4-1. Hardware: The CPU & Storage 4.1 Microchips, Miniaturization, & Mobility 4.2 The System Unit:...

Hardware: The CPU & Hardware: The CPU & StorageStorage

4.1 Microchips, Miniaturization, & Mobility

4.2 The System Unit: The Basics

4.3 More on the System Unit

4.4 Secondary Storage

4.5 Future Developments in Processing & Storage

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McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Microchips, Miniaturization, & Microchips, Miniaturization, & MobilityMobility

Vacuum Tubes vs. TransistorsVacuum tubes were the original logic gates of computersThey looked like light bulbs, were hot, and burned out

like them tooThe original transistors were 1/100th the size of vacuum

tubes (less power, faster, more reliable too)Transistors vs. Integrated Circuits

Compare 1955’s 45 lb “portable” color TV to today’s 7 oz Casio 2.3 inch color TV

One integrated circuit contains thousands of transistors

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SemiconductorA material whose electrical properties are

intermediate between a good conductor and a nonconductor of electricity

Perfect substrate to overlay complex circuits onMicrochips are made from semiconductorsContain millions of microminiature integrated

circuits

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MicroprocessorThe miniaturized circuitry of an entire computer

processor on a single chipContains the CPU, which processes data

Microcontroller or Embedded ComputerA microprocessor that was modified for use in a machine

that isn’t a computer

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The System Unit: The BasicsThe System Unit: The BasicsBinary System: the basic unit of computing

Uses just two numbers: 0 and 1 All data and program instructions in the computer are

represented as binary Bit: each 0 or 1 is a bit Byte: a group of 8 bits Kilobyte: ~1,000 (1,024) bytes Megabyte: ~1 Million (1,048,576) bytes Gigabyte: ~1 Billion (1,073,741,824) bytes Terabyte: ~ 1 Trillion (1,009,511,627,576) bytes Petabyte: ~ 1 quadrillion bytes Exabyte: ~ 1 quintillion bytes All the printed material in the world is ~ 5 exabytes

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The System Unit: The BasicsThe System Unit: The Basics

Binary coding schemes assign a unique binary code to each letterEBCDIC

Requires 8 bits per character Used for IBM mainframes

ASCII Requires 7 or 8 bits per character, depending on the

version 8 bit Extended ASCII provides 256 characters Used for PCs, Unix hosts, Macs

Unicode Requires 16 bits per character Handles 65,536 characters

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Error Checking: Parity BitsUsed in modems & communications to verify correctnessOne check bit is added to 7 bit byteThe check bit is defined as either odd or evenFor odd parity, if the data sent is correct, the parity bit

plus the first 7 data bits is an odd numberFor even parity, if the data sent is correct, the parity bit

plus the first 7 data bits is an even number Discussion Question: If the 7 data bits are 1101011, and the modem is sending odd parity, what should the parity bit be set to?

Answer: Since the data bits add up to 5, an odd number, the parity bit will be 0.

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Machine LanguageA binary-type programming language built into the CPU

that is run directly by the computerEach CPU type has its own machine language

Language TranslatorsSystem programs convert the programming instructions

for you into machine language

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The System Unit: The BasicsThe System Unit: The BasicsComputer TermsComputer Terms

Names1. Bay

2. Power Supply3. Surge Protector

4. Voltage Regulator

5. UPS

6. Motherboard7. Microprocessor8. Chipset

Definitions1. Shell or opening used for the installation of electrical

equipment.

2. This converts AC to DC to run the computer.

3. Protects the computer from being damaged by power spikes. Plug your computer into one.

4. Protects a computer against brownouts or low power conditions that happen a lot in summer.

5. Uninterruptible Power Supply. Battery-operated device that provides power for a time when there is a blackout.

6. The main system board of the computer.

7. The miniaturized circuitry of a computer processor.

8. Groups of interconnected chips on the motherboard that control information flow between the microprocessor and other system components connected to the motherboard.

