsome20billiontonsofregolithwillhavetobepenetratedeachyear,whichisequivalenttoanareaof30by100kmataregolithlayerthicknessof3m.

Ofcourse,processingbillionsoftonsoflunarsoilseemsafantasticenterprise.Asoftoday,weconsiderdeliveringafewhundredkilogramstolunarorbitortothesurfaceoftheMoontobeagreatachievement.

What isneeded,however, is to transferalmostallof theEarth’smining industry–itspart thatconcernsrawfuelandenergymaterials– to theMoon.Thisprocess isboundtotakeseveraldecades,butithastobestartednow.

Presenceofhelium-3attheMoonisagiftfromtheNature.Letmedrawthefollow-ingcomparison,which,Ithink,israthergraphic.Ithasbeennotedabovethat1met-rictonofhelium-3yieldsasmuchenergyreleaseas20milliontonsofoil.Thesamestatementcanbeexpressed inadifferentway: 10mgofhelium-3contained inonemetrictonoflunarregolithroughlycorrespondtopoweroutputof1tonofoil.Thisistosaythattheenergyoutputof1tonofregolithmatchesthatofthesameamountofoil.Thatmeansthattheregolith-coveredsurfaceoftheMoonmightaswellbecov-eredwithanoilocean.But thisoilwouldbepractically impossible touse.Wecan-notbringhundredsofmillionsoftonsofcargobackfromtheMoon.Letushoweverimagineagenialengineerwhosays:Iknowhowtotransform20milliontonsofoilintoonetonofmatter,bringitbackfromtheMoon(whichdoesnotconstituteanyproblem),andthen,downattheEarth,gettheenergyequivalentto20milliontonsofoiloutofthissingletonofmatter.Ibelievethat,shouldsuchanopportunitypres-ent itself, development of the project would already be well under way. But this isexactlytheopportunitythatpresentsitselfinhelium-3!Theabovepreciselydescribetheconceptofhelium-3productionoutofmillionsoftonsofregolith,deliveringafewtonsofhelium-3backtotheEarth,andproducingenergy,whichisequivalenttothepresent-dayresourcesofprimaryhydrocarbonmaterialsattheEarth.

Onemaywell askwhether the infrastructure of nuclear power engineering is nowreadytoconsumeandusehelium-3.Theanswerisnegative:asoftoday,suchinfra-structure is lacking implementation of controllable thermonuclear synthesis in itssimplest version of deuterium-tritium reaction took over 50 years. Thedeuterium-helium-3reactionrequiresmuchstricterconditions.Ontheotherhand,oneshouldnot forget that, in these50years,wehave learnedhow to controlhigher tempera-tures,startingfroma fewthousanddegrees inthemiddleof the lastcentury,uptohundredsofmillionsofdegreestoday.Wehaveyettomakeanother,muchshorter,step:toattainacontrollabletemperaturethreetimeshigher.Notethatmoderntech-nologiesarequitebeyondcomparewithwhatwehad50yearsago.Avastamountofexperience indealingwithhigh-temperatureplasmahasbeenaccumulated.Takingall this intoaccount,canonehope forobtainingacontrollabledeuterium-helium-3reactionwithinthenearest20or30years.

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Actually, delivery of helium-3 from theMoonwill not be necessary until 20 or 30yearslater.Butallrequiredprospecting,exploration,testing,andotherpreparatoryactivitiesmustbeundertaken.Attheinitialstage,theymightevenbeinscribedintothe framework of general researchwork in theMoon. Suggested research projectsincludeseveralhigh-prioritytasksand,respectively,variousmethodsforaccomplish-ing them using spacecraftmeans. First of all, this concerns acquiring informationoninternalstructureoftheMoonasplannedinLuna-Globproject.ItinvolvesusingchemicalandmineralogicalinterpretationofseismicdatatoacquireinformationonchemicalstructureofthelowermantleoftheMoon,aswellastodeterminethesizeofthelunarcore.Thenexttop-prioritytaskistocollectandbringbackthelunarsoilfromthepolarregion.

Controlled collection of samples using lunokhods (lunar rovers) anddelivering theaccumulatedcollectionbacktotheEarthmay,inmyopinion,eventuallymakeastra-tegicbasisoftheunmannedformofMoonexploration.Automatedlunarvehiclescanalsobeusedtodevelopameasurementnetwork.Ofcourse,theproblemofinternalstructureoftheMoonwillnotbecompletelycoveredbyasingle-timeprojectusingpenetrators.Thelunarvehiclespositioningsensorsalongtheirrouteswillallowcre-atingalong-termrenewableseismicnetworkthatwillinduetimeprovidemeansfordetailed in-depth seismic tomography of theMoon. TheMoon’s thermal flow andlocalmagnetizationlevelsalsohavetobestudied.

Simultaneously, large surface areas have to be mapped with respect to their con-tentinhelium-3.Adirectanalysisofhelium-3concentrationinlunarsoilisdifficult.Thereexisthoweverindirectmethodsthatallowestimatinghelium-3availabilitytoasufficientlyhighprecision.

TheMoonhasnoatmosphereormagneticfield.Thatiswhythelunarsurfaceiscon-tinuously irradiated with a powerful flow of solar wind and micrometeorites. Thesolarwind isafluxof ionsemittedbytheSun.These ionsrepresentedbynucleiofhydrogen,carbon,nitrogen,helium,etc. intrude into themineralsof the lunarsoil.Thelongerregolithisexposed,i.e.themorematuretheregolithis,thehigheristhecontentof implantedelements, includinghelium-3.Solarwind is considerably richinhelium-3 isotope.The isotope compositionof solarhelium is 3He/4He~3×10–4,whereasforterrestrialhelium,typical3He/4Hevaluesrangefrom10–8to10–6.

