Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/16366/7/07_chapter 3.pdf · Xhruschev made hls...

canaa 111

SO VIii 8CONOMY, OLASS STlUJC7:URK AND

iH& afA~B a 1936-?7

251

Xhruschev made hls plea for a· new eonst1tutioo at the

hoi.9nt of the de...Stel1nt.sat1on campaign. 1n the late so •a,

fundamental change 1n the $OClo-economic conditiono could

sc_arcely be offered plausibly as the basic reason for seeking

constitutional changes of a fun~ntal nature • Not long ago

stal$.n had died 1n 1953 ana the recover.y of the war ravaged

ec::onony was not yet complete • During 1962-77. t.he idea Of a

new constitution wa{3 kept allve, although the sane ~las repeatedl

shelved;;. F.inally, \.Jhen the Draft of a new constitution was ·

presented for a oation•wide debate in 1977, forty years had el.ap

since the staltn•s constitution was pt'-omulgated. A thorough•

gotng aocl~conqm1c transformation was held forth ~ erezhnev

to be the basic reason for the adoptlon of anew constitution.

The same tras the roason proffered by stalin fo:: the 1936

const;.itutton., l<brusct)ov•s attempt to have a nev; constitution

could bs const~uea as an aber:rat~en • 'rhe restoration under

Brezhnev of the linkage between ti'le soc1o-<aconQmtc and constl

tutiona:J. change makes it inlperstlve to examlne the socio-economl,

change during 1936-17 • Tbe eeme 1s attempted below.

§.c:opanic j9£velognept under stalin : A9.36•§..3.

*fhe 1936 constitution t-1as adopted 1n the 4th year of the

second Five Yeax- Plan (1933•3?) • 'l'he Thf.~d Five Year Plan ~ms

1nterxupted by the second '~orld \tZar. In the post~~-ar pertoaf 'twt

more plans 't'iere adopted Wlder Stalin - the 4th 1?1vo Year

Plan (1946-SO) and the Stn Flve Year Plan (1951•55) • Staltn•s 1 2

••canmand Econony" characterised by "g1gantomantan was geared

to achieve rapid indust~1al1sation with stress on defence

requ~mants. 'rhe 1ndust.cy uas to develop at the e)tpetlse

of agz;icultwre; heavy capital gooas industtY t,·os to develop

at the expense of the consumer goods indust.t;y ,, A high rate

of urbanisation too wa.s pursued. staltn•s obsession_, 11ke h~

ptedecessos- rulers of Russ 1e, was to overtake the h'est Jn

the shortest possible time. The pace oos of essence • The

* -fcllO\ving Tables indies l e the achievements of the plans and

the resultant oconor.11c ~'Vel.opment and change UQde~ stalin~-

At tne time of stalin's death# a eolia 1ndU$tr1a.l base

existed. Narshall GQlClmsn t'lrttes that by the ear)¥ SOts~ the

soviet Union was widely regarded as the eecon~ largest 1ndustr181

1 It represents the S'J$tem by which stalin sought to control 1ndustJ;y ~ It proceeds nac:c:ord1ng· to administrati vo otders rather than to nt:!rl~et signals". See Paul R~rego.z:y $nd RObart c .st~rt, Soviet Economic structur-e and I Perforsnsnc:e,. (Ne\": ¥ork,197~) ,p-;2=: Timoti'U Dunmore, f~q:s~1ln'ts\

C,Oil'liMnd &congrw (1945-53), (t~t4Ulan, 1980l 1 p,1' Sllman uses the woras uadministrative econony" • For details# see also David A .Dyksr, ~.,,.sgv~e~ ~con~# (LOndon~1976) • pp~S-11; John P•Har.dt and carl Moa(g# ·~stalinist Industrial. Development" in soviet Russia."·, in KU+t London,ed.;.~ spv1et Union .,. A,Half CentH9£. of commun~...!•·(Maqland~1968) pp~308-319,!

2 Th1s e~presslon denQtes the ~ndeney to plan fOr only big, gigantic projeets,l>iggest or largest 1n t.be world• This aptitude strained resour<:e allocation., For details~ see Gz:egory and stuart., n~t."pp.421 and 44<'·+·

253

Indexes of Soviet Industrial Production

1928 . 1937 19-ill 1950 1955

Official Soviet 100' (") 446 646 1119 2065 Hodgman 100 '..: : 371 4So 646

.Jasny 100 287 330-350 411 Clark 100 311 340·-

· National Bureau · 100 257 279 421 688 Shim kin 100 274 290 - 4~! . 715

'fable 1 .. -;,., . .

Source David Ca:upbell, 'l1he Soviet Economic Power_, (Londo~, 1960), ~:48~

/ /'

. ----·--·-------

1940 1945 1950 . 1950 (plan) (actual)

NationP.l .in.come (index) 100 83 138 .164 9ross industrial production 100 92 148 173

Producers' goods 100 112 205 Consumers' goods· 100 59 . 123

Gross agricultural production 100 60 127 99 .· Workers and employees (millions) 31·2 27·3 33·5 39·2 Average wages (per annum) 4,054 (5,000) 6,000 7",670 Pe~ilwnv eond~ trnffic (milliard tons

k.ms) 41~ ~1t1 ~J2 ()02·3 CoaJ (million tons) 165·9 149·3 2SO lbl·l Electricity (milliard Kwhs) 48·3. 43·2 82 91·2 Oil (million tons) 31·1 19·4 . 35·4 37·9 Pig iron (million tons) 14·9 8·8 19·5 19·2 Steel (million tons) 18·3 12·3 25·4 27·3 Tractors (thousands)0 66·2 14·7 112 242·5 Cement (million tons) 5·7 1·8 10·5 10·2 CottoJ{fabrics (million metres) 3900 1617 .4686 .3899 Wool fabrics (million metres) 119·7 53·6 159 1"55·2 Leather footwear (million pairs) 211·0 63 240 203·4 Sugar (million tons) . .2·2 0·46 2·4 2·5 Grain harvest (million tons) {barn) { 95·6 47·3 . { 81·2

· ('biological') 119 127 120

o IS h.p. unlts.

(souRcEs: ·'Ek.:Zh., pp. 437, 441. pp. 502-3; E. Lokshin. Promyshlen· IIDJI' SSSR, 194~3 (Moscow, 1964), p. 150; Pravda, 16 March 1946; Nar .. klwz., 1965, p. 567, p. 461, p. 311; Nar. khoz., 1963, p. 501.) ... \

. I

Table : 2

Source :Alec Nove, An Economic History of the U.s.s.n. (Penguin, 1972).

255

,.

... \ '.·: . . .. 1940 1947 1948 /949. 195.0 1951 1952 ~

(million tons) ~ ' Grain harvest;'C:taimed

' ..... · l .I

(biological) .. \. ·ug· 115 124 124 ° 121 130 Grain harvest, real . 95·6 65-9 67·2 70·2 81·2 . 78·7 92·2 .Potatoes.; •i• . .. /·_,6.-1: 74·5 95·0 89·6 . 88:6. 58·7 69·7 Cotton :! 2·~ 1·7 2·2. 2·5 3·5 .. 3·7 J.8 .. • • t ~ .

· (million head)· · :

. . Co..VS·

,. ... , 28·0 23·0 23-8 24·2 24·6· 24·3 24·9

(souaca: Nor. klroz., 196.5, p. 310; Pravda, 20 January 1949, 1~ January , 1950, 26 January 19~1. 29 Januaiy 1952.) .. ·. :.

I

rrahle 3

Source: Alec Nove, An Economic History of the U.s.s.R. (Penguin, 1972), Po303.

'

'

TahlP. : 4

19.50 19.5.5 1955 plan actual

National income (1950 = 100) 100 160 171 . Gross industrial production 100 170 185

Producers' goods 100 180 191 · Consumers' goods 100 165 176 Coal (million tons) 261-1 373·4 . 389·9 Oil (million tons) 37·9 70·9 70·8 Electricity (milliard Kwhs) 91·2 164·2 170·2 Pig iron (milliori tons) 19·2 33-8 33·3 Steel (million tons) 27-3 44·2 45·3 Tractors (15 h.p. units) 246·1 292·9, 314·0 Mineral fertilizer (million tons) 5·5 .10·3 9·7 Cement (million tons) 10·2 22·4 22·5 Commercial timber (million

cubic metres) 161·0 251·2 212·1 Cotton fabrics (million metres) 3899 6277 5905 Wool fabrics (million metres) 155·2 239·0 252·3 Leather footwear (million pairs) 203 315 271 Sugar (thousand tons) 2523 4491 3419 Fish (thousand tons) 1755 2773 2737 Total workers and employ~s

(millions) , 40·4 46·5 50·3 Housing (million square metres) 12·4* ··1050 112·9° Retail trade tum-over (Index) 100 170 189

0 In the fivo years endiltg in 1950, 1955 and 1960 respectively. t 1955 = 100.

256

1960 pla11

160t 165t 170t 160t 592 135 320

53 68·3

20 55

·- 301

205° 150t

(SOURCBS: Nar. kiJOZ., 1965, pp. 130-39, 5S7; Promys/dennost' SSSR (1957), p. 43; Direktivy X1X S'ezda Partii po pyatlet11emu p/anu razvitiya SSSR 110 1951-5 gody, (1952), pp. 3-4, 25; Dinektivy XX S'ezda KPSS

· po Shestomu pyatletnemu p/anu razviliya 11aroclnogo J.;lwzyai~tva SSSR na 19.56-60 gg; XX S'ezda KPSS stenotchet, Vol. 11 (1956).)

NoT I!: I am aware that, since 70 per cent of indliStrial output consisted of producers' goods, the 1960 plan indices for gross industrill.l production are inconsistent, But that is how they appeared in the plan.

Source: Alec Nove, An Economic History of the U.s.s.R. (Penguin, 101'2), ·I>o3·1:0.

Table 5

TABLE 5: U.S.S.R. LEVELS OF INDUSTRIAl. OUTPUT, 1913 AND 1955; COMPARED TO U.S. INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT IN 1955

U.S.: R. W:r'd

Unit of U.S.S.R.' U.S.S.R.• u.s.• RL~k Industry Measure 1913 1955 1955 I' .. ':)

Electnc power billion kwh. 2.0 170.0 629.0

Coal• million short tons 32. I 304.0 493.0

Steelb million short tons 4.7 50.0 117.0

Cement< million short tons 2.0 24.8 55.0 Oi\d million barrels (I

barrel = 42 U.S. gal.) 74.0 508.0 2,484.0

• Excluding lignite and brown coal. b Total crude-steel production (including ingots and steel for ca~· .. :gs;

excluding wrought iron). • All hydraulic cement used for construction, including portland. L;.mi

nous, natural, etc. d Including shale oil but excluding natural gasoline; U.S.S.R. data in ::~:ric

tons converted to barrels using U.S. Department of Commerce conv::-~ton factpr: I bbl. = 139.07 kg.

SOURCES I. Strano Sovetov za 50 let (Moscow: Central Statistical Agency :.· the

Council of Ministers, 1967), pp. 58-61. 2. Narodnoie khoziaistvo SSSR (The Economy of the U.S.S.R.), S:t::sti

cal Handbook (Moscow: Central Statistical Agency of the Coun::: of Ministers, 1956), pp. 63, 67, 69, 71, 79.

3. U.S., Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United S.ues: 1957 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1957), pp. 947, 9.!:..50.

257

Source: Kurt London, ed., '!'he Soviet Union - A II lf c ~~~~~~~~~~-~--~nturv of Comm~nism O.fD.ryla·nd, 1968), p.304. '-

258

p~rol' .,with an impress 1 ve co~e of industr.y n • 3 But to1G was

achJ.eved at a heavy cost ~ both human end material• was

staltn really necessa~ 14 is the ~estion repeated~ asked

since stalin•s death.

~conomio oevelo~t Under l<hruschev

It was in the third year of the fifth ~len period

(19Sl~Ss) that staltn dta. The tJlalenko.-t-lolotov•Berta . A . .

r.: t.t-iumvirate toolt over • Malenko•e popular measures;) had a bS!aring on the ple.n. tfatievar,. Malenko re$1gned in. 195S; paving

tho ~lqf for Khruschev'•s rise, By 1958; ruu=usc~v cQmbined tn ~ ..

bimsel£ the p. o~lons of premier and the General•Bee•ataz:y o£ th1 " party • The 20th Party congress had~ adopted the sixth plan

(1956.,.60) which ~;as la~r found to ba defeotil.ve and finally

abandoned. The years 1956•59 remained what Nove callsf

3 See MaJ:"shall l-,Goldmant "The economic Gret'lth and Industrial Che.nge in the -soviet tinton'.,:•: i~i t·!OJ."r~s Be;ns"!" teln and· Dani-el n,.FUsfeld,ed .•• The sovie~ Econom1 -~ .~ BO()k of Readings • (lllinois.,19?0) t:P·~34"7 ~ · ·

4 see Alae i~ove, ~as §tal in Reall:( Neceasag ?(Lorldqn, 1g74)

5 ';t'hese m3asures include a pt'iorit?t to c;o~um£;:l7 goods., affecting t-qage .. tncreaaes, prica-cuts, reduction in compulsoey bald sale• reduction in agricult~al ta~ raising procurement prices etc. see A..lec t~ov,. M: ·· Eeonom!~ Histo!Y of the u.s ,.s .• R~, (Pengu~n 1972r;PP• 322~333~ . .

...

259 .. orphan years"6 Both tnduatr1al and agricultural se<:tprs were

sought to be re•st~uct~a .tepea~aly through .t:efotms~ ·first

in 1954~55 and then in 1957 • 7 There tollot .. -ad a gigantie seyen ..

year plan £o~ the per;iQd 1959·65 \>Jhtcn outliv$d Khruschev.

rou:uscnev's unsopb1st1catedj outapoltGn sometimes rudo stv 1~ of

wor~. fiasco of his V.1rg1n Lands Campaigns 8, attaCk on pr1 vete

r 1ots,9 the confusion creating reforms ana ,teorgan1satlon10bad

ha.~sts and import of grain f~om the west. slow down in 1ndustr~

gr~·~h i~~s and growing economic t~eubles11 all contributed to hJ

ouster in oct.oberf 1964,. 1'he follOt>JUtg Tables* indicate th,economi<

deve.l~n~ ®de.r r<nruschev.~

6 ~.,p.3S3

7 For 4et~1ls., see R:~w.~v$.es. "IndUstr1al.isat1on and After•·, 1n R•li1.Pav1es ana J.B.shew ea •. ,. The soviet union,; (L-ondon 1919), p.,S4, Gregoq ana Stua~j n-.·1•·PP:•-S38-46,Nove,n.s# PP•327•36B~

9 The three campaigns Qndertalten under JQu:uschev we.re a (1) vtrgt.n lanc.s; (2) grow-corn, (3) plough•up• For deta~lE see GJ:egot;y ana stuar;t,. n •. t,.pp;-243-45 • ·

9 Ho aloo denounoe4 owning o£ .. private ~ottagesn in ~al a£eas and ott1c;1r bourgeois pr:ope.rty ten~nc ies. ~e No"4{.-n •. s,pp.362•

.-

Source:

260

•rable : 6

l'HE GNP GHOWTH HA'fES· IN 'rilE USSU 1928-40 and 1948-66

----------AvERAGE ANNUAL GNP GROWTH RATES IN THE U.S.S.J;

1928-40 AND 1948-66 (percentages)

GNP Growth Rates 1928-40

Soviet data 13.3 Western estimates from 3.5

to 10.0

• 1945-66,9.5 per cent; 1950-66,8.9 per cent. b 1948-64.

SOURCES

50-yr. av. 1948-66 1913-63

9.2• 6.85 6.7b 2.1

4.8

So1•iet dlllu. Calculated from national income data in Narodnole K!Joziaistvo S.S.S.R. [The Economy of the U.S.S.R.] (Moscow: Central Statistical Agency of the Council ofMinisters, 1956), p. 36; Strana Sovetov za 50 Let [The Country of the Soviets for 50 Years] (Moscow: Central Statistical Agency of the Council of Ministers, 1967), p. 28.

Western estimates. 1928-40: Peter Wiles, "Statistics on the Soviet Economy," The ASTE Bulletin (The Association for the Study of Soviet-Type Economies, University of Pennsylvania), vol. IX, no .. 2 (1967), pp. 10-11, which incorporates work by A. Bergson and S. Kuznets (1928-50, using both 1928 and 1937 weights) and Wiles 1926-29). 1948-1966: The datum "6.7 per cent" is a representative Western estimate for 1948-64. Most sources agree that the Soviet GNP growth rate after 1950 averaged about 7.1 per cent until the 1959-64 period, when it slowed to an average of 5.3 per cent (Stanley H. Cohn, "Soviet Growth Retardation: Trends in Resource Availability and Efficiency," in NeiV Directions in the Soviet Economy [U.S., Congress, Joint Economic Committee (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1966)], p. 107). For the postwar years before 1950, there are less data. Calculations from GNP indexes by Bergson indic.1te that the annual rate for 1948-50 was about 9.3 per cent. (A. Bergson, The ASfE Bulletin, vol. IX, no. 2 [1967], using 1937 ruble factor costs.)

~uotetl by John Po Hardt and C~rl Modi~· .. ''Stalinist Industrial Development in Sov~et Russ~a , io Kurt London, ell. , 'l'he Sovi~_t U n~_:-.~--~r.a.!.~. C~n tury of Comr~unism (~~arylantl, 1968), p.,299.

----·-- ----

Tahle 7

1958 1965 1965 plan actual

National income 100 162-165 158 Gros!; industrial output (index) 100 180 184

.Producers' goods 100 185-188 196 Consumers' goods 100 162-165 160

Iron ore (million tons) 88·8 150-160 153-4 Pig iron (million tons) 39·6 65-70 66·2 Steel (million tons) 54.9 86-91 91·0 Coal (million, tons) . 493 600-612 578 Oil (million tons) 113 230-240 242·9 Gas (milliard cubic inetres) 29·9 150 129·3 Electricity (milliard Kwhs) 235 500-520 507 Mineral fertilizer (mtllion tons) 12 35 31·6 Synthetic fibres (thousand tons) 166 666 407 Machine tools (thousands) 138 190-200 185 Tractors (thousands) 220 355 Commercial timber (million cubic metres) 251 275-280 273 Cement (million tons) 33·3 75-81 72·4 Cotton fabrics (million squa~c metres) 5·79 7·7-8·0 7·08 Wool fabrics (million square metres) 303 1,485 365 Leather footwear (million pairs) 356·4 515 486 Grain harvest (million tons) 134·7 164-180 121-1 Meat (total) (million tons) 3·37 6·13 5·25 Workers and employees (millions) 56·0 66·5 76·9 Housing (million square metres) 71·2 650-660° 79·2

(SOURCES: Nor. khoz .. 1960, pp. 210-12; Nor. khoz., 1965, pp. 136-9, 1.62, 557, 609; seven-year plan, 1959-65.)

0 'I utul fur bt:Yilll yuu1 b I !J~IJ ro1,

261

Source: Alec Neve, An Economic History of the U.s.s.R. (Penguin. 1972), pg353.

262

COMPARATIVE OUTPUTS of MAIN PRODUCTS at VARIOUS DATES

Coal Oil Electricity Gns Pig Iron Steel Rolled Steel Iron Ore Cement Hricks Mineral Fcniliscrs

Caustic Soda 1\niticial Fihrcs Synllwlic lh·sin nrul

l'lu•lu· .. l\1~1.,1 o..ulllloK r\l.'-11111"

'l'ouJs Steam Locomotives Main-line Diesel

Lor.omoti,•cs Muin-linc Electric

Locomotives Goods Wagons Passen11er Wn~:ons Motor V chicles Motor Cycles nnd

Scooters ,D,ic)·clcs ond Mopeds I ractors

Grnin·harvcsting Combines

Paper

;;;;;~·;;;;. -~ -;~; :tH :::~ II~~;:- ! -~:~~ million tons 11·6 3l'J 37'9 147'9 I 2~3

milliard kWh s·o 48·3 91·2 292·3 507 milliard cub. metres '3 3'4 6·2 47·2 , 129

million tons )') 14·9 19·2 46·8 ~ 66·1 million tons 4'3 tll·3 27·3 65·3 \ 91 million tons 3 ·4 13 ·a 20·9 s 1 ·o 10·•1 million tons 6·t 29·9 39'7 105·9 1'53 milli.m tons •·s s·7 10·2 45'S 72·~

milliard units 2·9 1·s 10·2 JS'S H

I million tons ·t 3·2 s·s tJ"9 ]1·3

(in conventional units) thousand tuns IC)O JZS 765 t]OJ

I thousand tons ·z 1 1 ·r 2 1·~ '2: 1 1 • 2 .1tl; ., ........ , ... ) ..... ... thousnnd units

units

in sections

in sections thousand units

units thousunds

thousunds thuusonda thuusnnds

(naturul units)

thousunds million tons

:z.·o -179

to·S l'J

• 1 'J

lOS I

'45

125

IOl

so·S 9tl

I )6]

6·8 12] 255 b-19

]1·6 1116

u·S -16·3

IJ03

tSs

6o~t 37"2 1

t<JK6' (u6

711 )')00

3SS

Cotton Fabrics

Woollen Fabrics

Linen Fabrics

Silk Fabrics I million lin\!nr nlctres

rnilllon uqunre rnctrcs million lincnr metres

Jnillion square metres rnillion Jinc:tr ntetrl'S

million squure metres million lintur metres

j million square n\ctrcs 1nillinn g:oumcnts Knitted \Yenr .

Leather fOut\\'ear Huhl><r fuutwnlr Clu.:k~ und Wutch,·s Ru.tio ami Television

86·8

J'JS+·S 1Jli<J•~· 2 2704 2745

119·7 , •ss·z tp·t i 193'% 2Hs·s zSz·a 26ll·3 2.57·4

77"3 129'7 6o~·z 1os·9 ' tli•J 197'5

SIJ"O 2 "-I

I>3X7 -Ill]&

]41·8 4J!I·s ss•r2 s o6·t 8oo1·7 b75·:z. sHyy

H7

Sets Soap' Granulated Su11nr Butter' Vegctuhle Oil' Meat' Fish Confectionery Tinned Foods

million puors 1uillinn IMtrs luilhun UIH(S

milliun units million tons million tons

thous .. nd tuns milli~.n cons 1\lllliun tuns rnillion tuns million tuns milliurd tins

'')

2.11 70 z·ll

lOJ ' 411)

Ill II lUI.

7·6 26·o

'] :;6! 1:~7~ ~:~!)I 8~::5 ' 2.2~::1) .,]]~::2.1 7Jr:~~

·67 t·so t·ss 4·4o ·84 1'401 !'751 ]'54 '01) '79 . '9\1 I '7

n.a. 3o·b

1"1)

11"0 1070'

2"1 S ·2

S"7 2'] 7'0

Groin million tons

·t t·t i t·s 4 ·8 I {

73 95'S lla·z i•zs·s (nv. (nv. (uv. (uv. 1 (uv.

•9:z.ll-~2) •938-4o) "H•J-sJ),t9StJ-6J) •1J64-5) . _?J·!J __ 77"~ .. --~~~·9 _ _'24'7_[ IJS"8

1 In terms uf 40 per cent. content of fntty ucid>.

1 Docs nut include production in individuul (pcn>uou) housd10ld•.

1 Docs not include production in individunl (pcn>anl) houschoi.Jo or collective farm pro<luction.

(The larucr lutnl is nearly do>Ublc that 11iven above in the cnse uf Meat.) • For 196]. 1 Fur 1961. n.n. =nut nvniluhle.

SOUHCES: Narudnue Kho:iaistvo S.S.S.R. t•. 1<JS8g., t.~K uq; Narodnoe Khu:iaistvo S.S.S.U. u. 19621/., 12.4-6; Narodnoe Kloo:iai1tt•o S.S.S.Il. t•. I<Jfi·l ~-. 1 q-20, 273; Ts.S.U. ltcports on Results of Fullilment of State l'lun, for the relevant years; U.i':., E. C. E., Hco11omic Survey of Europt in 1955, Table XXX; Economic Survey of Europe in 1960, Table XIII; Economic Surv~y of Europt in 1964, App. to Chap. I.

Table 8

Source: Maurice Dobb, Soviut_ Economic Development Since (London, 1972), Pc326.

1917 .

·'KHRUSHCHEV'S AGRICULTURAL MISMANAGEMENT

Agricultural output during lhe seven-year plan should have increased by 70 per cent. This is what in fact happened:

1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1965 plan

Total 100 100·4 103 106 107 99

113 114 170

Crops 100 ·95 99·4

101 101 92

119 !07

(sOURCE: SSSR I' lsifrakh I' 19~S gqdu, p, 6U,)

'rable : 9

Live• stuck 100 108 107 I 12 115 108 106 123

263

source: Quoted in Alec Nove, An Economic History ot the USSR, (Penguin, 1972), Po262.

Urban house-building ,:·. (million square metres of total space)

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

State Private

55-8 56·8 59·8 61·9 58·9 ~·~

27·0 23-6 20·7 17·4 16·2 15·5

·(SOURCE: SSSR v tsifrakh v 1965 godu, p. 157.)

Table : 10

URBAN HOUSE-BUILDING

Source: Quoted in Alec Nove, An Economic History of the USSR ( Penguin, 197 2), p. 2 62 •

264

MoQ8rat1on and stabilit¥ '~x:e the hallrnarlta of the·

B.rezhnev era. 'lhe two notable events ~;ere a Kosygin r~forms

mid•1960 • s and Liberman •·s proposals • 1~oeever ~ ve:;y little by

~ of reform was accomplished •13 After the completion of the

sevan-Yea~ Plan in 1965~ the 8th Pl&n seamed to have begun

but the plan was not in f1na,l form until the end of 196714 -•

the yeQJ:' that marked th~ SOth anniversary of the October

Revolution. 'l'he Soviet system ~Jas widely evaluated both inside

the soviet Union as well as outside 1n the west. The following

* Tables provide useful 1nfoJ:mat1on~ under Brczhnev, t\-70 more

plans we~ completed •Stn Plan (1966•70) and 9th Plan (1971-7~)

12 Fot an account of Libe.rman•s proposals~ see Grego%17 and Stuart~ n.1,pp.346'""~-- Bernstein and FusfGl.d.~n.~3iPP• 367-368. Liberman's proposals regarding the positive role of profits fell into disfavour after nee., 1969• see P.t1chael ~oe~, uThe Econonu a A General Assessmentn in A~ch1e Brown and Mich=?el Kaser~ eds.h The Soviet ynion Since the Fall of Khrusche~, (McMillan~ 197s}~ P•208; I<.t~llliem l<eizer., The Soviet Qu,eat;. For sconomi-c ~ationali~~ {Netherlands,1971}.pp•107•1ao.

13 For details .• ~a~e Gregory and stuart, n.1.pp~·344~370,Nove~ n 41s,.pp.369·72. "Adm1ttedly reform failed in part because of way it was administered! 'l'he provisions of the r~form had to be enacted tq the petty-bureaucracy that we most opposed to the reforms in the first placeu ~ see M~· Martin, "Econanic Reform and the Maximising Sebaviour of the soviet Fumu, in Ju.dith Thornton, ed~ Econom.ic Analysj of.the soviet 11FB ~x~tem. (Cambr1dge,1976),p.21~

14 See Alec Nove, The soviet Economic ~ste~,(Landon,1979)• Pt32•

* see Tables Nos. 11-12, f}. ;tB-- ~G

----------

FIGURE 1 StzE AND SOURCES OF SovtET GNP

1913 AND 1958

1958 GNP = 153 billion rubles

Industry - 59%

Agriculture - 20%

1913 GNP = 24.5 billion rubles

Industry- 21% Other- 21%

Agriculture - 57%

Other 22%

10URCES ·I "S t" t"c on the 19/J s N. Prokopovitch, quoted in Peter w_. c~. ttl IS I s Soviet Ec~nomy;· Tlte AST£ IJullc!l,.,r (The i\sso:cmuon for the Study of Soviet-Type Economics, University of Pennsrlvama), vol. IX, no .. 2 [1967],

P. ii5s s1·ze·. Nancy Nlmttz, Soviet National Income and_ Budg. et, 1956-58 bl C s t on Naroc/Jroil! !Santa Monica, Calif.. 1962), in market ru es. ompo I 1 •

~hozioistvo SSSR v 1964 godu (Moscow, 1965), p. 67.

Tah 1 e : 11

Source: John P. Hardt ancl Carl :\foclig, in Kurt I'he Soviet Union-'~ Half Century of bturyland, lflGt;)J p.305 ..

London, ed., Co ru nu nis r..t

Table 12

AvERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH RATES IN SELECTED SECTOKS or THE SOVIET EcoNOMY (percentages)

• Warren Nutter, lecture at The Institute for Sino-Soviet Studies. I. George Washington University, Washington, D.C., December 18, 1967.

286

Source: l(urt London, edo, crhe Soviet Ulll·on -A 1 Half _ce ntur~

0 c~~~~~.!~ (.\!ary land' 1968)' p.305. -

267

It was in the th1~ year of tbe 10th Plan (19'1~0) that

a new const1tutlon was adopted.- l'ha oconomlc development

• dus;-ing 196~77 ls indlQatecl t!( t.t\e following TablGSt

The problems pe~1nS.ng to the soviet statistics notwlth•

st.andirlg15the above 'l'a~les stand testimony to tne ~mandous strides made by the soviet econcrw in a short. spun of slx

decades •. 16 However, s1nc:e early 1970•sf'. the g~cwth rate

has been falling. The 10~h .trJ.ve Year Plan vtaa greatly under

fulf111ed!7 Purthe~ economic aecl1ne was predicted as tnevl~

teblc18 • a~eznnev himself acknowledges many p.roblems • 6 t'le haVi

good many long.,. term problema ana they at' a big problems n .,19

16

17

18 I

19

see Tables Nos!' 1~- 2.~ I n' 2 68- :z; r see Alee Nove.. "A No1!2 on the Ava! ·Jlab1litx 2nd Re11ab1l'11 g£. @.oviet s~tistics", t.n aern$&1n and Fusfeld,n,3·,pp~ 291•9§• Ddbb h~·~ve~ rejects cr1t1c1sm against the soviet statistics. s~e Ma~toe DObb, soviGt Economic Development sinee 1917, (London#1972) •PP•26~6a~ A6ram Bergson argues that., *'Westqrn spgc1ali$tS haw ·found ma~ reasons to be skept1cel of ~soviet datau~ see ~b.ram Bergson., The Soviet Econom; since 1970u, in. E£_osE!cts £or Soviet Economic GroH.~h in .. ~he 19.10 ·~ (B~usuele~ 1975) , P!~13., see also Jan PJJY&;ia, "How statisti.<;:a Are Made".• in Problems of communinm. Jan/1teb.1962 ••

see Nove~ "The Net-1 Soviet Five Year Plan•~ J.n l!9.rld, T<?~ vol •. 37, no.S,~lay., 1981; p.,168.

See Ib1d,p.171,. But Bergson underline~ that there is no nret.ardation in "t;he g.;:Ot\-'th Of princtple #.npU.ttJ~ 1te "' labour and capital~ see aergsan,n~1S•P•'· seo L.:t\tBrezhnev, "Speech at;. the Plenaq session of t.he c.c of the CPSU", JZeprocluc:ad 1n tba q,w:,-rent Digest of so"i~ J?re§s, (C .o.s.p .. > ~vo1~XXVIII~t!os.43,.Nov.24~1976,p•'i• see also areahnev "Speech on 60th Anntversa,xyn.,CDSP•\tol.xxxx, No.44,Novt30.t977,p,3! see L.,I!Brez}lnev,n:,101 p,s.

-- --~~--

Indicator

,.

. Soviet Economic Performance: Growth •

(average annual percentage rates of change)

1951-55 1956-60 I 961-65 1966-70

(;ross :'\ational Product 5.8 5.13 4.9 5.3 Industry 10.3 8.9 6.6 6.2 :\griculture 4.1 4.1 2.4 4.2

268

1971-75

3.7 5.9

-2.0

• Estimates are in terms of Western definitions excluding weapons and measured at factor cost. Soum: Rush V. Greenslade, "The Real Gross National Product of the U.S.S.R., 19~0-1975," in United States Congress, joint Economic Committee, Soviet Economy in a New Perspective

' (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976), p. 272.

Table : 13

Source: (Juotert by Robert c. Stuart, "..:he T Soviet Economy",

Current Histou, volo75, No.440, Octo 1978, p.llO.

269

------- ~

Soviet Economic Performance 190J 19JO I97J 19JJ 19J8 1980 (1980)

(plan)" (actual) I (plan) 0 (u/.)00

Electricity (mlrd kWh) so7 741 to6s 1039 1202 1380 I 29S Coal (mal. tons) ns 624 69s 701 724 8oo 74S Oil (mill. tons) 243 3B S05 491 572 640 6o6 Gas (mlrd. cub. met.) 128 198 po 289 372 435 435 Steel (mill. tons) 91 116 146 141 ISJ 168 IS7 Fertilizer (gross) 31 55 90 90 98 143 (no) Chemical fibres (gross) C.LO o.62 1.06 0.95 1.10 1.49 {t.}S) Cement (gross) 7Z 95 us 122 127 144 {If4) Fabrics (mill. sq. mets.) 7320 8640 IIIOO 10100 1o6oo n8oo (11400)

0 Tbe :lve-year plan targets, set five years earlier. u Ba::akov, Pravda, 29 Nov 1979; (figures in brackets are my estima:..:s).

'!'able 14

Source: Alec Nov~, "Soviet Economy : Problems and Prospects", New Left Ueview, No .. l19, ,ran./I<,eb~, 1980.

Table ; 15

!11\.l'E.: 01" GHOW'rli OF 'rilE SOVIE'l' ECONOMY : 1971-75

1970-71 1971-72

1972-73 1970-73 1970-75 (Plan)

Official Soviet data

6.0 (5.9) 3.8 (3.6) 8.2(6.8) 6.0 (5.4)

(6.7)

Western data

4.2

1.7 7.5 4.4

270

source: Abram Bergson, 111rhe Soviet Eeonowy Since 1970", in Prospects for Soviet Economic Growth in the 1970's "(Brussels, Hff5T, I>o7o

~-.

271

r

Soviet Agricultural Production: Selected Indicators

(average annual output in millions of metric tons)

Product 1961-65 IIJ66-70 1971-75 1976-77 1976-llO

(;rain 130.3 t67.u I IS 1.6 209.6 215-220 Potatoes 81.6 94.1l 89.8 84.2 102 \' egctablcs 16.9 19.5 23.0 24.0 28.1 Cotton 5.0 b. I 7.7 1!.5 B.5 Sugar Beets

(for prQcessing) 59.2 81. I 76.0 96.6 95-'>B :'\I cat (slaughter wt.) 9.3 11.6 14.0 14.2 I 5-15.6 :'\I ilk 64.7 ll0.6 ll7.4 92.2 94-96 Eggs (billions) 28.7 35.8 51.4 58.6 58-61 \\'ool (thousands 362 398 442 447 473

of tons)

\'"'"'"· I I at a for tht· yt:ars I •u, I throuKh I 977 from. '\rmulrwr hho;:imstun SSS/l t• 1'17.~~ (!\ loskva: ·,,,,,,,,,b,,,l'r/<,J.)' lll,lluolo·d',J,oto·olto·t•·lllllorutool.\v,oi•ollllll',/ \'.\/.' l.;•r• ltoo.ol\tlu.rltolll

Utuuwuj I!J77tmd ()utluuAfur /Ylo(Wa~hingwn, U.t:.: l!.:-..U.t\., :\pnl, I'J/tl),) ,J. JU-.II.lhtt<t for 197o-80 from David \\'. Carey, "Soviet Agriculture: Recent l'erforma .. .:e and Future Plans," in United States Congress, Joint Economic Committee, Souitl Economy in a Xew l'mputiue (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 580.

Soviet Foreign Trade: Selected Indicators

( 1970-1977)

' Indicator . - . \ 1970' 1971 '. 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977

· .. -... (billions of rubles)

Total exports 11.5 12.4 12.7 15.8 20.7 24.0 28.0 33.3 Total imports 10.6 11.2 13.3 15.5 18.8 26.7 21l.7 30.0

Turnover 22.1 23.7 26.0 31.3 39.6 50.7 56.11 63.4

(millions of U.S. dollars)

.Hard currenC)' exports 2,197 2,652 2,815 4,B Ill 7,630 7,1l00 n.a. n.a.

l-Iard currency importS 2,711 2,955 4,171 6,)66 8,541 14,081 n.a. n.a.

II ala nee -514 -303 -1,356 -1,748 -911 6,21ll n.a. n.a.

Suurces: Jack Brougher, "U.S.S.R. Foreign Trade: A Creatc:r Role for Trade with the West," in lJnitc:d States Congress, Joint Economic C:ommiuee, Suuitt l:'couumy in a .Vtw l'trspectiut (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976), p. 693; john Farrell and Paul Ericson, "Soviet Trade and Payments with the West," in United States Congress, op. cit., p. 728; :-..Joscow Narodny Bank Limited, Prm Hullttin, no. 854 (April 5, 1978), p. 15.

Tables: 16 and 17

Source·: (lnotel'l by Robert C. Stuart, 11 The Soviet Economy", Current lli~tory_, vol.75, No.440, o·ct., 1978, p.ll2.

-- ·-- ---- -------

NATIONAl tNCOMt P~OOUCEO

As a percenta~e

Year '000 million rubles of· the previous year

(In real prices) (In comparable prices)

. 1965 193.5 106.9

1970 289.9 109.0

1971 305.0 105.6

1972 313.6 103.9

1973 337.8 108.9

1914 3&4.0 lOS. 4

1975 363.3 104.5

1976 382 105

In 1976 the nat Ion a I Income which was used for consumption

nnd accumulation Increased by 5 per cent In comparable prices as

compared with 1975. About three quarters of the notional Income

went Into consumption but taking Into consideration expenditures

on dwelling and soclnt and cultural con~lructlon approltlmately

four ll[ths of Jhe national Income went tllrcctly Into the people's

welfare.

Tah1e : 18

272

Source: 'rhe USSn in FigurP.s for 1976 (Progress, 197·'7

Coni lnued ..

HOUSING CONSTRUC110~ - -· = •. - .. -·· 6:£' 1

.. of which

(mill. SQ m of total useful_ floor-space) ..

by state by wor-in co11ec-tive farms

and co- kers and (by col-operative employees lective enterpri- at theIr farms, . - Tot a I ses and own ex-organi- pense and

collective farmers z.a tions with the and by and by help of rural housing state Intel-co-opera- credl ts

tives lectuals)

-

of which

by state by wor- in collec-and co- kers and tive farms

operative employees (by col-enterprl- at their lrctive

Total ses and own ex- farms, organ!- pen .. e and collective z.at ions. with the farmers and by help of and by

housing state ruFal co-opera- credits· in tel-

: tiVE:"S lectuals) .

