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Transcript of 4-1©2005 Prentice Hall Understanding and Managing Organizational Behavior 4th Edition 4:...
4-1 ©2005 Prentice Hall
Understanding and
Managing Organizational
Behavior
4th Edition
Chapter 4:4:Perception, Perception,
Attribution, and the Attribution, and the Management of Management of
DiversityDiversity
Insert photo fromcase opening?
JENNIFER GEORGE JENNIFER GEORGE & GARETH JONES& GARETH JONES
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Chapter Objectives
Describe how perception is inherently subjective and how characteristics of the perceiver, the target, and the situation can influence perceptions
Understand how the use of schemas can both aid and detract from accurate perceptions
Be aware of biases that can influence perception without perceivers being aware of their influences
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Chapter Objectives
Appreciate why the effective management of diversity is an imperative for all kinds of organizations and the steps that organizations can take to ensure that different kinds of people are treated fairly and that the organization is able to take advantage of all they have to offer
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Chapter Objectives
Understand why attributions are so important and how they can sometimes be faulty
Describe the two major forms of sexual harassment and the steps organizations can take to combat sexual harassment
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Opening Case: Proactively Managing Diversity
Why do organizations need to guard against discrimination and proactively manage diversity?
Is discrimination a thing of the past? Who suffers from discrimination?
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Perception
The process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret the input from their senses to give meaning and order to the world around them
People try to make sense of their environment and the objects, events, and other people in it
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Figure 4.1 Components of Perception
Perceiver Target
Situation or context in which perception takes place
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Components of Perception
Perceiver: person trying to interpret some observation that he or she has just made or the input from his or her senses
Target of Perception: whatever the perceiver is trying to make sense of
Situation: the context in which perception takes place
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The Accuracy of Perceptions
Not always accurate Perceptions are critical for managerial functions
– Motivating subordinates– Treating subordinates fairly and equitably– Making ethical decisions
Accuracy can be improved by understanding – what perceptions are– how they are formed– what influences them
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Figure 4.2 Characteristics of the Perceiver That Affect Perception
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Table 4.1 Factors That Influence Perception
Characteristics of the Perceiver
Characteristics of the Target
Characteristics of the Situation
Schemas Ambiguity Additional information
Motivational state
Social status Salience
Mood Use of impression management
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Schemas
Abstract knowledge structures that are stored in memory
Responsible for the organization and interpretation of information about targets of perception
Based on past experiences and knowledge
Resistant to change
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The Functionality of Schemas
Functional– Schemas help us make sense of a
confusing array of sensory input, choose what information to pay attention to and what to ignore, and guide perceptions of ambiguous information
Dysfunctional– Schemas can result in inaccurate
perceptions
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Stereotypes
Set of overly simplified and often inaccurate beliefs about the typical characteristics of a particular group
Dysfunctional schemas– Based on inaccurate information– Assigned based on a single distinguishing
characteristic
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Motivational State and Mood
Motivational State: The needs, values, and desires of a perceiver at the time of perception.
Mood: How a perceiver feels at the time of perception.
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A lack of clearness or definiteness As the ambiguity of a target increases, it becomes
increasingly difficult for a perceiver to form an accurate perception
When a target is ambiguous, the perceiver needs to engage in a lot more interpretation and active construction of reality to form a perception of the target
The more ambiguous a target is, the more potential there is for errors in perception
Ambiguity
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A person’s real or perceived position in society or in an organization.
Targets with relatively high status are perceived to be smarter, more credible, more knowledgeable, and more responsible for their actions than lower-status targets.
Social Status
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An attempt to control the perceptions or impressions of others
Targets are especially likely to use impression management tactics when interacting with perceivers who have power over them and on whom they are dependent for evaluations, raises, and promotions
Individuals who are high in self-monitoring are more likely than individuals who are low in self-monitoring to engage in impression management tactics
Impression Management
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Table 4.2 Impression Management Tactics
BehavioralMatching
The target of perception matcheshis or her behavior to that of theperceiver.
A subordinate tries to imitate her boss’sbehavior by being modest and soft-spokenbecause her boss is modest and soft-spoken.
Self-Promotion
The target tries to present herselfor himself in as positive a light aspossible.
A worker reminds his boss about his past accomplishments and associates with co-workers who are evaluated highly.
Conformingto SituationalNorms
The target follows agreed-uponrules for behavior in the organization.
A worker stays late every night even if she hascompleted all of her assignments becausestaying late is one of the norms of her organization.