A characteristic feature of lunar soil lies in the presence of agglutinates. These aresmall-sized particles bound together with hardened melt (glass). Their formationresults from fallout of micrometeorites. A high-velocity incoming micro-particlecausesdisintegrationofregolithmineralsand,simultaneously, impactmelting.Themeltcapturesmicro-particlesoftheregolithandsolidifiesintheformofagglutinates.Concentrationofagglutinatesisameasureofmaturityoftheregolith.Thelongertheregolith is exposed, the more agglutinates it accumulates. Agglutinates contain thesingle-domain finely dispersed iron phase (Fe0), which generates a ferromagneticresonance signal. This, in its turn, can be used to estimate the content of elementsimplantedbysolarwindintotheregolith.

Size of regolith grains is of essence. Too large particles have a comparatively smallsurfacearea,whiletoosmallonescannotretainhelium.Theoptimumsize isabout20…50μm.Mineralcompositionofthegrainsisimportant,too.Heliumisbestaccu-mulatedinilmenite,themineralthatcontainstitanium(FeTiO3).Thereexistsadis-tinctcorrelationbetweenthecontentofironandtitaniumandthehelium-3concen-trationinregolith.

Allofthesepropertiesofregoliththatallowestimatingthevalueofsoilwithrespecttohelium-3contentcanbedeterminedusingcorrespondingsensorsandmeasuringdevices installedaboardautomated lunarvehicles. Ironandtitaniumcontent levelsintegratedoverlargesurfaceareascanalsobedeterminedfrommeasurementstakenonorbitalprobes.Inordertobeabletocalibrateorbit-basedmeasurements,itisalsoessentialtopossessdirectmeasurementdataontheseelementsinthelunarsoil,asprovidedbylunarvehicles.

Helium-3 prospecting is to be followed by experimental research on feasible tech-nologiesofhelium-3mining, isolation,andenrichment in lunarconditions,aswellasbytestsoflunarminingmachines.Thisstagewillprobablyrequirebuildinglunarbasesanddirectinvolvementofmen.Transitiontothisstageshouldbeapproximate-lyplanned for theyear2020.By this time,a reliableandefficient systemensuringtransportationofpersonnelandcargoontheEarth-Moonrouteistobedeveloped.

However, the lunarheliumwill notbe requiredbefore2020or2030. It shouldbeexpectedthatbythisdate,theproblemofindustrial-scalecontrollablethermonucle-arsynthesisusinghelium-3willbesolved.Notransportationoflunarheliumwillbenecessary for experiments,not even for creatinga sufficientlypowerful experimen-talthermonuclearreactor.Somereservesofhelium-3isotopehavebeenaccumulatedasaresultofradioactivetransformationoftritiumusedinthermonuclearweapons.Thatiswhynationsthatpossessthermonuclearweapons(RussiaandtheUSA)haveseveralhundredsofkilogramsofhelium-3attheirdisposal.

Itshouldbeemphasizedthatdevelopmentof lunarhelium-3will inevitably involvecreating anumberof other industries. Suffice it to say that the thermalprocessingofregolith(at600…800°C)involves,inadditiontoextractionofhelium,separationofotherelements, includinghydrogenandcarbon.Thesecanbeusedtosynthesizerocketfuel.Itwouldnotbedifficulttodevelopoxygenproductionoutofsilicatesand,therefore, to produce oxidant. The Moon is rich in titanium and native iron. Thatmeans that it possesses abundant primary materials for local metal manufacturingindustry. In particular,metal structures andhulls of rocket ships canbemanufac-tureddirectlyattheMoon.Onlysomehi-techelementswillhavetobedeliveredfromtheEarth.Water that is necessary for vital functions of the humans and formanytechnological processes will also be available to get at theMoon.Water resourcesmightbecontainedinthepolarareas.ThisissueistobesolvedduringthenextfewmissionstotheMoon.Inparticular,thisisplannedinLuna-Globproject.

TheMoonconstitutesthemostcost-effectivelaunchingsiteforspacecraft.Develop-ingproductionof fuel, oxidant, and structural parts for carrier rocket at theMoonwillallowforlarge-scaleexplorationoftheSolarsystem.

TheMoonistheplacewherewecanandmustdeployforasteroidalertcontrolsys-tems,aswellasthoseformonitoringandearlypreventionofcatastrophiceventsatthe Earth. Deep space monitoring systems are to be installed at the far side of theMoon,where theywillbescreened fromradio interferencecoming fromtheEarth.Nodoubt,manyotheropportunitiesalsoexistthatarejusthardtoimagineatpresent.

Traditional way of thinking, which considers the Moon as a remote astronomicalobject,hastobechanged.TheMoonistobeincludedintheeconomicalcycleoftheEarth.Thisisnotadream;thisisavitalandunavoidableeconomicaltaskthatmustbesolvedbeforetheendofthiscentury.

Spacescienceandspaceindustryaretobereadytothisdevelopmentofevents.

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louis FRIedManUSACo-founderandExecutiveDirectorofthePlanetarySociety(1980).

HereceivedM.C.inEngineeringMechanicsattheCornellUniversityin1963,andaPh.D.fromtheAeronauticsandAstronauticsDepart-mentattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyin1971.

Dr.FriedmanworkedattheAVCOSpaceSystemsDivisionin1963–1968.From1970to1980heworkedondeepspacemissionsattheJetPropulsionLaboratory(JPL)inPasadena,California.In1979–1980heoriginatedandledtheInternationalHalleyWatch.In1978–1979,hewastheAIAACongressionalFellowonthestaffoftheSenateCom-mitteeonCommerce,ScienceandTransportation.

HeisamemberoftheAmericanAstronauticalSociety,theDivisionforPlanetarySciencesoftheAmericanAstronomicalSociety,SigmaXiandFellowof theAmericanAssociation for theAdvancementofScience,theBritishInterplanetarySocietyandtheAmericanInstituteofAeronauticsandAstronautics.HeisaNationalFellowmemberoftheExplorersClub.HehaswrittenStarsailing:SolarSailsandIn‑terstellarTravel.