Firth Five-Year 240.5 113.0 65. I 62.4

Plan (1951-55) .. -J

Sixth Five- Year 474. I 224.0 113.8 136.3

Plan (1956-60) ota1 for 19 18-"Z7 3,201.4 1,809.5 544.7 847_2 T

Seventh Five-Year 490. 6i 300.4 94.0 96.2

Plan (1961-65)

which 1965 97.6 63.2 16. ! .. 18.3 of

918-28 203.0 23.7 27.5 151.8

Eighth Five-Year 518.5 352.5 72.8 93.2

Plan (1966-70)

lrst Five-Y~r P!11n (1929-l2) 56.9 32.6 7.6 16.7 F

of which 1970 !06. ~ 76.6 13.0 16. 4

Ninth Five-Year 544. s 407.3 64.3 73.2

Plan (1971-75)

I 07. 6i 78.7 13.0 15.3 1971

106.7 79.4 12.5 14.8 1972

1973 H0.5 82.9 13.2 14.4

pcond Five-Y~u Plan ( 1933-~~) 67.3 37.2 7. I 23.0

hree and a ht.li years of Thi-:rl Five-Year P1m (1938-first hd of 1941) 81.7 34.4 10.9 36.4

s

T

.I I 0. {; 83.0 13.0 14. I 1974

109. 9• 83.3 12.6 14.0 1975

l'.:)

!976 108.5 84.4 II .6 12-5}

1977 (plan) . •112. p 86.3 11.7 14~

.

-our and 8 hc."f years (from .•u::,r I, 1941 to Janu-ary I, 1946) 102.5 41.3 13.6 47.6

urth Five-Yea=-Plan ( 194 6-5l'l· 200.9 72.4 44.7 83.8

F

Fo

Table .19

Source: 'l'he USS!l in F'i,gure::; for 1976 (.Moscow, 1977),pp.l94-05.

.NUMBER Of' NEWLY BUILT FLATS ~.'liD NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS WHO IMPROVED HOI.:HNG CONDITIONS.

Built flats Number of whom

' of indi-vi duals

who received received recE'ived total new new flab or

useful ! housing housing exira '000 floor- I or built

or built rooms flats space, new new ih old

mill. flats at flats at (e11rlier) sQ. m I their.

their· built

I , own own houses · expense, expense .. mill. . ..

~ '.

. 1950 I, 073 40.4 ' 5, 3: 4.0 I. 3'

' Fifth Five~ Year Plan ; 6,052 240.5 30.6 22.·5 8: 1

lxth Five-Year : ..

Plan 11 ;292 4 74. I 54.0 l

4 I . 7 12.3 ..

s eventh Five-Year

:

Plan II, 551 490.6 : 54.6 42.7 11-.9

of which 1965 2 '227 97.6 I

10.8 8.2 2.6

Eighth Five- Year Plan II, 333 518.5 ! 54.9 42. 1 12.8

of which 1970 2,266 !06.0 i 11.2 8. 4. 2.a

inth Five-Year I Plan 11 • 224 544.8 56. I 41.5 14.6

1971 2,256 107.6 11.4 a.s 2.9

1972 2,233 106.7 II. I . a. 2 2.9

1973 2,276 110.5 11.4 8:4 3.0

1974 2,231 I I 0. 1 11.2 8.2 3.0

1975 2,228 109.9 11.0 8.2 2.8

976 2,200 108.5 10.9 a. 1 .'. 2. 8

s

N

Beginning with 1928 In the USSR :he rent payment is unchan

ged and not exceeds 3 per cent of fami'! income of working people.

The rent payment and municipal sen·i.:es are covering less than

'l'abl e : 20

Source: '!'he USSU in F'igure~ tor 1976 (Moscow, 1977)

Year-

1960

1965

1970

1971

1972

NUMBER Of' FLATS WITH GAS FACILITIES

(end-of-year figUJres)

I : Fl•"· ·ooo .! 'Year Fl:~ts, '000

3,332 1\973 33,927

10,349 1J•974 37,829

23,379 11.975 - 4 _I, 662

26,752. I~ 976 45,069/

30,303

RETAIL TRADE TUmNOVER

(in:prices of the corresponding ye:ars, '000 mill. rubles)

I

,.~ 119651 1970 119751 !976

State and co-operative retail trade turnover, including public cate-ring . . · · · · · · · '·

of which the turnover of sales of agricultura I _ prod.uce by consumer co-operatives at agreed prices and accepted for commission

18. 0 I 04- 8 IS 5. 2 2 I 0. 4 2 2"0. 1

I - I 1.5 1.4 1.4

j

World milirary expenditure, 1979

For the sources and methods for the world military expenditure data, see appendix 1 B. For the conventions used in th: tables and for footnotes, see pages 32 and 33.

Table IA.l. World military expenditure summary, in constant_price figures Figures are in US S mn. at 1978 prices and 1978 exchange-rates.

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

USA 39 475 98 252 100001 107 192 130 872 110 229 104 261 108 540 108 357 110 145 Other NATO 27 885 44 32S 50 386 60 891 63 094 74 699 76 669 78 183 so 438 81 72S

Total NATO 67 360 142 580 150 387 168 OS3 193 966 184 928 ISO 930 186 723 ISS 795 191 873

USSR [37 700] (51 200] [48 000) [65 900]• [92 500] [99 800] [101 300] [102 700) [104 200) [105 700) Other WTO 3 388: 5 423 8 263 10 530 II 13S II 756 12 006 12 256

Total WTO [40 700] [54 200] [51 38~) [71 323] [100 763] [110 330] [112 438] [I 14 456] [116 206] [117 956; .... Other Europe (2 800) (5 140) (5 86il') 7 552 8 595 10 579 II Ill II 052 II 139 II 544 Middle East [800] [I 400) [2 400] [4 500) (10 505) 33 879 36 271 35 366 (34 636) [33 103. South Asia [I 240] [I 415) (I 5551 3 376 3 424 4 037 4 558 4 541 (4 648) [4 74" Far East (excl. China) [4 400] [5 200) (6100] 8 000 II 990 15 771 [16 S80) [18 7SO) [20 275 I [21 58(1 China [12 900) [II SOO) [13100] [25 300) [37 900] [40 300] [40 400) [41 700] [42 900) [44 20( Oceania 987 I 583 14&5 2 279 3 068 3 232 3 194 3 206 3 204 3 1"75 Africa (excl. Egypt) [125] [400) [900] 2 898 5 330 9 134 (9 720) (9 950) [10 130] [10 25< Central America [400] [420) [51'5] 742 9S7 I 266 [I 500) [I S25) [2 070) (1 1-< - -'· South America [2000] [2 250] (2 485) (3 212) 3 981 5 4S9 5 858 (6 120) [5 950] [5 45:'

World total 133 710 226 390 236 :M5 297 265 380 510 418 945 422 860 433 719 439 953 446 IS~

Devt:loped market economies• 181 321 212 407 208 835 205 631 211 371 214 031 21S 7;.~ Centrally planned economies• 97 412 140 074 152 244 154 719 15S 239 161 634 164 so: OPEC countries• (3 800) 8 739 29 821 32 816 32 392 (33621) [30~: Non-oil developing countries :• with (1977) GNP per capita US SS0-300 4 795 5 181 5 812 6 :!33 6 340 [6 660) [6 Q :

with ( 1977) GNP per capita US $320-800 (2 500) 4 536 9 195 s 848 9 484 7 678 [ 7 9 -with (1977) GNP per capita> USSSOO [6 090] ( 8 190) 12 057 13564 14 725 15 071 15 ~ l'V

Total non-oil developing countries 13 385 17 907 27 064 2S 645 30 549 29 409 30 ru: --1 Southern Africa• 688 884 2 152 2 502 2 Sl6 3 191 3 .. , ..

c.n 'fable 21

Source S I PiLI Yearbook, 1980, p.61.

Economic lndicators-lJS§lR and USA Comparisons, 1971

USSR USA ,. --1971 1971

;..:

GNP (billion 1970 US $) 548.6 ' 1,000.4n . P0pulation, mid-year (million persons) 245.1 407.0

Per capita GNP ( 1970 US $) 2,240 4,830n --------------------------------------

Rrcad grains (million metric tons)

Feed grains (million metric tons)

Potatoes (million metric tons)

M cat" (million metric tons)

91.0

58.0

92.3

12.2

45.9

186.2

14.4

23.1 . ------.-....=-·----------------T olal labor force (including the armed forces),

:\djusted annual average (million persons)

Agricultural, adjusted annual average (mil-lion persons)

Cntde oil (million metric tons)

Natural gas (billion cubic meters) - .... -

Electric power (billion kilowatt-hours)

Petroleum products (million metric tons)

C0al (million metric tons)

Primary energy 'product~on (million metric tons of coal equivalent)

Crude steel (million metric tons)

Cement (million metric tons)

' Aluminum (thousand _metric tons)

Refined copper (thousand metric tons)

(hromite (million metric tons)

~tangancse ore (million metric tons)

Iron ore (million metric tons)

N ickc\, refined (thousand metric tons)

B:tll;(itc (thousand metric tons)

Phosphate rockc (million metric tons)

Alltomobiles (thousand units)

Truckc;. including hll"('~ (tht111'11111rl 1111ilt~l

#

I

126.0 86.9

36.9 4.5

377 470

212 637

800 1,827

266 610

592 507

1,291 2,130

120.9 109.1

100.3 72.1 n

1,760 3,561

1,190 1,745

1.4 Neg!.

6.8 0

203.0 83.6

151 14

5,000 2,032

19.5 34.5n

529.0 8,585 -- --- --- ·- -

hiJ.7 2,053 . --. -----------------------

Eke I ric generators (thousand kilowatts) 13,354 36,548

276

)

.... _. i

277

Economic lndicators-U§SIR and U§A Com&»arisons, 1971 (continued)

USSR USA ---

1971 1971

Machine tools, metalcutting (thousand units) 206.0 32.8

Computers, digital (units) 1,000 20,000

Refrigerators (thousand units) 4,557 5,691 d

Washing machines (thousand units) 4,052 4,608 11

Radios (thousand units) 8,794 20,600

Television sets (thousand units) 5,814 11,200

Vacuum cleaners (thousand units) 1,720 7 ,973d

Gold production (thousand troy ounces) 6,960 1,580

n Preliminary. "Carcass weight, bone in, includes beef, veal, mutton-lamb, goat, pork, poultry, and edible offals, but excludes lard. c Estimated. d Factory sales.

SOURCE: Peter G. Peterson, Secretary of Commerce, U.S.-Soviet Commercial Relations itl a New Era (Washington, D.C.: 1972}, p. 35 .

Source: <Juo ted 1 n Paul n. Gregory and Uobert C .stuart, Soviet Economic Structure and Perfo nnan~ (New York, 1974), pp.3-4o

278

The magnitude of· investment of the ear~ years is not feasible

any.moro.20 The u~:aquir:euents are growing faste~ than resources"

resulting in the 1mpoe1t1on of "st~ictest possible economv

measure" .. Greater efficiency and better managemsnt alone could

ensure high rate of gcowth of the soviet econ~.21 ~h1s calls

for reforms \>Jnich the regime .1s \'1aJ:Y of intJ;odl.lCing.22

'rhe soviet economic problems tn late 1970 • s23 have ro~

in the past pr:ocli.vity for~ (1) breakneck speed of gra.>~th, (11)

the mania t.o overtake the u .a., (111) great stress on fleavy and

capital goods industries at. the cos~ of small-scale i.ndustri~s

a.nd ag~iculture, (lv) enormous investnent in the defenee seetor •

The corolla~ is an tmbelanced econ~; where milita~-1ndustr1al

comple~24 (space sector included) reigns sup;eme with heavy

20

21

22

23

24

See Keith Bush# r•sovi.et Capital lnvestment Since Kh~uscbevs A. Note", sov1?t §t~ltU.es,~lo .. 29,Jul;y~1972~pp~91 .. 6.

see 1\.lec tlova,!l'R-ne soviet Ec~.l: Problems and PJ:ospec:ts••, in New Left Rev1ew,no.119~Jan~Feb~,1980.fuzvan 1'ake$ a second Look", tn coluub1a Joyn~~. Qf ?Jorld Bus1nesff_,.Fall~ 1965~ pp,~03-109~· Michael Kaser, ~Kosygiii,l<11>3~n and th~ Pace of Industrial Refo~n, wo.rld

1 Todaz,vol .. 2l,sept.~15f1965

pp.37s .... aa, Keith Bush, n'l'he Refo.lm'IS a A Be lance sheet", f..Eoblerns ,of c!tnunism~vol.16,J~/Au~hf1967~,pp!30 .. 41 RObert Ca~l 1."Economic Reforms 1n the USSR ... A.merican sconorn1c Review,vol.l8,r-1a,y 1968_.pp~1947;;.SS,, In late 19'TO•s the trend had shifted to greater centraltsn~ion ana disc1p• 11ne, see Nove,n,16,p.170. Nedish enumez;ates four pJ:oblerns s (1) obsol.esce~ of plant equipment, (2) insufficient production especial.S.sat1on, (3) b~eaucratic rcs~stence to innovation and (4) low lab.ou; productivity! See Vedtm Me6isn1 The §OViet Un1onl (NGW J~rs~ 19SJ),p.1·52., . see· Brezhnev•s speeeh.es.n,18.talso Raymond Hutchi~gs,"Soviet. Economic dif£1culties•• ~ t-torla 'l'oaax,vol.26~t1ay, 1970~pp. 21&!-24. The e~:pression "m111taq industrial complex'• is used by Ale tlove,.n.21, p~17 ~

centraltsation which in tUI'n b~eeda bureaucratf.2ation4t Much

needed efficient¥ and 1nnovat£on get throttled in the p~oces~ •

ln a s.rstem of high•targets in quantity# the quali~ ls at a

disco\14t • t.rbe grain impo.rta continue , Tile population gr~~lth

(except. in central Asia) ls unsatisfactorily let<~• erezhnev

e.Cknat~l~dges many of the ills ment1one·d above2~

The rapld economlQ development dUring 1936•77 had its 0t1n

impact on the soviet society • ~ccordtng to tt'le Official soviet

perception of the soviet class st~;ucture.; there exist on).y two

frtendly classes in the soviet sootet;.y • the working class end

the collective farm peasantry. Although t~e intelligentsia is cf

officially refe~d to as a stratat it remains the most infl~n~

tial sect~on of th~ soviet sociecy • But eac::h one of ttlese. of£1-

c.ially mentioned unbrella classes or strata of the soviet society

encompasses several l~yers an<l gredations~26 ~"ew among the

soviet soc:iolooists elabOrate on the middle classes and their role

1n the soviet soc1e~.27

25 26

27

see arezhne~,n.lS~ u'l"'he working class ls e~tifi~du ~ fo~ e.Maml)le~. is the cone• lusion arr1ved at by David Lana and Fe.licity Q'Dell,~ soviet lndustr?=al, ~·:orkep,, social claso-.JCducetion nnd, C?n~rol Tr..ondon.,19ia) ~p~132. · · ln the following pagea ~ have cited many soviet wr1t~rs to establish this• · Rutlteivic}l,for. exarnplGt: i.3 among the ver.y few Soviet writers \'1ho ma!te m.mtion of three strata wit.hi.n the \~orld.ng elass, t~10 within the peasantr;y, two in the employee-ncm•spec1al1sts ~d four; within the 1nt.elllgentsia~ see Rutlte1vich,n.104,pp.$0-82.. 'lhe views o£ AS..tov and Stepanian ~re containad in two al!ticles ~ See ~l.a .Aitov. 11Debatal:>le OU>?stions in the st;udy of the soviet Intelligent~ siau .§oviet Soc1ology ~vol.xx.No~2#F~ll, 1981!.PP•23•24 and Ts! A ster..af:llan~ 0\~t. is Indisputable and ~1hat 1s at Issue ln the disc::ussion of: the soc1al struet.ur:e of sov1et Society? ~·· PP!35~~4. our citations from these a~t:icles occur on PP~· 29.-ao~ a e. 45, 4S. 49,·S14!'

••The notion that soc1al.1am does not give ria~ to new social groups and strata is a metaphysical and s$mp1f.stie 1n~retat.1on of the proee.sses of erasur-e of social dUferences as a smooth and even hlght'fay• and of the class differences themselves as a kind of tree from which the leaves fall in autumn, one after the otner. Life ls a great deal more corr~lex and rteher ~~an th1s notion. Motion t<n-mrds complete social homogeneity of $Ceial society is the major tenooncy ~n the development of the soclal structure of the tJSSR. aut this motion . . .

cloos not occur smoothly. It cannot, unfortunately • be represented by so straight a line aa is somett.mes used,. Here integration is accompan1ed b"i differentiation in partieulax-s. There are factors acccle::ating the erasut:e of social boundaries, and factors inhibiting th~s. Developed S~.cialist soc1et.y is a highly compl~~ system".•

1\itov t-1as er1t1ci,sed for his vle~1s by Ts 1\ .Stepanian

who declared that~

"~ lts naturef socialism dces not give rise to new social strata and classes, but is a historical stage 1n the overcoming of differences bet~~.'een social classes,.

Stepanian reiterates the official view when he writes tha.

\'~hat is ne\'1 and funcJamentel in social developnent consists of the fact that common social faatur~s alreaey outt-;eigh the remaining differences ..

He e~plains the process thus a

'X'hat gain u.,.e. t;hc establishment of a ~vcl~d socialist society). ·~·is also reflected in the social development of our eountey, which h.as been expJresaed tn inmense inte~nal qualitat~ve and quantitative change in the socialist <:lasses and iptellisents iaf. which led to the sut:mounting of the former social struct~e of the working class~ collective•iarm peasantey, and the intelligent~la, J;eduction in significant diffe.renees bett>xeen them, and thei~ convergence to a noticeable degr;-ee, largely thanks to., among other th1ngs., substantial erasure of significant

261 differences between to~ and countr,vside and between mental. and .pnysic:el labour·~•·!1'his convergence (of all social groups) occurs along \·11th a sy$temai;ic rise in ttte leading role of th~ working class 1n the development of $tate O"t-m.ership by the entir:e peo.Ple as the decisive economl.¢ foundation of all xelatlorufshS.p in society~

unaer th~ conClitions of aG\tal.oped soo1elism t-tli.at. occurs f.:J an 1nerC;lase in sQC:~el homogeneity,. and not the developuent of social Ciiffez:ontia tion and the appearance of new sOQial stt:ata on that basis •

As Aitov · suggests, the so"iet soo1al st;-ueture 1n the late

1970*s t'lSS far more complex~ 1'he official. cha~ac~erisation

of th~ soviet class tatruc:ture SO'.snds eimplis~tc~ secondly., each

major c~a:;)s in the soviet Union hQ:pr..ens to contain \'1ith1n

it.solf ~prtant. s~st~ta. eut. for the purpose of our

' st.uQy; the· evolutiOn of on.l.y the major classes~ 1.,e.~ the

\forking ciass.- the collectiveWi!>fArm peasantry, and the int~ll1"""

gentsia during 1936..;.77 is examined below.

In 1 f}17 f tne peasants happened to be i.n a tt40 to one

majori'CJ vs.s ... a ... vis :t~ workea:-s ~ 1\ mare 17 per cent of the

Jplul$t.ion C!ompr.S.sec:i worlters (togethe.r w~t;h thair Oe.pen<:lent.s~~ But 1rl the aftertn.l3th of the October Revolution,. the \'JOrld.ng

. .

class has grown continuously 1n nwnbers. It has finally

emsrged as the most numerous class • As per the offieS.al

sovi~t statistic~ the working class com.prised 12.4 p~r cent of

the popultation in 1928, 33.eS per cent in 1939,49 .s pe~ cent

2a see r-1ichael Kasett, §ovlet t:copomies (Londonf1970) ,p.13 ~ soviet book o£ statistics g1vea 17 pGr cent of the Ruae1an population as co;~prising "wot:l~ers and employees" in 1913. see the HSSR 1n Pisures foF 197.6• (MosoOt-I~.~917),,p,9,

282

in 1959~ 56,8 per cent in 1970 and 61•2 per cent Ul 19'16~

If the "worke~s and employees" are corrtb.ine<l, than

correspondt.ng figures are: 11 ~o~' 1n 1913, 17 :!6% m 1928~ SOt~A in 1939t 68,3% in 1959,. 79.5% in 1970 and 83!6% in

1$)76·· 29

In tho pre•19l7 perto4i the t10rlters l~ve<i under L.

appal~g c:ondf.tions; Dcbb t¢1tes that in 1908, 6~!1 of the

text1le workers 11ved more tht-'ln one famil.y to a room~30

The conditions in other sectors \'Jere no better • tl'he f.llite~<;¥

was widespread. The labour legl$1~t.s.on t-Ja$ baekwarcl• 3~ ~ •.~ad~1ng

c.ap1ta·lism• s best years (1900~1913) the number ofi unernpl(¥ed

tn tho major 1ndustr4;al centres of Russta. amounte6 upto a

rn1111on •• ~.several m1111on pe()ple emlgrated to other countr1es

in search of tiOrk and a better 11~t 32

In the post-1917 period~ the ~IOrlting class has expr:ienced

constant 1mprovetOOnt..'- on octobe~ 1~1931, tbe unenpl~mant we.a

abolished in the soviet Union. 33 The lite~cy rate among

the workers has constantly risen. uxn 1939, 81% of eveq

29 ~0 31 32

33

1b1Cl. see-r1aurice Ddbb« n+15,pp.58-S9t see ChNpter II of this thesis. seo 8£ im

5 ManevichJ i!@bRpr 1~ .. ~~ , qss~~ \P+<;>gr:ess« 1985) •

pp~24 .. 2 • 'l'he figau:es of thaunGmpl<1,ied before He.ra as follol·Ta • 1918; 1,512-45$ Gnempl~ed: 1927,. 1;576,0001 in 1929,. 1,472,.000; in 1930; 1,080,.0001 in 1931, 205,.000• In OCtober, 1931, no one. .. ws ·registered as unemplqrecl. see ~.12; pp"25•:26 and 29.

o~ . ._if ;.ooo tecto~~Y wofko'"s had a b1~or ot: ~QJnt;ia~

(ccmp.l.e.t.e o~ ln<:~$te) .Uu~t~ont 4-n ~a).~ the f1.9Ute

as 1.(1/J ...... a• In l939,1 ~5~9 mi111cn baC1 ;eeeiwd ~·Qt. ol' ~«mp1et;e bl~Qf/&ecQ1&u~y Oducatlon~ 'l:be ~ rose t.o

S.26;_i; :~).ton •n 1911~, 'lbe i.lllter.a<?t Sll\Ql19 wanen too he•

~il ~~1.m~tea;35 1.11 tbe GeC:ond half of ~ i910·'•!

·~¢~tcally 011 so~t young people obta~~d a eec;oaaaw edueatton·-.a& . . - ....

1'he t)eal..th c;n;e is free $.n tM so-viet.- U'nlonl xn 19~; \he t)\ilibOt Qf ~~'* ($~~ $~clalw.e$) -woe ~lt®.O aM ,til ~916.~ the nUlQbe# ~0$0 t.o 862,.000• 1b~ n~ Of bQGptta~ ~

£n U40 •• '19·l.t:OOOI the same inC$~ to ~~071~00 in 1~1&·•·

1b~ ~ 2-2~000 mato~tw consul~ c;:entre.a 111· 1916i~1 Whe· hOU$U9 ·confiJ~otlon ha·:J ~ ~n-j,eca .ou~ one, blg a<;a1•·~

~ ~t;s ate m~l-~ D~l.,ng ~9~~11.~J a total of $•20~·~•

.U.1~ eq~tJ.:es of t.Qtal ~ftl.l ~~pnq~· wa& QOfla.~ruc.t.4lB

., ·~

. '\ ~'

SQe .HSS~ -I.Q Pi~'Jl· n-!·2$;: pp~~~2()g ~

-~&cl.:;.- p.·.u•:e :V~?-tL ····· '~· -· . ·~··

284

•so~ ~956 ana 1990, tbe QOUiltlf bu#.lt ~•afiG 56· mtl~ton

resident1ei~ units \1iltb a total. (usefUl) .SP$Qe o! mow t;hen

2;$00 m1111on 8qi~D9tres '~!-1i1! _ay the late 1970•e,, the total

bousin-9 opece 1n the tom$ waiJ 2, 200 mlllion •q~netntS:l wi. ttl

~foua:ths Qf all housing built~~ ~e ~n$~ as yeaP•·,·

lbe aert1c:o sec:to~ bas alao xegtste~a a d.Qe•· ·~·~!

in <l9SOcf .. about 137' of tl\e eble~te4 popul..etton WQ.r•d. in

tta<le• S()Qial e~nities~- lnWlf.¢1pel, ~sidentiol ehd oth•·

servtc:es:~. health• (tduc;at!.on, and cu.\.~; by the qna of tM·,

19'70 1s this tnc3ex has 2:-etl to e~?PrQld.matelY 23, p~ Oltlt.,40

~e ave~a~· monthly money \'ages end salariees· of ~

•wot:l«i~ etnpJ..OJee;Je. rose £~c;xn 3)~.1 ~ee .in 1940 to lSl. ~s , ~lea ~ 1976.41 8\Jt c;:onaWet-able •;e 4~fferentials '"

' J:epo~d ever. offlc1a11¥ ~ foX' e~le~ those ()llgagad ill~

' '

<;ult.ura.l e.c:tivittee received en aWJta91) JQOncwy wage$ o~· onlY

~3!5 .f;'Ublea per month .t.n 19'7~.4!· In cr::rnparison •. thoM wox1d.D9'

~ wa.ter;wE\YG earned 226~0 #Ubles pQt month. 1n l$?6~·42

~ worMrs abel peaeante ate entitl .. a tQ ol.~Qe

pen$iMS~ II) 1917.; 30 mill1on peoPle w~;e in ~oelpt of ol~ . - . ..,

aga ~~on•·•··

2S5

'11\Q ~ &.te of $..nfla-on le neg11giblo 4n the SQVi~t

1hlicft'•· ~e fl)ll~wment baa bQen tnain~~a. $iPce 1931•

lb fa~, ~llt'" sbort;age Qe.s been a c<:as~t;. f¢atw:e Ul

~·¥ears.~. ~reQ education ena M&lth ·care a;e ~t

notable ~eat~s.~ scae problems <Mke the .:-e1atl.wly p0or

qual.~~ oi: healtb MJN1ces~ s.ca~ty of consuzoor gooat and

thou low quality~ poQJ: holWlng 8M •9$ ··and ~~ dlffe~en. . .

~1.818 e.t.c") bowew"~ pe~lst. b\lt t,.l-aex:Q u no ~~t,ng tht . '.

· fact, that a lot has· been tlQne tor the o·Gtttnon ;mat\~ b (lata v

g1ven abo.VQ wst,fles to that~ Th~ wo-"d.ng ~lass ts ~~r•

ably bette·J' off then 1n 1~fa6 •.

ibs Col.lec1tlV.•i)A f!Af!!ilt;St

Russia \1Q pndaninatl~ly an ·agr;.kul, tu:J:aJ. COWl~ .ln

l9~:t ~th Ma~lY '70% oJ: th(a population enge.~a@ ag1;lcul~·~

~· +9aa~ only ~,•9 percfJnt. of ·tbe rutai. pQpUlation ba<l go~W

in.f·c:>r ~ eollect,.viftt.~~ MoX"e tJ\8'0 ,. pe~n.t of the

._ ~1 popula1l.~on CQCaplt~e4 a.natv1dual fa~~$~ Kowa~r;.

tbe sJ.tw:ttlon c.bangeci fJCX>n· enough~ lt119?6i tbe~ "~ Jlc:>

J;ndlvi<lual. fa~e (abo1~bed tv 1SJS9) &nd on~y .1~;tf petceJlt.

<>f ~· sovlet pop~at4Qn •• engaged ~ ag~l<;QJ.~~- ~

-~ all c:ollt:J<:tl'YtV,;tate femer• ~" •xn t ota~~ ~p~oxilnate~ 21.~$ pex-qent of. t.be occ~led 1ab0~ ~OJ:QQ ~s ~~ ~

2S6

agrkiUlt\Ure .• •·•& WS.t.b greater indus~talS..at'-on!- and Ul'ban~ •at$.on,_ the nQl'l\bet: of people eng&~ ·SQ agr'®~ baa

&l<ll~ect aharpiy ,

'rhet:e exist wge and Ul<:()I'QG <Uffc~uren~l' enQ'lg t'Jl•

col19¢t1w~t\Jtll\ ~&an~ tOQ~ r~r.;, the pd.vate p.lo- a~~

pr~vate .ou1t1vatloft eatt$.nue to wlaen tbe incanG <U.ff~nn~ia~'~

~ at,ete..-f&Pl$ $~--e Oli9$n'sed 1~ fa~to.fies !, ·!t,bely

enploy a large ntatblJ; of; a~icu1~1 wotker:$ ~i ·~ wc:>J'kQJ.=•

on state fa~ re<:eiva ;:eg\a).atr •ges~· ~ eonttast t:Q 1;be

colle¢t1ve far;ma~ Wiose wagQs ~ ~"gula# • 41 $al:l.le~;.· ~wages of ti'le c:ollectiva fatrna•s 1iBt:$ l~so than the $t&t4~

faan ~~~s b\lt ill the 1.9'10 •a,

237

~ ~t e~a• <»llectl• fa~n have- o1ml~ wage. .-awe 't9· .,~$tG: f.n et#a~ fs.%t'P$ ·+· sJJ.nu.a ... lY:t ,s()C1a1 iecux-ttg ~ to _lle ~#4ecl t!l ~-

. :~ the •um•s own fun<Js ~- no~ QtaW fW.ld$ .._. inlt. n()wa~a •ta1:4 •oc~l aec::~ty is • ~R.a• s~o1Y available t-9 colle.ctt.ve fa~i'$~ on a:~ta~n~ ing adultbocXi~ c01~¢t.1ve f~ z.eceive• 1~ ll P-ate fa~~~ en $.,J\tetnal. pa$$pol:t and ~- ~, el'Et eligible to jo1.1\ a .t.nl&t \#lton whic!\ gS,WJ _ "Va#,<>U.S $eew:ity. beneff.~- and pen$1oo r1ght$·,(4Q)

J;ane wri~~ that .. the ~at ~~t:-'-tu b$t~ -~~~

. tt~l WO"".,.k&J:S atld CQ).~t~V$ fa~e ~4th tQ~~ to $~te

-~oM~$ which ex,..t:Qa ~ 1940 bas been aln\ost e~.~a1;ed -~

t918•~* seconalYt ~~~!-t·tb~ real. in~· of the femUL.es Qf

c:olleet1~ f~~meJ's in 1979 aaae to- 8$ p(lireent of ~oS.e of

mttn.ual non-«Qanual wotite~;>s·t ~ 196$., i~ tea only 15 per <:en~~~$0 s~ Qti\<3# Sovlet w.ritef:s maintal.n that in ).9?5 the e~i~ul~

~u;e worke~a eatne~ ?~oil t.he 'la9)8 of f.n<lUst.J;'l$1 ~-a

-(and the e.gt1cu1 ttua1 etnplwees 1~) ~$;. In 1P7$~ the a~rag$ monthly money ~gas of tbe sg('icultuRl w~k9rs ~ 1$•

s:~l.es ana tho" of the t.la~tr:ki .,$e~• lfJS ~,,,sa su.~ ~ uneier1.i.nes the const&tra~• gcme1'S~ diffeJ;ence• tha~

e,xl&t ~tween town anc1 ~untr:Y (for ~q>l..e, 1\eelt.b a•rvS.C•• tt.nd Qel~tlonal etenaaca. and other anenlts.es wt"e. low 1n

· rwtal O%'e.ae;) and manual ~nd non-manual ~~k ~-

4$ .lbid,N· p;,.31"

4? %bid·~ P+40·,.-

SO ~es~ ~r:a $)V1et. !fl~$ c~ted- ~~0# as.~~-' ,,..2. 51. see 1he wgrldni Class -~ •. , ~~ n~.S6,.' P•45'1 : •.

$2 $ea ?h~. US§R S il!ii9!'es.; lh2.8.~ Pt1Sa ~·

288

It ~ ho~ be notea ~to ~ p$asal\1;.q tQQ enjCf•

the benefits of f'#e education ancl ~<U.cal care (~ if of

comparative)¥ low qua~S.W). In l939f 1.8 out .Qi ~oo .f~~•

had a higher ol! aecQ:ldaty (canpl~w or lnc:ompio~) ~tton;1

the f1gu~:e in l9r4 •s 643,5l The fapne~s a1~o ~f!t' fa:om

olk9B. p@Nlon ~ .. .- T.he !Je;tent~£.~c aJ14 te¢M(?~Q9tee~

revc>llti;loo ban bl:'OW1ht. ~e life~tvle of tho ~ant.Qt clo25~~

~o · tllat of the utban &x.ee! A fa~ today te~e4~4 modetm

education# wa~:• the l!lemi;l jean.s an:d ~tc~s t1')(l sa• rv·~

M~'"~ the genen:l <U.ffe~nQQj '(:in ,.emns Qf ~~lltru ·a.niti••)

and 1n¢ana 41f£et'entiel• vl$-e'iii'V18 ~n tnduSt.t.'$.al ~-.e~•

rtama.4n. Wj.'thin the ~aant.w itael.f the~e ~ vatious ~aa-.

tiono .in te~ ot ~~. Qvet:a~lt ~ P.ateJl~JY -. ~

bett$# .o~t in 2.~1·7 "-ll OQmpare4 to ~- pQait!On jn ~36~

Lane eonc.luelest

lt ~d ~·~·~ ~· to be ~. tJtat ~· ussa . 1.e en~J:$.rig. aJ) e~b 9f dlapl.e$1nle.aa. QnlY. U .one oo~U1es. <;laeo 1n te~ of prlvato in~~ dua~ o~~sb~p .of produc:t1w means. FO~ the :-ising ).Qvel o' •u1. al;Jd education aesocta.te<t wlth advancQd in~~t.nJ.isa.t~on wou14 a~ar to be ct:eat1ng· a system of soeial f.nQqUali.t,r ~!chf;.aw ~~~ l~ o1111erebip-cleo$ c~tt: ·l~ wq sS;mil.arj, if na~ ·tban~ t.bat of ~ste.tn ceplta~Uit states~· Literacy -~"' urd.• versal and ·an .s.ne.eas~gly lar~,. but ~J,.att.wq prlv~le~a. po" of popUl.at#.on 18 J::ecoivitlg htgher edqQtit1Qh~. The propo~ Qf unsld.l.l$4 . jobs .lG fall1ng an4 that of highly ald.~led c:::ategor1e~ t.s ~~tzlg but .both groups ~ ·l~~Y to pe~sls.t U1 tbe neat future~, J?inally-;, EMm though ·~ dUfe~tial pJ:evS.0~1y enj~~ ~·

289

~1~ eollar~ ~rke~ l.a gradually g~vtng_~ to greater eq\¥111t¥ Of inc~ diffelt'~nt.S,a-1.; in.~J ar:e ~xy nu<;;h pn~ o~ the soViet G~l.al a~~;• svon 1n ~ soviet "e" C)f the for~~bl~ f~l® · " l.t wc>u14 a~Pa~ that though ~oc~~ cU:f£ere.nce.e ~~ planned to da.c:u.ne,. tl)e sttUCt~ of socie1 .#.nequa1lty is to Jt$lll0th• (54)

The tiata c~ted ebo• eatablishes that. the lo\ of ~

wo.t:ke~s ~d pQa,anw ha• ~.rovect tm<>~Q.S'-Y e~ce 19:11• pu.r:~o . .

19$~11 ~e lmproveme11t for the ~t.~ 4-s ~~Qar~y not.i<;eab1•;,

aJ.tl\Q~ both thea _,J.'k1nCJ Cl$as eJ'ld co11e¢t1V&-..fQ:t:m peaaantty

conta#;n fl~S.~~ta•

sesl$a tne wo~J;.ng d.a.ea epd peasa.tl~q-~; ~te ba•

cane tnto llfi~ng a .new ~ial •t.Wata j,r) ~)le SQVtet. societt1~

lt ie the a~ata of t.ntel).lgentelat 'nlle st~ata has C:CXI8 ·to

w1Gla._ enoi'I'DO~ pQWet end ~cx:1aJ. pxest'9' • out o~ tb1$ •tte~

bas ene~9Qd "hat 4.8 -~fQ~t:e~ to $$ p#l.vilegenttd.a CQ~ll?rlaf..ng

th~· \i.lo f)nj cg b19b irltQma an<l px-lv.t.'.169$a ~ fh~3 •q;ata in

tum ba.$ ~gat tha soviet elite~ ·The process of tlle makino

of the soviet J,ntelllgentsin and e).f,.~ ~ EUcnsnined b$low~:

'X,Ihe Sovi~ 1ea&lr13hip ciuc~g tba ~~;o;:.e ba4 gone in

fo~ a m1ss1w ~~ of o~nl:Jatlco enQ. s~cia1Uat1.ont:

~be fOJMe.f begat buz:Qau¢rac:rt end the lstte~ e.pectait..~, .. , ~ coamon sQSt;enanc;e· for both was pJ:~n1ege an~ th!e ~tt111S~c •.

2JO

UlllW~l tendenc.y of prl.v11ege is that it ••ka to perpe

t~te -'t;aelf\~

me tlltW!S·· of the sgviet I Iote111Sfi!!tfk·.

Dl.Win9 NEPt ~ "fpccial .. ts"• trrade~s Md Pl-tl/'~

~gQQis'el ell had tlu'ived•$S \be QOil:Jequent c•e~ on

thern had $ C.t:4pPling -.£fact~~ SSAQe· the s~la11sto we~·

~'~le to the aov.e~ntel p1~# the t>O~~oio tJPE:<:;ial.lata

(wbQt:Je nwn'ber ••· not veq gnat to be sw:e) n~ to 1>9

i9plac:ed with the ~~g cla•e spec:ia.lS..ts_,, ~ fo~r •rt·

· swspec;!t. ~o~ va~i~ nasons# ·8$.pecJ,a11y aftet the ff.rat £1v•

year p~n was· laW'l4bed~56 'l'i\us .• 1 ~ ·creatton of new ¢8~• eonstl.t.uteti the co~ o.£ the perty *a pro~·t This 1e<l t;<>

,~~· <Uspu1.t1es and el4.te £oxmat1c:ot.~ l:ntt.t.al.~y,, ~$0

was· <=1W<.l to the eff.e.ct51 that tbe SOlshuvt.~e ~· forQe.d w

281

~ ~ of tba ~~e~1oes of the $pe<:~ib,q,~ ~bE) incentlW.a

and pr~vU~• accotded tQ ~m W$,te an unp].oastlnt p~~$

the social 1st re~1me hee to pay... No~.QVelt • ~ slogan •

•eadl acc»rdlng t.o hte wotk~· pt-e$uppose~ some ~qUalltt !·

But J.eniin 'HaS ~tlc ~ p~t.tng e.ClUEll1ty s.n the 1®9 ~.m•

eu~•·· stalU1 rnaae O$J:taln addltt-Ql&\!· 1\~ t;ne tas~ Qf th~ creatlcm

of the specialtsts was Ull&l~en~ the pr:ivS.leges eQ4 incoo...