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The CPUOlder CPUs processing speeds are in MegaHertz

1 MHz = 1 Million ticks per secondCurrent CPUs processing speeds are in GigaHertz

1 GHz = 1 Billion ticks per secondThe faster a CPU runs, the more power it consumes, and

the more heat it generates

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The CPU ContinuedMainframe and minicomputer speed is measured in

MIPS MIPS stands for millions of instructions per second Workstations perform at 100 MIPS or more Mainframes perform at 200 – 1,200 MIPS

Supercomputer processing speed is measured in flops Flops stands for floating point operations per second IBM’s Blue Gene/L cranks out 70.72 teraflops (tera = trillion)

per second

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More on the System UnitMore on the System UnitParts of the CPUParts of the CPU

Name1. Word size

2. Control unit

3. Arithmetic Logic Unit

4. Registers

5. Buses

Definition

1. The number of bits the processor can process at any one time

2. The part of the CPU that deciphers instructions and carries them out

3. The ALU performs mathematical and logical operations and controls the speed of them

4. High-speed storage areas that temporarily store data during processing

5. Electrical data roadways used to transmit bits within the CPU and between CPU and other motherboard components

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More on the System UnitMore on the System UnitHow Memory WorksHow Memory Works

Memory Chip

1. RAM

2. ROM

3. CMOS

4. Flash

Explanation

1. Random Access Memory chips are volatile and hold:

a. Software instructions

b. Data before & after the CPU processes it2. Read only memory

a. Cannot be written on or erased without special equipment

b. Are loaded at factory with fixed start-up instructions

3. Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductora. Powered by a batteryb. Contains time, date, calendar, boot password

4. Nonvolatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed more than oncea. Doesn’t require a batteryb. Used in newer PCs for BIOS instructions

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More on the System UnitMore on the System UnitTypes of RAMTypes of RAM

RAM Types

1. DRAM

2. SDRAM

3. SRAM

4. DDR-SDRAM5. SIMM

6. DIMM

Explanation

1. Dynamic RAM must be constantly refreshed by the CPU or it loses its contents

2. Synchronous Dynamic RAM is synchronized by the system clock and is much faster than DRAM

3. Static RAM is faster than DRAM and retains its contents without having to be refreshed by CPU

4. Double-data rate synchronous dynamic RAM5. Single Inline Memory Module has RAM chips on

only one side a. FPM is fast page mode typeb. EDO is extended data output; is faster than FPM

6. Dual Inline Memory Module has chips on both sides

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More on the System UnitMore on the System UnitSpeeding up ProcessingSpeeding up Processing

The CPU works much faster than RAMSo it could sit there waiting for informationCache temporarily stores instructions and data that the

processor uses frequently to speed up processing Level 1 cache is part of the microprocessor

Holds 8 to 256 kb Faster than Level 2 cache

Level 2 cache is SRAM external cache Holds 64 kb to 2 Mb

Level 3 cache is on the motherboard Comes on very high-end computers

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More on the System UnitMore on the System UnitSpeeding up ProcessingSpeeding up Processing

Method1. Interleaving

2. Bursting

3. Pipelining

4. Superscalar Architecture

5. Hyperthreading

Description

1. CPU alternates communications between two or more memory banks

2. CPU grabs a block of data from memory instead of retrieving one piece at a time

3. CPU doesn’t wait for one instruction to complete before fetching its next instruction

4. The computer can execute more than one instruction per clock cycle

5. A technique used in superscalar architecture in which the OS treats the microprocessor as though it is two microprocessors

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More on the System UnitMore on the System UnitPortsPorts