REFlECTIonS on THE 50TH AnnIvERSARy oF SPuTnIkThelegacyofSputnik liesaboveallinitssocial

andcultural impact.Sure, itbeganthespaceage,wasatechnological triumph,andlaunchedtheentirenewfieldofspacescience—butthatwasalreadyforeseenintheearlyandmid-1950’s.And,sure,itdemonstratedthattheSovietUnionwasapower-fulnation,butnuclearweaponsandintercontinentalballisticmissileshaddonethatalready.ItwasSputnik’ssuddenandstartlingimpactontheAmericanpsycheandonglobalpoliticsthatcameasacompletesurpriseandcreateditstruelegacy.

Sputnikandthespacemissionsthatfolloweditarestrikinganomaliesinthepoliticallandscape.Theyhavelittleeconomicreturns(atleastonanypracticaltimescale),nomilitaryvalue,andareminorpartofnationalbudgetsandpoliticaldiscussion.Andyet, the accomplishments of space missions are major world events, whose impactoftendwarfs theotherpolitical eventsof the time.Thiswascertainly thecasewithSputnik,justasitwaswiththeApollomissionsadecadelater.

The cultural and political impact of space missions has been demonstrated manytimes since Sputnik: Yuri Gagarin’s first human flight, the first spacecraft to theMoon,thefirstspacecrafttotheplanets,manwalkingontheMoon,theVikingland-ingonMars,Voyager’sjourneytotheendoftheSolarsystem,themissionstoHal-ley’s comet, theHubble Space Telescope and Mir and the International Space Sta-tion.Alloftheseresonatedaroundtheworld,capturedtheimaginationofmillionsofpeople,andraisedtheinternationalprestigeofthecountrieswholaunchedthem.

Sputnik and the missions that followed were, of course, the product of ‘cold war’rivalry and nationalistic ambitions. Remarkably, however, they transcended these

rootstostandassymbolsofhumangreatness,bringingoutthebestinusandoffer-inghopeforthefuture.ThelegacyofSputnik isnotSovietmight;it isaneweraofhumanevolutionbeyondEarth.ThelegacyofApolloisnotitsrockets;itis‘wecameinpeaceforallmankind’.

In the US Sputnik launched an education revolution, from which I personally ben-efited.PresidentEisenhower,whilepubliclydownplayingthesignificanceofSputnik,initiatedtheNationalDefenseEducationActtoclosethepresumeddangerousedu-cationgapbetweenAmericanstudentsandtheirRussiancounterparts.Thispieceoflegislationpaidformuchofmyuniversityeducation.In1957IenrolledattheUniver-sityofWisconsin,andamonthlaterSputnikwaslaunched.TheUniversityimmedi-atelycreateditsfirstspacesciencecourse,taughtbyWernerSuomi.Itmayhavebeenthefirstsuchcourseanywhere,andIwashooked.Spacewasthenewfrontier.

The linkbetween space achievements and education continues to this day. It is anintegralpartofboththepoliticsofspaceexplorationandthescientificcontentofthemissions themselves. Today, India and China are following in the footsteps of theSovietUnionandtheUnitedStatesbyjoiningtheranksofspacefaringnationsengag-inginanewMoonrace.Theonlyreasontheyaredoingthisisthatspaceexplorationisasourceofinspiration,astimulusforeducation,andaspurforeconomicandtech-nologicalgrowth.

ThemostamazingaspectofSputnikisthatitlaunchedagreatbattleofthelongandfrightening‘coldwar’—andthatthatbattlewasapeacefulone.Thespaceracewasarivalrythatgavethenationsinvolvedconfidence,andprovidedinspirationfortheiryoung people to pursue excellence and high achievement. The ‘coldwar’ has sincecometoanend,andtheworldisnowaverydifferentplace.Andyet—thevisionofthe space age thathumankind canuse its technology forpeace andabetter futureremains. It reminds us that we can go to Mars, we can stop the environmentaldestruction,andwecanusetechnologytoimprovelife,nottodestroyit.ConfidenceandinspirationarethelegaciesofSputnik.

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Gordon G. shepheRdCANADADistinguished Research Professor at the York University, Toronto,CanadaandDirectorof itsCentre forResearch inEarthandSpaceScience.

MemberoftheCommitteeonSpaceResearch(COSPAR)Bureau.

HeearnedhisB.Sc.andM.Sc.Degrees fromtheUniversityofSas-katchewanandhisPh.D.fromtheUniversityofToronto.

As facultymember at theUniversity of Saskatchewan (1957–1969)he developed rocket and ground-basedmethods of interferometricspectroscopyappliedtotheauroraandairglow.AttheYorkUniver-sity(from1969)hissatellitemeasurementsbeganwiththeCanadianISIS-II,fromwhichhemappedthedistributionofatomicoxygenredlineemissionat630nm.In1991NASA’sUARSsatellitewaslaunched,carryingaWINDImagingInterferometer(WINDII)forwhichShep-herdwasthePrincipalInvestigator.

In2002publishedSpectral Imagingofthe Atmosphere.