~ves ~re ,not only ®ntinuad but juf)tiftecl.i· sta.~in nJ~e~4

egalitarlallt.sm as ~petq~utgec;>iS ~lat.ion and deele~cl

that •soci.e1iem end egal.1tar1an1sm have nothing .~ QomrnQn, .• ,·e Xn ~· 1,930•$ e ~Jl'pai.gn was canle<l out agalns.t •aqua~tty.•

mongedng•,. xn. an intetview ~lith sm11 Luctw1g• stalin

282

Qlllphati(:al~ r:ejeo~ ·~popular noUono "gar~ ·soe~eliam

ancl equalit,y • 5'- Molotov echoed Stalin whet) be 6edla~<1 at .

~ 7tn Con~as of the Sovteto~· •ao)aheVik~ p<;>licy aenena.

a ~$ol-ute $"ugg).e aga~$1;.. e.gal.S.tar~ aa ace~l.~• of.

th~ ~$s eneltf{ ao ~l~nte b.os'Ue to socia.~•$\ll .. oo file la•

~1rn1~tng t.tlCJG$ were a.bz;ogated and Qt!l.e" exlnj.ng z:esq1¢t1one

~~d leading to ~OrtlendOU$ gJ:"O.wtb ·Of iMqu$-i4.t;!{~~l What

follo~ tta": (l.) #.nc~ase in t!\e nurnbe.t Qf n.q~11sts'•,

(a) Jl$~tuat1on of the. income dUfQJ;e.JltUl$t" ($) ,.e~t!i.mi•

aat!cn of the$o dUferentlal.$ and pr~vtlegee •'

60

Gtal~ <leclat:edl

aolt~bevlks. muet mas~r: technolow .,., !·+-~~ •·$pec;lalistftt t~ "Not a GUlgle ~Uling <.1lQ~S. nee managed t:ltb9ut •w own 1nte).11..9E>nteta -!~.,~ our eoun~ ha.s entot"e.a the Jj)QaQe of dP~~t ~n tha wo~d.ng clastii muet. c;wa~ $1:8 ·~ prodw::t.i.ve-tnc~csl intell~~·t.a oapahl.e Qf sta~dt,ng u.p for 1t41 Olll lnt;et:esta 4n ~tlm as the tnw~~ oii tb.e W9•~9 c~a~~s~·(~a)

tfThe Groat;. ~ge" of Stalin •·s tim~ bo<i wt.Q ~~fGrGri·

' . \ . ~$ cited by OaV1t:l t-ane, ttsoc;tel elaes~~"' in R~YJ!: Davies- and Pen~s ·J ~e~ snaw~, ,<~ada.-.} • .. ;,.?t p.~ea~· .. 'l'hl$ waG the 1- 0~ CQ'JIIlWUJltl l\el.tLl:ty th~ pritnitt~ "<;Qmri.IJ.l~et$" et the tJ;ne of c~~l al\4 t.he ft'eD.eh Re~lut.ton~-~ D!*S!t; -so~ stalin and Molotov~. cltaa 1.1) 'l'Qqt Cli.f~J; .n ,s_$" P•69f~:

FQr e~q>le;. law l~ting_ the income of th~e wotldng en two posw stmu1taneCW311 ~s abolish~a .. ~e ~~ral lew o~ ~;eo of June ~.,. t920 •e ~pe_aled• *'~ law pmh1btting the payment to aiW WO~'k$;t QCl pi.ece WO~~ .of leas. than a/3i:d of the noxrn··~a abrogawd11 ~ see TolW Cl~ff~- n!,5$_., PP•69'~10• StaUn a$ eS.~ in Slle1k Pi;qpet;'~~.l n·~$7i ~·3Ql<!43 ~:

eJ1d belieltc~dee-:., 'l'be latter. often J.goo~~:63 c:ar~Q &om the

n• @CU$s or rt$W tntellt~n~aia.;

~ few ·among tile. Solshe~~ h~ teQet~a h1;he# ed~..,

ti.on ;$n· 191?~ ~n yeu.$ J.a~t, those wtth ~~r edw:at4on

c.qn~t.itU.~4 l;»amt ClhQ plrcent (839~ in all) Of e.ll tho. convnu•

niat c;ackes.~, In 192$; . acoording to MPlotov~ ~1y '$9 commu~

ntst t;mg1neere uorlte4· ~ sovtet 1n~ustr1al entot:p.riGe~;~.~. ~hE>

r.pee~lt.ets thlm -xe cbi.@tilY non~otltnUJ'&tet tbo ~~·, of c::oune. ·

su.bjOQted tQ «;:~~ <l.1~~tot;S l>1ho Ul ~ bad Ut.t4e Qdu.ca~

t!on .aftd ~o teehntc:al. lu20Wlod$J$ o~ th.e ~ntetPri$0. they a-tnt~

at:etedt ln 1921• ~of comnun~ts -~ wor~e~ 1?1 QCCupat1on

at the tiioo Of jo!.nlng tbG partar t Uut $a.Ch ye.e~ ®cui: _20;'000 . . . .

~~lsts .1-~ft the fectorles for W.ite-collat jd;)Q• ed®~ion

an.d E!J:f!U ~ ae~waen. ~l1•a7.1 10.000 ~r;:rmn.tn,l.et. · ~duated fran

the. wtt.tutes of nigher educaUoo• bQ.t e.l.MQst a11 of them

<:.atoo f~ wb1~11all/profeaa1<Xle.l f~~lies,~9:t The 14tedeJrQhlp

appeatetl ~c;:onciled to tn.k· $)?len~ "11 the •shaleh~ tr$a.l. ...

63 Sheil.e Pi-pe~~~ poin~ Q~ that tf\e fQc~. Of at.tention of ~lana .. • ~ !,h$S e~,.. be$1 tho . vS;~ of the p~ge- ~t.b&J; t.hM·-on 4~ bef1e,fl$0S.e~le$• ·~-•~·soe sb.eUa Ft•pat.ri.~~ ni·~?,,: pp .. ~n ana 401~ J~f!~ Hou~ J:eC()~dtJ that~. traver Qlle half of . the · _ ~olltb\Uea\J. wtinv-~r$ ee~. f~om atOc>ng t.hoee who -l:'e •ttu:ust. ...,..,..._ · qf"ter thQ ~at pt.U;gett ~~om 'tiaat. they ~,ere 1n their so·! s· .. •· see Je.ra;y F~ · Nougn;., ·E" ~~ae~:ahip 1n ~mnsition: (t~$h4tl¢.on~. P~~!' ~~:;p~~·

p . - . I . ,

Fig~s given above a~ fir:ecn snella Jt'te.J»t~l<*• ·n ~57, p~a7e:~ u.l~$ $U))~aqueiltly gtven -~~_#' ~<?ss_ ot.b$.rwi&e indicated,. f£Qn .1?1\Jsf' -s~ alt;;O PP•~89,-;.· 39l~2•

204

of l~28 in1tlatetl ty Stalin without pd,or eonsultat;tons with

~ other member:~ $on tile 1eaaer$hlp:. A g~oup of enginGema . frccn Shakl\tl' J:egiQn of the Denbese we.$ t.~ie<l for •abotege

ana ~p1raC!{ w~tb fQrei~ powers •. !J.'hus the ldea to train

e n<;lt1 ,:eltab~e lnte1ligen1WJt.a to e'*Pply experts who wou.ld })e

~Reel en<:l fiXE*'t gat.ned momen~ 0a.&p$te oppos'tiQD fr~

the a'9ht:!~$. ~WJt. d~ing . tne~~: reaaz plan!. .aoo,ooo wortcen

end CQtitnunle~e called the •'.rhousandel:'$tt (because they wen . .

rr.ob~.tlsecS ~ thc>usanda and also because tbeir tn~ane ~e<Sed

e thou8ancl rubles a month~ 69 ~ mobilised and. sent to highe;

teehn!-~1 school$~, ~t ls tbts group tbatt (1) ~merged end

~lneCl a cote ~·~this <lq.~ (2) received tepid plrom0t-

1ons d~i.ng the yearo of the C:IJ:lQat: P~, (S) aaid to ha•

been chaJ:a~terLsed 17,{ unconcU,tlonal lq(a1~ to seaitn 81'ld lack

of 1nd'v1due1 dlat!nct1on., (4) C8Jaf;l fran 1;he. woddng.clas•

bec$grc>U.t\c1. aa -in.$lsted Q.pOn -b.Y stalm~fl'

t$.me $tuaGnts in one edu.ca1;.1onal ~st1tut1on o~ the other.,

~~;000 .4on 1nstl.tuteiJ of ftlgher <~<lllCatlon~ l'titb ~~td studying

~5 For <lotaUs,;. see s~~l~,, o~7#.: w,~aew• aM· 50~

66 Leon 7rota)W ~ 1'1\o SeJolution .Bet;nxed .(NeW YQrJc,·1911) ~; P.~1~5~ . . .. . . . · .

G1 see sh~11at···n,S1~;, PP!~t~1:? an4 ~1,~.

285

en~r4tl;.68 ateztutev~ Ko#fgln., U$£no"'; .Ma~sb$V etc~: al~ qsrqe f~· th~s group,t ln. a&U.tion •. d~ing )92~~3-;, ~

1.40•~~- WQJ:'kera. •" p~te<l to spe¢1aJ;bt ~ adtntntet~tive

PQ$it$.on$: (o~r half of these <U<lrtot be.t.ong to t,;be pa~l-!

DUri#g l930•S3, 666•000 to ono and balf m1111on ccmn~ist

workers left tbe facto~ fo~ wh'te*!COlla:: jobs or: educat10J'h

This ma$s1'\Te effort ate fast pac;:e p:oauce<l sub$tandat-4

e~l'tf·.~ Gt Ste~in was ai$satlsfie6 wlth the i:'8.sU1 te and

aesi~d the shtftf.ng of et"se f~an tec:bnologv t.o c:a~ ·~·

"~~~ dac~d$ e~wtblrlg•.-10 .

But socm a $econd crac:kd~fl) on e~rt.s ~xe spon$orea

ly Sta1int, US~g Stakt\Qn.O"ite OO~t The e:<pet'ta •t:e once

69.

""" 'IV

lt ~ ~ noted t!lat .. Stal.in macle the d~iQb to t.raS;n futw:e 1Gad$.ng c:a~s as . @ngine•$-t ~re WIX. no pl:Oc.edents fQ~ such a ~1onf. and .4.\ W¢!1t aga$.nat the ~ra<Utlcna~ f!oJ.shev~ ess~t1on that future ,l.oadeta should be tt-a~ed 1n Ma~lst. aoctal sc4ence• xn t:enw of pb111~1¢al rec;\l1tment.t .i.t p~hed tbe sOviet Ulii~ .Ar:l a d1~ctton qUite d'ffe~~ ~~ most ._,~ t.:QUnt .. J>U$ (and also fi'Qm a~ &w~oping natl~ ~s ~~-) •' ~t:e the bas~ pa~ into l)Ql#,t1cal l·if.e hc!a· ~ · tbrougb thiniqJ · et\Q pxrect.lce 1n law,, s~l1n ~PtQsen•· tea t.hie ~~ a <1Q~4-slon flowing f#C* sovletf ~tmept tQ. mo&;l~nl$S.t;iOQ. end re.p!d &ndustr1el.1$atiotl"·• sheila;. n._s7#' p.p .. '0~2 ... ~e at.esldard ~.z:e so low tnat ift .. 199••· 1;be 1'1tb pa~ c~gre$s $lc:;ee4 1;hat. s11 ~a~~ri.al. ee~s . sho\!ld be ~quis:e<l to peas a •te®nlca1 minimum•. ~~m$.nat~oo •: 2"386 pasm the. exemt and 1n 1935• 6320 wet.e enJ:0).1e4 ·tn the QO~s~ But ~tan_aa~ ~malned low and sta~~expreseed his ~sa~~afactJ..Cil .in .1935•. In his vifnf,. ~e so"!et . un1en hed ac~tllld teebnolo911t but 3-ack.ecl the .. tx-ainE!d peta~~. ~e o).a slogatu ... Teehn(>lOQ'f(tekhD~<>) dec1~& e'Ve&YthU.g" must; be repla~d \"lith a n~t't slogan ·~adi;e$ dee~ 'lvesyttlng• ~- see sheUef n,S7.9 p~a~a~ For "J'rotsJw'-~s (:lnalysls 9f ~a $10{Ian,: 1;1ee FJ:'Qtsky; Pt66, ~~a3,.,42 ~;: .

286

agetn tauspect~ (those ~lned 1.n tbe us~ incl~c:l) !'i. ThG

f.W:~ bad ta~n QVGr.,. .Ihtte.li$ati.ngly •· stalin and ~talot<;>v '

+nsS.sted that the~ ~t;$a •contSn~ty in pol1c..y bet-en

the· Shald\ty trial of 192G and tlle Pktakov trial Of ~37"·~'a

Ret:eve~l beginning w1th 193Qt ~apl.d promQ.tlalS •te one;» again nedctf# the n~a f<>~ ea~s $t~ss.edt ~2t..52a fl'esb

~4~tes all..~atea to VSJ.:ious posit~' 400(). ~ngillee~•

pr~t.ed to e~~ teopons~b'l$ pos~t!Qrul,!: ~~~hlieVf. Po~.-.

ll~v.,, Cbuieno~t f{O~gtn., us tinov and Mal.Y:tbev $).). rose VGJ¥

fa$t~~ta st~l.l.n in 1931 ·gloatea. ova~ the fact. that the part¥

ws right. in init1at.lng the pr:oceas of ~i.nl.ng a new 1Jlte).l~

.oants1a;

• ~d~·-~~o~1 \~ have ~s~ end h~dredS of m;1~~lous 1.Jld\lsttiali caa,:es wll() nava al~ady tna$tet,e.:4 technolo~ agd. ere ~J.ng out in<lutlta:y f9i!Ward' But tJe would not be~ the c;adZQs now lf th$ · party hed ytelaf)<l · t.o · ~ etubbotness <>f· the #.rldust.riell$te tzbo dl<l not ~et\ t.o Qobfe$s their: te¢hn1~1 be~rdn0tJa;, i.f i;he .pa~ had not tecognl~;~e<:l the~ m1atalcQ$ $nd ¢OI're¢~ them ·in ttme-.- •. (14)

At the iOt.h pa~ 0CD.grclS:)f.,. assw:a~s were e~d ~

zbdanov ~o. the ca<kes tba~· the "~sse.e• of the ~s wou~.d

not be ~peate~~: sta1ln. declared that one of ~ ~at.

?1 ?2

?3 ,. see J~t~.,,~. w~~~97;~ stal.~ as c::S.ted 1n %b1d~~,, p~394-,~

297

aehle~nw of the pas~ f've rean ·~Q the e~nt.too o~ an

irlt(;!lligentsie ..

' f~ the we>r1d.ng c:la.s&• tb~ ea;lier d1~lm$.t.ltt. ten aga~t. ~

intell1gent$~ wee mlaplaeea. and f.tl fUture *ttl(~ bOat people~

(~uphem.ism ·fo~ the3 tntellige~t$$..8) :w1~1. be ~c£Utted f~J;

J:eapQDsible position.., Stalin b$ltewd tbat 1:¥ i9~~~· thea ta•k

of the <;.reatt.on of a new f,ntell1gen~t.a l1QS aQCoq>U;t~a..,

A chan9G in his at.tltUBQ towar:as ·wo~te#a and net-t ~t.f;t11l~nt.$.8

~s ~mtble. !t is $l.UMled 'lP t¥· sbef.la a$ fe>llowt'

~e tiO~~rG .(the nejontr of t-1han 1>ara .~· iaei: yeste"day. t:a poosant$) we.w no l¢nget: ~o z;e~,· ~

· tpa~· so~Oi) of sOQla~ e~port.., ai'ld thaS.~ anti~· lntollec:tual an4 antl~llte feel!Jlgs ~ no ~~98t: polf.~1calJM useful·~ In hls epeeeh tQ tile O::cJ~eG; Stalin ste~d that ·the parf¥ ~ul.<\ t.U.U.tna~ly nat¢e

stalin es. c;~te~ .t.n .~btd1, p .• ~4•: 4

stalin eo c;ited 1n Jb~t\~'j p .• ;399 ~

29.8

all ~tk~tEJ en4 peesallW '*c~ture.tl and eaut:a~··~ unt.,1 tnat ~ cam$~~ h~r• ~ shoulfl "e~ct t.tloae who bad al.~a<t( ~e<;E!1ved. C\llt\U'a anCl «lUQali!*~1G'Ot 'l'he new e1$.te ~111 ~a not be~ed-theU ·class ot1g1Qs. (l!• fJOIOO unen119ht<med ~ld.n~laPe C:Qlll\W'aS,stS b<:Jl.t.eved) b~t bad ah~ how to d.8e al)ove t.bem•~(-76) ·

MQcb b$.c.;har pex-centage of party membe.r$ Uio now

edueated,.'' A. few not;eble charactei:iS.t.i• of t~s FOdeflf$

may ~ s~d 'lp 8$, foll.o-.J · (i) the i.ntel~i.gente·i$ would

have ~rga~ an,.war t stalln merely a.tarrat1sed ~· ~le·

procE!GSj <a> tho nQW tntallS.~tela . .-egaJ:de(l tts ~l1~tv ao

syete~ gift~ (3) tne intcal.lifJeilts~ most~ ~e~ 1t!$el.f al

aelf...xra~ ae thay wre mostlY o£ th.c;~ '10X'klng Clast;; odgs.na,

(4) a oense of $.ndebted.M$s to tb,e n.evolution and Stalin was·

inevitable;. ·(S) tbe Qtat~ qf .t,ntelligeiltsla was. not-~ ~Visedf.l

(6) the intel.li,gen~ia coropl'ise<l engine~• and not. la.,ex:•

ae was the caa~ qlee•r:e~- ~spec:lal~ $n ~ndi;a~ (7) ~ P~99

faoS.litatecl tb~i'" a:ap1d p:omQt'j.on~

The ef.ze of tha intel.ll~tsla contin~e4 w ewell ~n

the. PQQt-.-$ta1t.n penod wltb the ~~11nc:reasa 1»~ in

edt,1<:.a~«a and economlc cleve~opment1. ~ ~here a.;e .a:tefW tnOJ'Et

edll\S.nis~toJ:s, ec$..ent.lsts.t englne~t doct9~·• pro~ssoa:-•t

t4'1~ters,J party b\l~a\aca:ats·f end ~ $ped.ia11Qts (thOsQ w<lr~ln;

1n the ~.ls~1es of trade., foreS.gn aff~lr$' <l$fence and ·

l6. ~1<1;, p~399 fJ

17 Of the 333 ~g$-al"al ~na repubJ:i.qan pert1 se¢~:etar1es,. 96 n«'l heel hlghar ec1ucaticn (joined higher sChool-a ~~\.Sen ~3~~). ·~ Fc;iE" deta~l.o and &:~,~: ~ !£!!4•,. ~~.399~, 40~40~~;. .

\ p1e~g and <Uplcnate are of special interest $.r.l this s:e9a~a> -~'

lt is notewo~ t.hat the f-lew Pr.ograo.tiQ o:f CPSU (1,961.) promised

htgtwr ,~ges for el-1~ mor~ so ln Qa$$ of ~telllgents.i.e.~ ~

ma$ no ment.~on of arw- 9oal to l'Gduce inequa11ties~?8 fhe.

new ·conatttutlon puts t4e soviet soc;ialtst ~te11lgentsta on

... an .. g~4 .f.qotlng with -~J;'ke~s ana .l?et\~an~s.~ $.'b~; the twin

tangible· galn~ of the· new -.nte·11tgents.iat· vb:,~ the fP.WS~/

pr.l\'Uege- and soc1~1 acceptance have b$en st~n~ne<l. -owr

the yeax-Q -~ Holllever. scaa Qnee$inGSQ.;. own dista~te 1$ dls~t:~

ntble 1£ or~ tal)(s to a cccnmon tmn. in Mesc;owt.~

BGQl<ies ~~lltgentsia ~Get\ $n big w:llan <=entres~

many othet a~as (i.ncl.Udlng the :u.ral areas) l'$w theis own ~1;ell·t~ntsia p1\l$ 'tbe pockets of-~ an4 infl~~·+ 1JI\e

-net -~ult is the 1Wlt.1~mftS$oonel. inequa11ty ~ crl po•r•

pQ$1t1cn~; 1Jlc:Q'Des, pr.-.vileges• pnJst.S.ge and oppor:t..,1fq ·~ sine~~

all the sovlet clt~GD$ a~ govel1lltlent empl~aes~ ~come a~

pr,vilege $tend o~ as tt>1o most. .Slitpo~nt, lndi.Cato1'S_. ;n

.teeent y~a~~~ the b<XiY of mater,al on tnese tW"o l,nd1ca·to~•

ana j.ptt;u:pretations e®om.parw-t.ng them .$.s on tb~ tnotea$«J.,.

It is suggeswci that wJ.,th1n the laJ:~ bOdy of ln~ll 'ger;.~ia~

a smal.~r el1.te has ~t:ge(i.t

1a 5ee thc;b progntmQ tex~, as J:'ePi:Oducea ~ ~ooa~ $Cbaf1ro <~dt_>~ ... -ra vsSR Rd. tha.Put!£i(P~$ger.~,, N.,-,r.~ ~~aa ~l ~·P~· w •. _sa ana s~ •.

?9 Thle ~ress1on is based oo our eooversationo ~tb sc:o~s off peopl~ aurlng me~ than two ueats ot our ~tay 1n Moscow:• ";t. :$~ "Uznasna• (terJtible), but: t.rUll that -we tlave mi.l.l1onare~;~•,. 0 thet;e are 33;.000 legal m11l.1onaJ"3s. in. Mt).s~.a:,; '5% fi10$COV1te$ -~ c:arst••j axe· ~a~tenlsnt;s (made .1¥ many t~t;.e$ we ,.mat) that .~ad~1y c;~ to. OUf .~a .in th$s ~e~~l:

3JO

~t is rather bard to glve an a;cact magnl.tu.de of

the intelligentsia aJld the elite \ih·1ch ete variously def·~nc:ld

and estitnated •. Acco~ing to one estimate the total •el.t.te.•

c.omprlse 227;000 pers(.)nn$1" a lilajot1ty Of tnetn party and

state funct1onartea::~ao Tbeae personne)., ~fined as •oltte

occupation groupbilt and their raspactl~ taurol>ers 1$ g~ven 1n

·tne· followtng tabla.•

~he j o~l~tl.c: estimates put ttle nutnbel; · of the

"pr~vU.eged class as wall over ·a ~l.llQn and counting relatives~ : . .. ' . .. . .

probably several mill.1cn•.,. 81 Otberb believe ·tnat ~a "t-u11ng

..• see. tfeSle Ue>,. :1.3-A I p .. 801. . .

eo 'rh(s estimate is that of Hanyn t-1athetnl~· .fpiVUegg in the .soviet tklloo - .A t of ·lite. fe,-' !es un&r corrrnun sm, Lon en# . :. e ·#: . P!~~~:~; Tbe correspond g numBer· for U~fhA-~ ~ 1,969' 1s e.st.lmat~d as 23BtS thoueand b~t A~"lcan ocx:upatJ.ona~ . aUte Gf!m~d on an aWJ:a9G . $ 64~,000 pe:; annum \llhlch is 4 to 1 t~s tnOJ:e than t~u soviet countexpart$ earned+ Xn the final ~nalysit~•, tl\O· gap betWQen lowest and highest. !nc¢ne a11d ~2a~tb groupzs was ~comparably mote 1n casra of u ~s ~'A., ~a Scwiets · n~ fer tnOJ:e egalitarlan and nmost lJealthy_ ;cn4lt ci.ti.;.;.. z.ens"· look .~ike paupers .~men c:Cltlp.aa.~d to tneitr AmaJ:'tCt""n co~te~~.., s~~ Ibid.,, PP!1'79~18l:'.

81 Med#l.9lt s~t.h~ .~he,,Rjus-s$ans (~doo• 1916),,. p~•~•: see W ~,~i9b1~;,: Cormnunlst: ,Par; Menbei§hip 1n. the. US§B:t·. _ 191'7•1967·. (J?rliicetQI'l~J 19~lt., p~3~ ~: He ~st!&~s 936~000 ao· · tfie 11\d)el:· ¢anpr1s~g pacty ~trQ)er~ ~ the party_,, goveJ:niOent en<l eeonom1.c bureau.crac:y.~,' "9ut thG privileged c~ss e~nds as •well to. the eli~o of other walks of . life~sclen~e, culture:,,. and the mil11;aty among ot~ora•,,, ~id·:~~, p~4S'i; · It r:aqy, · hOt1BWr•: bo note(l that Hedri<:~ . . S~i;h and RObert o,_ Ka1QeJ:'. e.rQ accused by ~OJ;W Rat;.1an1 C).f .;mYJ<!s!. a~ hav1n.g busied t~mselvea.~, d~~g tbel·r· stt;q in. l'tosCC>Wi; · "with collect.ing · ~q~~ J:'WDQura sncl wrJ.ting v1le lampoonstt;:: .~n ¢ont~et. Jch~;t Rea~ and his work a;e tetmed .. ~Qrta1 .. ·~~ Ret.f.ani fi~s that tb.e ~steJ:tl Journalists •·\'1~n engaging fJ1 polemi,cs.,.· td:ll observe

· ('flil eont.:~~~:,.p/page)

3Jt

. Elite Occupation Groups in Soviet Society.1

- a Hypothetical Distribution for the Early Seventies (Persons in :esponsible or nomenclature posts earning 450 rubles a month plus, azd having

access to substantial secondary benefits)

Party Officials (responsible, full-time) State, Komsomol and Trade Union Officials Enterprise Managers

Industry Construction Transport and Communications Trade and Catering, Public Services Agriculture (Collective and State Farm heads) ·

The 'Intelligentsia' Academicians, heads of VUZy, institutes,

faculties, laboratories, etc. Head doctors Senior legal officials Editors and senior journalists · . ' . . Lead~rs m arts and artistic bureaucracy

The military, police, diplomatic service TOTAL

a Figures in brackets are sub-totals.

thousand~· 80 60 17

(5) (1) (2)' (.Ci

(,., ..... ,,

40

30 227

(IQ,a

(7) (2)

(17) (4)

% 36 26

7

18

13 100

$ou(c..ti: f11E~.VYII f'1-f1'1"1f€1J.J1

f./!VtLEC,Jf 1"1 'Til!! J'cvu£r 1/Nio/11-

1} .fTVJ)J &{ ~1-1 rtE 1-IFI!- .JryJ..tz.J' JJND.i!l( Loi1!!11(JA/1./IIJ)

( ~u~oo 'f)lfrl), p. 31.

~J2

g~up· oomp~:~ees 841WVentl m$111~ atld .. $lite• bet-- 10 w ao th0U$an4 top funct-.onat"ie• and thai# families ana th$

~peopte i's 1nte.a,l1gentsio• betweeil 1/. to V~ Of t!\e ~nt£1:8

~tlon,~a ~ho soviets tbernselves bal~eve ~t •the!~ (the peop),.e '& Ultel,ligentsia) 8C,COWlt. fQ;' .el;)QU~ a~' of tl\$

catic.nal. ·tabo~ fo¥;caf wtt!l. ospe<:1al.lf xap~d 9J:<>t-Jtb ~ the

nUliibat of •~1e11tist$S• engtJieen; end. agr~u1t~1 .$p$C.iall•~· ~&$· At. the ~q top &are ebo\&' two o~ · th~ <lo~en people with

ono~us prlv11eges,8•

Mathew eatf,mates the t ~Q elJ.~ c.Qmpri,~$$ a~?.;OOO

pe.rsc:as,, \t'heae a~ t:1le peopl.fil who -jQy botb h19h ~oma

a~J,<l p:ivUegQe and~ s~• <iesot~ et"t •pnv~l$~ntata•,t.

"'o~~ t:a.U• 20$ #Ubl'Ja e• ave~age -~f nent1one<l

offl.<:inllr ~ ~a&, ,~. •a~tlcal ·f!l¢.~lont!· .. ~& J.,n 19r'l;

i~· .~Ub).e~ pe~ rnccth fc>r a pl•c• WO#~~; erKl P$ 1'\lble.e ~r

rncnth fQJ: time~r--a:a et m;1n~ was •otabl1Sbed by the· gave~-..

rtli)flt1.· ~ ~he ·•~ yea~,. $ld~l;1f!d wome:~ eame.4 20G.!t30Q ~l,Q

Q~~ te> ~50~2000 Ml.>es ca~O tv en.9lnee.t~· and ~C::t»i:'s,_

TO. ~l\1$ must be ~ boftuses. uptO * of ~e ,;a~1Y t4th .~

pe~ cent for ett~b pet o~nt of ow~ft4f~~t <>f 9l,.$1;+ · ~· . .

fiadlti®.t, as p~~ law; • of tho ~!).~!led· p~f'-t ~ $074 91 · U1

pJ'Ofl,, above lt. •ze · t9 bo ptlt. $Jl the t>J.~ctQr·•:$ ~ wblcb

was anotbEt#' eourqe o.f inQana f~ ~ bl9he~~·!~ lft l9~7!

<>#: tbe 60i®O ~-· <:gp•ti~~~; thQ· D~~~• P.\#1~ tile: nu-oct9J' ap~~Jtlatea _ ~~•'OOO fQt. n•ele.~ ~ seq"~ Qf the· pa~ <lcxmd.t.t:Q lOiOOQ,: ~· · ~bl•~. of ~ ~~tiCil· 01~~, ,e~ooo,~ . tbe ~MeJ ac;eO\lntent e,ooo; tile Pt;ea$.4ent ·of u:~dll.. w~~. . _ Ca.nltt$a~ 4t000 .._ Head <>.# the ~Jtk:QflQp~ 5000! (87)

$ee l:te® '.ll~~t· Q,~G~ P•1i•'· sn uas,. •the wa9if·• .of ~~l.l.etl wo~r;e were J:aQO to a;soo J:@leb a r:ea~ ~ ~ven ~•sa -. _ Vl'J.~h. ~der sovte'" ~tees r:Dijati.B: a ·~O$.me o£ &.e~jpw~-.on, ~t.lving. cQl<Ut.iona-; · thQ ··mo.~ ~llab~e ~dic;ato~ ·Of the mn~rial ancl cUl,tw:al l~l..·•, a" Gl(tre•lY bad~ ·Often unbes.~~,~ H$ glvo$· nt!ny examp~es~ sana qf tbeto Ci1W<l ~rQn t.hQ smet ~n•s~ $8G JbidV p~lil~ ~ . . SG$ C~·ff~ ti~S$~ p,.'ll.~

Ibid··-., ·p·.~ ~2· .... --.,;;;ioii!i. _, .. #: . ' I ·~·

3J4

IJ.hQ titcooe of writer~ •s qu1~ hl9b• 110~ of

them ea;ned as ;~ a• a.o.,o.oo per IUQQtft.~, The~ •J:9 mJ.~,· ... Sf.l ~g$ too,..

Al·~~ Tolstcrf and v.vlshtl~ giw the ~it.ez;a•

~octe ~ 19J6 a$ fQll<>W.t

t$J!th1i MIMMgg ,in &9J!, Mo• tha1l lOtOOO #ub~q .

. UW$2~-;$)~. E@li!S$!,

'* 6i000 ·ol!t' 1.0~000 ...

a. •. ooo ~•· 5,ooo • l~·OOQ ·~ (4~000 . •

11

• t\4

~0 •· ,,OOC). ·~$()0

• .l,$1

AI>Qu~ 4000

$0\¢~t ~ cl$.ff., n.ss, Pt13•~ · (lt - be· pote4. ~~ ~e ew#a9Q ·~thlY

W9Q l.n .1936 was a3l tt.d>l.s) :~~ .

. As por tne 4qcislal Cf the S~rema 80$t. Qf J.1 J'abuaXff' '

~3e, the· #,nccxne Qf the leading state function.a.~• -. •• ' .

follOtSt • ti!itPz:esldent.G an<i Vlce~..-ressaente -~·· !' 300iOOO ~le• a yeu Cof ttte C0Wl011 of union and · the. counc:U 9f Nat4-onal.l~Ci) . . . ·~ach 1lep\l1;¥ of the supJ'QJQII· SC'M4~ ~. ~ 12.1000 • !®1t.Q• a :r•a~

(pl~ ~0 J:ublt"t . P'Jr .-.. ~be f~$l4ent o;f ~ s~~ SQVl~t.-. ~ of ~ ata~ion).

of 1\SP~ end h1s ~~u~•• ••150,900 ~1•• e rea# -.at t.h~ nepUbll~n 1eve1,r· in otbe~ aopUblt.cs~. the f-n¢ome ~a ~me S.*. i1; tl\e . RSFSR ·~·

so®QQ · t cliff~; ·n.~ss, ~·''~"

3J5

Durizlg the .at, the· ~ges of tb$ ml;11tar;y ~eel'lnel

-...r:e as follows •

- f.d\fa~· J4,eut:QaJ1t .Q)~QOel

&0 #'U.bl.ea a moot!\ t..;OOO, ~~- ·4 ~tb a .•• J.tU\}~Qa $ ~th

·$.0\UO$:$ Cllff,.. n,S$1 p~?~·•·

(In U$J\• tba PW of a private ~a. f $0, ~ a l1eu~t $ ~~· ana Of e Colona). $ 3~.~) ·•·

In addlt1Qb; one tbo~ncl st.a~in pE1~$~ t<rltb val•

nngS.ng fJ:Om $0~000 to 300;000 &'~leG ~...-e a~ each y~at,

~ lfnCOJna ~x rates of 4th ~pdl, .1940. lalstQ<l a ta~ of

-.ncazes t:na~ ranll$ f#t;G *-.~$00 to $00i000 #\1blQa• a yea~:;·· Dta.t.\n9

tne ~ ~ ).5)•2.• Alexar)dQf: Wert~ ncor(ls ~he ~· ext~• of

po~t:ty fo~ ~ masses a .. a abun4ane. ior tbe ottlctai<l()til! $11

TOO inhe:x-itanee leQ too u@~nt c~n.ge:•· FQ• .pa.mp).e . . .

~ 1918#. an 'nher.ttance of! mo• than 10;'000 wa.s ¢c>nfiaea~

u ~r t.l)e dec~ cf Aprl:t. 2?;t ~l8l· t>qt tr.f 1$~.'.: t.bexe ~te4

a ~le· of ~tte~itance ·~ _.an~p .~ s.~ooo. JNbl• w $O.Oi-<J.oo ~l~i;, The ~fl~nce. tax of ~05 .4-n the l..a~ D40·•a ·w• ~ ~~r tbe1.\ ~ u~if.i 8ftd u~s ~ 'A .. 90 ·•· ar, 'iili-U · t9c0fds t.~e>. instances GE. a maj,d wtt;h. two cbll~ · · ;Ql;at~g ttle cona,t.ions o£ ~~tamtlm In· Wb'~h ...

ana h$Jr cb11<k'en 11vea. a~ ti)e o~ficf.al ~ aeot.in~ b.(;) e.t.te_n&;rd ill \ibi<:b ~~qtJ\S.ng f~cm cav.lc.u: to en 8$SO~ ~t of 1S.Q.Q.o.- waG ava.l1a~l~:•~ see -~ a• <;~ted An Cl~f~,.. n~~ss~, p~;•,~ ~is~ notes tbat no cOUftt.J;Y ~ t;be. WOJ%'14 has so .mt\Jti otde.r$, pnl"..s •. ~U:l@ a$ R'-ala a.tt<l t~t those a.~ ).~e4 to pd\tt.lGSJIE'$·~. $ee DottM Me.1asn.~;-~sf9kl chanse in the. s.oa;et ~se· (Notxo.D.8. •.··.'; "912) ,,, ~·. •; ~OJ; <1!.\- OQ t!io~ ofT~ anc1 ~;.· ~· Ibid•~ w·~~o-~~av ..

I

3J6

MaW people.~- off~clally stated to heW ~ i:heU

mS;lltons ~u.Qh to11 and senlces to the sovle~ Jtate;~

!fhe~ ~ 1nstanc;es ot people gl~g loans o~ more th8n « mill.i.on ~~es to tbe go"WtJ:nment d\llfing the v;u:.~ ·The awJ:age

-~ o~ writers and etnpl('.{~s ·~ ·u«> being •~ooo t:U))les, '~

wo~e ~w tt!ken aso year$ for an aw;:age ~"'O#l~Jr :to e.oll-e.~~ a n¢lll(X} rubl~s (provided he spent not.h~g on btmself) !. A~so,,

tna~ tnl.llton tub1e~ could get; an i.nt.erost. ot $0.1QOQ I'Ubl•e,~~).

A ~aa«ll;lol~z:•s 4epe~t,EJ ~ceive<l a pcmjl,QO Of

$2•5· t;o. a40 tublOSt V\i~e th~~ of a.·OolOMl,,. ~~920 ~1···

When H.~ .• vladtrntrs- (a l)eputy of tbti! sups:~• sovtetl ana v,A~tY~Vlcb (Co1onel~~ra).) ~ the.l~ l4.4Cwa: QOt a l.~um amount Of 50~000 .rul;)les and & ~l~e· pensi«l of[ aooo ~les a montll•· xn ca" of fo~.t.:.t: hlG •i-at~.t alaQ 9Qt. e ~~f$

penstM of 1~ t:.\ible$·:la

1n the fleld of ~du.catt.on too tbG poo~: f~ .,.t:.t:~

·xn l939~f only one in to col)J..<i conplete ?<l!f&aJ; s~ling

and cne £n. 20 £~if~ 10 year sc!loolino~· Be~n _,aEJ~~ai t.M· . . .