Port Type1. Serial Port

2. Parallel Port

3. SCSI Port

4. USB Port

Description1. Used to transmit slow data over long distances

a. Sends data sequentially, one bit at a timeb. Used to connect keyboard, mouse,

monitors, dial-up modems2. For transmitting fast data over short distances

a. Transmits 8 bytes simultaneouslyb. Connects printers, external disks, backups

3. Small Computer System Interfacea. Connects up to 7 devices in a daisy chainb. Transmits data 32 bits at a time

4. Universal Serial Bus can theoretically connect up to 127 peripheral devices in a daisy chain

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More on the System UnitMore on the System UnitUSBUSB

GoalsBe low-costBe able to connect lots of devicesBe hot swappable

People hate rebooting because it takes time Hot swapping means a device can be

connected/disconnected without rebootingPermit plug and play

Devices are automatically configured when they are installed – no need to download new drivers

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More on the System UnitMore on the System UnitUSB ContinuedUSB Continued

StandardsUSB 1.1 – the original standardUSB 2.0 – the current standard for new PCsUSB On The Go (OTG) – currently under development

ConnectorsA – in USB Type 1.1 and 2.0B – in USB Type 1.1 and 2.0Mini B – in USB Type 2.0Mini A – in USB OTG used for smaller peripherals like

cellphones

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More on the System UnitMore on the System UnitSpecialized Expansion PortsSpecialized Expansion Ports

Port Type1. FireWire

2. MIDI

3. IrDA

4. Bluetooth

5. Ethernet

Description1. Intended for devices working with lots of data

a. Used for camcorders, DVD players, TVsb. Handles up to 400 megabits per second

2. Musical Instrument Digital Interfacea. Connects musical instrumentsb. Used in creating, recording, editing, performing music

3. Infrared Data Association: Infrared ports used to make a cableless connection

4. Uses short-range radio waves that transmit up to 30 fta. Connects computers to printers, keyboards, headsets,

even refrigeratorsb. Named after King Harald Bluetooth, son of Gorm, who

united the Norway and Denmark. Ruled 910-940 A.D.5. The standard for linking all devices in a Local Area

Network

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More on the System UnitMore on the System UnitExpansion CardsExpansion Cards

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More on the System UnitMore on the System Unit Expansion Buses Expansion Buses

Bus

1. PCI bus

2. AGP Bus

Description

1. Peripheral Component Interconnect

a. For high-speed connections

b. 32 or 64 bits wide

c. Typically used for sound cards, modems, high-speed network cards

2. Accelerated Graphics Port

a. Twice the speed of PCI bus

b. For Video and 3-D graphics cards

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Secondary StorageSecondary Storage

Storage Types1. Floppy and Zip disks

2. Hard disks

3. Optical disks

4. Magnetic tape

5. Smart Cards

6. Flash memory

7. Online secondary storage

Descriptions1. Removable disks.

a. Floppies store 1.44 MB

b. Zip disks store 100, 250, or 750 MB

2. Made from thin rigid metal covered with magnetizable substrate. Most disks have 2 or more platters

3. Removable CDs and DVDs

4. Thin plastic tape coated with magnetizable substance

5. Like a credit card, but contains a microprocessor and memory chips

6. Nonvolatile memory – no moving parts

7. Lets you store data on an online vendor’s server

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Secondary StorageSecondary StorageFloppies and Zip DisksFloppies and Zip Disks

Floppies Flat piece of mylar plastic

inside a 3.5” plastic case Store about 1.44 MB Have a write-protect notch Data is recorded in tracks:

concentric recording bands Formatting breaks the tracks

into small wedge-shaped sectors

Read/Write head transfers data between the computer and disk

Floppies DO wear out!

Zip Disks Disks with a high-quality

magnetic coating Store 100, 250, or 750 MB Require a Zip drive; won’t

work on floppy drives Used to store larger files than

floppies can hold Zip disks wear out too!

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Secondary StorageSecondary StorageHard DisksHard Disks

Thin, rigid metal, glass, or ceramic platters covered with a substance that allows data to be held in the form of magnetized spotsThe more platters there are, the higher the drive capacity Store data in tracks, sectors, and clustersFormatting creates a file allocation table that maps files to

clusters or inodes Typical file systems are VFAT & NTFS for Windows, HFS and

ext2 for UnixDrive heads ride on .000001” cushion of air, and can crash!Important data should always be backed up!