REFlECTIonS on THE 50 yEARS oF SPACE ERAIn 1957 Iwas appointedAssistantProfessor at

theUniversity of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon, in theWestern prairies of Canada. IhadbarelybeganteachinginSeptemberwhenSputnik-1was launched.Fortunatelywehadsomepeoplewithradioskillsintheinstituteandsoonwewerealllisteningtothe‘SoundsofSputnik’.BecausenoneofuswereexperiencedinvisualizingsatelliteorbitstheheadofourmachineshopaddedanarmtoaglobeoftheEarth,carryinga satellite, drivenby amotor.We tried to get it synchronized to the actualmotionof Sputnik. It was clear that my career and the space age were beginning together,althoughIcouldn’tseeasyethowthatwouldbeaccomplished.Thefollowingsum-mer, after the larger Sputniks were launched, I assignedmy first summer student(JohnNilson)thejobofphotographingthetracks.Heinstalledarotatingchopperinfromofafastcameratocutthetrackintoone-secondsegments,everyfifthonelong-erthantheothers.ThechopperoperatedaclickerandhesynchronizedtheclickstotheclicksofWWVradiostationsothataccuratetimescouldbeidentifiedonthepho-tograph.WereceivedpredictionsofobservationsfromMoscowbytelegramandsentourobservationsbackthesameway.Theseweremyfirstsatellitemeasurements.

Our world view has become much more global since then. Although we still live incountries, their activities are much more closely coordinated, through agreements,collaborations,andcommonproblemssuchasglobalwarming.Atthesametimethespaceagehasmadetechnicaldemandsthathavereapeddividendsinmanyotherare-as, somequite remote fromspace. Inreturn,oursciencehasbenefitedenormouslyfromdatathatcouldhavebeenachievedinnootherway.Toaccomplishsatellitemis-sions,itisoftennecessarytohaveinternationalcollaborations,certainlyforCanada,whichdoesnothavelaunchcapability.ThusIwasablein1971tolaunchaRedLine

Photometer intospaceontheISIS-II(InternationalSatellites forIonosphericStud-ies)toobservetheatomicoxygenredlineauroraandairglowonlybecausetherewasaninternationalcollaboration.Astoconditionsoflife,weareallconcernedthatlifeonEarthmaybecomemoredifficultasourclimatechanges,especially intheCana-dianArctic.WeabsolutelyneedsatellitecapabilityinordertomonitortheEarthanddealwiththisproblem.Inthissense,spacecraftwillinfluenceourlifeonEarth.WhileIwork in the scientificworld, I oftenmeet thoseoutside itwhoare ‘spacepeople’.Spaceisimportantintheirthinkingandhasbecomepartoftheirculture.

Whathavewegainedandlostfromspaceresearch?Allnewknowledgeisagain,asisnewtechnology.GNSSsatellites,communicationsatellites,imagesofmyhousefromspaceontheInternet,informationatmyfingertips,allofthisisatremendousgain.However,therearesomedarkshadows.Unfortunatelyagreatdealofimpetusforthespaceagecamefromtheracetobuildintercontinentalballisticmissiles.Happilythatperiodhaspassed,andspacescientistsperhapshelpedwiththat.Manyofthosevehi-clesarebeingputtobetteruse,forscience.Butthereisanothercloudonthehorizon,and that is the placement of weapons in space. Let us hope that this period passeswithouteverbeingimplemented.

Generallyspeaking,spaceremainsanexpensiveactivity.Mostcountrieshavemanymorescientistsandotherusersavailabletomakeuseofspacethanthereiscapacitytolaunchtheirspaceconceptsandinstruments.Collaborationistraditionallyawaytosharethedataamongmorepeopleandtomakebetteruseofit.MysecondspaceexperimentcamewiththeWindImagingInterferometer(WINDII)onNASA’sUpperAtmosphereResearchSatellite,launchedin1991,20yearsaftermyfirstexperiment.Thiswasanexpensiveexperiment,butitproducedwonderfuldata.Weobtainedanairglowemissionrateandwindprofileeveryminute,andovertheexperimentlifetimeabout onemillionprofiles.Eachonewas the equivalent ofwhat couldbe obtainedwitharocketmeasurement,whicharealso fairlyexpensive,sayonemilliondollarsperflight.Sothesatelliteproducedamillionmilliondollarsworthofdata,atmuchlesscostthanthat.However,ourtechnologynowoffersthepossibilityofsmallerandlessexpensivewaystomakemeasurementsinspace.Thiswillmakespacemeasure-mentsavailabletomoreandmorepeople.

Whilespacescientistsareallusersofspacedata,theyarenottheonlyusers.Theglo-bal population, even anyone connected to the Internet is a user. This can be a tel-ephoneuser,atelevisionwatcher,someoneusingaGNSSreceivertofindtheirloca-tion,orusingsatelliteimagestoviewalocationforaholiday,orsomeotherreason.Itcansimplybeapersontakingadvantageofaweather forecast.Thetrendwillbeformoreandmorepeopletousemoreandmorespaceinformation,invariousforms.Buteverydaypeople relate to space inmanyotherways–wementioned the spacecultureabove.Humankindfollowswithgreatinteresttheexplorationofspaceaswellasitseverydayuse.Spaceendeavourswillcontinuetobringhumankindtogetherinthisway.AllofthisweowetotheremarkableachievementofSputnik-1.

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yaroslav yatskIVUKRAINEDirectoroftheChiefAstronomicalObservatory(theNationalAcad-emyofSciencesofUkraine)since1975.DoctorofScience.Academi-cian of theNational Academy of Sciences ofUkraine. Specialist inastronomy,geodynamicsandspaceresearch.

Fellow researcher of several space missions in the USSR (Vega,Mars)andinUkraine(Coronas).OneoftheoriginatorsoftheUkrai-nianNationalSpaceAgency,DeputyChairmanoftheSpaceResearchCommission (theNational Academy of Sciences ofUkraine). Vice-President of the European Astronomy Society. Member of the Na-tionalAcademyofSciencesofPoland.MemberoftheInternationalAcademyofAstronautics.

Bornin1940.GraduatedfromtheLvivUniversityofTechnologyin1960.Waselectedvice-presidentof the InternationalAstronomicalUnion(1982–1988),presidentoftheIAUCommissionNo.19‘EarthRotation’(1982–1985).

AwardedbytheReneDescartesPrizeoftheEuropeanUnion(2003),stateawardsoftheUSSRandUkraine.MinorplanetN0.2728isnamedYatskiv.