9.0 e~4.ff. :., n·ii!SS. • P4!!-1S• see also Bo"J.$ Me$~~~ .~ ... p~SQj ~~eJt In}(e.le$., .A§l Cbmn~ lJmSQv&et BSHiA ~4;,; l$.6$).,_f: pp,~46•1~~end PP.;.!1~~7 1 tr1~~l'l~ttostow•· ll~S$; ~>•J.04'w ~W~Kul&fd~:,, l'l\~j- W•2·70•2-73t

~

t11t Figur;ea taken. from Oltff~i ti~S,, f-•1·6''-

. !!3'1dtt

"· '\ .. , \) v '

total ~UJlt)er of pe()ple a-.t.~cl to Qtl~--~lng ¢oU•~• ,(fo~

1nd\l$tr:y and ~~pQJ;t) WI!$ ~~ .• a® wh~lG· only 2~.300 ~a<l~

uated and of 1,.062~-ooo a4mltted to tecnnlettl. <:o1~oea~, Qlllf

362,100 grre.duawti', MOst of the <U:opout,a CamEt f#Oln ~;

~amilies end ~eQCled to s\lppoft ~e;lwo eet:l¥ ;J..n l1f•;~

MOreowx:, 42,3% of all a~Qn- V..1938 wete tb.e el\11~ o#

tbe J.ntelligents~.. Fee en tbe un1\1ete-.ty and eoU.e,,a

educaUon -.e ~Qd w~tbout conwn~ tl\e S'-n>l'e'- sovlc:}t. to

ammd A~• 21 of the st;alin Calt~t\ltion whlch ~an~ed

f~e ~uca,~lal'\1!- As per & aecree of People • s· CCIGil\t,aa~ Of

ac~r 2.~· ).940, a fee Of R.~le i-50•200 p$r .anhwn· for t;h~

h1gbeJr ¢1asaes of the secondaq ecbOO). tole$•e• ~U to lQ,

an.4 3')0.500 ~les e year for c:oll.eges •• .ltnpOSe.d~~ ~

a~age -~ pet month J,n- J.-940 •• $~5 ~les wt:tll ~ wa;N

of tnalfi workers be1Q9 lll$J:e i$0 J:Ul>les• au~ the deetoe Of

'940 •totetl th.at. ttl.e f" was· ithpoeed ~ view of ·the· ~lng

prospQ~$.1¥ of tb~ SOVlGt peo.p).e~ ~t- ~lng a,9~4). an<l

-~•a~a; ao" e~te- 19ft bl~ ecboQl 4o asrsa alatJ~tlJ$ ana

Jt~e f.:om Ibid•!; PP~7;7•7t;t.,.:?;tte c1ec;:~ Of 194.0 de¢la"•• "Tald,ng into C:Ql'lsl-deration ~e higher l~vel of JD$teJ:la~ "Wll befJlg of tb~ toilers and ~e gs:oeat e~n"a of ~ soviet ata1;$ £<>~ ~e .bu11ding up ma'n~ and -•~1.~ mant- of th~· <;CQ&tantly ~g nat of •~c~<Jaq end btgb •Chools;1 the Council ~f ~Oplet~ Cc;t~tDf.ll$aD J;$C0~1a.ea ~~$sit¥ OfuimpQ~~g $part. 0~ ~e ...... nGe of ed~a"cm 1n MCQndaty and blgb Sd\~ of tbe ossa on the toil~n tbesuel-ues .. , attcl ~f~ tesolve• ~•~·· Cliff• a&lat ..,Tna •aile bmn4 Qf 1091<: leads to t:he con<:lusS.on t.bat & ~al~ p~pOrous,<:~tq - on• __ . 1.Jl whlcb even· ~l~ntaq e<l\1cat1on bes· to be pa~d for ·\~

(f/n c;cnt~, .• ,,n/pa~)

3J8

a aee.~ of the same dey s. .• e,e; ~cber ~, 1940.~ au~ieed tM

aM~).. ~~t of ~0.000 t;Q ~:.O.OO,®tl !x\'s ~t~Qn ~ ... 1.,7f$ait

tn .~tJQ (~ ~9G of c14•se• VJII to X) to canpu1soty ~tionel

-au.ca~l.OD.f tbe ~f~al c>f whlcb ~d.aa t.he p~n~. <>#

u.pto ~ yea~~'·o cCAt~-nt: l.n a l\\)fQ~toty !~f ·· · · · ~·the £$.~s gtven a~~- ~ C1~f~ ~i~s et. ~

·con¢luc1m~$ ~~ bEtfore· the i~t. £~~-l(ear plan~ 1;be diffe~l'lCe,•

309

l.abour force b.l appropr1a.t~g thei~ au:plwa 'ValUQ c::atmQ~ ~

ea~l1sbeei bu~ efte~ th~ f$.rrs~ fi-ve yeal' P~• the t;t&Jl(Je

of ~ cU.ffetQD~tel.a is of auch a- tta911ltu~ that 0.11• cannot es~ ttl~ e~l~ton t.hat t.h.e~ b$d ~ a ~).$.• tati,ve change and ~nt the S\P=l)lua ~ue of l&boUJ: to~Qe •• ~tng a.p~opri.ef,ed an<l a ~l.t\t1onsb1p o£ eX!)lo1te.t.t,on ,IJf

clisCQl."'ibl~ it

~ wage! dHf~t1a1e rQee fJ."Qn 1•2 .a f.n 19~8 tQ

iiaJ.,$ in 1940~ notes MI)J.esne.r.~6

(~~v'ot. f./J:t..~, c;oo.t<l., ,;

The uns~ll1-Gd wor.ket tnu• ·~~ $S· &Jl<ll~oei~o $5 .• r.t•G assume that tbe speclal.ist prod~• $ ·~lt4 ·of val~•~ o~ ss, ~ a~ b~ of h~ lebQ\U':~ If the. .

, · · , ·~peeS.alS.~t ·eem~ ff.ve ~it®$ CQQt.e ~ t.he ~~~~4 worke~•· i-.(h 30~, there wot\14 qa.ea~ly be no ~let:~on Qf GXP1Q1taUco bet-waen -~'-• sven tf h~ eaa)QQ. $-'" ~e mo~ tnan tho Wlakllled WOlfltE>r, ·WhUe, be pr~uce' cru,.y five ttmes. mo~ than tbe· unell111~d _,~, 'Wh$;lo he. prociucea ~l' £1\'$ tiuQs roo:-e, tbe:to ~ti·ll. woula· AO~ e#st. a ;e~t1Qn. oi. G~oita~.$.-at~ ·as t;lle $~C.f.al..b.t _·tP~4 be •ar:nlng 36 a~ll.ings e &;q_._ while na p;Q~~~ «lt) -.:. ~~ 1f tbQ epee~1$·st eama4 100• oz: 200s~ th,e· si.~uatt;on ~uld be fundal081'1ta111 c;:han9$a,, ln. eupb a -~$86 a la~ x:art .of h$.9 .lone~ woUld ne<:es$arlly ~ ~t:<P th• labou...- of othenn:+· C1$.f~.~ n.,ss1. pp.,ao.--01•· Jn tne soet.a.._ llst at$te ,s~tp).~ value exl$t& just ~~- ~-#· bu~ lt ta ~ta$tl~ ~ the state-. i'be sw:p).~ val~ sa quJ.te $1~eable as S:l\0\t~P w a ·Qal<;:~ats.on made t:v ~ s.<>viet. autholt (E ~E-;Gur.ln) 1. S~e w.~t!kt.llE.~~~:~i 11·tS'l;~ · p•~•~- He . gives f'gures tqo,, soy'~~ society i.s ~qbje9~ t-o a high degree of e.xplo1~t1o.n, no~s ~lso~r,; n~~:• p .. 12$~, He. ~guea that the powe~ elS.tE) J.G. _paz:asl~tc •. ·.&b&S!•• p1~as'.J· ··

96 see- Bottis Maiasnet:~, n.5,·, P!~--~~

310

s~e lete 19.40·;• the na~ .of tbJngs ~$not. tn\Jet)

alteJ"~! In lt960f for elCautpl-~• An&•~s. ~oyan.~: a .-r of

CfSU ~li~eau and fl\e Fkst. ~tv Pr$.me fti;r;.~ter, to14

Vl~tor Pe.r;lo tha~ the big. di~,fe~nU&U -~ ~. j~~~£1~

e.nc:l nec;e•seq <ltUtin9 tb~ ~a~tltia~t.sat.*on ~tva to spl.ll"·

poopl.~ t;o rise; that 1;be 4a1Eu:le$ ~ --*~ <;~d Pot ·be bcA.

cur" ea$U.Y # &Pd mo~c:war; •x am egainot equ.al1$t\~on :~"!~. a

~s1;. tnaJ~it?J of tile pQpuletJ.on ~ there. ~oU14 bet waga

atife~t!.a~s .• • • eqUeli~~i~ ~- ~~ 9~ ~®a1•~'J'I %n

· ·lP53~ ~ t:tlrtgo C>i di.;f£eren~s -~• ~~SOC)·~ $;00Q rubl~s a

yea~: t:~ an ~-ti~le<i tiO.tke:t an<l $j.OOQO~· U~OOOOJ:'Ubl~ f~ Q

~~n1!. fae1;Qq ··ma~~~9.8 ~~-~a gap of ~S.30. t~.a•' Jn

faot,. t.h$ al.>ol$.~1on Q~ tn*l-ncG tal¢ ~n •9•3 ai1d ~er pri~

v.lle~s fw:ther eg~ve1:Gcl ~e f.n~ differentt~).o! · S$Qot

98

see V~ct;ot: eM E:llen J>Ulo~ !in~mi.c ~SJbl~-l~ ,·*· ~!'! Ble~ sccm59. 'n)~· (J>~~~~t · );§so) •:~ pp.~i. ·86~ .'. <¥an•s lnte"~s •.·. g e.~es.t;cn .\8 notab~<'-i •top •a.ler,es nave not b;ien 9\lt. -~. beca~e :1~-. is eatY . to ta1se~ "t.ougll w Q\lt~ "e~s$-. .. haVE~ J)e~- ~t~ ~al ~: &~$a•s, but that. a~foQt$ QDly _1()9~"000 Q!dlvtduali• • S~t. 70u QlMOt. Q.U~. t.be ~ ~ mt~l-.QD$~ -.c.

1~~ a• eited in Paid!~" p.,l.eo. ·... ·

. . '

~se figu.t;e.~ aP.4 other; Q8taU$ ax'S C.1'te4 in Sot~~ef ·t:l .. ~S$# P!~ • it ~y- hot«t•~ ~ nQtea tna1; 'W!!fl bac.k 1n 1931~·'-!hotslQT not.e<lt '* ~~•.t:be ~al c~mlJ:lgs of t1ae ste~-· b.anovteta of-. ·~e~ t!{ ao. ~ 3D ~-$ ;thl!t ~J.ng, oftt.'le ~o-~ ca~gor~e., o; wo~rs ~;··And a$ .ear the · specially fortuna~ apf;lclell$ttif: their .sa~t!J"ies wou.~d j,i; mazv CaM.. pt~ fo~ _tbE) work Of et.ghty tQ ~ bundnd unaklll~Cl ~~~ • ··:r:n sQOpe ~ inequal.lt?t in the ~mant o£ lebo~,. the ~~i~t: ~,ton ha& not only ~Wah1i upto,. but ~r e~ased. tn.e ·~p~tallet cot1ntr:.._s '\,. ...

·see L~; "-T~ ,-··ni66~" p,~a$.·"'·.

,

19$4>• the •n~ome d.Uferentie1e a.e m the Clecl~~ The· 2h.d

~ c:ongtess atl'eaSGCl that in ttra 11ext 20 yeats •the

CU$par1i?f betW~ell blgb and compa~tlw·~ low inc~s m®t.. be

.s~cUly $Qt\qc::e4•~~9 ~t $.tend& to l'e&;JOn that tli$ ~a~ d&Wlopnatltal tk$.ve neceile1teted great differenda~ l:Nt ·

-ate~ a&wlo~nt end ~t~l~ should £nltlate ths p~ae

~f ·J>~solve ~duetlon o£ 1neoma dlffeR~tJ.als;~ 'l'bls ••

achieved main)¥ through the increase in th.o amo~t of 11\11)~

wages $lld o~e~ ato~-.~lOO Aa $ result, l,n ~960 the -.aga

ti . cons · ~ · '. ._. $'$)! t-2:_ •• · : 4--242~·l)a · d LatJe . ·. R·tVl~yleat n.~1t pp.~9~$J· Mervyn •1at~wtt,. rhB>;~ P•~•~ ~vtd t.ene., 'l'he En of Soc· · · lt ..,. Cl .. tU3 .· n . un r s .. te. . ·:- .· ·~~uaa),v p•5 •· MU~>rq Yana.t tcbt. "2;be • e~ _ n~ Rewlutton~, §1!J1o .Review; ~~.·l (4) 1)$¢··~ ).~.63'.··.· ~"~ iaOO.• 8.Jld Fe·. ci1¥ o·'u.ll# n;~G* p(~ao~ J.lotria Ma1ss~i n.et, -~j6~·6.. . . . . ~,.. '

l.tb, min~ ~gea w~ ~C$G$d in *95? UQm ~7 to 3$ ~U))l.ee, end .f~r; f~ 60 r:uble~ per month ~ !968 t.o 70 ~l.~$ ~ 1~?2• 1be other S~$· im:lud!a<lf (1) D1ffe~Uels· botwees. ekUl ~~®s -J:e •aucec:u (2} . ~he ~~rMls of J~ ·•UI)~g owr 2~0 ~~e• pe~ .. month have teen fJ:~•·• $80 ~vtd i.ant:t and 1?Q1~<=~1:¥ o ~, Pilli.l~·· ~Qf~,.,~, p;SO-!i· A la. W.. of Fo~•:,l-4#. .~S$ :.0· · t.aWd. that. .. -xe w ·. d be up~# lJ..Ml_te t.o tbe •al.artes.~· A ~nl•te.~r of .asFsn · fQ: •~q>l.e•, c;ouJ.d not go· );aeyond a saluv of $0oo rW>lu, .. , s.et Math~,f 1\~,eof: p.~95.,;· VJ.ctcr: Mbkcyan~ Flr$t· J)epUty Pr~ Mint-ate~' o£ 'tbe· USSR ~l.a$ned to ~t.'lo in 1.960·• ·~he main proeed\ttG J.• th~7 i;~toee ~ld l"e11 9at n.o increases~" ~ose 1n tn.e mt&U.o got o1ow rai•es ~~ Tb~ on the bOttom 9et; big nl,fea• • see

(f/o cont •.• ~pa.g~) . ' .

312

4ift~ti•l bet.WIIOn Ol!ln\1&1 workets a:nd QJlgin~o.rinq/ techn~ca).

one, •s a 1n~re 5~ (~ ~a .in tl\e eaJ:11 1930'•>· .• ~ol l" the

mi.d atld l.ate 1960•s, official fl9QrQtl sbowe<l t1 ai£feren¢e· of

2 to 4 t~.a between hi~r p,:ofeli$loMl or te~cal worli:e~

ana thooe unek111ed,.. :Jn 1~~9., a sovt;et M~n~~t got. n~

tlmea.more than the aw~ge wage,. a Sovl$~ fa<:tQXiY ~~JBMger,

a.o . to as time$ (incluol.ve of "fringe benefits .. ) ana tl)e

hlgtleet level$ Qf sov~~ l~cor:ne ma ~atd to !» lQ'O ~ime• ~ avua~ wage,~~Oi: In ~914~ t.h$ ~1ciu:N waa aQ follCiw*~t.

(pi-ev1ous t/n ~CX\ta• • ~l Vlc~Jr J>O.no.- n,91·, Jhl$0t ~ ~ objact.i~ 9f watt poltcy is sa1<1 to be (1) to e.11inlnat.e· ~Justkes ~ e¥Cess1ve dlfferen~tals ana (2) to make tbe d1ffeten~ tlala 'niQte apera~lve. as etlanilat.ing fac:t,qJ:~,t '&M ~id~·~ p,l?S-!7 ftho Qffe.<::t of t~ ~ferent.la.ls S;s $lso ta$-d tQ be· 0so~tened•' t¥ What Mi.kqran· ~~~ "self-cot:;eQ~lve _ ~ meakal sent.Cf;t&~ ~dUQatic:;n at)a Qthe~ t~ms ~vi<Sta4 w~t~out c~t ~n<l in. ~qual ~ts ··to all c:;a~go~l~~ Qf wo~k~g people·,~t+: we w'~l cmttnue to extend the.£~ benef:t.q• ~'AS qit.e<l ~ Jbldt'" P:~.leo .• , .

Fl.~~ are f~~ Bott.OSDOJ:e., ~~S$~ .P•4r8·• M;)~sn~~ ~otea that the avese~ we9f). 1n 19~5 wae a -~.S· ~l~~h. 1f, Ge~es added to it~ 128. 'JrUbles-~- see MalssneJt• n4!89,• p,,167.. . ..

ThC)se fi~$ are <:~ted 1n. A4am. wett0l7.1• CamluntJ• !H!<:e. -~rld ~- 11, (S~"~' ).,961) ·~ Pt~1~

44

X.O D~ ~, $C:cora-g ·1:0ov[et $t&tS.~Jtlcs-., the~:e 1eeX'$ 61 .• ~ worke.~ and 1Q,~"' ~~Sat'lt$~- ~h~ .,A).~-~~()1) -~V\lJ:'a96 'Wage Qf leading working class ~n 1971· •• 140 ~les and theM of ~a$an~ SO.~les:.,~ •wlt.h~ ~e ~rk~g Cleso a au .. tlnction is eke~ botWQen t.b& ~ maS.tt gro~ (~ worker:s and \itllte <»~l~ GnP~<:¥••> on the be•J.a <>f . ·~alCal. BQd ~n~sJ.c:a~ 0 leJ)C~" '!l!:.ln · ~973 •worker~ •· macSe up 60~• qf the total ~kt.ng populeti<Xl#.&lld whl~• collesr · •t.af~. ~1-~Q"--J •wqrkere~ ana ~te <»Ue~ a~f~ are ~~tber subdS.VSided ae.c~~g t.o profe{3s4oon&l qul!llifS.ca~

. t~ons ~ only ec.qn~c manager~ .fl~·. bet.~~ .psl.d _than ~rkers en~ged ~- beaw pl'Wslqal la~~~-·!' m 1915•

(~/~.r ~cnt.d~.·!• Q/pa~)

Aveteoe woge

wa;e of Reaearcll P~f$$SO~

wage of a 00\\lrmment Mints~

wage of a Pe.ctoq Mana~~

Ph:( sic: ian

~sk111e4 WOJ'k$t

... •. ,~i

~· ·~~

•••

313

OW#\;.000 • f'/WJJI 1,;()0 !t

$00-1,'-00 .. 120 ...

100 •

Note t Sonl$ fol:m$ Of income ere t;aken 1n kind and hcmce tile 6Uferentical• ate nfod. w l)e. in· ~· J:eg•oo ·of ao to 2$···~ •. ~he lar~&~ .4Ufe~r.sc». ~~cl by -~mtg~ source 1& aoo•t ~t~n ~ blgttes~ aM~ ~Oli!Sst ana ).OO~l fO# the hl.gbest end a~age W!lg&• Tbe- ·9<)r;:espcnd1ng ft.~tl fo,.: USA t~ • 111000 t * an4 'ooo ·•1"'(1.03)

Tbe detailed c:elc~atlons for the eaa:lY ~vo•a .io n-.de·

b.{ Mat.mws ;· He euma ~ the ~tt .an tbe followin:g tables. •

~eking .OO...SOO ~es es lndl~t.lng elS.t.e threshol-d

Matthews calculate• the nwQ)el' ~ pe.rsons enjWln9 thla l'ett;e . . .. . . ..

of inc:ant)f.:> crhe flOUI'$$ are s~a .f..n th.e fol;lowf.ng table.~''

Whus~ the total number of .. elite• personnel. ~ ~aJ.c\ih~ . '

to be 227,t000 (~ sovlet ost1~Uate of the .. lntel.li.gents~tt U

·(Fev1* f/ta ~ coatd. ~ ~) . tb3 Chairman of the sovS.et. aoc$.ologlcal: societ?f, autttavi.~h, <lS..scl.osed regar;dlng the esala",._~~ for pwsona wt.~ coq>J.ete ~1ve~4t¥ -edu.Qatf..oni. the dif~nc:e be~• . tbe .. hlgbest end the lowst. ealaJ..Y •c:a~ wa$ ~ tb~ rattQ Q~ ~ .• s ... ,~ see wolfgang Be~pi -et al. <.~~4!1l;:· !b9 so,vief· b, ~t~s, .~etlctRol,iSt..• · §s»n~cs,. Foreign iJi 'i!ll ,_ · ··.~on; 'J,-6J;w;2~a-;--· -· ---u·- · • - - -. ·

~oa · ~ f49UQ& aro gl'WP Ut Daviel uane,, n,._g~·~·· p•SS.'•:'' •

• SGe ~bl~ NOO~·t :23-~9, ft· 214--811

314

,. -- -----· -·---------.,.--

Earnings of Individual Party and State Officials

Party 0 fficia/s First (General) Secretary of Party Secretary of Central Committee First Secretary of a Union Republic

(without oblast divisions) First Secretary of Tula Oblast Secretary of Partkom, USSR

Council of Ministers : :\ssistant to Member of Politburo ·Instructor' (Junior Official) of

Central Committee (1971-73) (1974)

State Officials .Yiember .of a Republican Council of

Ministers 1972 Minister of Communications,

Belorussia

. a Rumour only.

Reported Basic

90Qa 700-800°

600 600

500 425

290-310 350-450

430

Possible Extrasb

210 210

122 115

105 110

195

Possible Total

810 810

622 440

400 510

625

630

b Extras: l have here merely inserted a figure for the 'thirteenth month' as Jiscussed ott p. 36, and an allowance for certificate rubles, these being trans?Osed into ordinary rubles by multiplying by a factor of five. Officials above .;blast first secret~y are considered to receive the 32-ruble rate (see--Cfiapter .!...belew).

0 Note on Individual Income Tables Details in Tables 1.1 and 1.4 to 1.7 are 1 :rom selected individual respondents, and relate to the years 1970-3; see note

ln interview sources, p. 186. Rises for party and legal personnel after 1971 j,ave been incluC:led here. All earnings are in rubles, monthly.

Rates of exchange, 1971: official Soviet - 2.16 rubles to the pound; Soviet :ree market (illegal, rumoured) - 12-15 rubles to the pound; London free narket (illegal in Soviet law) - 8-10 rubl~s to the pound.

A dash indicates that no information was available.

'rabl e : 23

Source: Mervyn l\!atthews, .Privilege in the soviet Union, {London, 1978), Po23(1

,.

Basic Salary and Total Wage of !\-tanagers of Largest (Category I) Industrial Enterprises. by Branch(>

(I) (2) (3) (4) Branch of Industry Published Estimated Esti111ated

Basic Basic total Salariesa Salaries wage

1960 Post-1971 1970b (Plan)

Coal 400 480 656 Non· Ferrous 325-375 420 573 Ferrous 300-350 390 533 Machine Building 300-330 378 516 Chemical 290-330 372 508 Oil and Gas 290-300 354 483 Building Materials, }

Light, Textile, 180-250 258 352 and Food Industries

a From Tarifnye sta•·ki ... (1960); see Bibliography. All sums :~re quoted in rubles per month. The currenC)' reform of I January 1961 meant the replacement of 'old' rubles by new ones at a ratio of 10: I.

b Estimated from column (2) and L. E. Kunelski, 'Sotsialno-ekonomicheskie problemy zarabotnoi platy', Moscow, 1972, where some figures for bonus supple"\ents are provided.

•The salary system for managers and specialists is complex, and in industry alone is said to .consist of 150 'schemes'. The elements determining a given wage are (a) branch of industry, (b) category o·r enterprise (up to seven. by size and importance to the state). (c) geographical location of enterprise, (d) economic performance within the framework of state plans, (c) training and length of service, (f) skill in manipulatin~:: the regulations. Minor changes in the schemes nrc frcqu::nt - witness the size of the monthly Byu/leten Gosudarstverlllogo Komi/eta po rrudu i ;;arabotnoi plate.

Table 24

3t5

Source: Mervyn .\latthews, Privilege in the Soviet Union (Loudon, 1~78), p.25.

(1) Category

of Enterprises

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

3 J. 6

,··

Distribution of Industrial Enterprises by Category, Size of Workforce and Managers' Earnings, 197/-1972

--·· -·- ·--------·---(2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

No. of % Distribution Managers' Total Wages Workers of Enterprises

All industry Light industry Coal indu.1·try

100 or less 34·6 163-213 ...._ 391 101-500 41·9 18~221 180-197 425 501-1,000 11·0 196-262 197-229 458

1,001-3,000 8·1 229-385 229-262 491 3,001-6,500 1·2 278-417 262-295 540 6,501-10,000 1·2 295-491 295 .. J2S 589

10,001 and over 0·3 344-573 328-343 656

'!'able 25 ..

Source: ~lervyn .Matthews, !:v·ivi~.ege in the Soviet Union, (London, lY7B), ~o21G

e 26 'l'abl e 27

e 28 Table : 29 ..

ce: (For all the tables above) ~·lervyn Matthews, Pri vi le,ge 1 n the soviet Union

Director of VUZ. Research Institute Pro-rector Professor, Chief Researcher Assistant Professor, Dotsent, Leading Researcher Senior Researcher ,.

a To which might be added the following extras:

Basica 500-7oQ}l 7 400 325-525 300-350 200-250

Membership of Academy of Sciences 350-500 rubles Headship of Faculty (dekanat) 30% on basic rate Headship of Department (kafedra) 100 rubles

b Depending on category of establishment, of which there were three.

/!1-fJLt: : /?.1 Earnings of Individuals in the Arts ancl Publishing

First Secretary of Union of Composers

Reported Basic 800 500 First Secretary of Union of Cinematograph Workers

General Secretary of the Leningrad Division of the Union of Writers

Editor of Union Republican Newspaper Deputy Editor, Union Republil:an Newspaper Expert painting restorer Well-known Writer (All-Union level) Well-known ballet dancer (All-Union level)

a Including honoraria from outside work.

-nfl /.IE : ?-8

350 240 210 160

500

Earnings of Individual Legal Officials

Deputy Chairman of Republican Supreme Court (no oblast divisions)

Head of the Moscow Foreign Judicial ~ollegium

Head of the Moscow Section ·or Advocates Moscow Advocate

Reported Basic

450-480

400 400-500 250

Reported To tala 1,400

500-600 500

800-1,000 800-1.000 900-1,200

Reported Tot ala

500

Earnings of Senior Military Officers anc .ndividual Diplomats*

Marshal of the USSR Major General Colonel Lieutenant Colonel Minister-Counsellor accredited to a large

capitalist state Ambassador, small underdeveloped country Counsellor, small underdeveloped country·

Reportt.·t Basic

600 500 400

500 400 360

Reported Total 2,000

. • ~-1-ilitary sal~rics rcpo~tcd fo~ catcgori.:s of personnel; dipltm.atic salaries of andavaduals, paad partly an ccrtaficate rubles, sec p. 42. All i:!!tres in Soviet ru~L ·

318

.l911 '- ~ mll1lon) ~104 '.thesE) f~s aD<l tnoQ.Ie disparitief

\lpto eatq U10 • e gl'YQ.D· ~ow e~ sut£1c1en~ fo~ ~ $t\q'

~ove~tttg the perloCl J.936-.'77·jll Ho.,..r;. a few obsenat1one ~

in orae~~

!l£ban end auml DiViae

F$rst.· 1t may be. noted that the lnc:-.s,. l,'efe~te<J t.o

aboVe, ooncex-n eble£1.1 ttl~ Ul'be~ Utl$$ • .. 'rhe lo•s~ pa~d 8Q

colle·c;t.~v~ fa~~$' By t.he enc1 of ~ 196~, ttl~ ·coUQct~Vt~

f~' • total »Qsr <;aptta tnc:OJ:Q!J t~aa ft-om 'a tQ QS pe~ cent Of

that of tbe stato emplqre•st bet~ ~10 and l974~ t.lle· persOO.al

iDQC~tB Qf tbe ste1t.e employees "oee 4,aa pe-r ~entt and that of

c:ollect.lw femoera ••68 per ~t*"lOS· There $,s thus an •qUA~ lislng ~net in the rural and vban. tQ&ges, BUt oppoi;twlit$e•

104 ...

ios

319

to c1$mb· \lp the la&1a¥" ere much less 1n ~1 eterua, although

theJ:"e are qUite & few ,;~ people who ql'tl e goocl deal tt¢'ou~

p~l-to plots• Melli e~ tQ the citles to ee~l tbek product;a

eJXl .tt!aflaQO ~Q eaJ:n a ~Q\., Th\UJ'• c;oe <»Ul.Cl fJ.Ila •ll~i.f P'QPl•

$fl. ~1 eree() ~th -IIIQt'iey an<l well ~is~d ~ivate hOWJea-t - . . '

with tall. !XlO&l~ 9ad~ end amanlUes va$kble .in tne USSR, su~

a majQ;,-#.ty leaas a <lull life witb far: .le:;Je 9ppQrt!~t~es .• , Tbue~

~ d~ffere.nce. betwen city and eountq. ma~ua1 a:M ment:el

labour k; att.l..l ~a~. z~ 1;he aJ.ffetenc:es be~~ <!lt.lea

(a$ also bElt.waen different. ~al QGa;s) is clea~ty vlejblQ ~, rl

Emgir.~~l ob$etva~1on c~~otaw$ thl.,,

s~condly,, besides 1;be J:'0.gulall 1nQo:De, the scuree• of

$~n $ne~ are$ Official. ~QYa).t.y t:at;.es upto 600 i'Ubl.:es-t inc:OIDEJ

f~om ~rsOQal enCleavowr, official ecac:er.t. hononrin• Qff.icl~l

t:estoJ:stlon of Xcooe, (u_pto 1000 r~les per contnct) 1 prtva~

l.easons. langua<Je teaching, privet$ ~~el c~tattona.-.~06'

(pcevious £/n~contd. ~· .') and that~- thus have cases of the· E)xPl~ti-on of peasante tu· the blttea~t:at$,~ nQ lcmger .$;n t.h~ Cbar-ac:t.er of agen~ of the state, but- 1.n the chat"S~r of aetQ.• legal lanaloJ;ds•,_., See 'l't'otslql:~, D~66• pp_~1S~)~,t; •in general, the ~ncome of ewt:r one of t.~es.e bJ..g <;ollect.1._ fat.mers is t$n to · 15 · ~tmos moxc tban the wa~$ of~ •awJ"ege• wot:k•~ and tfte lowe~aae ~oll-eQt;ivif84 _x-asant.•-!t :tbi.4;,.. P-~32-~ ·*'The f1xst tens of th~e:nd$ of •wll~ff .. col.lect:;S.ves h.avo prospQreCl at~ expenae·of ~a -rema1nf.Qg mess· of· the collectt.'Ws ana. t~ l{ldustria~ 'WOrkers :~ ~ • ~he income o~ tbe ~pper c);a$s of C.Oll~·t.tw• bas 9i"OWD lntneasuz:abl.y mote tt\at1. the Pt~crne ~ the £un~.-nta~ peasaQ,t end wo~kes iDf)$S•" ~~ d-'ffet'en~eti.on of -ma~"l ~c~~s <>£ •xLatence 48 not~ pQrhap$ o~n a:no~ cQ'lSt~r:abl~ than ~- ~e •w of &t~uJ,.a,~~s~~c;n~·~ .. ibl~~-·-P.P·+,133~~•.. ~ . '

~06 ]?o~ ~tail~·, •ee Matt;hewa,_ -n-•. eo,., pp..-2$.00~ .•. ~ I ~ " \ '0 • ...,,,

32u

~t.r<Uy:• the· .lncare 's often o~~\Cnted with PJ:S..\1.~

le~s (bo~ ~Gb and· }(ktd)l o~p_eQ$..a)..ly fQ" ~:fl.~clq~ursalit •1•1;

· (s~~., ~gardQCi·equtvalent of old TDazrist 't;able of ranu)

pe.op1~ 1Vhlcb incl@ v~ua11Y all .a:e.spon$1'blQ~ hi~l¥ $)8141

highly tmt.ll~d and pxeetS;gious oc:c•tlon~. (.n. &1). brenc~a

Qf $$I\S.nlstn~ion and ttie oc~onv ~l.Oe ~h~sQ ~ople get ~e benef'ts oft. (1) ad<Utlonal Ca•b pa.y~n~$ (like the s~allecl . ' "13th month• -.. a month•s extra 'iiflY ~ e>t.hor ~~1 PVIIIIINtq

(like: ~~•e•" of Cs$h, *po~sQnal -l.er;-lea• f-ot ~luecl 'i'lc.U• vidUa.ls~ add'-~-.onal pa~tl!!tt'- work,· h~gb ~r;sooal tetir~nt

penalona ete ~) t· (2) ape.eial supplY eto~•h (~) ~t.te~ boualng•·

(4) private tz:anspo~, (5) ea.ucat.i<mal aP<i cult\.ltal bGJ'efi~•t.'·

(6) holiaay fact.littesf dacha' etc;;: (1) forelgjt t#&W~f.

(8) "Blat" system (e $yatem based on use of petsa.'lal. con~cte

tnfl~~, even dowr1 ~ight bribeJ:YI the system 1s ~toemely

useful and effe~ive) ;,?. (9) part.y ~sh1p (which Ope~ tho

gates fQ,~" pr1 v11e~s) ,10~ (10) awards and prize$·,•; ;In adc1$.t10J1j ·,

108 l09

W@· ~w,. for e~mple~ .some langu.age $po0.1alis~ 1n MOScow \tilo wxe also c~sultant$ to ~.$S p~l..iaber:•#. iil adai.tlon. to their ~gu~ar J~.~;·The conaul,tetlon we• paW for~, seolaes one ·came to know:marJY ~4~te arh!)gemenw J:anglng £~ ClQing a bi~ o~ "wl¢e t<:> '"S.ps 4il tile. Re•~· ~nte to ~el~rs .~;, ~hj) lettet foxm is pre~~t;ly becoming 'VelY $10Pul.af Sn Moscow and ll1B1JY yo~g ·pe~e eepke tc> becOCQe waiters for t,S.p-mc:mey and goocl•f~ they ~na9G to get't,' se~ fo'" moxa . Cleta11tJ l4atthewsf,l'· n ~,SQ '";.- pp ;~3~3$ •r· .l!?ld~.,;.~ PP.!6o-c•-.ss.t-.· . .

:.T.

~~ ... ~ .~~~ I'~~~DPQ\•.

~ ~~ .i ~'\ - 3 •2 t .. ~(~·~u·· ··~\ ~:~ ·~ . . ~- '

there.. · ~ ~ousanci and one ~· (prettr wide&~ac» of making

money, includt.xl.g the co"~pt and i.llegal mes,. x-e.nglng fran

pet-ty specUl.e.tion to a.tealtng of stew P"'pQ~ J· J?unn$ng pr~vate

enta$~s ie~Jpecia;U.y ~· the aepubltes) .~ ilO The sltuatien

ia ewta•ted ty the low ~come of the ol'd:tna.;.y clt.iztUIB wblc;b

tempts .~Jfi (specially tbe young) to m!ke mo.~ on the •1¥ ~o

ma~ l»tb ends meet.. The~e are others ~o indulge .$11 she.~

d.,als· to btV fanc:y thtngs like Je.e:ns; t~in.,.~fJ· eta .•.

lffimet, of, ~1si!£1t&~a.

Fourthly,;. lncoma privileges and position ·CUries enOlZ'll\Oqa

aoc1a1 l)rist.l~ and influence!' lt fO&~#s d$.ffer¢nt ~.

fashl~ and. p~fer:ences, 11fe"""ot;¥le$ ana ~lue'!fi"SY8tems f~r

41ffel'$n~ social grQUp~J •

?lle date g1VCl)n above establlsbe$ that, (1) a £a~r: ~~

of ~~l~t¥· @e ·•~ 1n the soviet unton~ (2·) ~oc;totr

.baf becQn9 mo~ oomplex ove~ the years~ (3) the ~v$.ot soeie1;r

f.es pxe~tQr wellt~tSwatS.ft,e.d~ ftle.rc. ~ also much to eoDflnl

322

Qs~1.;.•a ~~is that .. ~itlcal a~tbc>~#.Ue' ,c;an over~ly and

•ffe~ vely change ttte Qlacso •truc:tt.lte me#a t.he prj;v'l•ge•

tb$t e~e most $seent1a1 fe>r s~1a1 ttatus .._. e~:e eonfeJ.:>te4 1:'.(

a ge~.._on of ~e pQlltS.cal au.thotiUes •·~~~~~~

ftlEl sov'-et books t:.ena to -- light o£ or -lt.rn,gh~

glees over ~be inequaJ.itie$ i:t\e,t eld.st ana .st.z:ess t.be extat:enc.

of fJ:ien.41y clae•• ana as.,uea. ~~ e•~Qenc:t of & b~O\if

aoclGt,y.~. i'oxr uatople~- the boe$~ "tM us~ ·j.n .1?~~· fe>t: ).916 .. ,;.

~s not.. live ~e ~~~$ ~r:ta~g to the telaJrle• of the

apaQ1al.1ats •. Jia ~. l.s• o£ eourae~" no ~nt;-1~ of .i.n<:aa.·

<J!spca-~t.ies, naaenolat'¢8 eystean entl pr:,t.vllege.e.i •tc-!:· Somt of - .,

tbo releVI!nt ~blea an- reps0duce4 below• -_

A at.~ of the ~bles lnd!cetee that,, (1) the e,_#e~

monthly wages M..<l laler1es (of ~r:~te and E)lll,Pt.(.?{eeo ~ <t.e~11ed

_b~ak. ~ is . gl.\1en) r.avo ~c~aao4 f~ 40-~~ ~@.~ea ·~ 1~40 t.Q

aos.t~ ~Ubl.~s in .1976; and monw •9" ftorn ~a ,J ~1$• ~ 19~

to 154•$ ~@lea in 19161 (2) the ~~ diff~~Ual ~t-.n

~dus~~1 workers anc:l egricUl.~wral. ~k•t:s bas a1~• ~=

aanew~ low J. .• e., in 1940;, ~ ..otkel:'s' $2•;1 ;u.bles to pt.tes&nta!

Ul

112

Continued

11940 ' 19651 (970 19751 1976

'

Credit and insurance insti- 133.8 135.0 tutlons 33.4 i 86.3 I I I. 4

;

State administration and economic management. aclministration of co-operative i!nd mass orga- 122.2 130.6 131.0 nizatlons 39.0 105.9

Table 30

source~ 'fhe u.s.s.It. p.l85.

• 1• • es for 1978, HI •' 1r ur

(Progress, 1977),

NUMBER OF SPECIALISTS WITH A HIGHER OR SPECIALIZED SECONDARY EDUCATION ENGAGED

IN ~E NATIONAL ECONOMY

(thousands)

Year

1913 ...... 0 .......