Appreciatingor FlatteringOthers
The target compliments the per-ceiver. This tactic works best whenflattery is not extreme and when it involves a dimension importantto the perceiver.
A coworker compliments a manager on his excellent handling of a troublesome employee.
BeingConsistent
The target’s beliefs and behaviors are consistent. There is agreementbetween the target’s verbal andnonverbal behaviors.
A subordinate delivering a message to his bosslooks the boss straight in the eye and has a sincere expression on his face.
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Extent to which a target of perception stands out in a group of people or things
Causes of salience– Being novel: Anything that makes a target
unique in a situation (e.g., being the only young person)
– Being figural: Standing out from the background (e.g., by wearing bright clothes)
– Being inconsistent with other people’s expectations: Behaving or looking in a way that is out of the ordinary
Salience
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Table 4.3 Causes of Salience
Being novel Anything that makes a target unique in a situation
Examples: Being the only person of a particular age, sex, or race in a situation
Being figural
Standing out from the background
Example: Being in a spotlight, sitting at the head of the table, wearing bright clothes
Being Inconsistent with other people’s expectations
Behaving or looking in a way that is out of the ordinary
Example: A normally shy person who isthe life of the party
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Table 4.4 Biases and Problems in Perception
PrimacyEffects
The initial pieces of information that a perceiver has about a target have an inordinately large effect on the perceiver’s perception and evaluation of the target.
Interviewers decide in the first few minutes of an interview whether or not a job candidate is a good prospect.
ContrastEffect
The perceiver’s perceptions of others influence the perceiver’s perception of a target.
A manager’s perception of an average subordinate is likely to be lower if that subordinate is in a group with very high performers rather than in a group with very low performers.
HaloEffect
The perceiver’s general impression of a target influences his or her perception of the target on specific dimensions.
A subordinate who has made a good overall impression on a supervisor is rated as performing high-quality work and always meeting deadlines regardless of work that is full of mistakes and late.
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Table 4.4 Biases and Problems in Perception
Similar-to-me Effect
People perceive others who are similar to themselves more positively than they perceive those who are dissimilar.
Supervisors rate subordinates who are similar to them more positively than they deserve.
Harshness,Leniency, AverageTendency
Some perceivers tend to be overly harsh in their perceptions, some overly lenient. Others view most targets as being about average.
When rating subordinates’ performances, some supervisors give almost everyone a poor rating, some give almost everyone a good rating, and others rate almost everyone as being aboutaverage.
Knowledgeof Predictor
Knowing how a target stands on a predictor of performance influences perceptions of the target.
A professor perceives a student more positively than she deserves because the professor knows the student had a high score on the SAT.
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Attribution Theory
Describes how people explain the causes of behavior
Focuses on why people behave the way they do
Attributions can be made about the self or another person
Biases reduce the accuracy of attributions
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Insert Figure 4.3 here
Figure 4.3 Types of Attributions
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Attributional Biases
Fundamental attribution errorFundamental attribution error - tendency to overattribute behavior to internal rather than external causes
Actor-observer effectActor-observer effect - tendency to attribute other’s behavior to internal causes but one’s own behavior to external causes
Self-serving attributionSelf-serving attribution - tendency to take credit for successes but avoid blame for failures
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Objectives of Diversity Programs
Making explicit and breaking down organizational member’ stereotypes that result in inaccurate perceptions and attributions
Making members aware of different kinds of backgrounds, experiences, and values
Showing members how to deal effectively with diversity-related conflicts and tensions
Generally improving members’ understanding of each other
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Diversity Training
Role-playing Self-awareness activities Awareness activities Education Mentoring
– Formal – Informal
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Sexual Harassment
Quid pro quo– Occurs when the harasser requests or
forces an employee to perform sexual favors in order to receive some opportunity
Hostile work environment– Occurs when organizational members are
faced with a work environment that is offensive, intimidating, or hostile
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Examples of Hostile Work Environment Sexual harassment
Pornographic pictures Sexual jokes Lewd comments Sexually-oriented comments Displays of sexually-oriented objects
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Steps to Combat Sexual Harassment
Develop a sexual harassment policy supported by top management
Clearly communicate the organization’s sexual harassment policy throughout the organization
Investigate charges of sexual harassment with a fair complain procedure
Take corrective action as soon as possible once it has been determined that sexual harassment has taken place
Provide sexual harassment training and education to all members of the organization