FIRST STEPS oF THE InTERnATIonAl CollAboRATIon In THE PEACEFul RESEARCH And ExPloRATIon oF SPACE (1957–1987)on the October 4, 1957, the whole world was

stunned by the signals from the first artificial Earth satellite.� The new age of ourplanet’slifehasstarted,withspacebeingtheessentialpartofthislife.Fromthisdayon, our understanding of the world as an environment of human civilization andpeace��asaformofco-existenceofdifferentstates,nationsandpeopleshasdrasti-callychanged.

Intheyearsthatfollowedtheproblemsofspaceresearchandexplorationhavewide-ly developed, covering literally all the aspects of human activity. Depending on thegoals,spaceexperimentscanbedividedintothreefollowinggroups:scientific,com-mercialandmilitaryones.Intheirturn,eachgroupcoversalargenumberofareas,among thoseEarthstudies,explorationof theSolarsystemandotherastronomicalobjectsbyspacetechniquesandfacilitieshave,inouropinion,writtenthebrightestpagestothespacechronicleofthelastdecades.

� BasedonthearticlebyYatskiv.Ya.S.,WestR.MilestonesofSpaceAge//EssaysonHistoryofNaturalscienceandTechnology.Kiev,1987.V.33.P.30–42(inRussian).

�� Untranslatable:both‘world’and‘peace’inRussianarepronouncedandwrittenas‘Mir’.

The profits of the scientific and technical collaboration which has no national orinterdisciplinarybordersbecomemoreandmoreobvious.Manyspaceprojectshavebecomesohigh-pricedthatindividualstatesarenowfacingthedifficultiesinaccom-modating the related expense itemswith their budget.Mankind lookswith under-standingatthepositiveexperienceofcollaborationwhichwasandstillistakingplaceamongthescientistsofmanycountriesindifferentareasofscience,forinstance,inAntarcticresearch.

International collaboration in the area of space research appeared simultaneouslywiththebeginningofhumanactivityinthisfield.Thoughitwasdevelopingatvaryingpaceindifferentperiodsoftime,todayonecanwitnessunprecedentedshifttowardsthe more close cooperation. This tendency, without doubts, must prevail in future.Wewill tryto illustratethisusingexamplesfromthehistoryofresearchduringthefirstthreedecadesofthespaceage.

Webelongtothegenerationwhichwitnessedtheepochofthedrasticchangesintheevolutionofmankind.Ourchildhoodwaspassingduring themostcruelwarwhichcame to end only after taking away tens ofmillions lives and destroying countlessvaluables.Thiscatastrophegavean impulse to theattemptsofachieving theglobalinternationalunderstandingwhichhasbeenreflectedinthehistoricaldocumentsofpost-waryearssuchasCharteroftheUnitedNations.

Duetotheseandotherreasonsourgenerationhasalsohadluckoflivingintheperiodofrelative‘warming’ofinternationalclimate.Averyimportantroleinthathasbeenplayedbytheinternationalcommunication,andtoevenmoreextent,consciousnessofcommonfateinthisworldofdiminishingdistancesandlimitedresources.Duringthis time livingconditionsof thepeople inallpartsofworldhave improved,butatthesametimewehavefallenintodependenceofvariousnonhumantechnicalinven-tionsofmankindneverseenbefore.Whetherwelike itornot,wecannotgetridofthemyet.

It is too easy to forget the fact that many technological advances have arisen fromthemilitaryresearchoftheWorldWar-II.AtomicfacilitiesandPC,long-rangerock-etsarethefleshoffleshofthoseterribleyears.Ofcourse,smallrocketswereknownsincealongtimeago.Howeverthecrucialknowledgeofhowtolaunchheavyrock-ets to thedistancesofhundredkilometershasbeenonlygainedby theendofwar.Similartomanyinventionsofmankind,rocketsmayhavebothpositiveandnegativeapplications.Onecansplashtheskywiththewonderful lightsoffireworksonholi-days,butonecanopenfireonpeacefulcities.Onecanarrangetheserviceforsearch-ingtheshipsindistress,butonecanalsobreakthewallsoffortifiedstructures.Onecanlaunchcommunicationsatellitesandresearchspacecraftanddeliverthenuclearwarheadstoothercontinentwithinafewminutes.

When the InternationalGeophysical Year (IGY)under the auspices of the Interna-tionalCouncilofScientificUnions(ICSU)hasstartedinthemiddleof1957,aflighttospacewasstillmerelyatheoreticalpossibility.ButjustthreemonthslatertheentireworldwasliterallywakenupbythesignalsofSputnik,thefirstartificialEarthsatel-lite.Likemanymillionsofpeople,wewerecarefullywatchingthebrightdotmovinginthenightskywhichwassoonfollowedbytheothers.

Fromthememoriesoftheauthor:Beingthestudentsofastronomy-geodeticspecialty,mycoursematesandIdidn’tatoncereal-izedwhatapowerfultoolofglobalEarthstudieswasbeingbornbeforeourveryeyes.Weweremoreconcernedbytheproblemsofzerogravity,supersonicvelocitiesandotherprerogatives

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ofspaceflight.Itwasonlyintheendof1950’sthatIunderstoodwhatunprecedentedperspec-tiveswe are given by looking at the Earth from above, coveringwith one glance the spaceswhichseemedhugebefore.

Andwhatnext?Otherplanetsandworlds…Curious!

Probably this ‘curiosity’ was reflecting that constant striving to knowledge whichinspires ahuman to get interested in the originof the world aroundus andhow ithasevolvedtothestateweseeitnow.WhataretheconstituentpartsofUniverseandwhat will happen to them in future? These are fundamental problems of the mod-ernnaturalscience,andthespaceresearchismakingastrongcontributiontosolvingthem.

bASIC mIlESTonES oF THE SPACE AgE1957–1960

Since the veryfirstdaysof the space agemorethan 200 stations of optical observations of artificial Earth satellites (AES) in 20countriesstarted theirhardbutexcitingwork.Themaingoalof theseobservationswasnottolosethefirstmessengersofEarthintheendlessspace.