1928 ........... 0 ..

1941 as of January 1 ....

955 as of July 1 .. - ....

960 as of December 1 ...

965 as of November 1i ..

970 as of November 16 ..

9 7 5 as of November 14 ..

976 at the end of the year (estimate) .. •• 0 .....

-

Total of specia

lists engaged In the

national economy

190

521

2,401

5, 133

8, 78'4

12,066

16,841

22,796

24,000

of which

with a higher

education

136

233

·, 909

2, 184

3,545

4,891

6,853

9,477

10,000

with a specialized seconclary

educztlon

54

288

I, 492

2,949

5,239

7' 175

9,988

13,319

14,000

~

N ~

IJ)

0 s:; '1 (') (1)

~ ~ (t)

c:: • u; • VJ ...... r--

~· ::I

---~· •q s:: '1 <D CD

~ 0 '1

.... <.0 --l 0) -::: 0 CD (')

0 :=

.... <.0 ~ ~

'-'

't1 'C • ..... QJ 0 I

QJ ..... .

~ Ill '::1' ...... ~

:.;, ......

AVERAGE WAGES AND sALARIES OF WORKERS AND EMPLOYEES WITH ALLOWANCES

AND BENEFITS RECEIVED FROM THE SOCIAL CONSUMPTION FUNDS

IN 19761 (rubles)

All workers and employees engaged In the national economy

Average wages and salaries of workers and employees with allowances and benefits from the social consumption funds .

Averagt' money wages anrl sa 1 aries of wc.rkers and emp toyees . . • . . . . . .

Including paid vacations .••...

Allowances and benefits received by workers and employees from the social consumption funds (excluding paid vacations), average per worker ........ .

Industrial workers

Average wages oi Industrial workers with allowances and benefits received from the social consumption funds ..•......

Average money wages of industrial workers

including paid vacations ........ .

Allowances and benefits rect>ived by Industrial workers from the social consumption funds (excluding paid vacations), average per industrial worker ..... .

Average yearly

2,470

I, 815

126

655

2,759

2,016

1~1

743

I Average· monthly

206

151

1 1

55

230

168

13

62

The above figures characterize the average wages and salaries plus allowances and benefits per worker. Considering that usually sever21 persons In the families of workers and employees are gainfully employed, the averagl' monthly wages and salaries Including

1 For the structure of the social consumption funds see page 193 .

I } .'

allowances and beneiits amounted to 371 rubles per fan:i ly In 1976. Moreover, the state annually expends about 290 rubles per family on construction of dwelling, schools, cultural, communal and medical Institutions.

The working people of the Soviet Union enjoy unquestionable advantages as compared~wlth the working people In the capitalist countries; they know no-:unemployment and are confident of their future; they pay the lowest rents In the world, receive education free of charge lncludi ng higher ~educe t !on, frel' medical services and many-other privileges paid for by the~state .

AVERAGE MONTHLY WJ\GES AND SALARIES OF WORKERS AND EMPLOYEESi

Year

1940

1946

1950

1955

1960

1965

l970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977 (plan)

IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY (rubles)

Average monthly wages and sa lariE's

Average monthly Including allowances ~and benefits from money wages and the social consump- salaries

tlon funds ·•

40.6 33.1

62.4 48. I

82.4 64.2

91.8 71.8

107.7 80.6

129.2 96.5

164.5 122.0

169.8 125.9

175.4 130.2

I 82.6 134.9

190.9 141. I c....:> 198.9 145.8 ~

205.9 151.3 ~~.

211 154.5

(/) ~ 0 1).1 s;:; c-"1 1-1 (') ~ (b

..

I~ w ~

~ IC jl-! '? U1

h 0 'i ,_. r.o -:1 (j) -:-..... 0 CAl (')

0 ::;

1-' tO -:1 -4 ·-

'0 '0 • 1-' a> ~ I

1-' a> CA)

AVERAGE MONTHLY MONEY WAGES AND SALARIES OF WORKERS AND EMPLOYEES

BY BRANCHES OF THE NATIONAL ECONOMYl· (rubles)

'"" 1965,_1970 197 51 19 76-

;

: In the total national eco.nomy 3 3. 1 96.5 122.0 145.8 ,151.3

Industry (industrial produc-t ion personnel) . . . 34. 1 104.2 133.3 162.2 169.5

of whom workers - 32.4 I 0 I. 7 130.6 160.9 168.0

Agriculture . : - - 23.3 75.0 I 0 I. 0 126.8 134.0

of which state farms, sub-sidiary and other pro-duct ion agricultura I en-lerprises

all workers and employees 22.0 74.6 100.9 126-7 134.0

of whom workers - 20.7 72.4 98.5 124.7 132.0

Transport 34.8 106.0 136.7 173.5 182.5

- dlway - - 34.2 98.7 123.4 158. I 161.0

waterway - 41.2 135. I 169.5 212.8 226.0

motor, urban e le-<:tlri lied and other types of tran-sport; loading andl un- -loading enterprises 34.5 107.5 140.3 177. I 188.0

1 Excluding allo\loances and bE'nelits from the socraJ 'consump-tion funds. .

( \

' f { •

f } I

~

~ I

t ~ I

\ I

Continued

.. I 1940 1965 1 1970 1975

..

Commut:ica t ions 28.2 74.2 96.8 123.6

Construc::on 36.3 111.9 149.9 176.8

of wh:..:h construction and instlllation

all wa-!<ers and employees 3 4. 0 112. 4 153. 0 181. I . of "·1om workers 31.1 108.4 148.5 180.3 .

Trade, ;ublic catering, ma-terial and technical sup- '· ply ad distribution, pro-curemmts 25.0 75.2 95.1 108.1

Housing Jnrl communal ser-vices md services to the populaion . 26. I 72.0 94.5 109.0

Public ~alth, physical cui-ture JnO social security 25.5 79.0 92.0 102.3

PublictJucation 33.1 96.1 108.3 126.9

Culture - 22.3 67.3 84.8 92.2

Art .. 39. I 78.2 94.8 103. I

Ss:lence md sc lence services 41. I 120.6 139.5 157.5

1976

134.0

181. ().

18S.o I

184.0

112.5

113.0

10 4. 5

128.0

93.5 j

. I 103. ~ .. ~

C;..~ 162.0 I

Table 33

1 n 1976, as compared with 1940, real Incomes of workers and

employees Increased 3.6 times per worker and those of the collec

tive farmers 6 times.

During ·the same period real Income per capita of the popula-

tlon Increased 5.1 times.

ALLOWANCES AND BENEFITS RECEIVED BY THE POPULATION OUT OF SOCIAL

CONSUMPTION FUNDS

1940 1965 1970 1975 ..

Allowances and benefits I

total, '000 mill. rubles 4.6 41.9 63.9 90. I

per capIta, rubles . .. 24 182 263 354 I

1

.• , 1977 19 76 (plan)

9.4. 5 99.0

368 382

326

Source: 'l'he USSU in Figure~ fo1:_!._976 (l\loscow, 1977), p.l92.

327

23•11 ana ~ .l976, wc>t:ke1"8. 168!0 to peasanw*1··-· (~) ~

hl.ghe$t, income of 226.0 Nb~es 1n 19'76 ·wa• ea~6 by wate&VaY ,

pers~l and the J.oWst 9a.a ~:uble$ in 19'76 by th.ose engaged

in CUltural field·~· <•) t;ha~. the w&98$ have been C<X'l~1n~oualy

on the l,rlct.ea•~ ~ the mos~ Snlport.ant. pOlnt. x:epeated~y e tnJ$-'i

(5) ~t tne ~~~ of spec~·lf.sts engaged in tbe na~ioa.al

.• ca1azy grew f~m uo,ooo 1-n· 19'' to 24;.000;000 at tbe end of

1976 (Of· them lO;OOOt.OOO wltb higbe~ edueat1.on and 1.4~000,000

wtth $peC.$.all$ed Ge<;~ ed\lcation) +- ~be~e overall f·t.~e•

aJ:e. much higher then tbe c.~.eQ given ~ fdattbe~ b® ·no inc~·

bxeak ~ of top spec1al1sts (est.ln»te<l to be 221~000 by

Matthel'i) ~· i.s giVW:m~ (6) thlil ellowences ancl benGf1~ from eoc1a1

c~~t$on £unas have gone up fz:Qm 2.4 r:ubles pel;' Q!p1ta ~·

1940 to 368 per <:ap'ta An 19?6• (7) ~· elitQ tne~a .not

glven·;:

Another SOvi-et boQk &teling bislcally wlth t!\Q qlieetiOil

Qf equallf¥ elao mtkes no roe.nt.tOQ of el-ite oalcrtEts!t.u.,

Victo~ ~rlo~ o.n ~rt.cao ecooom$.s t# \bose book .$JJ

p\l.blS.ohed by the ~so PUblishers, ma1nta£M that the gap

bet~ the h1ghe.$t . and the low.~~ ·~ges and eelet~~ fJJ .. only

328

abo~t ~0 to 3.i ·~ fran ?o "Ubl.es to too ~l~s a mc.lt4, "t tblnk

this qnge ~s valid fo~ 99 pe;wnt oi the soviet pc>pulation~

excepting a cettta$11 me.tnbe~ of· c;ol~®,ve fatne#S· ~o may est.l11

recelw less than ~ min~ and leav~9 asl~ .reglonal

dtff~rentiala and ®rtain fo~ of non~ge lncone, s\,Jeb aa

book rqtaltles. foea for wo.;k~ ·9f an an<l spec~l pex:formanoea;.

etc~•·. one. can ally atJY that the different1a1a be givao· en

1ow and tbat tbe ~~lng *" can not. ac:canoaate all the

e~ptl<:m$ he. has ~<le .. ~ About the p.~:S..vi.1tt9GS#· :be wrlt.es tha~ to

1950 •·s and ~ .t a pr1vU$ges won $Ought to be ¢~t, FOJ; Qlt8mp1e1

llmi~; mre lmpos~d en u~e· of of£1e1a~ c:e#~ for pe~ol1ttl lQ&SQD$1!

ban ·~ -~lng t~10. h<net.J (a&n$;$Glon ~t th~e ~i~lege. eal$t.ed) ·~

The SOviet dt.ploma~::t ue ,-epo~ ~ M\ie ·•beats~ 4en'-Qd tbe

c;:~ of the o'-"ttenca of spec$.al •t<>.ces fot' th~ ~~Of,l~f The~ .£8 at. leaa~ ·a P~Emtlon of pr~VU•oe••· a~th;ough the~ reno-, extent and CQ)$Gquebt ~ f.mpect Ql sQC$4ty ~ ilOt. analfa~~

iha fore-gc:>ln9 ac<:ount. bJ;>itl9' out that tbe SQClety is

far mc>re cat)plox and lne.galitarian ~. 1s CJetlet~llY una.rat;oo4•

329

Mo~~ $n th.e Soviet analysl$~ m1d<U.e claaseail$ a"

~~al.ly 1gnoJ:ea which renelors the SOViet analYs~s too

s~lUied and unsophisticated" Tbe questions that .,aaclily

spring to m£nd are • How best to characterise the Soviet so«;ia1

change 4ur1ng 19$6tfll017 pe~1od? Is the <;:ontetnpQJraJ:f <bancte$1~

~Jat;ico of soviet SQC!Gty is •dawloped soetaltat• aoc.t.et;r

cQm;e~? Ie tbe cleos etruct.ure out).4nea s.n tbe 1917 coastS.•

tut~a'l Jeflettl,. of social realities? Ia ~re a ~uling

QlaiS in tbe so~et Uni.<:O 1 A%6 the soviet. t\· ~lew peoplef'

~e .. soviet peoplo"; beal<U.ng ~e ~<twn1\o. of & ~w Man ? I•

. 1t. a t.ln~<lUIS ctvtl~eation ae Kenafl 'tells ue?~l6: An anaiyal.e

<>£ ~se a$peC.tf '3 ctuci.a1 sj.n~ they x;e~1.n to ~e ce.n~al

p~:oposltS.on of the sovle'- appl"'&ch to eonstS.tu.~~.~ vu~;

cQ)Stitutions ~eflect ~e soc1o~QOnOCD1c cnango and «>nelatlOQ

of c1aa~s foroe.a at e given poizlt of ~:+ The ¢Q:lStf.t~t1on of.

us For aM all81ys1s of the so).e and place of tba ad.atQ.e Cl.ea&~es ~ modern industt:ial t10C$.ott.os~ ~l.ud"'g the SQC~ll•t. ooes. bee Atlthont .. G1&leh$.~ The C. smture of the Advsnced Societies (LQndco, 198QJ.;; · · · t;e'"* · 2 aha 13 .&at wrt;b sQCia14t. soct.et.~es •. {&~e e.lao PP~.~?~a94 EU'ld pQBta.C:~p~ pp~319•20~f G~ddena c~clUdes ~at the~e ~t. •Soc::: I.-a list eontrra4~t.lona 8 j·us~ aa tb~ exlet ~on~dictS.a:ls in the capi~lS.att c:oun~ws ~ '" also O$so•Jd, J.n ~ne1 q~9-t, Pt.l$1#,, an4 F~nk PaJ:kin; n,99,,. PP4t23.-7 and 141~19.~ .

George F~:·:tCeMen wr~:t.es that tba ps:e~ent ~ u~. --.. not. J~t a anational. :;oc;$.etM" b.Q.t. •A unS.~ ~'-vUa.eation not qut~ lUte al(fthlng e~t:l· in the wot:ld:,t.•~ .s•e Georoge 1? .,, xennan# .. '.rbe ·Russian aewl.uttQSl ·~ Ft.ft:v yeax-s Aftear; 1ts nature and con~equence~·i•: fRrelsm tff!lrg1,. VQ1 •• 6; no.,;1~:- october 1967~- P•19'i

330

;19??· Q aeid ~ be that of th.e liOCiEJ't.y of <le'Ye1i)p9Cl BOClal~lll

<=b~ac;terbe4 ~ tbe ckaw1ng tOQetheJi c;laa,es and ftatio.na

wltbtn tb.e $0viet. tl\1on;.

ibere have been l4.a. .... ~ngS,ng. an~J~I'• to ~ ~tatt.Qn•

ra$ae4 ~<>ve~ '»he f91~QW1ng majQJt ~tQzpl:O~tlone .-~,. ou\

o£ ~se erunnt~$~ (1) ~ ~~t. $nte~tat1on~,; (2) ?.be

western lnt;e~:p;etat.t~ (~) q:he sc;w1e~ Xnt.$~#e.tattooe !·

¢~ 1;be Mal'~t. inteJ:pJ:ete~Qfl~,t· the· no~l.e ~·· a.t:eJ

The· B~uc:rat$.c '$lite or Ru~Sng Clef.& the3eail17 St«t~ Cap$..,.

t.alicm the$is;·~J.-e ':he J;)agene1:ate WQtrk4ra:• st&te tbe$i.8JUt

33t

R•Vislc.:n.S.et society tbesia~1i0 The WeatQD. ln~~i;.a~lc>ns ibcl\l(]f)s Totalitut.an scx:lety; Elite society~ Suteaucret.ic;:

soc;leqr~~ ~dustrf.el scx:i.ew ,~121

~t goes 'WS.tho\1t $tW'1n9 tbat the soviet .-l,ters rejeQtfJ

outrigbtJ.y all the s'bdW.~~-n~lOD&d 1nte~retat1ona. ~aa Th•

. . . ..• (Pt:e~oja 'i./tJ.~ CQ'lt4•·~'-)

120

121

ftom th.e state vhl<:b waa . fo~~l.y unde.t ~~,• c;on1:Z:9l A aacona rtilvolutlQn could. te<:tifY the· $ituaUon • Ot.bet.a 1!hlo suppQrt wrot$ky 1neJ.,uae be~cbor; l>ant~l. $~c;,tar all<! Manc!4tl .• seQ 'rrots~, n,661· Deuscher• ~s :QS.ted i,.n s••~t· n.,111~ Mandel,. n J.._ ~ 111 . ·

flbe Cbtneso and wea~m Mao$.~ el"9'JIS that the soviet. ~lon has gone rev~'-onS.at~- An ~:l.~te he$ ur;~d l>Q1118~ and rUles over ~e woJ.>kexs • 1be viewa of BQttloheSJa oM swee~ ete stgnif~cant iii · th~ t:e;ard~ · s~e also Geozga thompson, as <:lte4 in na"'4~ Mne• me · Se<:;ialiat Inctyt~ial Sta~ (Londonf 1976)1· P•33~

I

it 's rn:gv.ed by the tfestorn ~1te~s that .1n t.he SovS.et; untqn the state con~l ove~ mn .and rn$tedn1 ll'eSO\U'ooa

. i$ total~· All t.U~~~ts of .sooial .l,fe ·~ 3tete ~e~lated• The socie~ .is tbOJrQughly pol..1"~eQd and Q'lly one ~e~ PQ1nt prev~Ua from whic:b ~ ·.Qannot ~ aqr .de\1-atl<:w)• '.lhe Elite SOcl<aty thes$.s sG(Jks to pt'~ ~t there GTJ.e~s the CPSU (as .an ~11t.e pa~;tyl an<l .a ~1pl.-~,, . ftogmentecl mass of· tbe SQW.ot pe()ple .• ~ ~1\a fo~r: MOf tbe latter,!' ~he argument can onlY be ab.QUt the a t.;e of the elite• Who .In4wstJ:ia~ · soc~tY tbes~ 18 be$Qd on ~cbnC>logl.eal <letermln1at1l~t' G~Vf.m . ~de~ tedlnol<XI{, · .. the SQ~le~ ~~Ql can cnly ev01w •nto an4 become eJ£.a41ar t:o all other Sn4ustri&l.1sed sccleties of thea. west.. ~>or a deta£o~ed account;. ·of ell of the$e .. wes~J:n theories, ~~ l)a VS.c:l Lane., n.u~. · · see ~ox- ~xaJnplef, J,~~r4~kov1c;h()y~. ~·rEnd .of XdeOlSSK .!l.em _lllus1cos !W<!uRe§11~ {~C(?W.~ .. X9'-4)i M.~#ftlOyev,. §Pvlit pe~ !!1d ~91s!f3 .sovie!Rl2SE. (Moa~~·~~d.), l<O~()~apov~-.v-9Cli;J&1et;u~ socJJiW.•,. ,~lal §cl.encge,, '- (1) 3an~rQh ~97~•r· P•65 • · Meb~<»-w~ ~5091&1 PrQgrQSS .ln the USSR~-.«~ !,op ial §51en. c.a. S» VQl .. · .,~~:·:.;~~~1 (15) #·

\fin~:· ~nt!~•..zV'$)age)

332

evel~t1Qr1 of the sov~t pe"eptic,m of t.be social &lveJ.op11r:ln.t

1n ~ :;;ovtet. unLon a~~ 1~36 mw ~ $umned a~ follows •·

On ttle eve of t.he adoption of the .l9·~6 ¢Cil$ti.tution,

StalU.l haQ out11®4'2$ tb~ soviet $QCf.al ·struct~ as eomp.r•~ sing tWP new clae~ea ana a n:ew sQaa1 •~ta.,, Yb!• .tne n•w lJO#k~g class (the prole-&"t.at. etood ab01$.aheCl)., ,_, peesantlY

. end. a liew wo~kin9 intolllgentau ~lch 'Aa:J not a class t'N~ e

sc;¢1al strata) c.).ai~ tQ· be •an eqqal netnbet o~ tho SOViet

.$CC1ei¥.,~~, .. Stal.tn stJ;'essed that the cottt;-adi~t4cns OS'

dividing ).lrlee betwon tbes~ .. eocial 9t"O~ps~ -.re· tt:Cle~int.n;"

and ~beOQmin9 oblltGrete(l .. it. Also; 'tbat, tbe c:la•e exc1~1VEaMs•

and <Ustance ~tween ~m ·was •t.ea411.y dtm$.ntsn~9~ ttbe. USSR ·

•e the soc;iet,¥ Of vtotc>rlQus sOC!$1iSID~

%n the l&te l930'~s~ vYshl.ns'ky ~-.s.t~:.r~M_s;1a• stalin·••

3~3

peslt-lon and spe~ of •toilin9 1ntellectual$" and mug~g ~

~ Will of the vrorld.ng cla~Js w-.Ul i;be ~will of al.l people•',,

He elxea:~ speak$ o~ "classless soc::lal1sll soclef¥.. and m&J'94.n9

of tbe lvorl<ers ana peasant# into "wot-1«1•• of a sl.ngle cQatnWI~et..

soc.i.et.y~· under sud\ cond1t1ona "c:la~* is ~eplaced ~ ttpeople·._. ·~

p()Sif:tQO and speak$ of "toiling lntellectua~e" and uerginO o~

the w$.11 of the worki-ng class with the •w111 of t\11 the peopl•• ~

He alJ:ea<\r speaks of "'clets·leatJ socie).!ot eocf,~ty" and ._rgin9 . ' .

of t.be worke~& and peasants 4nt;o "worl«l.r.s Of a fltigle COrtiiNll,ot .

. aoe1etr• unae~ such ~clf.-t."ions "o.laos• 1s r~pl,aC$4 ~ •peop).e• t

~ln$n (1946) write$ about sQV.let peol>l.e &S· comp.t1stng

•w(,~-'-' peaeante. anCl the sovt.e~ ~teJ.l..igents$e*·~ Arzhanov

(1949) · repeatstbis Il0$1t1on and so aoes tepe~&.n ·(1.96~) ~~a$

1be CPSU ~~aDine Of 1961. ~de~$CO~S the el~~Qn

of entag()ll!.etlc c.la••s• IJhe.re exi$ted. in 1961 only two f~1e~

c:laeses ·~· ttte wo.rldJlg c1~os and peas~tq .,.... alocg wltb a . .

•new t..1telllgenl;f'a~ c:~g ftiODl the people• and ~devoted to

.• oc!albnt' lil-ose ·lnte"a~ a~ si.mUar to those of 111Q,tke·p

and ~aaant.t! Tbi.a Chaa:-ac~rleatial bas ~raatnf3d more or l~s~ . . . WlChen9$<l~ Richard· KOIIOlapOv ~.iteJmteel in 1972 th\1$. •A

feetul:e of tlle pJ:C$Gnt state of sC)C1a1ut soc'-(.}1:¥ ~ ~·

ttlCJ.et.enoa of two clatM• ~the work1nq clacss end the c~~ra~v. . - .

i2S See ~e'r en~~ea reprod~a ln Je.wor~J~: .Baid:t•· e·tsp;~ PP-~3421 ~~ and 5$1,+. ·

I '

334

p;tasall~ an4 a1~ U.ta $.ntel.llgents1a 'Wt'lleh was fQ.t a 1tn~

t~ tefei'~ed. to a• a spec~l soctal a~&te·• T.be .WQtJd.ng'

c).ass ~ ~~e leatU.ng soot&). force.,; t.l'IG quara~~a·, so to epe81ct

of the· bulld1ng up of a ele$sless eOC1Qty• ·!lat. lie ftir~t: •~ about .... 4te14n9 c:loa'" ~~ * of soViE)t ... SOCMll

'V&t.a~ and J"es·Ulten~ ~.socla~ h~~lty .. a• ~~).ec~a. ' ;ln the <!~ soviet features of ·~ ~ of -.:>t.~tst poasan~

and· .ln~lleet\1811!' ~ le ~king anape ~nd c:cnsolidati:Qo

1 teal£,!·•:~ • Devoting mon •pace· to ~tQ~ligentste 1;.han the

workers and ~asenta, he conten.48 ~~~the t;ett;ll "'st.J"at~

whi~ •s uaea to define ttle ln~~w ~OQ~~ ·~t\18 o£

-.ntel _,rlters 111 beccxn1D9 1e•• a.~. 18•$ eppl.-.Qal>)..e t.Q· the

1ntell1geiltsta *·• tat IQ)romov re~tttea. tbe .$arne P#~1t1.Qn.S in .. 91$·!t.*a$ McbQeilov e);~imed ·"' U74• 11'~t1· t~ ~;-~~ of met~

1~7

t.ae

Jie a~so notes thet frOCil ~"-' ~ P13•, t;he f\\mt;w;u:~ 9£ W(?~tker:o M$ tncteesecl tQ. 1• .V. 1969 @4 ~e ~t;ceQt.aQe of peasan~ not ~l<JQgS;n.g to c~ratt~.s had ~ppe'a, frQCt\ 74-~~A in 192& to 0;;~0~ .. in 1969,. ~he pe.aaan~q comp~$s~g the ~QQw cla•s"- ot "qo-operatlve p#()duc:er,•· (c:oll~~tlw fax:mar$ ana W-9~& of p~¢~r~s ~~ . ope.rat.S.ve$) in 1971 account$ fo11 ovett 1/Sth of the._ sovto~ pop~atl.<>n·.41 Sije RtQtta~4 l<0$4ep()v~ tl .. ·,22t FP~-s~~·~; ·

see R0$01opQv~. n~t2.~·~ .. p;~63~4~·

'lbe classe• remal.n to ·~ •wor:ld.ng c1a3$";« . ·•col,leot$ ve faJ:niet:s and the ~t(:11 lgents$8 ... See Sel¥an l(hJ:QmOV;· '~·some Aspeets of ~ SOC$al Dev¢l<>pnt ()f. ~t:t · soc1.ety•~ .·-~t.a.l ,s~tenooru w1~4~ ·ri<>'.~i1 (lr,2);~J 1913.; p~12.13.1S-- . 1: aa.

335

soo1a.UfJR1 the structure of sov1•t society is 1&nt1ea1 $.n all

the Repli>ll.ca (c;on~d.ating of the wotklrtg c).a$~, thEt a>Ue~iw

tam peasantq atl4 the inte111gentsia) ,~ • •.. ..All the claes•• and the social ~oups Catq.J are uarewtng ~o..;et.he~" with the

.. leaalng ~ole played 1::¥ the worldJ.19 class• .J3s>R~evtc::h g$-we

a more $oph1sti,cated and cQQprehenaS.w. plc:ture Qf .. the socj;o-

Clafs at.tuc:ture .. in 1914• lie makes rrentlon of three e!lt.hq

within the world.ng elaes~ two ~th$.n the peasa:ntl\Y t two wt.th.An

the empl.~ee-..tton""Bpeacta11ets and fOUl' ~~thin tne. $tlt.e).11gen~·

•ia•~~ 'l'huaf. the~ ed.etea fo~ dlaese• or attn~ in 19?4,

129 see M~, Mdleal.ov!· n.1.2.2. p,.a3 •.

130 ~ ttu:ee atnt;a of wo$Sng claee ar:ei (') ur-.k*lled aM aem1 ... s'k11led wo~;kers (2) we>l'l(er$ ~lltb raedl"-~9W~a of $Jd;._1 (3·) h1gbly Sld11ed wotke.;'$• .. •ib.e%9 ~· also a borda~lt.ne stratu.m of ~MI:a intellectua).t 1il\~cb flb.ould l)e ~gax-ded a$ a wo.;king el.ols ~~~~~Among co11ec,t~ve fa~s. there atre specf.al.istfl and e~).qy•e• """ non••P~cial$.ate but. the t.>· Jl'a$J). e~nta' ~s:a • U.) thon JIOt. having a tn&l and ekUl (gePBra1. wr>tkers) end,:: (2) those witb a trade o~ skUl (maobine OS'Qrf1torsj. mUkers• .w~> Among etapl~eee • ba'l•$poWS.ts, t.wo atftt:a ue diacemtble.. u._) aemt<l!'sk111e4 ~ (~tch• IMQ~. t~~~S;· IIJQSOGP~I'S~ ate.;) •- (2). PQop1e wi~ medJ.~1oveJ. •k1111 .(ac;co\U\~ta,. cl.er~s;: c;asbier:s• · eaies cleJtk:J; etc~) ••· Arnol)g ~t411'1getlts~, bS$14ea· •practical wor~re" · ((!Qt.ng specla.11a~a jolf l4t:hout a dlploma) . tbere ~~- ·(l) tet;hn1c:1$n.& and s~r ~Jpec~-. al1•ts wLtb a .aec.onCla~ eclQcstt,QPt (2) Spa~l1eta with a ht.Ober eauca~lont (3) most highly skl1~d spect.alt.,•ta ·lft the sciences,... (4) those enga-ged ~ o~ganiaat-.Qna'l .. ~-~; (tPanageh of en~rprls~.~:· thetr <leput..lea!:. Cba~• in the 1nsUtute$ Of hS.-er l~mlll.~r ew:-.l Ke g~~· cleta'11s of 1QaiW st.~ta mont~ above~ SOQ MlkbelJ. Ru1%.e~icb~·- n:;.J.04, p.,2?·t.~

ovv

tM· Ql)w ~a•• canpds:~g the 'J"PlO!/•~onspectaltets~ (Qf

co~$", ell. of th.ese cle,saes are s\Jbj~d to •p~QC88&41 qf

int;e~atlon. end ~awr social 1\omogeneS.ty) following L.o..,...·e.: . """' ... _ - .. tbe t.teods ln t.he1r dla~l~nt, (1) traM

towa~as the furthe~ eppro~tl«1 of ·$11 c;l.e$SOt.l aJ!4 gJ:Ol.I.Pf

of wo.tklpg people with ,;espect ~ tbet.r ~el.atlon to the JQ&ao.

of pr:oc.i\lQUQtJ (2) tbe trend ~ tnt) ap~"at of a11

classe~h· group$ end ,at.fata o£ \\Ol:'kf.n9 peopl.e· in tetta& .Of

eha~;a¢,ter of work.- (3) the ~.reDCl ~® the app~tlcn

.()f ~u -socla:l: ~OUP=iJ in sov1e~ a~:t¥ and too s~ta wit.niil

~ tn the $phere of cU.s~i.butlon•l•t !l~t. tal~ "~t.e.recU¢n bet.,., twQ Qppos'te tetla~nc;S;e.~ ... "$n~~atiQn an.d 4U·f$~1l~ ·

tS.ati.cn" ¢otlt~ues •· ... ~ lessenklg. of eocial dts~t.•QI)e

and the over<;orning of $0Cl.a.l dUfe~tt.at~on do n.ot. Man t,be

ditsaPPQa~ance of vc.c;a Uonal different1at1on • ~· ~J:ee>Wt ,-

wltllf.n the freme~z:k of unS.ty,, tbe~ .could be "~ffere~ce; ~

interests~~·- •While antagoniem un~ cce~allsm ab.apped•.•·

oontttaQ.t¢tlona. remaln~ ,, ~ CPSV stwates tnes$ n~~tagcm~s~~ .

~e Ru~vit.(:h#. ra~l,04.:, pp~~~-1:·!· He c~~~·-• . "~hu.s. 1n all the three basfac;: $~res of BQc.1o-.econom1c; relat.$.~ the ll84on diro~1.on Qf deve~Qp.'Oellt !s· to•ra-. g;eaw~ $X!W homogene.1ty dUf.l to the a~~t~Qt:l -9.~ so<:1a~ gr<>• onci the ~ffa~nt Qf ~ bounaertes be~-ell them:.: 111\tch 1n tbe 1<:*19 wn will ~tm tbelr •~·gEu:• ~· Ibid.., P•3a., ·

~onttaalctlon• ana nworlw. to resolV$ them on tbe ~s$8. of

v1t9l.~ ·C~~ l<mg•tercn interests•~l32 Fodoawev..; 197$

un~s<:ot:ed the leading '"ole of the world.ng cle$s .-... •aocl•ty '•

me>$\ n~rou.s cla•s • ~ 1n e class stcucture canprlslng •workf..ng c::laes, ·colle<:tl\'G • fat:m pease.ntq and. the tntellt(.fentsla • .• 13:3

Olaz~n noteCitn ~916 that there ~t. aoclal alstinetiont

1n a.ociallat $0(:#-ety ,. so cao J,n~ diffEtrentla).& but these

~ ~lng gra.dU&l.ly ensed~ B\Jt he also csutiQrls tl\at tb~;h

the importance of these dist$t-lcti~ ~ 4tJQ.n:S.eh~9~· . the1~

exts~ ~ --~ld not be 1gn~,.~34 At ~ Mn~ Jlfth

1~3

J,3f

-~~ ~- p~~$~3_t. . ~~d@r ~C?C~l.S.Sm there la ~1t;.y of ~ote of ell. c;:laaaea aQd soc$-al. ~q.p·-~ B¢. ~ unity of socie1;J does not mean that tbe -lnt$te$t, of social groupa and c~aas~s cotnt~:tde al:>$Ol~~-! s.e,. •AdvatlQQ ~-· Sqc~eJ. ~omogenlety•~ Sock\lbnt ·t Theog gnd sra.ct~;. J..O (6$) •. ~918; p.ae. see also ied~eyev,:. n.lo.' " ' p.to;~ see FedQ.MYev, n.,.o•; p-.l'~

Qbe•errne-n:t; ~:eport_ entltle<lf "J'GJ'feot.i.Ql.l of so<:ial str~ure and De~lopnl)nt of ;tldl 'Vidual ~r $oela).1amtt tte.S pxesented t.Q an All'!ijotblQl Sctent1fi¢ Confe~ OQ . .. changes in tne social etru~~ of t>El~pe4 SQCS.alis~ ~at tQQk p~ac:e til OCtobe~ 1976 $.n ZVI)1goJ'cd (MQs~ l'$glon) f~, A brie.f SUillllaW of i;he ~p<>~ ~~s.;mted ~· g:S.wn by G~-Slea,ll'eV,f,. ·~ballgE!$ .$n the Soc:;lal stJ;u~ of .soela~.iat_ 8Qcu~*,f- -.asti1~()J'Ciel,.~ ~1-~V#!~(, no•••: J,~77~, pP~20~208.,_ ... RQVJiw 0 · ez•rman•s. ~pQn is gS.ven on ~~20~207~

336

J'$~ ~CA~es <P-1~.) Breztmev; K08fglb and ott\Q,it "p9~(\

tihe ~n<lout ~b.e ~ lt.v!.Jlg sta&'.I!Clard of the -s~e• ana

._t~~: major a~nc;e ·~~:•·!, maae dur:~g the 9th Flve~e.~r•Pl

pex-1.od ~ b\llldin.g tile -tQrS.al anCl tec:bnical. ):)eoioe of colllilu•

ntem--,1$$ Jtc>-ro~. (ag16) makes ~~QP of the ·~rkPlg class,

colloct.l.ve•farm pee$antq ana itlte~lige.nts$.8• and Q~tes

fS.~s t9 <lemonsttat.e ~hat tm •mte~W era4 tec.hntcal base

of (;q~Jn'l)f.a&t' _,, being bui11;•1."- ~· hle rtGpo~ Ql tile ~a~t,. conatitut-.en~ B,t:e~v ob~ved tna.~ tne •@b.t;ealcable al.ltance

of tlle WQ~ld.ng c;le•s,, ~he Q01le¢1ve fa~s end tJ\e inte,ll~

genqia ~ t;t\e coll~ctive fa.rme~~ elld ttle inteJ.ligenta~•

C:¢'"11:3~t~te4 th$ •soclel £Qundat1on of ~u~ state"·~·. He lnss.a•

tnat ~ ttc~s.t$.~\ltlonal entJten~ Qf .it$ (pa#tY•·•> JOJ..e

does not ~~4 out any p~~Vil~gea ~ $.~ •mb.eli~ .• ; Ql t.bt·

ccmtraq ~to. impoaes· even greate~ CN.tie$ ~ t.bect\~ .t)'Wh.e te•

339

contna:y 1t iiDpoaeo e\"eQ gs:eater 4ut1es upon ~m .. ~~$1 ~e sama thJ:ee cl.ass•s find exp...-easlon 1n B~2bnev••· epeech en

tha 60th anniversaq of the Oet;Qber Re\'Olut1on .. i3.8 'ihe

pr~~le· •.Qf tho 19'1? cooeti.tutioo speaks o~ tbe *e111anefl

of th~ ~~rking· class collec.t.$w •· ·f.at'm peesantxr and peovl.e•s

in~lllgentsla" w1tb ~~~9 cl.as& as nttte leading fo~,·

The ~1~ aleo ~s ~ntion of "'all clas$Gs and ·~ta·

w1tbou~ specS.fy£ng the "strata" •. M"ttl.P of tne constltut1on

•te.teat nwne $0C1a.).. ba•i:et ot the· USSR 1$ the ~~1·

alliance Of tlle workers, pea san~; and ~telllgentsie; Ule

s~tQ be~ps enh&~ the soc~~ tlomQge~~· of SQ(;le~., nama1r

tf.he elltnina~lon of ql.aes <U.ffererices~ ··• -.l3t

131

')

340 s~l) has been the sovie~ pereeption ,oi th.e c;la$s

•ts-ur:ture ~s it. o\to1•a. d~ing 193~'7 ~· During tb~ ·pa'"1od

the soviet soc~ty ts sal<l to hew passed through two ~sj.~.

ata~s • f~otn vlcw#l0\18 aoc:~ol1.- -~ the 1$)0 ., to &tve~~d

iQ.QM~--- t.n the late ).960•e (the l<brusc:hEW period and itf

. . chamc;teJ:tSet.lcoG u ge~t:a~ly #,gn~ e.a we obail pe later) • . .