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Secondary StorageSecondary StorageHard DisksHard Disks

Hard Disk Types:External Hard Disks – a freestanding disk driveRemovable Hard Disk – inserted into a cartridge drive on

the PCHard Disk Controllers

EIDE – Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics Supports up to 4 disks at 137 GB per disk Marketed as SATA, Fast ATA, Ultra ATA, ATA-2, ATA/100

SCSI – Faster than EIDE controllersFibre Channel – used in large servers – faster and

costlier than SCSI

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Secondary StorageSecondary StorageOptical DisksOptical Disks

CDs and DVDs are Optical disksData is written and read using lasers, not a disk head

CD-ROM is Compact Disk Read-Only Memory CD-R is used for recording only once CD-RW is an erasable optical disk that can both record and

erase data over and over againDVD is a CD-style disk with extremely high capacity

Stores 4.7 or more GB DVD-R is used for recording only once DVD-RW, DVD-RAM, DVD+RW are reusable DVDs

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Secondary StorageSecondary StorageMagnetic TapeMagnetic Tape

Thin plastic tape coated with a substance that can be magnetizedStore 200 GB and higherUsed in the form of tape cartridgesStill popular for large backups because of their large data

capacityBut don’t get it near a magnet as that will erase it!

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Secondary StorageSecondary StorageSmart CardsSmart Cards

Resembles a credit card, but contains a microprocessor and memory chips Holds more information than standard magnetic-strip credit

cards; 8 – 40 MB of data UltraCard

Uses a magnetic shim that draws out of the card to be read, then retracts into the drive

Provides 2 GB of storage Contact smart cards

Must be swiped through card readers Can wear out from use

Contactless smart cards Read when held in front of a low-powered laser

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Secondary StorageSecondary StorageFlash MemoryFlash Memory

Nonvolatile memory with no moving partsBut the electronics can wear outAvailable as

Flash memory cards Insert these into a flash port of a camera, handheld PC,

smartphone Flash memory sticks

A form of flash memory that plugs into a memory stick port Flash memory drives

A finger-sized module of flash memory Plugs into the USB port of most PCs and Macintoshes

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Secondary StorageSecondary StorageOnline Secondary StorageOnline Secondary Storage

Allows you to use the internet to back up your dataSign up with a vendor and receive access to software

that allows you to upload your data to that company’s server

Files should be encrypted to maintain securityUse only for vital files that require immediate availabilityUse tape, removable hard disk cartridges, zip disks,

optical storage or tape for normal backup

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Future Developments in Future Developments in Processing & StorageProcessing & Storage

Moore’s Law Gordon Moore predicted the number of transistors on a silicon

chip will double every 18 months It has held up since the 1960s!

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New Technology1. M-RAM

2. OUM

3. Nanotechnology

4. Optical Computing

5. DNA Computing

6. Quantum Computing

Description of Processing Technology1. Magnetic RAM uses miniscule magnets

rather than electrical charges2. Ovonic Multiplied Memory stores bits by

generating different levels of low and high resistance on a glossy material

3. Tiny machines work at a molecular level to make nanocircuits

4. Uses lasers and light, not electricity 5. Uses strands of synthetic DNA to store data6. Based on quantum mechanics and stores

information using particle states

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New Technology

1. Higher-density disks

2. Molecular electronics

Description of Storage Technology1. Magnetic disk drives currently hold 100

GB of dataa. Blank CDs are replacing floppy disks

since they hold 650MB and cost < $1 each

b. DVD disks hold up to 4.7 GB of data currently

c. Perpendicular recording technology allows 25% - 100% more data to be stored on the same disk

2. Polymer memory creates chips that store data on plasticsa. Nonvolatile memoryb. Data is stored based on polymer’s

electrical resistance

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