Unlike theusualcelestialbodieswhichareavailable forobservingeither in theday(theSun)orinthenight(stars,planets),satellitescanonlybeseenduringtheshorteveningormorninghourswhenthesurfaceofEarthhasfallenindarknesswhilethesatelliteitself,beingatalargeheight,isstillsunlit.Theseobservationsperformedinthedifferentplacesof theglobeallowtocalculate theephemerisof satellite, i.e. itspositionatanygivenmomentoftime�.

It turned out that the study of satellites motion and their orbit evolution allows tosolveanumberofimportanttasksingeodesyandgeophysicsonsettingupthesys-temsofcoordinates,studyingtheEarthgravityfieldandsoon.Thevisualandpho-tographicsatelliteobservationshavebeenreplacedwithtimebyhigh-precisionlaserrangemeasurementsofsatellitesaswellastheirradiointerferometricobservations.

Reflecting the global nature of the problem, the international collaboration in theframework of International Astronomical Union (IAU), International Associationof Geodesy (IAG) and International Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)wasdevelopingmoreorlesssuccessfullyduringalltheseyears.

ThespecialattentionhasbeenpaidtotheresearchoftheMoonanddataexchangebetweentheUSSRandtheUSAonlunarprojects.

Ontheotherhand the ‘space race’has started in late 1960’s,andbasedonnation-al prestige andmilitary interests therewas no sufficient collaboration of two greatspacefaringnations,atleastinthefieldofdeliveringthepayloadtoorbit.However,theresultsofmanymeasurementsinspacebecamewidelyknownsoon,inparticularduetotheregularcontactsviaCOSPARfoundedin1958,InternationalAstronauticalFederation (IAF)andother scientificunions. Ithas tobenotedhowever that therewasindirectcollaboration.Theimpliedcompetitioninspacewasinducingtheinflowof man power and technical resources to the national space programs of the USSR

� Inordertocoordinatethiswork,theuniqueSatelliteServicewascreatedin1956accordingtotheIGYprogram.

andtheUSA.ThisiswhyeventheWestEuropeancountriesfelttheneedinthedevel-opmentoftheirownindependentspaceprojects.

1961–1984

AndthenthevoicebelongingtothefirstcosmonautoftheUSSRYu.A.Gagarinwhichwe have heard on radio on April 12, 1961 has announced the start of themannedspaceexploration.

Hehasflownovertheglobeinlessthan2hoursandsafelylandedontheterritoryofhisnativecountry.

Fromthememoriesoftheauthor:Ihaveneverseensuchanoveralljubilationinmylife.ThecharmingGagarin’ssmile,hiswords‘Poyekhali!�’atthestart,histhoughtsoftheEarthbeingsoincrediblybeautifulandtinyandthatweshouldtakecareofit,becamethesymbolsofourcountryinthe1960’s.

Theimmediateresultofthefirstmannedflightin1961wasthedecisionoftheUSAto start one of the most ambitious scientific-technical programs ever undertaken.TheAmericanpresident has declared that ‘we willfly to the Moon in this decade’andmobilizedhugenationalresourcescomparableonlytotheexpensesontheMan-hattanproject.The improved space ‘capsules’werebuilt; one-manMercury space-craftwerefollowedbyGeminiandApolloS/Cintendedfortwoandthreeastronautsrespectively.Theflightcontrolmethodsweredeveloped.

Duringtheseyears intheUSSRthenewrecordsofflightdurationweresetandthefirstextravehicularactivityofcosmonautA.A.Leonovwasperformed.

AndherecamethemorningofJuly21,1969(inEurope)whenthevoiceofthefirstmantostepontheothercelestialbody—theMoon,arrivedtoEarthaftertravelingalmost400thousandkilometers.ThisvoicebelongedtotheUSAcitizen,astronautNeilArmstrong.Thatwasthenewgiantleapinthespaceexploration.

Fromthememoriesoftheauthor:Thisnews–fantasticinitscontent,wasjustlikeasoberingcoldshower.ItbecameclearthattheUSSRhaslostthespaceracetotheMoon.

As a result of Apollo S/Cflights anumber of laboratories in thewholeworldhavereceived the rich material and the possibility to study the samples of lunar rocksdirectly. And a little later, when the USSR has accomplished the landing of threeautomated stations on our natural satellite and delivered to Earth another set ofsmaller specimens, theexchangeof lunarsampleswasmadewhichallowed toper-formadetailedcomparativeanalysisofrocksfromthevastterritory.

InthesametimeanintensiveoperationofcosmonautsandastronautsontheEarthorbital routes continued.And,finally, in July, 1975 theAmericanandSoviet crewshavemetonorbitinthejointSoyuz-Apolloflight.Besidescollectingscientificinfor-mation, the flight has shown the compatibility of the space rescue facilities. Thisactivitybecamethepractical realizationof theUNAgreementonastronautssearchandreturnofpeopleandspaceobjectswhichcameintoeffecton1968.Thisimpor-tantAgreementwasaconsecutiverealizationofUNOuterSpaceTreatyof1967��,thefirstbasicinternationaldocumentregulatingtheuseofspace.

� Itmaybetranslatedas‘Let’sgo!’

�� TreatyonPrinciplesGoverningtheActivitiesofStatesintheExplorationandUseofOuterSpace,IncludingtheMoonandOtherCelestialBodies.

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MeanwhiletheresearchofSolarsystembytheunmannedspacecrafthasreachedtheimpressiveresults.ThenexttargetaftertheMoonwasVenuswhichisoftenreferredtoas‘Russian’intheWestmeaningthefactthattheUSSRhassent18automatedsta-tions(includingtwoVegasS/C)tostudyoftheMorningstarplanet.