Ttl$ · CalQOpt. of. <level~ $Qe1e.1$.em k a new Qlle· and .ea. e1aliorat1on .•. ·. . . ,.

stalin had Qhanc~r:ia$a tho soviet;( soc~t¥ a• •tbe

sQCle~ of victor.lous soc1a1J.am ~- the· ".bll1.1dlng o~ tb• eoci,a.,.

lism U1 the Ql~~·l40

~ t.ne po~Wtait;n peri~ t;b~ 2~at CPSU CO.n~sa (1959)

apolte .Of· a ~new· f·tage" .:a11ec1 ··~~.._Qa1' constr\aCt-'¢1'1 of

~a.r.nWl1Bt eoclety•;.14 -~ mQat s1gnU1~nt. aevel.oplll)nt ~ the

posWt.e).1n period 'WBS tbe adop~t.on of a .Nh ~~ f~~

n'lestl t~ expressione are.~ 1.n 19)6 ~tit~i.a1 an4. t.he aec;.ts*'ons of the ~7t:b. and ~ 18tb C<m~.a•e• of tne CPSU'·,;. see FedQseyev.. th-104~. p~9· F.e¢!oawev ~e~ll$. ~t the. pc~lod of building· of -4e~~oped eQCla1lstD wat.J ~t$.ollS-.b' ®:=sQtlbad bctfQre.~ ~-~M period unaer; ~view-· cma#aQteJ:,sed "' u;.nini•# WC>t"lce•: al)Cl £n acc~nts. of ~- c~su. and f~.te~al partie$ q the pet"iod of "the comp).et.~at. of soe~al-~t ·cona;atnc• t!on*,., •'the complete b\lll<.U.rtg o~- soc.iali.em"t,,: '~ coneoli<la.~J..Qtl of soc~:tt•·~ In· <>tbe~ W"~•:· ~a1; waa mQant.. 1e2l;. tbe building of a de:Ve}Qped <*' 118tQJ:e socla1.1s~ soc1etr-.·~~ Xb14e'-

at the 22n4 PaJ:ty con;res' 1n 196.1; W'ldeJ: Khrwsdlev. ~be time•

table o£ tbe PJ:Ogranrna ba<l 19'11~ aa tb.e perS.Od for tbo

final es.tablishtnant of conrrnml$10 .. · 1Jle P~~amma ad\Ud:)erates

the following ptc:ture of t.be soviet sQCieqr 1n. 19&~, (1) •socle~

llsm :,,, ~' has becare a ~alit;.y in the soviet Unlon .. ~ ~t has

•t~to$.\lttlphed .ln ~e soviet unlcn complete~ and f~llY", (2) th$

$CO~ges of pr1vat.e prop$rt;y and antagoJlistl.c cla~es«;ts have

})ean done away wl.th• (3) •fhere a~ now two fr1encU.y ~J.esa•e

.in tt\e. USS..'l ·• t~te ~~:-ldng c~~ and pea$aDttf" ~ TheM

<:l.~uJsQs ha~ corns •close toge.ther" •· thanks to the prevalence

of s()Cialtst p~Oparty ~ •tt hss atr:engtb.eneci their ell.~an<;Q

·EU'Kl nnae their f~:tendship in~&t.;'Uct.$ble" • 1be~ a.l.so exbta

•a new t.nte~l190Q.~ia .. co!Jllng fi:'Oln tf\e people'* ana •aewteci

to oco1al1sm.. whose interests ate no different fxcm thoae of ~ il • • • - ' . •. - •

wo~ic.ed and pOasante~ (f) "~e one•ttma ant£~sls bet•on

~ and c:ountxy$1det, bet-en labour tr anti b!f l>h~~· haa·

be(Ul abQ~lehea• t; (S) •The 1.nc1estruct$ble soc1Q~l1tS..~ and

ideologi~l Wllt.y of ttl•SOviet people bas. ~en bu.llt on the

beQls of the ~Otm\Cil intere•to of the t«kers"' peasants end

int:elleetuala-~,. (6) •The ht.9h~c1 to socl.ellsm has bee~ paved .. !

·(7) Tho ta~ of c~unl$t conet~Qeti<al ~ pu~~a ~u

frat.Etrnal ccarnuntt¥ with- the otbe.t' GQCialt.et. <:OW1tr$ea• ~·

(8) ~· f:~al goa~ is the QStabl18hment of ~a DevelQ_pa<l Coarn~•

ntat 80¢$-ety• .• ~ (9) 1-he society is in a poriod Qf "ful.l-e~al• -~ • *

342

coun~:t f\U'the.tt p;omotlotl of $OC!al;1.$t clemQCra<:/f~ hef,~qft~g

the i'01e Of sOQ.~l organlsat.'-ons, QOG1l\unt.st. self-govaz;mne~~

of the .peop~e aoo eetablishment of blgtlly org~nlsQCl coarnunit¥ of worl(·4ng men f011ow1ng rules ·~ c;:atmUnist ~ of ·ltfe aa

a ma~r e>f habit; ~e eta-. will wtthe.J> away t.Ul&:l~ · fave'Jtttab1e

~te~l. and ~mal eoncUtl ens ~o. be ~reat4Jd,,, A ·~velo~cl

CaMRanist soc.s.ew~ will qet eet.ab~t$hed•·

Su¢b ie the d\uac;:te~leatioo ~ soviet :sod.etv Jn l96l. e.nCi tasks ahead Of lt.• '.lba OtsCd-ptlon Of ¢less •tz;Uetur•

1s s~lar- to stalin •e (whose .aa. $5 not. mentS.oned 1P the

proc:Jra~) .,, aut the elaf.m is made ~t . tbe dif#etence$ betveem

the to'\itl and coun~ and mental and ptwsical lab~ have $.~nact{

l>een ab0~.$8hed and that a BOclo-pO).~tic:&l+.1~log'cal •Wlt.trl

of tbe ~E)t peopl,e• has been b~t.~~ . Mothe~ notable po!Dt

ls the goslt e$~~lls~nt of • ·~loped C.QIIl'IQl1.n society •

tttether •De<qeloped socialist society" is e IQOCU.fi;catton of

tnls idea ls atr~body,. s guess.. The ~dea of •Qntt;.y of th8

sovlet peo~~· also bas the potential of pJ>ovidlng the besS..

for the· l.ate~ coocept of .. sov~t pec;>p1e ·• A New B$..stm:,cai

CQ1ltl~i;¥ .. •·

it'CID .. 'tlnfo);$g. B."1).d$nq oi C~sm" to •peyelOJ?AA. §OSf.a!tem~·,,

Anotber notable feature 4a the adUJQberot$.-Qn ot a new stage Qt' }?ba3e. em tbe ~d ~ ~~•· .. the unfol<l$.ng

bu.l.141n9 of cQUrnunlem" (•nzvrnQ.toe .-t.roitelstvo K~lszma .. )

<!!"'i;''· ·a theo~~icaJ.. Ca'l't.t:$but1on of ~cbeV1t, ~hio ~~

chat:a'Qtei'isetion could not outlast ~cbev end •• eoon 0 0

xep~ac;ed l.!l oewloped sociallsmt·S:•2 e eoncep~ whlebf ~~

tlnger not.e:Jj macae lts f~ret appea~e in 1.960 ana ~a. cw:rent by BJ."eehnGV in 1967 (a~1;e1i tl\$ publ1-cat.ton Of en

ut1cle in 1966 in Pravada b:f )'.M. B~latskll ent~t).e.~

.. on Ule conat~:u.c;:ticn of De-veloped SOCialist ~-let¥-.,~t.•$

The oc;casion we$ the 50th amlf.VGJ:SfUY of the Oetobe# aevolu•

d.on! Srezhnev ~f•#~d to tbe .. developed noct.~lat aoeiet¥•

142 For deta.Usf ...... ROD$1<1 J:~ flllli "~e A~~oi!ofeQ~e,.•• State• and. "D6JW~Qped SQCl.C\l~m"~ in N$J.l ~g (•d~)l 111e .state &n soc1allt.t, ,socyw (McMillan • OlefQ~~ ~9841 P»•-1'09~1.1~. oth¢J' ·~.rsicna of tha c}la~acterisatic>n ot the· stage c:>f sovt.et. aoclety ~r ·t<hJ:'uschev •s tbe socie.t¥ · unde~o"gomg ft£u111cal~ con:atruct1oo o~· co~~1$m:t' 011 a •oc1eq- '\lbde~~ot.ng •full'~i.iGCa.le CQil~t1Qil of. c:Q'M\untam" or a soc.lety ~~- •soo4elkm tt:1UiJl'bed J.n . the sovtet Unioo canple~lf· and finally" and now ma~~f.e1• technS.ea1 base. of cQmn\~sm ;l.s lle~g. buUt.! ~eee in~~ );illked e~ss1ons occur Sil 1961 p~gx-anrae • s.e the . te.xt of the pz:ogramme in Leona~d Schlpl.xo.; n•'78~ pp•25?f. ~84,,: 3~0.

un.ge~t ~calls ttlat tbe concept ff.=t appeal'Gd ip. the .DeQlaratlon of _the Moscow ~a~g of e~9ht¥-olle. . comnun1Qt paJ:;ttes _ln 1960 \$1<il acknoV~1ed9'd tbe .. ~lQUII stat~ of the S<>v.let ua1ont as the on.w countst tt~ucc• essf.~ly inl>l.~nt.lno ~ f\4~sca1G QCils~~t.on of coanunist society• an4 then t8lt Ql'l·t .. ~o~ c::01nt.r1ea of tho s~1ut· ca11r9 at:Q. sucQessft4b' lay~g tho foundat~on«J of so~ialiom. ana some Qf them ba'W alreat:F entered Ul~ period of the conetruct.S.on of dew~ped · soc1a11$t ~ociet;.y ... , sea Aqcb.· ~. ungez:.,: con~tutiori81 -l~nt 1ln the~ USSR t ~ Gui~ to !;fie

1;§2:§c6!iitl• Z:'fil:~• S"llell~ p.'iitl~ B~Xiit$kt~s ~-f . ~ $n~t.._on ~t. tbe Devel.Qped SOCia~iam

was abo~t to be adopted J.n ~ace o£ 11fu.l,l~c;a1e cope.t~ c;ti.on o~ <;ca.n\&Jli::un"~. s.- %b1det p~aev~. H9U.gh ~ecaJ.lii .ln this l"egard t.bat,., "*The piU:ase •dewloped aoc;lall.$m* was 'nt.roauced by 1;1)~, oal.le cnen (PedoJr Bur).~~JW) wno _ •a %"QSpon$1J'.>le fo~ the pbr:a.a .. all pe9l)l;e!e Stete,_~'('-• See Jen:y i\*i,Ho~gb _and ~1e~~ ~i~~: _How the .. §9J!at atlon is· Govapd Oianar<l~· 197~),, P~.aS.!;

344

1>\d.l~ t,n, our cwntq.. (*X'a•vitoe so~lal.istlcheskoe obal\d\

Qstvo~ poevoennoe v taa$he.l atmne~) ~· B\lt 1n hliJ· J;eport to

the 24tll peJ'ty CCiJlgrGes, en~v nndQ ~t ~xpt.lc$.t •nUCIQ

o£ 1t.l .. the aeveloped socta11et society to ~tdl LenlD

"f~ s.n 19la144,,~·~ ha2iJ Jleen built. t;r{ tile selfle~us ~abOur ' . . .

of ·the. a9v1ot pacw~e~·~4' sw,; s~e-Qt the t;oneept Met been

e.xte.n,sive).y ·fJ#~(l, .espe¢lal.ly eftet; M~e11 susl.ov un~~~ine4

S.t in becemb$r. 1971 lt6 " . . .

.146

Fq;-. detallas• aae Al~r~ 9! $va~s~. :s~·!i .,~'Yi3l;oped_ SOC1altszn. tn so~et Ide<>low••,d sovJ.9t sitUdtes; (Glas• gow) t- vo),~~ no~3#: JUly 19'11, PP•~12.£i13·il! Bnzhn.ctv $poke about the ne9e!$et.w Q£ t.aklng ~eo accqunt ~t\8 =IQaS.n featu..t$s of $$c;h sta~• tn ·the ae~~opnt of the USSR• He rema~ked on tA~ ~Ubetant1al ClUfere~a bet-• sov~t- soc~ety ·Of tile .. k~t: ~930a ~ t.be t .. ~tc;h (JQQ!a).ism &s ft.~t~t. tea(;bed - a.od. SQvt;e~ society Of tne 9a~ly 1910 •·att:f Se$ .~1d~,. P!403• _ Xn Novo~.~ i.97~~ ~ist c.&ni.ad 1~ at. a 1.\e&~g .of an art~¢l.e 1:¥ Iori$ sUJiba~VS~:~;· "~~ EconOUI( Of the ussa ' An s~ Qf I)evel;ope<l ·S<>clal.~om•,. ~ _ _.. month ~11 S\lSJ..QVt, Ptu:tr~'"$ au~or~ty Ql\. ~4oolow ~ told tl\e National Confe"e~ of tbe Heads of soele1 Sc;~nee Depu:tmen:~s of SovJ,.et., high$1:' ed~tS.~l ~~~t~U.Qn8 'I -~ tnaA.n gulde.lJ.ile the XX1V QPSt1 COD~$8 $~t. for our eo.c-.al. selenti1JtS ts the t:heQ~ti<:a.). . elebo,J:at4on of tb~ ·fundamen~l problems ·c£ a <Je.ve·loped soc1a~1st. society and the. sd.Emt1~1c s~tan~tS.on of the Wt\YS and meantJ -o~ ita grad~~ <Jewl.~nt. bto (!oaanun1ol'ri"' tt~ A$ ct~d. ~ Evans-. Jhl-'5.' p .•. 4:t3~~- -..

345

The ccceept; a.utio~ly $.ntl'QC1YC$4 bf BroahnWI.,1•7

"ga~d ae new and counted aJDCng the c;hi•f theotet.ic:::a~

contributions made by him~ 148 has matrt nota'blQ adwntagea •.

~· sov1e~ 1eaeteJ;Ship $a oblige~ to demonstrate ·c:Ciltln\.lal

pJ:OC;J~ss and accOJ.'GP11shmeQts in approximation to ~lam+

JChruschev•s t~l.~ end$.ng 4ft 1980 had ~ought. into fthe hiatus, (unbr14geable by l$80) between the lele2tl a•d

et ~ th~ actual ~a~~tles ·• M~ "Woldi.ng !>u.~.ldlng of

-~ism" · c:u.rled the woX'd c;orcm\Jn~~be~ for the leader. . .

ship in view of ~e Xh~schev•:s pra,nise to at.~$.n it 1:¥ 1980 •

»ewloped socialism had th~ adVantage of ~1ng ~th vague

and flex$.b1e • lt "~.erves be>~· to convey & aeD$Q of PJ'Q;R$~

and also to excuse the failure o£ p~sent so\flet j;n~t~tut~one

to aeten the $tanaaras of f~l QOmnl#US~·•·l~ MQ~ctver~ tbrougll ~t~ l<hruacmev•s leqec:y could be conveni~t;ly 1efi;

beb~,. ~get lnstswl$O ~t the eonQep~ is d\ief.lr used

·to ~rl~e tbe · ~~q~ J>QSitlon ~e SOV1t1t Q'kl~on ~qp1ea

altlalg the aoc1a~1st cou.ntrles ~, it elOPe, baa aehiewcl devel~

soc1al.Lsm, all otbOJ:a vall- behin~,"

S~ce ).971.~ the ¢0nc:opt of cewloped BOC!al~ &tld ~

contout:s of the dewlopea soc:1811$t Soc:lety (es ee~lbhed ~ " . . . .

'the scvlet unlonl bas been a subjec~ of eXtensive wri.tlng by . .

. .

svene•· n~145j . p~4),;.4:~.i. ~e. a13o. a~~d J .. *: JIJ.ll.. ~ Her:dint~ n:-~~·2'• pp;10'1 .. UO ') Mill,_~ .PPtl01~llO'*: t44all n01;es that ats2bnov too., .,..,aea. to cl~~ttate p:~as~ wh11• cont.ln\11ng to aant.~te th.e aebievem;,nt$ of !\U. pre4eee• Qso; ~ . FrQm the late 1960 •a~;· tbe ~elegan~ •untol~ng bl.l~l.41ng of caam.anism8 ·~~ ~laced b./, the ·~ more e·\lpnon1o~ pos~t1ve~soW'l<Un9 ·d~~l.oped soc;ialism .. o~ •ma ture soct.al~sm• +• 1b1d~•J. P-~:l.lO:{t/

. ';

see t1l'l9$.t;~- ·nc~l4:3~ p,~289>iti see al.so Alya DuclSllsk;y ,. n 12 ~ ·, t'W\ ·· ss,-.56··'. · · ·' · · ... , .. " , ... ~~, ...... ~, . . . !·

347

t.be •Developed SQCla11arn ls DO\f offl<:lall.y aCC$pt8d u a hbtor~c:al stage of indetct~minate por1od on the road to

C<D-~e. Howeve~, it~· not d.eu Wt.ethe~ lt: ~tho only

t.ntet$di.ate stage on th.e toad to ccm.nU..blam o# many more

stages fall on the .,y., ~ 1•. e~nt, the 'des· of t>ewlopecS

socialism u quite flexi.ble end sUbject t-o VS.j:J.e<l "'terprete•

~lone~· But it. does en£o~ee a n$W mriodlaatlon. Of the 1.'4Jmsl•

tion mriod,151

l<aef.enenko aeknowledges t.ha~ tbe def1nl~;OD o£ the

9esenee end hlstorlcal p).ec:e of 4e\1910pe<l soc$al,srn ~ QUite

a contplieate4 probl-~m fl'Qm the ve.r:y ou.taet~

~ the west the concept of dewloped soclal~m is not

as exteneive~y enalyeed ·ae one wOUld e"Pect., Although the

Sov1ot WJ:f.ters baW .ext,en.s ively t¢ltten on the sUbject~ one has

to agree t>J1tb Knstanenko .that •to t.hie <iay (l979) i;here is no

.rigorous sc1ent1ftc. <lefltnttloo of this etege that enJ<¥s oene;-el

accoptanee capable of p1:ovlding a e.Q~~p1e~ and comprebens-'ve

unae~st.a.n.cU.ng of tt\e ~ssenc:e and feat\.U;et;J Qf dQ~qped soeia ..

~1st 8'oef.ety• ,. ()n tbe· bas~s of extens~VC) ~view Of ~e

lt\a~ial, •Ka:J.t;anckO at:awe ·the ttgeneJjS). COn<:lusi~-. a.- fqllow• ~

348

l»veloped $.OCla~f.;am. ~ h~gber level of ,1nflt.~~" . of t.be l,CWi>J; P\ase of c~'et. "oclet'f a~ ~st:.Jl~ ~e _ aeh~'Wd ~e.vel <>f the fo~G <>f pj:Qdu.et$qn fafdlltetes maxsmwn manifeetatlon of tbe advan~~ eoes. of •ocialt!J~ ~;e1atl<m$bf..pt ·()~ pJtOd~t"i~ en<! a more (;Qm ple~ ~lj.zatt.on of the Qbj~w ~ave a.n4_pot.ent!~ls of aoctetv ~ ~ll th.e SPlt"* of 1. w llfe e.Dd a~tJ. vit?l·~ The ~•sene:~ Of the, new •tage of rtat\mJ.ty of eoc;ial~ i;e •)C.prer;~~ ~ the fact that ~ mod$ of prQc.\uc;tlQQ ·tne>~ £U11f .nfl4a¢ta 1ts h'gbet: go~l ·~ ~ $at$~fac;Ucn of the con.stant.l.Y ~0\flng mat$da~ and intellec:• tual nt\S8ds of the nernbera of society $nd C:de\1on of the c0Dd1.ticns re.qu1md for the ~mpx:~ve 4ev~lopnent of the peJ'sQna~ltr!~•·'*(~fa)

' ~e mQ$~ notable ~ange sine$ ~916 ~s ~e ~latat$on

that, the o.va1oped Soc:tl.el.iDlll rep~p•te a •a l&W"90'Ye~4

8t&QG~· OJ;' ~·a Nat\11'81 •tage of A<lvsnc:e to Ccqn®f$m~~153

BetweeJ'l ).9?1•·rt. al.mOot ·~Xl' book on socf.al. scienc;e•

p®liehea .~ the soviet. ~S.Qn baa ~<Xnl3th•g ~ ~ about the

concept ·Of l)e~1Qped S<X:l.allam! consequen~~ there e~t.,

'Vest ~t.~#at~ ·co tne subject• ~~ 1.e be&~$ the pa~lc~U.•

Q~1 literature, 0\ere •• e IP~t. in ~.rlting QQ. t.h.~ t.M•

~· tbe tve of t!be adoption of tbe n• eonotit~t1Q.\* ••·~·

the W#ltel'a .r~fened t.Q b:f Ka$l~,~S4 the ~1clea ~

~52

1$~

See Kaslanenko, n.~l••• pp~5441t55•

see R;·~- t<osol,apov, et ali;; ~A2ped Spc!!J.km • 'lbeog p,r P£f3S:tie~ (P~gnssm 1983hj. .,33•,~P,~ Ge~buctl,. ~· .. pats; g_e~qped socielyt §.Qe.etv a BQeJ:c lfat.uret

Ff. Rle, l1''* (Pxo9J:QiS;i('so) ~·· p,ilh• · · see KaeleoenkQ; n ~14.4,

349

Ilya DUdfne]W (1~72), Demiehev (1.973), Ollnlnk (J,974) ;.

Afanesyev (197$), i'edoseyev. (1975),. volkov (1916) ,. Fedoseye~

(197'1); sorold.n (1977) et<=• go a long way to gi.ve us a plcture·

of the evol vS.ng pet:eeption of this COhCept•l$S J.n tile mid•

1970 • s. there appeare<l many full~cale books dealing w1tb

~e concept., Of the books t.:anslated t.nto English~ the onee

by P,Galbuch & P• Lopata and Kosolepov et al a.r:e plrtlcularly

valuable ,155• 'lbe perusal of this material ·91 ws us the

following p1cture of the n~ture of developed so<:ialist eOc:letf

* buil~ ~ the ussa'

A host of <lata 1s adduC:ed t.o support the &l1iens1one

:of Developed socla.llem hlghligbtea above.,UG S~zbnEiv ·had

the following to say .4tl lt11 on develOped soc4.al.t.sm CQ the

ew of U\e adopt.t.on of tbe 1917 constitution•

1.55 See a.,so l)¥s D~lnsJw., ll ~l221 p.'-'Oe~a~i •Dew loped soc,.allsm.,. A Stage. on. 1be WE\\' to C<XOJnUn1esm• •• !ior.ld .tjarxist. Reviet-It. no.~l~· 1913; M.d other anicles G the same tisue·~

~5Sa see R~X•Kosolapov., ~t a.14!~ n .• l53fi P.;Gelbt.adl~ P~Lopata• n.153~

156 All the .four hi~ligbted ~spects of aevelopecl aoc1al,.lsan ar:e elabo.rated w1 tb data 1n tbe articles mentioned in n~~ss-. · · · · · · ·

StLe tkt ia.4/e.. ~ f· 3 49- .+

Co-ot•• : ' Bu1ld1D& the Material Teoboleal.Dase

oi ooa•o1u t

I

Di•eloped Soctaltaa (Bresbae•)

Uotold1QI ButldSn& Vtctorloua of c c..unl•• .Sootattaa

P01albl e otl etaae•

• (lbru.obey) (Stalin)

i i

Boonomlo D1aeado• t) Super tor Mode of

produottoo wttb bleb~ technique.

a) Qoaotttatt•• aad qoalltatlye rtae of production to &eaeral and of coneu .. r 10oda in particular .•

... t • ' Soolal Dl .. nalooa

l)New Bel at.iooa of pro4actioo wl tb an d1•1aloa of labour.

a )Further Broetoa of claaa dlatlnctlooa aacl oo•equent aootel bo.ogenelty.

3)Tbe leadlQI role of tbe working

3) Superior aolenU- olua. flo .. oageaeot of 6)Draw1n& to&•tber aocletJ - Greater ot aoo1al atrata role ot ceotralieed and peoplea --plaoolog. E .. r,eooe ot New ,, -- ----~--~-- - -- - -· --~-llta-tor-loal ~co..-:__ -•> Greater Btflclenoy olty, vlz., fhe

Soylel ~ople. 5) OVertald 111 capt tal• 3 )Rl atng role of

1•• 1 o auy .ore ar;aa to an OJIIOlq aoclal or&aata-peaoetul co~teet of tloQJ. tbe two eye te•.

8) Oeneal cearlq ot teoboolo«F for tbe 100c1 ot all.

e )ntae in the role and position ot WOMD.

T)All-rooDd deyelop-

.. :

Poll tfcal Dl•utoa. 1) Baaer&eooe of an J.

People'• State

2) Deepeolcg of c1eao . ratto proceae.

3) Taklll! oyer etate fuaot1ona by tbe aoclal or,aetea• tlo•·

') Rt• tn tbe role of tbe atate.

G) Emercence of OPStJ u tbe party of tbe whole peopl.e ..... Partller belcbt

-~ eotag oc-1tlf ro'"le

aeot ot buaan peraonaltty -£•rgenoe of the New ttfao.

Otberaa

8)8mergoooe ot a balanced, dynaalo ana harceniooa aocteiy for tbe 1ood of all.

(!) Furtberanoe of tbe Polley ot Poaoe. (Q) atae ln the co-operation wttb tbo. fraternal aoc1al1at

oouotrtee. 1!1} \farld-•tda •unner~ far tha annr .. aad an.d MrDla'ttail.

\ c ,,

J

350

'lhe •xperlellCS of the soviet ~ion; and ot ~e fraternal countrA.es hoe detnonsttai;ea thot l~ing t:t.e foundatj.ons of soclalisna,. tbat. lat abolisbUlg ~e exple>iter claese$ and ostabll4!i> ah~ng pUb11c o~tsbip in all sectors of the ~tionel ecc:mony t does not. yet allow a cU.wct ~ransi.tloo ~ ·carmuniam, V1C:Wli1.oue eoolali.em bee to pass tnrough a.f1n1te stages 1n the _ process of mat~lnc;~ and only cleveiop«l soct.a .. J.um SOQ1ety makes S.t possible to elQ)arJii

He acld$a

on eommun1st constructlQ\• t'lbat is mo•, u we know today, 'tbe developnen~, tbe a4van<*~ ment of socialism ls a task t.ha t ia no lesa· complicated end ~spona$.ble then the 1SJ/lng ()f $ts founa&tions.~ (15'1) ·

~a~var specUic .. concU.tl~ mQy .p~vail in ~e eountr~s ))\111d1ng sooiall$m_. tbe Gta.ge of its aavanc:emant on !ts ~ ba$1oe, tbe etage of mat~e. clewloped sccialiam soclety S.s en ln61spensable 1$.-nk t.n the dleib of B.OClal ~n.sfomatl~ end a relatively .long stages of d•'Velopment on the path fii'Otn cap'-ta1.Um to cQirli\unism•. Moxeove~., bdng$ng _ o~t and -using e).l the poumtiall_t:~ea of aeve~~a sock11em also mQ~s a ~l'ans.S.t1oo to buS.ldf.ng ~~1$m ~e future does not ).ie be"tcnd tlle limits. of t;he present. And by f~f,lling t.he 1:aaks of the p~sen~ day#, of the soci.altst present, • are gs:adually approaching the monow., the coc:m• unlet fut\lt'e! (~Sa)

'l'be constitutial t;t.sel.f defines· tbE.t doveloped soela11st

aoclet?t as follows a

'-51 see Bxezhnev. n .;,131 • p.;19 •

159 fb&d~, p.ao~

351

lt is a $oc1et¥ 1n l'1h1ch powrful produet~w foa;es and pxogre:tsiw aclence and culture bavo been C:dated, in whlc::b 1be well.~beit'lg of ttle people is constantly r1S11l9t· &~d more and mom fawurab1e cm<U.tlons are· boing provl~d for tbe all•rou;nd de~l.apment of ~ J.ndl vidual. -•· -· . .

. ~~ 1s a soc~et.y of mature soc:1alj,.$t eoc::tal te).atlons; 11\ \'4\leh, on tl\e basis of the dJ:'awt.ng together of all clas~f;ls and socia.l atra1n and Qf the J~1<11c:a1 and factual equa11~ of a1.1 its natlon$ and nationalities end their f~ater• nal eo-operat.tcm, e new h1stor1~al c~$.(?{ ' of pe<>ple has been foJ:med ._.,_ the soviet people •

In a society of h$.gh organisatJ.onal eapac:i;ty, ldeologlcal e~~tment~ and consclousnes~ Of the working people 1dlo aJ:e patriots and ·l.nte.rnatic:aa• lists .•.

lt ia .a aoe~et;y 1n ~ldl U\e lew ot lUe ~s concern of all for ~a good o~ eeob ~ concem of et\c;;h ~~r the good of ell,,

. J~· -~s .a sQQlety ·Of ~ue &tmocracYI Ute poll• ti<;al system of ~ieb ens~"es efffectS,\te l't&afta~· ~t. of all pUblic affail's• evaJr mor$ act1~ pei't1.cat1~ of tbe working people l~ runntng the· $~#. and the conbln~g· of cttieer1 •& ,..ea1 ~l~ta ·~nd f~ed.orns with ~el~ obl1gati~ aM ~spcbsibi.lit.y to eoctet?f.

DE)velepe.d socialist $OC1e~ 1s a nat~al, logical ctage en the road to c:QUnunJ.sm .. (159)

Al thou~ not much 1s written o.n the developed soclalism

in the west~ tbe cmcept has no1f wc:n ~Jide ac~ptance eo far*

aa is e"id$nt fJ'an the c.ritlcal. wept-em vieW$ of SOViet societr

given above~ Ronald J. Hill opines tbet the CQlcept of

·ae~loped socialism* a.a uee<l to stt:ess the long-teJ:m nat\Ue

352

of the ~llsition to oaamunt.em! 1be ¢Qncept **rell~w•, the

p~ss~ ~plied in 8Jll pbtase th.at 4nclu.des the· wo.rd"

~cortJl\Ull1.sm~ .... as $.n ... ~folalng building of c~lsm" ~i60

we havo e1rea~ e1ted Unget: tQ tbe ~ffec;i;, that the . -· . .

concept 1s useC1 c:hlefly to ·unde~li.ne the unique pOsi.~Qn the

soviet uttlon ocel)p1es among tho sOQla11s.t. countries• 1~. a-lene

haa ad\ie-ved Dew1oped soe,allt~. ~ ~-~ tr&i' .~1.nd~~~). A~fted 8.!' Eveb$ QbseJ"W$ tba ~. t;tle CQ)Cept, O.f a.wlQpod .• <>Qta~

. . .

11em. •ec.-veo to cQnvey e ,eense of P-'"09r•eo and alSQ to •aeWie the fe1l.~ of p.resent soviet 1nsti.tut.1QI'la to netch ~

l.tanaeJ."ds of full oomnunlam. .Ae sQ.Ch~ deve~oped soo1alt.mn

refle~ts a trend probabl¥ coramoo to esw ldeo).ogical mowment

the~ ~·i,n$ in po-.r for: ~ long ~ i tho 1ncreao~g 1d.entl~

flQatf.Qn of the .ldea~ .wlt.h the -~ featuqa of actua~ socie~ Iii·

~ i,ns"~\lt!ona }:)ecQn8 en.da;· goale a~ r:~tlef.tned C#fidll811y

to X"e$ea:ble ~e dlarar;ter,st1es of Getabl1~ed 4tt~urf!s • the

~t.~uctlen of developed eoclall(W e$ anotner statlcn Ql'l the

I'Qad to ~cmnun'sm. J:eflects the c;CilSollaatlV& Chax:acter of·

the contemporazy .Soviet zoegt.me.• 'lbe J"eali$atlal of coaan\JitU.

thU$ atanaa pOstponed~ ae c:onclu<les• ·~e, '-atest ·~gc, -.n the

· eclapta.tlon of soviet c::omnWli-sm J..nto an ~deolow of ma$.n1;enance

of a\lth~~te.tS.ve 1nstitlltlons te ~:eflected in the concept of

Se$ H$.1,~-•-· ll+.i·2~ P•~l$.~·

see unger, n~l43; P!i!287~. Evans alao Wl~t'lines thla See Eval;lS~ n~~•s~, 1>•.425..,~

353

"De-veloped SOCle11sna. •162 Xn a Z'ecent book, Devid Lane· notes

that tbe •ort.tical MaDism• rrepl.Xllates ell soviet clalnVJ a•

r.garas devaloped aoc1allsrn, He rtotes that th~ sovtet ~oclet?f

1s ~.racte~l.sed by p~;O<luctive forces of lower: o*t: than thG

West.. 'l't\e sovi~t society ls not elassleas, 'lbere ~st

inc;orce, educational and eultatal lnaquali,ttes l..aaaing to tt~rioua

fo.tmS of hierarchy• ~163 Martin Nicholson opt.nas that thE! new . .

constltutlen needea •en epp~oprleto boa¥ of d«;tr!ne to draw

co• and de-veloped soelallst:n was invented as the new doctrirJ~4 Jchn N• aazazr4 Views developed soc1a1S.sm 1-n the l'~t Of

Soviet soclety getting ino~esingly 1ndustr1a1$.Sed end canplex,

U1 the manage100nt of whlcb ttae ro1G Of tbe speela11ata is ewr:

lncressSng~ 'lhe ~ of small band of aealc;atea lDim of

Lenin•Q vision bes now gr~ quite luge~ 'l'be old guaJ:a i&t

•wr $uspl<Jioua of bOth the •meeaes"' of U\e pa.~ and t.be

ind1spen$abla apeciallat~ ~e deVelo.ped aoclallem eou14 we11

be. a period of extensive etliuggle between th~ specblf4ts and

the ol(i guard in m:1nagi.ng change 1n tl\G USSR-~~~ sew.ryn· 91e).eJ'4

162

16)

164

see Alfred B-• Svan•# n~J.4S,, pp~41.4. 420 ao4 421. • '

$efl Devid Lane~ rvt§[email protected]"£.. (Basil

Blackwell~ Oafor • . · ) ,. pp,,a a . _ · .. -·~ ·

see Martin Nic:holsont •1be ~ sovlet c:cau&tf.tutlon • A Political Melyais•. l{or&d To$!x,. i4t J. .. ao Jan ~• 1978~ p.*lS~

see John M•··aazar<i• Mnm~tniiChanSJ! in. the Uf! .(Cad>~· 1dCJ'l~, 1983)# PP•4l•S7,.n ~r; %egai<t see aTo Jetty ~\!;Hough~ soviet. ta'de!isbip_ln Wif1£.1t1on (Washington D ~c ·~ l9fii0) ~- ·Chap q 1t.2~-4t' a . ;~

354

"'"~e a¢lcn.owl•dg1ng the g;eat achl~~ne~ unaeJr ·8J;'6Zhnevi'

~oftc~r,.•os tbe soc1eqr not aa .. ~veloped SQCtall$n" bu1;,

aa ·~t.qre· s~.lin1satt.,~66 t<eily tipeaka about·~ ~tegld p<)l,lt1cal s~gnlflcance of the 4octr:$.ne ao a •tatemen~ of the

party·•·s pr~amaUc and reformiost. CqlQeX'QS .~,.67 0\W~• •the

catch lbt:ase ot the Breehnev era•~l,fe a• Ho\1~ calls S.t.,

~~t. be of signtfi.cance to the 'CPSU• but surely is not

sound ao<;t.tine c:apeble of •xplaln1ng the soviet ~al,.l~ !·· '

· Z8$laVsl(y op~~e$ t-hat. concept. of uaature aoe1al~sm• t.a an

ettertp~ to cov~r up t;he teal eon~lnu.t.ng ~equaliti.Q~. I.t e).so

eims ot. ~nn1ng ove~· the •new middle Closs• to the ~lng

.fllt.t.ta~s viewpoint~, 'lhe eonoe;pt .. i.nd.lcate$ that the t.nnst.tion

of sovs..at ~1anl~Leninism f~om the revolutlonaxy ldeolOQ'i

phase to tba conaol1aatlng 1<1Qolow pha4$ baa~.~ aQd ~~~

be~ completed~ .. J· POJl' Lioel KOChan aftd Rich~ Ab:ahaJil.

the 1a.& of •mat\ll'e &OClalism• is tcd.slead1ng since ~ t aoea not;

nfle¢t t:.he soviet aoct.al .:ea11 tie.$/·10 Mat: i.e Lavigne aeea.

a ~certain oppOn;unlsm"· 4.n tbe promotion on the c.onc:ep~ Of

developed socia).lsm~ the l.eadanhtp•e J.ntentton seems to be

to dlstinguj.sh tbe sov1et ~oclety f~ the . X'$V~ia'llst ~·

WQ11 as conVE;trge~e models~ Ma~ta1n1ng 1de01991eal eont1nu1i?/

with the ultimate gool o! c;onrnunlem;., i;he advanced socia11s~

soc1etf ('clearly a~ar$ as en ~ge o£ a new political econaw

that of a pX"Sgmatic and non""utopian soc1a1tsnv #.n ~ldl the

soviet leaae~:s wish tbat. the ussa tec¢9b1ses itself and ·i.e

I'SCogni~ect .. •~11 Robert. c! 'l'ucker teJtDS the sovtet sy.ote.m n~ · .. <l&vel.oped social tam- but •s~pUmOnopoly cap1 tal1sro.", 11a

~ere a~:e many otber wrlto"s tbo clo not t.;ega.r:d tb.e cMc::ept

of developed :social. ism wonny of sefious ·analysie, 1bey sne~ely

rna~ mention of the off1c1a1 p~oole~~on ~ ttl$$ tega~

sugQQ$t1n9 that tbe concept. r$pr&sent4 ~a rne>VQ a~ from

l<hruachev•a rashness and towards B.l'ezhnev•,s stagnant status

1?0

171

1.12

see Lionel Rocl'lan and Rt.dl;:l~ Ab.r~a.m. . 'lbe · gaklna of ~m R!•M (M$QD,llan, . :t-993) j w ... s54'11)('ificr.~ .. (i\i()& so'\Tet aourees to show al!enat'lon among WOZMJ:IJ• 1bey also detaS.l the 1nequal1t1es and itot:lQnc;latur• syetem-.. sea PP•"-6 .... 468•

See Ma~1o Lav1.gn~~ n~1t4~. PP.~389. end 39l·~t. . '

se, Rob~rt. a~ ~ex:; •swol)..en state. .• spe..~t .. SocletY.l S. ~~!D~$ legacy. to B~ezhn·ev· . ·.~ Russ.ta.~ •. FO.Sf! !ffDiJt•• "91.;60• no:~2,, WJ.nter ,l,98J..ea.i PP•.4~4 arJ! · . 4r

356

'lbe fo.rego~g account of some nine t.ntes;pz:et:atlona,

•eeld.ng to ~lq)laln the SOW.et #.,al,;i;f¥~· aho. that ooa,t Of

them ~resent an ~ggented hi~l,i~t~o of OAe ~ two

a.-pect;s of tbe ~stem•

'lbe Marxist cnt1Qs, f;om ~Otsk.Y ·CO~ ba~ $S thel~

etut;1ng point ~ ~nera1 bu.:eauen~t.1sat1on end· hi~ inCome/

pr1~iJ,egas of tl\a b~u<;:raey in. 9QMral $Dd tbe tQp eli~ ·

~ part1cu.l.ar• ~ey t:ben bnnc:h off 1n 4ifferent <llJ.:ectt.one.~

For soroo the~e •xi:Sts e pans~tic ruling ~ass s~slst~g

on 1ba sw:pl~ value extracted fr:o.tn U\e sovi;et te>S'klng clas8i

otbets eJrgu.e that it 1s un~r•n to Cha~actertae the p~1V1•

lege<} t:~U.g el-ite as a rul$.ng clasa •. U\~n tbaJte 1~ ·~~

thesis of ·stet.e c;:ep1ta11sm having ~en. roo~i! 1he MaQ~e.te

go a atep further end epaell of ~vist.oo1sm end the raatoret1011

of capita).iam.

Wrotek¥ was~\, of cours9~ the f~$"t. to c~ .Out, w'-tb a

compl:eb.ene$.ve· OJ:'1tlcl.81o.. But 1\la hope of ~c;tJ,flcatlon t:brou~

113 SQG Ardlie BrOlG.- "f011t1Cel De'ielo~nts, 1?75•17•, .,. Ar<;h$-e Brown. alad M.$;dlae~ l<.$tler (edS.~-) ~- n.,12t . 5>•:301•

357

a •pel~ ~evolut;f.Qn• of ~at ho balie~d to be. a trans$;QQ~.

phencmahon of b\U'eat.\C~t1satlc:o ~ to a MU41t~, 'lbe

®,genexate workeq·t .state plodded Co•· ~e T.rot:ok1tes ~oday

hold Oil to wba ~veJr pos1tlw aspects they find and teJe¢~

the f;Ullng class and otbe~ th.e~es-.. Ren:le~bg <Ue~ud optl•

mbts;· they "~ ~e.~ to g!Jftble Qn the capa¢.$-ty of tta•

wc:u:ktng c).a.•s . ..,... both soviet and ~tetna tiona~· ~· to t~ tt\e

tables . .- ifQday they offer nothing "do• by WEU of tUa).ytialt;

aut ~auc;nt1saticn ettd pxoiVS.leged $llte -~ enCl ue a

.rtn11W to be ~ck.a'lecl with, If eveJ.Ytht.ng bttd to )le stat.$•

1'0ana9Sd and cenqal)¥.-con~olled,. t.hcte was bound to b$ b\lreau•·

\';l'Qti$atton. To ~eognlee b~eUCJ:atisat$.cn and soc1aU.sm

aa sS.aneso twins a:Qqulred no gtest ~gl.nation. 8\it deep

1dealt.sm and the fond hopes of mase1ve tiQ)!k$~ • W~at$-w

and pa:tlcipatioo S$rved ElS bllnke~:s fOr both La$ ·ana

T"Qtfi}W ~ · 'lbe edgencles of tboso <tarly hard t:.S.mas also plf!G'ed

tbeit; role• 1be lac;k o£ oxp~ri.eQCe a4cled new <l~nslOO..~

su.rea~ra'Y anogatlng p.#1v11e~s to itself 1e a' ...

g~()}:)el pbena:oenon~, ste1in me~ly ha•t.ened the ~··•· tatder

the c;:ondtt1ons of centhliseQ a·tate-J.Na socisl's~ the l»uree~·

cmcy "' USSR is far more vall~~ed ~ tba1l in

'l'rotD](v'·s ctaya,t. l'lo Wor1aer, •'Jhe R~lutlon Betrayed~ c»ntinuea

to JJ.S}(e an lnteN&tlng reacUng to this ~ + Altho~ ~· 48Y•, ' . .

of TrQtsky are long past~. the ncltQniftg tOday of t.bE! pbenomebCQ

of general bureauc~tisation great.l.Y helps us ~ eanprenentU.ng

the soviet .tea11.qr better •.

358

1he theme of l-Uling c1at$/el1w/pzo.tvU$9¢llta1a

pe"(311Jtet more so in the •S.tt.ngs ~ the Sa$t. European ~1~

fJ:Qm ;pjilaa and KO~akowekt to ota s.ik. abd Bah.ro,.. ~e tQne of

see.~ alld Bettellle1m ln this l"898~4 was no cU.ffereilt:• lt is

4ebatable --.ether the tam •prt.vlle~teia • 's ~fo~ble to

•ruling CMisa• ill view of the ·let~ be~g la(~Qn t4tb Mard&n

cormo~t~ons, some oi W'llch are hetd to apPlY to the soViet

aQC1ety • Even U tbe relation of thls •at.rat.a" to the mo&a

qf production .b estebllt:med es explol·tat1ve. tne plcture

would still not quite coxnspond to Mar~·~ vision of exploit~

ation un<ler capital~ more so if cne m:ikes ellowence for

M\at tll;l baa been Clone for the CQnlr.Qil man a1nce 1917~ But

~e p~~vf.11gents1a exists is a fac;t to reckon with.-. Cl1ff is tbea!e of "$ta~ cap1ta11em" ~d cooti.n\le 't.O

attt:act nottco till ~.._ge a~rd1ng to work (l.e!!i the ! - ' '

wa~.-.labour) ~ the -value Qf "h1Cb &a a&te.l'ltl1.ned 1¥ tbe atate•

<•1<Ung tbe -..us:ption of tl\e surpl,. ~ue). dlvielell of labour

and attendant ooa30qoonc:ea continue in tbe SQviet tlli.Qh•. IJ.b•

c~pab111~ of the consoll<lating soviet .,tate ~~®ites ·

~ater plausib111ty with cont$.nul.ng tne~ll~ies ·and pri.v1•

ieges ,, ~e refoxms aDd. privileges eeem tc> reinfoi:Qe •acb

other• Even if ooe aoes not ~ccopt the ... tate qap1ta11sm•

tbest.s... the inslgbta Cliff provide• &.n useful• &~though the

. word '!·capitalist• etill leaves many· 1iena1one to 1:. neolwa.,~.

R.evtGionS.sm is es ha~d t<> es~blS.sb $$ put1t¥ of Ma~

S(le#,.a).lsm~:· Stalin tells U. tb&t Leninism ie the· Marxism of the

359

2Qth ~tuq • ;1;. ~ COilrnOQ knowledge that m.uch oi ~~ea. ••

modifled to apply lt to tbe RUS$lan <:onattS.ons. l.erlln oou14

•11 be the first.. serloue R~s1an 1;'8V1slon1.st to begin with•

H~ver·~ harsh Lenin ml~t have been to his WeeteJ:n pJ:Gdoce-..

store in tbJ.s "gud, ~e polnt bas to lla urtae.rl$J:led•

Xt wo\ll.d $ound l~lcrous .S.£ \be Chinese now ~eo to

ban4Y about the label Of revis.lonJ.sm, Cba~les B(tttelheim ia

en able wz:lter~ Bu.t the tbe•u that he sought to eetabl1•h

nJaaln$d far from convt.n.olng even during Mao• a ~'fetlme; s~c:e

tben, their ple~il)ilit?/ ha• touc:.1aed en all time 1ow.. 'X'hat

Bettelbe.lm b1mse1f .b a.J..1llus1~d 1s wll-.knO\i#l~· WM votart••

of the ou1tu.r:a1 aevolut1on have eJ-1 but 4i$e.,pealr8C1• wn• Jn·

the neen\ime~ the f;:Sp1tall$m is notr only not testopcl ~ the

soviet Unloo# the eoviet.s have not even gene· s.$ ~;: aa aW\;aJ.iY

has on U.e #Oatl <>f Jefomo~ tnt.rcspe~on end ~val.-uattm

is 111\at YJS.o1ste el.'$ busy with ~ ,~ lf the sovtew 90· .:. _ _ .

oang•s way, the Chlneae m1~t feel ~at1fie4~ flbo •"VS.aionum•

1$ a.ftarell 110 ana$erna 1n t:.o&:ty.Ja ~rld.

Of the weetem tboees~ tho thesis of tot.alltar1aniam,

lill1le focussing c:m the ebaence of _political p1.\lt'a11snt ana all

aspects of human life belng regulated 1hrough a Qe!lqe).iaed

plan# sho• .lte~lf ~r cbs4UJ$ed with. politS.ca'- -n-or ao UlUCh

so that the pJrojeeted image of tbe sov1et $Ocleqo 1s Uta.t of ll.

static society w1tb endemlc qnlcal pursu1t of brute pow~ ty

360

the soviet elite it But. the polS.tlcal terrQr 1eJ on Ute •ne since

stal$.rl1e death.. 'lbe soviet $OC1et:v has sh01ill 4.tee1f to be

f9r far tiQre fle~le tban the ¢ol4 1ei' psygh.ol;()qf ex.pecte<l.+

Its a~l·round develop~rent also glves lie to man, e.surn pt1ona

Of totalS.te~ianlsm,. \obl<=h ovet•s~e~•· the pol1t1eal aspect

to the aetz:.t.ment of sociC>I!economS.c eepeets ~· A s:oc1$tr 1• nQt.

manly a political qat.em.

1.1\ere 18 nothing ver.y ftOw about. the tllte 1DOQEtJ., tt\e

chle£ drawback of "'1cb te tbe tenc:Jenq to overpkr tbe role

of a C¥n1cal elite end 9J:'Qssly m$~a;y that of the au; sea

in a ~nam1c sociat¥,.

1be most promising tneoty ~~g ftom the Weat la

the "industrial soclet?f" theoxy • If ~ d1s<:ounq the •detemi

nist .. Q~mism u .• e, the belief in technological detemlnS.em)

fran lt~ 1t has the ~tentlel of being meaningfulJ.y emp1(?fed

tQ ~lain the SoViet l'~allties • 'lbe SOvj.et soe~1;f inc:lt'eaein*

~senblea any other indusqlel soct.et¥ in ~ttms of tec:hnolow •

social e~rata#· 1lfe atyle end p~~1ent value wste.D\! 'l'tlis 1a

not to eugges~ ~at it is the .aaa. a• othe.:: Wett;.Gm soci.etieo.

Ule histoq. and 1deolow have left tbeir 111flrlcs•:· au~ it could

)lr

•ll be argued tt\at toclay (and Ln futw;'9 atl ~11 " #on. many respect;s~ .. if not all. ~e t.echnol.ogt..es,. cUv1s1oo. o£ ).abour and

goods pt'Qduced are the same.i' socialbin htla not ~ ~ not going

to de\'~ a. tote).ly <l;'fferent fQOde of produc~t.<:n and t;ec:htlolow

.... at least 1n foreseable fut~e~-:. ~.e SC)v1et Qllon la indeed

i:. d: 1s bort~d li Hz.Sc:lt,b/~ ""'lr tJ1{i.y "-.....,duS.f-r,'tA/ ~cc..'tly

3ti1

an •.t,bciusti.'1B1 eoc;J.et;r• mS.ch is r:e1at1w1y mole G9&).;1terun

but Qconan1call1 ap.d politically 1n0z:e conwt11sed·,

Ute SC>v1et C.h~u~actef$Jat$.(1ft Of •c1eve~c:>pea. sCQielt;sm~

•ounao both pn~aat\Ue and t-edundent. It smack$ ·of stalin • a

be•w ~· Stalin bad cleoleJ;ed aoc~lletn wet;4r10U&J ancl cl..&$8

cU.stinctlQnS resolved at .a time when QJaly one ft.ve..,ea~: pl.$11

had been com,p1~~ l BWn 1f the preseAt lQe.Cle~shlp• like l1:a

preelecesaor$~ $e dutw-bound to show pz;oQ.J:ess,. tbey QOul.d not

he~ hit. upon e more cQlt~WJ:sial eQQce~, 1be p1'09&'0SS •1nce

1930'1$ is undeniable and $0 is ~ ~1anQCaCl 4e\'81~nt,

1nfe~1o~ tectmt.~. low qualitar Ca'l$\ln.et: good$·~ bQavy Capital

goods~ stagnation, pr4.v1l~t;S·, eor~ptt.on ete~. '1\ilese •hort

Comln9s go a long~ to emaciate ~e adjective •developed-.

beyond J:ecognitlcm. Aa to •soelsllsm" the coot$nuat1o» of W898

labour~ division of labo~,. ,.~~,_, ineqU&litt.es,. a11enat1aa.

ccnt1nulng gap betleen to~ and count&y.- mn~l ana ptwstcal

labour:, relatively low cult:u~el leva)., r;enqa~lsed ~:egu1at1on, ' .

persistence of state, and w~ied otbe.~ aspects that Ma" ar\4

sn~ls ha.d 1n mln~ all con~tbut.Q to ®pr;.lve it of p1eua1blllt:F~

What ell has happened is that the maana of procluctloo haw ~

soclalued! All other "quirement;e of Marxian socialism u. not yet fully .. developed .. ,li! xn b~ief, tbe soviet socs.ew u a

cleve.J.op.t..ng industrial society with en l.nte~taat.e t.dlno~ow

and Snpxese~"ite defence and space sec;tors~. Oft~l~ <:e•ua1

~lc$ of Lenin (often toxn out. of CQDte~) ~ga~g deve1.ope4

362

aoclaliSill could sea~ly buck Up the ecccept d\tcb. 18, be.a~ce).ly

&-ed\Uldant~ flbe soviet scclety c<W.d plausibly go ·on bu1).<1ilig

... te"~l and technlcel founc:latlons~ of ccmnunl$m afte# th.ti'

•victor1oU$ e5QC1a).J.sm• atage withou~. havJ.ng to peso thl'OQ.gh

the ~tasslng otage Of DQVG.).QJ;led SOC1e1,sm'•

we haw ell')a~ outlined the Marxian exegesis Qf atate

1n the f1r•t. Chapter, S~flce it to n¢all. b9~ ~t._. (llatatet

as per t·nrxian exPi1catJ,on, has not exi•ted ft:Om the ~).1 eto~··

nltr but. happened to ar:QSe at e cer~in atage o.~ tOC:lel evolw

t10Q• (2) fJ:'an an agency for ~he ma<Uat'on of claas ~onfltcta.•· ~ . . . . .

1 t aewlopecl into an ageney ot a machine. of oppreQslCIIl w1•lclla<1

1y tho ~ling class to perpetuate f.ts hegemony owr otbet

cla••• in a society.,: (3) $.t axQte ~-- the divtsl<ll ~f eoC1eqr .. . into antegonlatic cleaaea ana ·will •witber a~tt once tbo

chases a~ abQllshed and a c1ese.les$ •oct.eq ~ e~um

1e utablbhed•· sngels believed that the atate l$ •the adm.Us~

tha~ th's society 4t •.• ,~·ls cleft. into. ~eoncUal>lo entagonis,.;!

l4hldl ~t t• power~~as to exercJ..IQ ii;~ ~nin·; \iib~le suggesting

strcmgly the s~shlng of the old at;ata tQ$cbl.Jle., Qlintelile4 that

•the elWitenee of the state prows Ulat class antagonla!Dit a"

1neconc1lable.•l-14 'lbus. tbe raboo d•et.J;e of s~te ,. bound. up

3o3

vltb the existence ot antagon1et1o class-... the c11ft1cultr

arose w1 tb Stalin's _,~laration on the eve ot the. at!opt1on

ot 1936 ooMtitu:tlon that there exist no antagonS.sttc class• ,

in the SOviet l1n1on. tbe Soviet 80C1al s-tl'Uoture comprised •

tvo tr1endq classes and a social "strata•. •tflat tben vas

tbe nature of ~viet state? ~at were tbe reasons fbr its

coMt1tut1on? \tlose 1nteeste dQea it serve? lflat v.-e

tbe reasons tor 1ta cont1ntat1on? \ilos-e interests does it

serve? \bat vas its future; espeelslq in view ot staUn ••

declaration 1D 1936 that •tn the matn, we bave a~eadf

achieved tbe first pbase ~~ ootatn1sa, eoo1al1sat. •175 In

364

Sta11n•s "On tb.e Dra·tt Oomtitut1on ot tbe l1SSB":t On$ dC>ee

not t1nd an elaborate anaqsts of the stat•· idea. He J~Mtre]¥

speaks of tbe estabUebment of a single fe4er&, llllltinational

aoo1al1at state -wttlob bas atoo<l aU tests, ana wbos• ttab~

11ty 111gbt well be envied by arw natlonal state in aav part l .. . .

of tbe worlc!.-. .~ stalin abo spoke ot the "'ranstorittat1on

ot the d1ctator8b1p into •, • a 11Dre pOwerfUl ayatem ot

gu1c1ance of soo1ety by tbe state•. 177

At the 18tb Party Congress 1n 1939, stalin aade _,.

e1g n1t1oant statements on tbe nature and fUture ot the soviet

atat, 178 ftle quest1Qn needetJ elabo1'at1oftt .

1?6

17?

178

lllJA•.;• PP..68'1-ea.)

staUn as quoted by Jspatur1an;. ~ 174.; p. .lo3~

For tbe text of tbe repert see StalS.n• n.175t_PP. 7~S03. R>r bis observations on stat•• aee PP.?.J0•?97• All questions ot tentn and StaUb below are trolD this 8eot1on Of tbe RePOrt. Stalin's ·arguments that tbe views Qf ~ or state vere. inadequate was repeated as lat~ as ·. . "'en M. "azhanov speaka of tbe "deflc1e.no1es of Erlgels ¥1evst.. and .futttber ctwelopment ot the tbEOry of state under ~DIIIln1am by c:».-ade

.Stall~~ • " . see Arzhaa>v:,. 1n Jawra~ 3• a.l.M, Pt. sea.· see also PP.38h8S., •iJ18ela thesis (on state) ~ •• hac! to be made mre preo1ae 1n terlll8 ot the new bist0r1ca1 conditions., Comrade stalin 901nt• out tbat Leni~ 1ntent1ed to do tbiS.•tt and undOubted]¥ would have done st, bad b1s deatn r»t prev'ented b1!Q. Comrade Stalin the br11Uant tbeor1st Lepta •·s Ot)nt1nuatort acaompUshed his taat. (l)mrac!e Stalin euandea ~bin •a teacb!ng on the victor)' of aoo1a11sm 1n one country", l-J'&dt·t P.38~

365

Jpeoulat .. , 1~ Jn •lew ot the eJ»rl!X>Us 1norease ~n the c»trolt• · pOwers t>t atate <lUring pQ.rgea., Be adld.ttec1 tbat .,.certain

ot tbe general tenets ot Marxist c1oe)tl'i~ ot the atatt w•~•

1n~!llplete]¥ elaborated"• lbgel•a tormulat!on, on state,. to

stalin•a ·.s.nct• were toactequete 'beoaueet (1) &11ela ¥.)rked

tbem out some "45 or SS ~ar•• baokt (2) he QQuld not b*'e

foreseen fl'ler7 sltuatlo~. (3) he presumed the s1llalltaneQue

vlcto17 ot ,soctla11am Sn at least !18~1'1 ey ot tbo oottnt~es

and die! not ac!c.1ress blt'Qielt to the situation ot •loton ot

socialism in oM oou1ltl7• Lenin batt planned to vrlt-e a

seoonc! volume of state -and !evolution and "tbere can be JX)

dOubt· that ~nin Intended ., •• to elaborate and to turther ...

6welop the theory ot tho state oc the basts ot the exper1eno•

gal ned 6urSng tbe existence ot soviet power in our cou·ntry. • . . Stalin tben 4eolares, ttbut wbat teld.ra d1d m t mailage to dO

should be a>ne by his .d1so1P1••" ~ bo~t.er b.la ;Ga~tiOo,,

staUn qUotes ~n1n to the et£eot, -we $ D)t regard Marxist

tbf!Ory as ·aometb11lt completed and 1nvtolableJ· on tbe oontra17• . we are oonv1·noe<t that 1 t baa o nq l.a1ct tbe aorntrstont ~t

. '

soience Wb1cb s)c1E~11sts !DUst turtbel' adVanqe 1D ·all

directions lt they wieb tD keep paoe w1 tb 11te. we tb1nlt that .

366

. ' an 1ndtPetu!ebt ·elaboration ot tbe Marxist tb«>r7· .$s ap8c)$.al]t . eeeent1a1 tor Eus9lan IOC1al1ste., tor tb18 . tht017 P~!1~ii

on~ general gU1dlng principles w1cb, tn part!OU~&!'t: ·are

applt.a Sn !nrlal\6 41tterent]t rrom ,_,ance, 1n Prance

c!1tterentl,y trom Germatu • ancJ 1Q r.,ermatr dltt~trently fmm

Russia"•

B1s Qreaent1a1s establlsbea, be gees o.n to elabQ~ate

bS.e nev thEOry of state ~1eb vaa an .improvement over tbe

vr1t11l!s ·of Marx;. -ele and ter.li·~ t!tat tollQws vae . staUn 's own, aoaeth1QJ ~ 'the need for a stiO~ •vlet

state was btOugbt lnto tooua,; aecord1ng to stalin.,, by •tbt . espionage and consp1rato.r1al aotl,-ttles of ttte Tzoteldt•

and Bukbar1n1 te r1Qr-1•adere •., 1b1s "gentr;v·" were aa1d to be "

1n aervtce ot ttforeign espionage organisations and car~>1ed

on oonsp1rator1a1 aet1vStlee• 1'tom tile very t1r$t da.Ye ot, . .. tbe Octtober ttevolut1on but were expc»Bec! onlu in "103? d . .

!his olear]¥ atab11$bed ~at (1) t~e a,,tet orgallS i93e~. '

ot state and responsible P«»ple were vulnerable to the

beSmus mecbanlsations· of tbe bourg~1s stGtes and tbdr·

1nte111gence agencies, (2) the question of •ctaptta11at eno1r .... . clement" was cot conslderett wttb seriousness it deserv~

Ot course, oo one expected that tbe r1·ng-1eaders of !mtskltea,

and atkbartmtea •oould have tallen eo lOw .. · 1)'-t "blune!v ' . .

vas a blullc3er" ·antl neecl to be reotU1-td otherwise ~the

367

SOviet state t,teelt will 8001l bave to be re-legated. to the

meeum ot ant1qu1t1e•"•· In tbts conneotiont it ta rel.twan'

to mentton Stalinist thesis tbat as tbe soe1a11sm dravJJ)ear,

the olase struggle lntens'-f1ett.. The pur.gea ot mt&l930 ts

and general r1s·e 1n ooerc-1ve llQvers· of •tate are expla1nec!

b7 tb1a pbenomiU)~. 1b~s vas assal1ed on Stalin•• deat~:~ !butt the aovlet state will QOnttnue tor t11> reaeonsa (1) the

capitalist encirclement a 1b ttgbt against tb1s enc1rql«ment1.

the ~viet state "lalst bave at its <!1sposal a vel~tra1n•41

arJVt well-organ1·ee6 penal organs• aDd a strong !nte1Ug$Jl0• . .

serv1ce1 conseqUently, must bave 1ts own state; stzong

eb)ugb to detel'ld tbe conquests of socta11sm from tore1gil

attaok-. •. (2) 1be continuing aeea to lea«! tbo society tova .. t1 ' ..

the b!gber pbaae ~. 4t• eotm!Qn1s~. lb~ tb1s· 1 t ls neceseat'Y to

protect the •aoctallst property" t~m ~h1eves and p11ter•r•~•

"&>w (1939) tbe main task Qf otU' atate inside tbe ~untey

lies tn peaceful eaonomic and organisational '~rk;. ana cul~ral

an6 ectueattonal ¥:>rk, As tor our aruv, penal organs;. and

3ti8

ln,e111genoe ·••rvloe, their edge is m )A.)nger tur-4· fA:>' ~ ~

tbe 1ns'-c!• ot tbe oountey but to the outetae, · asa1.nst uterJ:aal.

enemies.,. 'Jtlus, internallY tbe ~viet state carr1ed pare~

beneYOlent aot1vi~es..1Bl 'l'be role of the state. thue;.'

changed oomp1ete1J~ eo aucb ao that stalin declar-oa. ~1at• "vt now ba•• an entire~ new soo1a11st state, one without

precedent in b1ator.7•·• •• "

!b1s a>vtet state bad "Passed through t'WO matn pbaaea ·.~ ( 1). ~'lbe first pbase was the pe~od ftom OOix>ber !tevoiut1on to

the e1·1331tsat~n ot the exploiting classes.• Illr1ng tbit

perlod tbe state perfox•uec! tbree tunotiol'18t (a) •auppr•e thG overthrown olasses w1 tb1n tbe country~. (b) ·"c!etebd tbe

·country ·rrom tor-~1gn .atteck"t (o) .Pel'torm eoor.omic; OJ'Sanl.

~atlono1; eultaral and e(!Ucat1onal "-'rk Wwitb the .purp()ae ot

c1ev~l0p1ng tbe iOllQJ ~oboo1B ot the new, sociaUat eoc;toad.o

eYatem an~ ra..educatlng tbe people ln tbe spirit of .oo1al.1ea•.

... ~ J I I E.f .I I if d 4. I 6'! ~

181 !Jcp1•1~ Den180v and lt1r1obemo, "'ltle ·soviet Union . . entere(! a tJBw stage ot awe1cptaent - tbe stage. ot the oompletton of. tbe bui141ng r>t o aoe1e11st eoc1et7 and greaual translt,Son hom soot·ausm to ooaznunieza•. !n tb1• stage the role of state is explained thUs$ "~• P.ov1et ~tate·'Vaa ~nfronted wStb a ·mmber of new ·taskst to organise a 1\trther p:,,,er1'Ul upsurgG ot $Qctlal · product1cllt steadily raise tbe matenel and cultural well-be1Jlg of tbe t40rk1J:'g people , edflO:ato. the e-ltt~zem . of the. USSR in tbe ep~1t of proletarian 1nterw.atScna11s~~t dev~lDP trate,nal relations bett., .. n the \Qr~l'lg pa>ple or tbe USSR and the working people of other countries, oonsoUdate tbe ~efenstve capacity ot the aountry Sn eve17 wfQ· w1tb tho v1ct4ey of soctaUsm, the state. adm!rd.atratSon ot the ~at1onal eoomliff and tbe cultural ana.edueational acttvtty of the SOviet state.aoquS~d t!ecS!1v~ imbol'tabC•~• _see A Den1eov and l:.f. R1r1cbentoi>,;, atx.let (it.Gt~.JM. (lt>SOOV;: 19EOl.t pp,9:L-9a., .

3o9

(2) •b eeoonc! phase vas the· peJ!od ttom tbe ·e111dnatton C>t

the oap1 taltat eletJents 1D town anc! count17 to tbe complete

v!otol'1 ot tbe soo1a11at eoorom1~ sY<stn antl· tbe act>,ptton

ot tbe new OOQSt1tut1o~. 'ltle pr1no1pa1 task 1il tb1• period . '

vas to orca·nlae soc1a11st eoonoav tbroughout tbe oountr, anct

to eUm1nate tbe last ·remaaDta ot tbe oap1tal1st e~ement•.•

to orgall1ae a cultur31 revolution, and to otiabie• • tbOrougb ·

modern arJV tor tbe defenoe ot the oountq ··•~'*' 1be tunqt!Qn

ot m111tat-J auppreeeton inside tbe co.untq oeatedj to.r tho

explDltatSon bad bMl'l ebo118bec!, there were rP mre exploiters

lett, ant! eo ·tbere vas IJ) one to aupprea~. • As to tbe 101'1118

the $0\'1et state will aeeum't Stalin dtolarea:, •tbe f01'1D8

ot our state .are cb:~rtg1ng al'ie! will continue to obsnge 1D

11ae v1tb the deYelo.,.ent of our country and w1 tb cbal'lgea

1n tbe 1nteraat1ot'lal t1tttat1on"'+- Be ott• tentn, •1be tral'le1-

t1on tmm capt talia11 to c»tm.an!sm oertai.nly 4a=ot but yield

a 1reat abundaftee anc! varlet,- ot po11tloot .~ tor.nB1 but tbe

eaeence vlll !nevltabl1 be tbe ·S8118t tbe tl1otatorsh1p ot

tbe pJ01etar1at." (1h1s terd.ntat ~s,t1ol1 was reiteratect b7 PaabukaDts183 tn l936 and goes against tbe subsequent ~rmuletSon of tbe state of tbe •le people; as we sball ae-.. )•

183 Pasbukan1s v~tee •1be pl()letar.1an ,tate w1U pretu~n-• its. role $lr1ng tbG entire period between tbe Qverthrc>w ot tbe bourgeoisie ana tbe OPJiiiQ~st society aJJd tbat.t in tP.1te o. f tb. e poss1. b.l• variety of P011t1Qa1 tor.•l · · tbe ·essence antl Qentent ot tb1s state w111 be tbe cJ ctatorehip of tbe Ptoletar1~t"•: See Pasbukan1a,: •state aD4 taw Under SOc1a1lsa ' A Reapp.rs1sal Of 1hougbt• tn Ja¥>rskr~ (ed..),1, ~124,! P...3.l?.

. '

370 .

As to the tgture of the $:)viet stat•• stalin bad ~bla

to saJ:t •·wtll O\:lr .atate .temal·n ift tbe pt!!10d ot ~-.n1ail

ala$t Yes, 1t 1411• 1t the oap!taU.et eDQirol•lllllt 1s ~t~

11qa1~ated, _alt.bo'ugb natural]¥ tbe terms of our state ~1:1

again obange 1n ec>ntora1t7 v1tb the ohar~ 1n the situation . at bo• ant! abMad. R>,_ 1t W'lll !lOt rettaln and will 11ltber

away 1f tbe oeptte11st eno1rclemttnt is 11qu1datec! ana f.a

·P~placetJ . ...., a $)~a118t enc1rolement, .. • '1!ms:, tbe w1t!ler1ng

awl¥ of tbe state vae R>v tound w1tb the tri~nt~ ot toc1a11sm

on a global sca1~:l84 !bus, the state ts ·~bo11t1on vat

indeed "PUrely aoademto -.. and in tact irrelevant a1rr:e tbe

or1g1na1tmput.e for lt• eradioatSon -. st, oppressive and

male'101ent cbarao'• - evaJ~Qrat«' with stalin•• oonvua~n

of tbe at ate lnto the 1noarnat1on1 soo1al p~gresa and be~,.. lenoe .. •lB$ In faot, stalin oontete.S oandidlf at the 2atb

party oongttesa that tbe SQvSet ~Ut-loal tbeor1 bad Machec!

a nadir in 1ts evolut1o}\le6 H• s11tMtc1 all nis opPQneDta,

371

ll)tab17 lbllbartn on this 'SUb3eot. Btt lt created enorDDus

oontue1on in tbe intellectual circles of th~ party. Aspatu:tia:n

observes tbat "the soviet state was ~ psvobolOgical buraen

tbat we1gbed upon them Uke a bad dream. .wl87

In tbe subsequent period, tbe "vltbering ava7" ot

state thesis vas aougbt to be played dOwll. ~e tone and tenor

ot tbe 1940 '• 1a aul!lil84 up in 11Jsb~Jr¥·•~ ·atatement that the

"6y11)g aWQ' of state 18· a pure]¥ theoret1csl problea. .. ~ .

Marxtan · tbeor;y of state 1n ge-.ral al'ld the Sta11n"-'a

· tol"l!!llatton tn parti.C\11&~ bas co_, in for· sharp cr1t1c1811

t~m tbe WIJte_rn wr1ter,189 Aspatqr1an o~~nes tbat staiin ''

ttPQntUlcat1QtlS constituted tK>t a new ~btOl'Y of the state .,...

nor even a revised tbeory ...... bUt nltbing mre tban a 1brtl81

and open repu41atton or lqr;xtat political tbeo.ey" and

eetabl1eb1n8 ot a ·1ttotalq new tbeoretioal edlttce euppc>rted

by new pb11oaopb1oal to111ldat1ons., •· •staltn oouipl~teq · ~AbaMoned

tra61tlona1 Marxist th'-017 bj proclailld.ng the soviet state a

state cle a>vo, COIJlplete]¥ uatoreseen b7 Man, -ela or IAI11at

·~· .. 187

188

189

~!__r~:~Y-'

Jh1d.- ,,· '.~~>.; 1031-..l.Osa.

V7sb.ineJt;v as c1tec1 111 Aspaturiao,. ~ 1.,.,. p.l03~) see t'br example •. Bans. Kelaen*- iJf·lf&~ il111ft AI ~~hmt1 (llerkele)',; )NJ) aa··v n . · Yer, ·. • . . . ~~t. 8 a e ~ails. t9 Wither .. ;, .B>UkQ Aftak't '90.~31.;.

· . • 1952* PP.. l14-ota7~

372

~Daequentl.y• lt oould not be ana]Vsed ~n aooordance v1th

trac1!tional M8rx1t~t categories •. ~ 1'b1s charge aountta

meaflingless s1:noe Stall-ft b1mselt oontessec1 to be attdptl~

sometbtng l)e"V •• vt bsn ~ted abov'

A lot was written on the subject of state by the

Soviet. wr1 ters as well as tbeir western ~unte·rparts ttll the

concept of tbe ttstate of tbe whole Pt!Opiett aa1nec! ourrenoy

under g,rueohev. 391

lt is ot interest to note tbat aeme ot iJ)'ab1ns}G' ** .statements abea4J ca:,rriect the B>tion ot · tbe state ot tbe

whole pet)pl.e., In l939t tor example, ,'lhe v:rote tbat.t "the

, c~es ~fterences vere vear1ng out. we are prooeedSng towar4

the 11qu1ctat1on of class•• Sn genel'al alld tow~d tbe oonvers1oll

ot worker •s and peasants into tbe 1ndQstr1ous workers ol a

single \X)IIIIIlniet eociety. trnaer eucb QOndltlons ola•• t•

replaota b)' peopl• (s1o .!> - by _,rkera. !1$2 Btt m tbeOrY

"' '· • w• • · 1. ...... a • . is u I!; •. c

192

373

ot the state ot tbe wllO-le people vaa ever expounded in cltar

ter1118 t111 19e 1., Arlhanov contended tn 1949 that whatever

chacgee that occur dUrin~ the transition period '" tbe spheres

Of state Slld law,. tttbese cbangea v111 lead toward the streng ..

tben1ng ana developmellt ot the aoo1al1st state and law tather

than tovar._, tbe-l·r -weakening. ~us; tbe closer society appro,.obee

tbe mment wben tbe atate and law will begin to dte avq,, the·

etronger tbty Will become. Isn•t tbis oontr.ac11ctom ••• Tbe . . .

.problem ot this oont·rad1~t1on·" baa been' ft>J'mulatea and re~lved

in a sst tborougb way in tbe classics of Uarx1aa.LeQ1·niana.

!be brief laoonic forDllla sa1et ttve are f\:)r tbe ~tberiN awar ot the stat~. J;bt at tbe same ti:DJ! we s-and fbr tbe strengtbe~

lJ:tg ot the dictatorship ot tbe proteta~1at., representt~ tbe

most powerf\l'l and the mt.gbt1est of a).l tbe stste power1 that

bave b1tberto existed. tftle highest dG'I~loptMnt ot state povel' ~"' ..

for the purpose t.tf p!'epartng conditiotl4 tor tb@ w1tber!ng away . . .... . . . . . Of thf3 State .t'OWOl' ·- tb1a is tbe t-!arrl.S't fornlllS. Ia tbis

· *contradictory ? ten:, it 1a •eontradlctor7"• Eut tbis i1J a

vital contradiction, and tt tully ·retlects t~an•e d131eottos~ •

. Arzhamv explains tbat "the s tr~n~thenlllg of the ~o1a-11ttt

state bae been taking place, and will be tald.ng place azr.tng

tlll pbases ot the 6tWe1Qpment of ou state. 1'be ·b1stQJ!1 of

tbe ~v1et eta.te ana Lav 1s a b1etol'iY of OQllt1moue gl'Owtb, ., w::r •• - . 2 t i b .• '· • • •

\ rrOVJ.OUS 'I/rt. oontt\..,.) :. ln 3946. · l. '· Fralnin ext?la1ned that «under oondltiQOJ o.t ~~1~llsm, wen tbe concept ot peop.le baa a ·4U'terezat aeaning. 'l'be te:ra 1s int•rpreted tQ mean ·people d~1t1 ot explo1tere p~ple cona1stS.ng ot 1Ql'kera, peasants• ana tbe sq,vle~ 1ntel11genta1a~., see Jra1:n1n ln ;J,Il~C., ~M· .

3 '7.4

atrengthell1ng, and pertect1on_ Jb1a was, and is beingt

d1otatea by the interests ot the soo1sUst tran8formatSo·n

ot soo1ety .... interests connected with the defense aga1net

exte·rnal attacks. •193 ·tlta11n c!eolal'e4 tbat 'the $)v1@t

tTnton needs eyer-strengthening state. ~se \bo euggest

a veak v1tber1ng state anc! relaxin~ ot tbe state· pbwer are

•e1the~. ;degenerate. or $ub1e .. t1ea1vs, an" !lll~t be t1r1Yen·

out ot the party ... liM a.tt this strong SOviet state bas one

of lts baste £0als tbe we1tare of. the people and stalin

bad pledged that "he will give drop after drop o t b1e blo<H1• . 195 .

tor tbe welfare of the soviet .p.eopl&i!. .

Stalin als<> aeserte4 tbat the new s~rong a>viet state

was Pai't of a •new aupel'"atructure oreated corresponding to

tbe eooial1st bas.b • ._JOO Alter the death of Stalin, l'lla~

f\ .. P. A~zbaP>. v, 1t0omnu. nlsm,. State an~ tav • A 8. talinist 1nt~.rpretat10n in Js'WOl'e~3.,_1\.1~,. l. P..386..381jt~ see :~·:: ~:!e~t!t~n,~m~n 'tt 81~t=~!c~! fU;tn aD~ dialeotio was tna<!e Sn 1930, see lb1~ t p. L1. Sts11n ae oSted by .An3bmv in Ja\10rsk;131 D.1M,P.381.

M.P.. Xat\ta .Xpla1ne6 tn 1.95). that *the a>vtet ~v.,rnment,, tbe Part,. ot r~entn and stalin., bave only·one goal ~ -the weltal'e of the p.eople - and M.reot all tbelr . aot~ns toward tb1$ trulY h1gb nDral ~al. All aotSone of OQm.rec1e Stalin oont1rm b1a words that tor the salle ot tbe people be. will glve drop after CS~p ot. his blood. Is this not a h1gber grade ot btfman noral1ty?• ~. ~~ : Se-lf.,P.,Xareva,, ."Q)JIIIIln1st lbrs11ty" 1n Jawrekt3t·~,lM,, p.. •

. I

0 .... ~

\]J ' 0

notions tbet pl'Ospered under, stalin oame 1n 1br s'!"er~

orS.tleS.sra. ~s w& hav• noted be:fbre., Sta11n had ear.l1e.r

l>een calle<!,. "the b~!lltant theorist, ten1tl'tt oont1mator ••4t. (who) ••• expanded ~n1·nt.s teaching on the v1etor1 of

soc1al1tn! tn one country~, •197 att mw 1n .1965 st.alin 'tt rev1a1on or creative re-...tnterpretat1on ot Marxism (views

on state 1ncludec!) ~ame untter tbe. the same Lenin was

cited by Fed0s8,f$V and. others to show tbat l~xism va•

satlC%'0oatlct. "l.farx1sm was an Qb~ect1ve truth•, and bow

could one even tb1nk of rev1s1ng 1t.• l9S After a>tb part)r

congress 1n 1956, cr1t1c1sm against stalin soaled ·h8W beigbta

Sb yehtme'lce. vy sb1nslf7 •s v1ews too we~e Qr1 tlc1sed.