WiderangestudiesofSolar systembodieswereperformedby theAmericanspace-craftofMarinerseries.FullrangestudyofMarstookplacein1976whenAmericanorbitalstationsViking-1and-2havestudiedthewholesurfaceandthelandingstageshavemadedetailedinvestigationofthesoil.

Thegiantplanetswere fullystudiedbyVoyagerS/Cin1979–1981.StationsofPio‑neerandVoyagertypewerethefirstartificialobjectsleavingtheSolarsystem,thisiswhytheyarebringingaboardtheplateswiththecodedinformationaboutourEarthcivilization.

AwidescientificinformationobtainedduringtheseexperimentsallowedtosetupaprincipallynewlevelofresearchofSolarsystemoriginandevolutionandhasresult-edinthebirthofnewfieldofscience—comparativeplanetology.Thisinformation,thanks to the international cooperation of scientists, was the issue of the mutualexchangeanddiscussingatmanyforums.

1985–1986

Whatsospecialhashappenedintheseyearswhichallowedustohighlightthemonthebackgroundofdecadesofdiligentworkinspaceresearch?Theseweretheyearswhenthecallsforpeacefulspacehavesoundedfromtheheadsofgovernments,work-ersofscienceandcultureandallsober-mindedpeopleasneverbefore.Theuniquecollaboration on the study of the famous comet Halley has put these calls into life,andtheideaofpeacefulspaceresearchwasundoubtedlyprevailingoverthevariousfinessesofthe‘starwars’kind.

OnthebasisofprecisemeasurementsitwaspredictedthatcometHalleywillreturnagain toEarth and the Sun in 1985–1986. It is interesting that therewere alreadyattemptstocoordinateallobservationsofthecometin1910(theyearofthepreviousreturnof thecomet to theSun).But theydidnothaveasuccesssincemanyastro-nomicalobservatorieswerethenunabletoagreeonthe issuesofrightsonthedataobtainedand therewerenorelevantcouncilsandunions. Inorder toavoidsimilarmisconceptionsforthistime,thedebateshasstartedyetinlate1970’sonestablishingtheinternationalbodywhichwouldcoordinateobservationsofthenewcometHalleyapparition.AsaresulttheInternationalHalleyWatch(IHW)organizationwascre-atedapprovedbytheInternationalAstronomicalUnion(IAU)inAugust,1982.Itwasbasedontwodirectingcenters—inPasadena(USA)andBamberg(BRD).TheSovi-etprogramofground-basedcometHalleyobservations(SOPROG)wastheregionalpartofIHW.Morethan1000professionalandamateurastronomersfrom54coun-triesparticipatedinIHW.Thecometwasrecoveredwiththe5-mPalomartelescopeonOctober16,1982,farbeyondtheorbitofSaturn.Bythistimethecometwasveryfainthaving24.5magnitudewhichis25milliontimesfainterthantheobjectvisiblebythenakedeye.

In1983–1986cometwasalreadyregularlyobservedfromEarth,exceptfortheperiodoftimewhenitwashiddenfromusbytheSun.AsitwasapproachingtheSunandbrightening,moreandmoretelescopesandotherfacilitieswerejoiningtheprogram.Noothercometwasstudiedsothoroughlybefore.

Witharrivalofthespaceageandafterthefirstsuccessfulflightstootherplanetstheideasof1960’saboutthefutureflightstocometshaveturnedintosomethingamat-terofcourse.Itwasclearsincetheverybeginningthat itwouldbegoodtocoordi-natespaceresearch inawaysimilar towhat IHWhasdonewith thegroundbasedobserversandthatclosecooperation isneededbetween these twowaysof researchofthecelestialbody.FouragencieshavingplannedthespacecraftflightsdecidedtocreatetheInter-AgencyConsultativeGroup(IACG)consistingofadministrativeandscientificmembers.Thusin1981thedirectcooperationwasestablishedbetweentheEuropeanSpaceAgency(ESA),Intercosmos,JapaneseInstituteofSpaceandAstro-nauticalScience(ISAS)andNASAfor thefirst time.ThefirstmeetingofIACGwasheldinPadua(Italy).

The first spacecraft to reach the comet was International Comet Explorer (ICE,NASA)whichflew through the tail of periodic cometGiacobini-Zinner onSeptem-ber 11, 1985. This spacecraft was used before tomonitor the plasma conditions inthe Earthatmosphere and later sent to the rendezvouswithcomet Halley.A seriesofwittymanoeuvreswasperformedwhichincludedfly-bywithinonlyafewkilome-tersfromlunarsurface.AftersendingthedataofcometaryplasmaandmagneticfieldmeasurementstoEarth,ICEspacecrafthascontinueditsjourneytospaceandpassedwithin28mlnkmfromcometHalleyonMarch25,1986.JapanesespacecraftSuisei(‘comet’)andSakigake(‘pioneer’)flewbycometHalleyonMarch8thand11threspec-tivelyandmeasureditsinteractionwiththesolarwind.DuetothestrictmasslimitstheywerenotequippedbytheprotectiveshieldsfromthedestructiveimpactofthespacedustasVegaandGiottohadandwerestudyingthecometfromthelargedis-tance.

ThemostcomplicatedoffivespaceprojectswasVenera-Galleymission,orVEGAforshortwiththeparticipationoftheUSSRalongwithanumberofsocialisticandWest-ernEuropeancountries.R.SagdeevwastheHeadoftheproject.

According to this project, two spacecraft one after another headed first towardsVenus, left balloons in its atmosphere and landers on its surface, and after mak-ing a journey about one billion kilometers longhave encounteredwith cometHal-ley.Accordingtoflightplanthisencountershouldhavetakenplaceatthedistanceof150mlnkmfromEarthandabout10thousandkilometersfromthecometnucleusattherelativeflybyvelocityofabout80km/s.PerformingthistaskrequiredtojointheeffortsofmanyworldobservatoriesondeterminationofcometHalley’scoordinatesandcalculating itsephemeris.More than30observationstations in theUSSRpar-ticipatedinthisprogramheadedbytheChiefAstronomicalObservatoryofUkrainianAcademyofSciencesintheframeworkofSOPROG.Thetaskwascompleted:Vega-1andVega-2flewbythenucleusofcometatthedistancesofabout9and8thousandkilometersrespectively.TheinformationonthepositionofcometobtainedwithVegaspacecraft(precisionabout±50km)togetherwiththemeasurementsofpositionsofspacecraft themselves received fromtheDeepSpaceNetwork (USA)witha record-breaking accuracy of ±40kmhave served as the base for yet another unique proj-ectPathfinder.ThetheoreticaljustificationoftheprojectwasgivenintheframesofIACG,anditwasrealizedatESAwhilecontrollingGiottospacecraft.

As a result of the close interaction during the days when both Vegas were nearbythecomet,ESAspecialistsgotachancetoaimGiottowithunprecedentedaccuracy±50km,i.e.10timesbetterthanifusingonlyground-basedobservationsfornaviga-tion.Indeed,Giottohaspassedonlywithin±15kmfromthecalculatedpoint,i.e.atthedistanceofonly about600km from the cometarynucleus.Thiswonderful feat

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would have been impossible without cooperation between NASA, Intercosmos andESAwithinPathfinderproject.

Eyewitnessreport:Ihada luck towitness the thrillingminutesofVega-1 encounterwithcometHalley.DuringthesehistoricaldaystheSpaceResearchInstituteoftheUSSRAcademyofScienceshashost-ed well-known scientists frommany foreign countries. Among them were such remarkableastronomers as F.Whipple – the biggest cometologist, author of the icymodel of cometarynucleus,planetaryresearchersC.Sagan,V.I.Moroz,M.Ya.Marov,IHWmanagersJürgenRa-he,J.Brandtandothers.

The live broadcasts from space started on March 4 when Vega-1 was at the distance of14mlnkmfromthenucleusofcomet–theimagesofcomawiththebrightnessdistributioninpseudocolorshavearrived,dataoftheinterplanetarymediumandsolarwindconditionswerereceived.OnMarch5thebroadcastwasperformedalreadyfrom7mlnkm.Butthenucleuswasstillratherfartobeabletodistinguishitscontours.Onecouldonlyseethatthecentralpartofcomawherethecometarynucleusresideswasthebrightest.Thesebroadcastshaveshowntheoperabilityofthewholeequipmentandallowedtoselectitsoptimalmodeofoperation.

ButherecamethedecisivemomentwhenthepioneeringspacecraftenteredtheheadofcometHalleyand its instrumentscame intodirectcontactwith thecometarymatter,and themaincameraof120cmfocallengthstartedtotakepicturesoftheinnerpartsofcomet’sheadresid-inginsidetheverygas-and-dustatmosphereofcomet.

‘We’vegotthenucleusofcometHalley,’—commentsthedeputyheadofVEGAprojectprofes-sorA.A.Galeev.

Ayearafterthecometrendezvouswhenitwasquicklyrecedingtothefarspaceevery-bodywasagreeingthattheinternationalcooperationhadahugesuccess.Closecon-tacts at the meetings and specially developed communication channels allowed thequick informationexchangewith themutualprofit.Thereappearedapossibility toincrease the scientific return of several experiments due to knowledge obtained byotherresearchers.Internationalcooperationhashelpedthescientistsandspecialiststoknoweachotherbetterand,whichisofnolessimportance,collaboratingsideshadtosmoothdown‘sharpedges’toreachtheeffectiveresult.

PERSPECTIvES oF THE InTERnATIonAl CollAboRATIon IS THE AREA oF SPACE RESEARCHAhugenumberofsatellitesandspacecraftwere

performing different tasks during the first decades of space age. Communicationsatellites were providing operation for thousands of telephone and television chan-nels;meteosatellitesweretransmittinganendlessflowofdetailedimagespermittingweatherforecastsbetterthanbefore.Othersatellitesstudiedoceansandcontinents,meanwhile providing a terrific amount of the necessary information ranging fromgeologicalresourcesmapstoagriculturalmaps, fromthemapsofgrowingtownstomapsofoceanicstreamsandiceclusteringintheseas.Somesatellitesservedfornavi-gationpurposesandallowedtolocateobjectswithanaccuracyofafewmeters,inanypointontheEarthsurface.

As more and more countries got involved into space research and developed theirownprograms,theexperienceinspacetechnologyisnotaprivilegeofafewnations

anymore. Several countries in addition to two first spacefaring nations have nowdevelopedtheirspaceprograms.

Allthisisinfluencingtheforecastsofthefuturepeacefulcooperationinspacewhichwill enter itshigher level, supposingof course therewillbenoglobal catastrophes.From thispointof view thepolitical atmosphereon theplanet andpeople’swill toavoidarmsraceinspacearegettingthehighimportance.

Space research is an important and very impressive part of science including thenaturaldevelopmentofEarthstudiesstartedbythepreviousgenerationsofpeople.AstheexperiencewithcometHalleyhasshown,afewotherfieldsofsciencearehav-ingsuchadirect impactoneverybody’s imagination.And ifyouarewitnessing thefruitful, really internationalcooperationup there inspace,don’tyou feel inside thedesiretofindthecommonlanguagehere,onEarth?!

SPACE:THEFIRSTSTEPSPACERESEARCHINSTITUTERUSSIANACADEMYOFSCIENCES2007

сдановпечать5.9.2007формат240×165гарнитураGeorgiaбумага115г/м2

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4 октября 1957 года Начало космической эры what was and still is the...

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