Stalin's vtolat1on ot sooioUst lega11:ty1 aild o1V11 rigbte

were assa11e~ His proposition of 1ntens1ticatton ot class

struggle in the per1cH1 ot socialism was termet! a -Mistaken

proposition~. stalin's cult of personal1ey wsa impugned . -·

and hie 1nterpretat1on ot the 61alect1c was reseoted ae

•erroneous", 199

19?

198

This 1s law .Arzharov described Sta11n in 194a.· ~" M. ~ Arzhnov; in Jowar!~~ (ed. ), tl.l24, P.;38S.

wrote Fedoseyev, "Marxism is an ob3ect1ve truth. 1118 fundamental premises of Marxism have been ~ont.lrmed . by the e.nt!re pract1oe of the class stl'uggl~ How coulc1 one even suggest replacing tho!!e gtlndamental lfarx1st , prE\lrp1ses, tfh1cb are tbe sylltheees~,prldw1cSe b1stor1ca1 · practice, wbt~h bave been oonf1rme6 by practice .l.lP.Qil . wtd.cb 1s foun6ed ~ ent1re practice of soo1al1el conat. ruction. and -which illuminate the perspective of co~ un1st vlctotY? At arr>tber place Le~n 1s cited tbuat ~nq very sborts1ebted people cottld tb1nk of altering tbe foundat1ot'IS of tbrx •s teach1!lgs uncler the 1ntlueo;,• ot sev&ral year~ ot 1nd'J.str1al ,<!ev.olopment and prosperity•, Bee Fe60se¥ev., in JatPrs~3, a-124, PP.«>s-409 •.

see articles o.t A. A.~P1ontk>vsW. and a..P. Lebea.w. 1n - . - - -

376

SUbaequent~:t. tbere ex1ated a ldntl ot. 1mpasa~ 1tte

soviet writers aeellld 111 .at ·•as~ 1be -tend~nc1es in

st.tpi)Ort ot botb tbe tbeor1ea oould be cite~.~ z. selettW:'j

for exaiaple,. wrote ln i9~ ·that,, "the $01a11at s7$tem bas.

also changed the 1nter.relatSons~1p between ac>c1et¥ and

tbe etate. In oontrast to an e~lo1t1ng state ... llb1cb

repMsente tbe interests of one segment of society, tbe

propeJ;"t1e4 minority ...... the soc1a11et state exPrct$s•C! tbe

will ot the vbole aoc1et7, ot the ~le peo.pi.e~ 'Otldel' condi

tione of sootallsa the etate 's interest ooinclc!ts wltb

eoc1al, PJb 11o interest~ and oo ~sely, !Ocial:t· pubil~

interest appea.rs as the •tate •tt interest.. Prom thls it

1b11owa tbst unity of 1n~1vlc!Ua1 and social interests unc1er

aoc1a11sm OOrlStltutes at the saae time un1 ty ot tbe interest•

ot the c1t1zen and state interests'?., In tact• "the SOviet

people (e1c •'> provide tbe1r state vitb support and love -and

display the gr~atest concern ~r state 1nteresta~ JlDO '!bus, a,vert ~ xanet la IX)t quite correct when he sa_vs that

•m mention bad been made in an.y a,v1et ~bl1cat1on of all

people •s· state~~~~ ln· tact 14, ~ Selekt()~~•s v1fiwa - .

See ·u. Z. selektov:L "'!be Unity cl~ lndlv16ual a.nd State interests under ~ciali·sm* ln .Ta,.,rslr;v~, ·I\ 1Mt PPt. 444-44S. . · '

Kanet, 1\ a>a1 p,.~, Ungar also !X)1nts oat tbatt .. this ·· (stress. on 4l];..people •a) '1i essentially 'Jbat stalin bed asserted for his Oltll olaas. fl'iancJly state- •cte.~crao7 for the -working people ~e. <1..,cracy tor all•• ~e · tJnger 11.143 v. 289.,.. nte mvelty of the oonoep1: lw in its linkage 'o tho stage of •tu.ll.soale eoDstl'Uct!On ot CODIJiusea•. 'lh1s vat lDs·t .when 1t was ltnkett SJ1Stead to

(f/1\ oontd •. ., •• Jl/page)

V f I

conta1nett 1n an article published 1n VOprosy Filoeof-1 (2958)~

lranete cites 1bse11Ja a~d B.lt·enlto· 1n support of hi• ala~:

1'be1r v1@ws oould be taken to represent tbe secontt tendemy

41soernlble at tbat time~ noseliy·a wrote in 1960• ~:••·

a euper class state pove~ nwe.r. existed. In tact, tbe state

alft)'s. ~cts s.·n ttJe inter~sts ot a clas8, 1~ lee! b7 class

1li)t1v"""• Kanet ad"s tbot "tbis sam& view or tbe ·b80e&eeey

. class c;baraoter ot th~ ~tate 06D be fOund ill n~rous other

So•tet publ1oat1on 1n L9$ and 1960• lbr example• 1c

attempting to retute ~~1s1ollist idea~ wb1Qh opposed the

·. dlc~a~rsb1p of the proletariat, A.P,!u:teni!D ~:~·!it• .roa1nta1J1fJc1

tt'lat .. ····•· tbe state above all.f is a class pbG~••n:>n, ae weil

by lts or1g1n as by tbe role it pl~s in ev-en g1vel:l so01et7• 1h1s o1rcu~D&~ta'1-oe is' 50 essential tbat 11ritboilt it tbe sta~•

woulcJ oease to exist aa euo~ Claeeneee is the genera~ .•

co natant tratt of every s·tate:t also the at ate ot· ·the M.cta~l\.

sblp'of the proletsrtat,, vbich tt>es mt ditter f!Om at:v

otber state ln tbis regard •••! super clos states ~ mt ftlst, the state ~annot be other than the organ of tbe

rulitl~ class. !he estellOe and role of aey atate ue determined

entire~ ana_tall7 b.Y tbe lnter~sts ot that c1ass ~~·toot

(Pre•So~ tt~ ~nt. ... ti) . dwelOp~d eoeia11a~. Uhger wr1 tes at another plaee that, ~be point of i:nterest for our purpoa" ~ tb~t tbe all people •s sta~e~ originated 1n sov$.et dQotr.1ne ·as a trana1t1Qnal oategorya. the appea~anc.f) ot the concept wbe til'ml.Y linked .to tb.· e proa.peotive diiappear.. ance of ·1ts empkloal retelllt•· lbide . P.219•

• A f , ' - ,

378

St t!, or J~Dre ·exaotly, ot the eoo,.,m1oa1~ ruling Qlae•"•

Kanet tbere~re concludes tbat •the dOncept ot an all-

people •a state ~1d mt d8'1elop be1bre tbe pubUqatSon ot tbe ·

Dratt programme 1n ]S61 • but actm ts., almost as an attetw

thought tbat• "altbougb some of the oharaoter1stS.Qa attributed

to lt bad been referred tO earlier •• ~a we bave aireacii c1tec1 . '

the view ot vYsh1nsk¥ as earq as in 1939 an6 tbose ot

selektor above, oarmng the bSnts of an all-people •s state. . . .

On tbe eve of tbG adoption of the "ew p~ty p~gramme . . ~3

ot 1961t tbe trenc! was to stress the need fbr a~ e~ng. ' .

centraltaed etate wb1ob will cont1nu·e ta ex1st ror· 8 long time.,

The w1ther-1ng ewq ot state was Plaued dew~ iJtle,onty innr;nra. ~· t2Qn Bb,.usobw 1ntttOdUoet! vas tha stress o.n 6eepen1n~. tba

eoo1a11st dtuoooracy by ensuring the part1c1patiol:l of larg-est .

number ot ,peoplo in the polit1oal prooesses aaa ntrongtbening tbe role of social orgall1sat1ons by transtel'r1l'lg some of the

,tate funotlona tx> tb-._3>4

aoa R>r Kanets \'Saws see ItJger n. Kanet "1he Rise and Fall ot tbe •.tll.People•a state•. aecent ~a~e~ 1a tbe a>v1et 1bec>J7 of tbe state•, .J»l!ld lltlfytt volt.. XX.. ro, 1,. JUly 1968• pp. 82-83. 01tat1o ne nom · ·. saseu.Y.a'• and a. P. JUt eniD are a leo quoto4 b7 Raaet on the same pages.

1b-• view and many otbe.r relevant observations ot . Pib•rueobev are oonta1nec! iD an artlole bY. v. V!Platltousld.11 *Reput11at1oa ot tbe Rcw1s1oldat \flew .on MctaTDreh1p !MM!I>CrA07.t.Q)1lll'&lb1SIIt and tbe atat•• (vritteu 1n meoJ; in 4Tsll0rstct3, n•;lM, pp •. 486.8)~

lbr aD aooount ot tbe evo 1ut1on of !bl'tlscbev •a views o~ state bet~een 19f!&-6l and tbe ~stll$ react1ors to it ttom 1ntluent1al psr~y e1roles, see SolQ!I)rl M. ·schwars1 ·~ tbe $tate withering AwaY 1rt the USSR~, 111 ftobapUo.; n.?S, pp. 161-1~,

379

Betore. w• go on to the tb€017 of the state of the

whole pf!Ople,. tbe eleJM~te of stal;!Q's theoq ot stat~.

may be summed up as to llows. ·(1) a>o!aUam is aob1Er~G4

1n tbe mal~ in the USSl\. Class .. ex1$t but antagon13m

bet¥een. tbem does r~>t~. 1be ui~t:t.ug tlt9 clasaee tll'e

tr1end~ elasses. Altbougb tbe questlob of state $.•

linked with class antagonisms, the state must ooat1~e

1b tbe Sovid t1ntoa. (2) 1bls is 80 because the soviet .. trnton is tsced with the menacing •eap1tal1st e.pc1rolemente'•

(3) '.\'be state 1e alao required to lead tbe society ttoa

·10clal.ls• to COIDftllni·s• ant! the oiasa struggle ·lilbtch

intensifies tJuring tbe per1o6 ot bu11tl1·~ of soc1e11a'

( 4) Ingels • view. on stat~ were botb elated an6 t,naaequate

e1noe he cou14n•t foresee ~ap1tal1st enobc:lemert .. :and

•soclalSam in one aoqnt17~. Lenin, owing to pr~mnture

deeth; oould mt revise Eng ell t •1ew, although 1ntenaeci

to cto so.. t4al'x1slll 1a r» «>~• .and bas 1;() be t!evelopea,i

eboulCJ tbe need arise~ lt has fallen on stalin to tur~ber deYelop tbe Mattx1aD theory. (.5) 1be Soviet .statet·a ·

ooerclve· pow• was _.," directed againet the ~Gl'nal

enemtes sime tbe 1JltGl'Jia1 ones bave alreaQ1 been crusbe4t.

Internal~• tbe soviet state w1U mw per~rm tbe benwolept . taek ot org,ftis1~ and 1ea61ng the t1Qc1et7 tc>wara ()OtJdtnis~

1'h1s was tbe l'Ole of tbe Q)v1et state 1n the tbir<l pbaa'-'

(&) The state will ,_ tbel- awq only 'Oihen tbe ~oa.PitaUst

enolroleaent•, is replaced b7 a "eoc1al1st ~ne1Mlement•,

33t'J

i.e. wb~n socialism !tdll' triumph on world scale. If . '

this did te't happen, the ·a>viet state will continue even

·under the cOnditions of comnunism. (7) In tbe meanti,.e,

the state in the SOviet Ub1on will mt weaken and wither

but will grow from strength to streDgth. An ever

strengthe~~ ~tate was. a prerequisite for t~e triumph

of communism at home and ab:r<>~d~ . '.lb?s~ ~bo advocate·

weakening and.' w1 theri·~ of sta~e were ene~es ,of ~be

Soviet ~eople~. (8) All th~. ta~k of witherif)g aw~ was

now ot merely academic 1.nteres~. ~e or1~inal impulse . .

tor the eradicatio~ ot state t'las 1ts o:ppr~ssive character.

'Itle Soviet s~ate was rx>t o~pr.ess1ve but_. benevolent and

therefore the ·talk(<?.f ..U.tbering aw~ bad beQOme irreleVant.

(lb) Since the triumph of socialism on lQOrl~soal.e· waiS' . . . .

a near impQss1b111t~,. the pr~c~ical co~sequence o~ stalin's

thesis comprised in making near permanent the eXistence

ot a very strong state. 1be Soviet people 'ba~ to brae• ~J . . ~ ••

th$11lSe.ly.~s to '11ve wit~. ~t~' ~e ~tbering ewer"· Q~ state

was to nag m nDre. Near permanent place tor a st1'9 ng ' .

~tate was ensured.

st!!te of the ·ibole Peov.l_t,

"State ot the ~le People" is the nr:>st mtable

theoretical: i~vatio n of the post.-stal1n pe~~od. · Rhruschev . ' . '

is credite<J "'--th tb;e ennuQC1at1on of tbe idea which,, aiJX)ng

otbel' reaeo·l'l8, aos said to have l'OOts in praot!cal politics

anc! represents a oompl'Otdse torrula wb1cb was found t4 be

acceptable both to Hlrusche¥ and his C!etractors . __

$-n tbe late 198) •s. a)6.

ttlatever mlgbt be the reason~, the idea ot the

•state ot tbe tllbole peop1ett vas expoun6ed in the ~rogramme

of the CPSU• actepte4 b7 tbe aaDtf party oongres• OJl ootQber

31, 1961.

S1nee the lfatxian idea ot. the state is linked wttb the

COftCeptSon ot e1ans, an<! after stalin, wttb the natSonal aJ.ld

1nternat1orJal s1 tuatton. 1 t 1tt n~oeseal'l to mte all these

aspects as outlined in tbe programme., As to the alas•

.·•• a*

206

3o2

structure, and internal s1tuat1oc, the ptogramme states

tha,,. -there are ,..,w tvo trlendJ.7 classes 1n tbe us.aa..

the work1ag class· and tbe peasantn. And these olass•s•, .

turtbel'DIOre;, ba'Ve oh~n.ge~ 1be ooDWDn character ot the

tvo torms of soc1a11et proper·\¥ bas brougb' the worklas

olass and· the oolleottve-farm peasafttl'Y close togetbe:rj

1 t bas strengtbeQec1 tbe1r allianoe and mac!e their ttien&..

sb1p 1ftd~atructtible. A nev 1nte111gent$1a, oomi~ t%'011

the people end devoted ~ aoota-llem, bas ·emeJtgedt~_ The

on~.tl•e antLthes1s be~1een town end counteys1de.9 between . .

labour by band anct by brain, bas been aboltd\ett. !be

tntieatructlble tiOOio-po11t1ca1 and 1c.1eolD~1c·a1 wd.t7 of

. tbe soviet people has been built on the bas1a ot the

coumon v1ta1 1nterE!fts ot the workers; peasants and

Sntellectuale .. ..ao&<•) ibe progra~ postulated the year

198> as spe111~ tbe dawn of ooiiHJWl1sm. BarUer, a' 91s~

oomrees., botb Bbruscbev an~ SUelDv bad stressed tba' tbQe

wa• cot -tmpenetrable barrier~, ~DD wall separatl~ tbese two

stages ( soc1alSsm sl'ld OOIDDilnism) ot sooial a·EMJoJ)!IeJlt• and·

tbat the transition to CO!l1Diln1sm in future WUi.d pl'OCG8d ,

m«i(a) R»r tbe text of the 1961 programme of tbe cPSt:J. See . Robaptro• n.·~ pp. 2139.324. ibis particular quotation appears on t>. a;4. · All eubseqUetlt o1tat1ob8 tor t.be pro~~amme. ar~ ~m Ibid~, ·· " · ~ . ~

3b3

at an aace~~t~tetJ tempo.~ ~7 ~us, tbe internal s1 ~at19h was

quite tavourabl• and enoou~aging•

'!be •complete and finsl: ·victory ot soo1QUsm• had

alrearv been acb!evs(\ •SboiaUs~-. •• bas bedame· a

reality 1D the Soviet tiiliu*• tbw tbe a>v1et society bad

as 1 ts task tbe weomlti.Ul1st eonstructiontt which calls tor

~a turing or tbe mater1ai and spiritual pre..requ1s1 tes•.

In tbe process of eoo~twct1on of COmttt~n1sm •tt would be

wi'Ong to ~ump ov·er neoe!laary stages of develot)ment.~.,·•· ~e

bu1161ilst of coumun1sm 1111st be carried out by successive

stages"• t\tr1~g 1961-19"0, "the material and technical

bas1e of communism w111 be built by the end of the second

decade ( 19?1-S>) "•· In su~Dt "the ma1n eoonom1c task .of the

party and tbe SQvlet people is to oreate the.mater1al and

teobnioal basis of oomnunism ~itbin two decades•.

Tbe !Jtternational situation bas improved lmmen.,elq

e1nce the da)'a of tbe 'capitalist encirclement*•: 1bere

extstGtJ a '~r14 soc1alist · sYstem• a·s UR~R was m longer

alone oil ·the· ro.ad to aoc1alis~ In nuclear age, war hac!

to be avoieed at all oo~ts. lhe contest between soc1a11sm·

and capitalism . .,u1<1 ~wever go on but aoc1al~m has tQ

establSeh its .s~peJJ1or1t7 tb~ugh "better ~cial o1'gon1!1~ . .

tiob, poli t1~a1 sy.stem, eeonotV'9 the !mpl'Ovement or the

IJ • I •.. 1,.:1 I ,.. ..... boa w . i; I I ·a

384

atancSard of 11v111g ana $Uir1tual culture.!' !he on].)' wq

out is •tbe po11o;v ot peao·.tul ... existence ot atates w1tb

different social s7$tems"•

X.t ts ~bue cltaat tbat both '-nt-erDal alld 1nter.na~1onal

situation, -lts perceptioD anc! ~nal,$1e -dUte aS.gntf1qantlr

trom tbat ot ata11n.

tJnder tbe olrcumeteneest the naturet role ant! ltlture

of soviet state ooutd ber8~ remain unobanget\. 1be .,totator.

sbip ot tbe proletariat had tultilled tts mission and ba4

renaere4· .itself redUndant.. 'lbe 1b~iet state now ha!t become

tbe state ot tbe whole people. • ~Plained I<hru!ctuw at tbe

!anti party con~ress . ., ( 1961), ·•Naturally, llhe.n soo1a11sm bad

trlumpbed tully and t1na11¥ in our oountry end vt entered

the period of tbe 1\lll-scsle lttiilt!1125 of OO!IDilnlam, tbe o~

oumsta~es neoess1tat1~ tb& 61otatorsb1p of the proletariat

t11sappeareda its Snternal tasks bad been a~oompliebec!. wOOS Tbe new party p10gramme of' 1961 bag the 1bllow1~ to •&J

on the sub3eot of statea

1be d1otatQrsb1p of. tbe P10letar1at, b)rp of ~~d~~r•h~n~~d~•~-u~ !Ole by 811!JUr1~g the v1cfo17 of ~ciaUsm iD tbe ussa.. In tbe course qt .-oo:S.aUst oonstJUotSo~, bow«ter, St .'Ql\deryent Ohal'lges.~ After the explbt-. tlng classes bad bef!D abolisbe<!, tbe tunot1on ot

3o5

. auppress:St~~ their resistenae ce3setJ to ·exist. 1he chief tul1Ct1ons of the soc1a118t ·state. ' organisatiOn ot ~e eOOl'I)!JWt cultur.e and ,r edueat1ob ~- c161VG10pe6 Sn fUll meas~ ~ aoc1a11st state entered a new period ot ita development, 'lhe etate began to grow over tnto. a natioB-vide organisation of tho 1«>rking people ot soo1a11et ao.c.1et7. Proletarian denooraay -e growing mre -a~c! tli)!'G Snto a socialist dOI!Dorac)' of the people as a 'Whole.

!be ..ork!ng class 1s tbe on!y ola!ts in histo17 tbat C))es, JX)t a1m to perpetuate its power. Having brought about the complete ·and fills}. victory ot soc1a11fna -- the first phase of oornmuntsm ~ and tht trans! tion of society to the t\lll-$ca1e oo-natruotton or oomntantttm. tbe d!Qtatoreblp ot the proletariat h-as fUlfilled its b1stor1c mission an4 bas oeaeea to be 1nd1epenaoble in the U'SStl frQm toe po1nt ot view of the. tasks of 1Jlterna1 c!evelopment. 1be atate1 wb1ob arqse as a state of the c11Qtatoreb1p of, 1ibe proletariat• bas; in the new oontemporaey atage1 become a st;ate ot tbe entire p~ple,_ .an organ expressing tho _inter.. este and will ot tne people as a tibol-. Sl.noe tbe l!Ql'k:lng class 1e tbe ~rellXlst and best org~ nleec! fbroe ot $)Viet, it plqs a leat!lng roole also ib the perSod ot tbe 1\.tU.soale oonstNct~il ot oold1n1stQ. 1be lQrk1ng class w111 bave OO!Dpleted 1t8 role of le$d8l' of society after OOJDUntsa 1s bUilt and classes disappear • ..

'!he part.y bol~s that tbe d1ctat»rsh1p ot the wo rk11'l8 class v11l ·cease to be necessary bet\? ret tbe state withers awa7tt 'J.be state an orgaa1sa.t1on ot the entire p~ple 11411 survive until tbe oomplete v1otoey ot ooJDtn1-.. (009)'

!be 1Uture of the a,viet state is elaboratecl 1n the

programme as 1bllovsJ

E;ee tbe !ext ot the programme given ln SChapSro-, b. ?S, p •. 297.. 'Die subsequent quotations are trom tbia souro~

366

As 80C1alist statehood d.welops,, it v111 t!l'a~ al~ become commntst se1t .. governmabt of the p~ple vb1~b v111. embrace the .lov1et~1. trade uil1ons; •. 00-Qperatlv~s. and other .. m8S8 ~raant- . •at4orut ot tbe P«>Pl~ This process vtU represent • at111 «t'e~tter dwelOpment ot det~~u,raoy,, ensuri·ns tbe active part1c1patSon ot all meabera Qt. eooiety 1n tbe manage111nt ot publtc atfa1rs. Public ~~ tSons ·similar to those pertormed by· tbe state toe!av Sn the spbere of eoommlc and cultural aanegeaent w111 be presenea unc!er comnlln1sm and will be IIDdi. tlec1 anti perfeQted aa sooletr dtWelop•• Blt t~e cbaracster ot tqllOtions and the vqs ~n *lob the7 are carried o11t w11l be. dS.tterent tto• tboae Ulld•r aoo 1a11s~~t,· 1be bod1es in obarge ot plam1~ · acaountlm• eoommio manage•ent! and ·CUltural ac!ttanoement l¥)~ govern111nt bQd e$• ~11 lose the!~ political o~aracte~ and will become Qrga~ ot publle aelt.governmellt.

Oo111111n1.sm is m.t a variation of a""'n~roby. !Or those ""

who tentl to take a view ot tb1s so~, the programe etateat

oomnuniat society ~11 be btgb~ organ1s•t1 COJI!2an1ty of w~king ~Ml\. t1ll1versal~ r@OOgn1sed r~les .of ~be oomnun1at wa7 ot lite will be established vtlo8e observance w111 become an organic need ana habit vitb •~ne..(alo)

ibe pror:traune does mt tail to ment1on the withering

avav ot state. It statest

387

B1stor1cal deVelopment 1nev1tal;t]3 leads tD thw1tber1ng avaY ot- the state. ~ ensure that the state wt tbers awaY QQnt91etely t 1 t · 1s neoeaaar1· to provide botb Snternal cond1tions .. the bl111~ing of developed ao~nist eoolety.~ and. exterllal oond1t1ons .. tbe v1(ltory ana coJ;l80l1dat1on o·t socialism 1n the t.orl(l arena. (21.1) .

tlbat 1s comnon to the analysis to mtb ot stalin allC!

Ehruscbev 1s tbat (l.) tba sov1et soc1et1 bas onlY tr1ena~

classes and non-antogomstie oontrad1ct1ons to tackle.

(a) tbe uo~k!.ng Qlaas, and oor1sequentty tha eonmun1s~ '!arty,

would continue to. be 1a tha lead, (3} tbe mthortrw 8Vfi1

of tbe state, in tbe ease or ~ta11n 1s 11nke~ to ·the

aonvers1on of capitalist enci!'element into socialist one

with vi~tcry of eotm111nism o~ a global seal~ and· in the C)ase

ot Rb:usehev, ·ntbe viotory and eonsol:l~at~n ot soc1al1el!l ·

1 n tbe world arena. •

1b t in oo ntrast to st·al1Df I<brusobft' Cleolarea tbat.,

(1) the olass J:truggle !is waning, (2) the state is wi tbert.~,

(3) tbe ill~tatorehtp ·Of tbe P1'9letar1st 1a r~neered re&aD.!o .· t1act _an·d 1s replaced t(.l.Us tbe stato of the whole people•

(4) the capitalist encirclement is replaCJed w1t11 "wwrld

eoc1a1Sat system" . ..._ a circumstance wb1d\ stalin

·• It t; 11 1.. 4 a • u .... i u M f

338

reaogrd.eealla but bel1ev-ec1 tbat 1t oallec! 1br m obange in

tbe tbeorr ;o~ aovS.et •tat•• (5) the ac>•ulism will be a<tb1evec1

by tbe end of the 1980 •e aad the state will bave to witber . .

avaJ by thellj (6) the state tuttctions were gradUally tabn

·over b7 tbe 80C1al organisations.

'lbe t»lnt that 1s not quite clear is vb7 tbe uorkiD!f

o las! 1s in tb~ leac1 an~ vbo is it 1eatJ1·n(f? 'lbe question

bas retevanee in tbe eonte.xt ot tile 6eelaretJ.on 111 the prograDIDI

of 1961 tbat, ~•t;be one-.ttme antithesis between ~ · .J town a~

countryside, between labour by hanG on~ by brain bas been

abo Usbed. • -reover• the progra!IIDG aesfrte tbat_. "'!be

wrk1ng class ls the on]¥ olass 1n b1story that ~es mt ala

to perpetuate its power~" Tbe possible rea$0n givens it

bappened tD be •the fbr.eDDst ana best orglln1sed force ot ~vtot soe1ety,. and tbtJre.fOre ttplays a leading rote •• ,~~ • ,tt ateaJls otbGr elasses were mt well organisea and U eo how

can the ~1fterenoes between tovn a~d country etc. be ~eolared

"abo1isbea"~ 1\0 ~planation is otferect ln th1s ~egarc!.

3d9

Some Jll')re ~1mens1obS pertaining to the "tbe state

of the \lbole people" were relevant.. (ll •at vere tbe

man1teetat1ons ot the 1\lrtber deepening ot the 4en»orat1o

prooesees optratlng tbe $tate ot tbe wbole people? (2)

Bow real all(! substantial was the pzoces• ot transfer ot

ttate tunotSons f» the social organisation? (8) W1U tbe

party alao wither avan (4) ••re (t)es tbe oonoept ot the

•atate of tbe whole people- etand ln relat~n to l4arx._-.

ten1ntea?

Aa 1e ve1L.knovn, tbe universal sutterage vas p~.

claimld under 19a& ocn'Stttution.: 1\n~ther deepen1bg of the I •

<!eocratlo Pl'Ocesa could manlteat 1t$elt in t_, 1brta8j

(a) po11t1ca1 pluralism with the t!eolsSon.mak1n~ lett to

vhoe.er villi the oont!deme ot tbe 11tissee., 1bSs calls 1b~

~1 tber a psrtyless .temcrao:v or $1tS...pal't)' qetea.- ·tt> . .

such proposS.tS.on is c»nta1ne<l ln tbe p!Ogramme wblob proc1al111

OPSU•s cont1nu1tg ct>tdbant and guiding rol~.ma (b) The

dra-4.ag tbe lerc~st possible number of people .... part-y and

mn.party rao_,era a11ke .. tn. tbe dec-1~Son-mak1ng p~o.ea-..

'lhts precisely is tbe option pretu:r~u1 b;y the aov1et poUt1c>a~

lea~ereb1p and lt 1a tbeett;)r• propo~d tbat the atate

tunotloos v•re being tl!anstetrect to the soc1a1 organteatio~;

att bow real is tbe proQts$t

•. • ._.....,, a · f ~·' u.

I ' 'I

Tbe social ()rgan1aat1o rl8 to vblqb tbe a tat.e tu.mt$-Obl ··, . .. ; !14

were sUPPOsed 10 be tra~terred ••re the •soviets; · · ·trade

un1oh8• oocf'"_))eratS.vea aJUl other mass organ1sat1obe"• -,,t,re ' over, •the bodies ln Obarge ot plam1·JJg•; acoount1ng.1 eoo rom1o,

management, ana oultu.ral ed\ran~aitnt., t»w goYerDIIltnt bodleet

w111 lose tbeir po11t1oal obaraoter an~ w111 'beoo.,.e ~rgane

· o t ~b11o ael t.,govet'nmetit '\ ~@ otber publto organi~stlot\i

~nttoned were the ~urag CoUIIIln1et r.agu&1. "'Qwwperativ@t -.

kalkbozee, consumer 's• houslnct and ot~r oo.operstt•e organ~

sations"• Bar11er at 21st party con~ress in 19~, Jlbrusob•

haa few more suggestions whloh are ttuumed up by Brlbkl., . .

as tt>llova. •QJ1tural ttervices, health services; reeort

tao111t1es.; pb)rsloal culture aotiv~tles,. tor exam_plet could

be ban4ecS over rapld]J to suob new orgabisat1ona oe tbe

federation ot PubUc Sports eoo1etles or to auob well

estab11abec1 •public organtsatSone" as the trade unions and

tbe R>maonr>l. Other tunctlons, suob as e~rcing publto

order, -uld requi-re tbe development ot public organt·sat1on•

•alotlgeide and parallel vitb •state agencies euoh as tbe

police, wbtcb, wbile. their tunct~ns tdgbt be gracllal17

reduced., and hat! to be ret.ained to~ soae- tiae 78~~· In this

oategoey Druecbe• called particularly tor DD:ct@ atte11t1on ·to

... •-• 0 I. -,I Jll!lllilll

Schwarz notes that tbe role of the ~viete vatt repeatec11Y undermined and sometimes th~ were not mentioned at a'll In the scheme of sel1f-adm1n~trat1on that vas to re;lace tbe state. See SChwarz in scbap1rO-,; n.. 781. ~~~~ . . . .

391

the volunteer •p.,p1e •s m111t1a• brSgadea anc! tbe ~mr~~·'•

cQuttts•• botb of ~tob vere e~rtlJ{to be tbe eubjeot ot 11a3or 1etti!IJ1at1oh. .!14• lbt all tbis need ·mt lead to

t!eoentroUsatJon aDd ·eutororv since the part)' will lead the . ' whole prooes~:. 'lb1e is clearl¥ ··tated in tbe progra~

J.br example, "tbe party vlll belp tbe Tr~ute Vnions" (sa

vell a.s ot.ber soc~al or.gab1sat1ons to be eure)- •to tak• a

grow1118 sbare ln e~mmlc management~ et~. It Is qlear17

hinted tbat all tbte$t S()ctial. organisatiO.ns w11 ~lftU tbe

teaks tbelt i'Or tbem by the party~ M>reover, at~r ~xaldni·~g

the aotua1 P!C:>~ess, !anet aqnolucJes that the public organt.-.

eations tbat v~re created proved to be b1gb]3 ~neftioient

anc1 "a)re intractable tban the state agencies.. Q)nsequentl7.; . . .

their rote vas underplqee! ancJ tbe primacy ot state boc!tes

vas undereoorec! b7 llaQJ' a,vtet wPiter.t., eepeota~~ b.Y the

ortbo~x ~e1ennts ,a, looked upon tbeae bodies a• J'!Yalt

ot tb9 stat• bocJl~;·ata .

•s fbr as tbe OPStJ vee co nee' net1,, the progr·ame

proclsi1121 it to be ~$ party ot tbe entire people• wb.ioh

oontlwes to be "t:be \f.anguara ot tbe Soviet .. people" the

"gu161ng influence• ot 'Wh1cb eztent!ect *to all spheres ot

214• see GE!OrgG ~~ Brinkley, ~-a~a •. ~,3JJ.., ·.

216 N;>r deta1i~J,. see Kanet,-. ~:3}2,. P,.i90-9~~

J . ·•· a .. '112 ,_. ,·

392

social lire•. Some other relevant prot'lOunoements ar:e as

tollovs• . ' . . Tbe party 1e the bttain.. tbe boiJ)tlr ana <»ns~.teno• ot our epoQh1 of tbe . sov1et pepplet • •;·• It lQf)ks ketJalv lnt-4 libe 1\1-re aDd shows tne ~ple ao1ent$t1<;alq motlvatea roads a~ng ~iob to . adYanc, arouses titanlq._ energy 'Jl the •••• abtl leads tbem tl:>· tbe aoaoQ11abmeJit ot s~eat taake.,

1'be period ot tull-scatf collnllnlst oonstru-· otion is cbaracterlsed b7 a 1\lrtbe emanceme~ ot the .role alld Smpo:tttance ot the ·.eoii!!Qnist: »3~t1 as the leading and gu16.1ng toroe ot lbv1et 80oSetr•'

. thll!ke all.t!ae preoed1ng eoato-.eOQmJdo to~ tioaa.· ·. t.--ooiiMlJl1at. eoo1etr.· · $)es not ctev.e]Op $pO.D. ~~· neousq ·. ~t as a result ot the conso1ous a~ . purposehtt· ,efa>~ts ot ttle !lasses lee! by tbe :lfar:det. 1An1ntst party!

!be par~ 1!411 continue to ttrerlgthen the un .• ey. an~ soH~arSty ot its. ranks• ant! to melnta1D tbe · purltJ ot Mar.Xts•ten1n1tttn. ~e party presenres. auch orsan1aat1onal gual'antees as are provided by tbe ~les ot . the CPStJ aga1aat all !118D1teitatione ot tact10nal1sll ana group actS:~T.Sty (ele .. n lnooD-: patSble vitb Mantat..J.en!J;lbt party pr1no!p1est-1be :tznahakab1e 1deolor1cal. and organ18at.10Jl31 unity of the par~ 1s the lli)S~ 1mp>rtant souroe ot Sta 1nvlnclb111tlt1. a guarantee ~r the suaoeaaNl. . so1ut1on of t1se great tub ot oo..anSat OOb!ttrttotto~.

1!le party exssta tor the people• atld i~ 1a in aerv1ng tbe people that ~t seea tbe pur~se Of lte· •ot1'11t7. !b ruther extend and deepen the t~•• betw•n tbe puty ·ana tbe people is an 1mpel'at1•• oondltlon ot suooess .ln tile struggle tor ao•nl ... !be pu~ oonsS.ders ita duey alwaJ'., to oons~lt tbe · •rklng .people on tbe ma39tr ~etrtlons ot bome

=~~.~r:ig~r~~~tC: at!:s!Jo~·t· ~~-:~=l~t . 1nCretts1ngq· mn.Jte~ers • ·partie pat1on tn all lta _, .. ~ !he more eoo1al <1el!l,)cracy 4WeioP!'.t tbe broade~t ant! mre ver•a~ 11e the ~rk ot Qie P$rt)' among tbe \IOrld.ng people Dllet be• and ~he etJOnge~ vlll be tts influence alll;)ng the.taalaea.~

. 113 \be progral!lll8 :PQatulates the gt~14atlce of social and

public organisations b7 the party. lt atates,

' !t· is, thus · cleal' tbat the party is not w1 tberi·~•

J·n ~act, its ~'i.e 18 Wttr-expancU.n'-f, 1be ~viet ·people

vill torever, need and live under ita tutelege without \lh1ob

tbey will bGoome an lnQOherent mlt1tu4e... 1be ·party .s;

tbetp patrtarob;, ~~ide and te~Qber, '!he taottonalisll anc!

group1sm is ba~a. Mb·at happens U the pattv •e peroept~n

.ot tbe deepening of aeuooratic prooes• Oalle 1nt9 c»ntl1ot

with tbe popular perception ot itt ~cb ~D e~entualit¥ ~•

treatea at be,onct tbe realm. of posslb11#,ty and tbere1bre

not touched upoq. 21() Bowever,, the P£l1't.J' is pbUaDtim>plo 0 ana ct~ty-bouD<! to OQ~~;Y,~:lt t~ masses but .• , ~n ftnal ana]¥sS.,

bas to guide tbe $001etl!: ·tta~1n w~s tbua ·~noauttoua to . .

t!eclar~ tn 1924 tbat• "t4,th the d1~apooaranoe ot Qlasees,

with the w1tb~rJng avat ot dlotatorsbS.p ot tbe pro1~tar1at,1.

the- partJ:, b>o,. aast wither aw~. w211 .se~onel.y, tbe

~deologt.cal. pr1taacy ot Marx!aa.ten1n1sm is the ltgbt under ' ~

216

217

see ncbvarz• ~?8, PP. 2SS..1E6i '·' ':f( staUn os ~1ted tn scby,rz.,: ~1..&t;. ~175r

..:1..(;_

-~-114 \;·. '

384

vbScb tbe .whole process· of c1t!ftl0crat1ea·t1on baa to be vlev~

a11t1 puraue" ..

ftna117.t·· is tbe. oonoept ot state of the lllo1e people

S.n OOhfbrm'-ty v1tb the baslc ~enets ot t.farxSsa.Len!n1tnat

stalin vas bold emu~b to declal'e tbat be was improving upc;n

Mal'xisa. leninism. but not the lea4erabip under !hruscbev. . .

11le preva1Uag· mod S.n the !tate 198> •s ·lfaa to go. back to . . Marxis-..Lenin1sa from tbe Stalinist dwl~~io~ ~~"-• tbe

~ .

an8ver given b)' the sovset writers S.s tbe aft$..Mat1v-. . 'lh• ~ .

co noept are exalline~ 'lbe tarte are $Ullllec1 up as .fb llo¥&.

(1) Tbe concept of the •tate. ot the •ole ·people

tanta.,unta to the .revts~n ·<>t Man!sa. ten1n1sl\ (~ It

carries the· ctanser ot tbe ove~throt1ng of tbe ~~tatorsbip

ot tbe proleter1st ant! -its replsonent b7 dlototoreblp ot.

anotber- o1aS!ftJ. (3) The co.ncept1o~ ot 1\Dnolasa or superclarnt

. states are uo..Ma~ten., (4) 'lt1e state c!Ur1M tbe enttre • , • • oJ •

transition p~1od between cap1tal4sm and COSIIlntam can Qbly . .

be tbe dtotetorab-tp of t't\e proleta~1at and ~thing ela~

· (S) TJle concept ot the st·ate of the wbole peopl@ .t. aP old

device e~~ployt!" by tbe Hac.tionary olassea to oo.er.up tbe1r

ovn <1lotatorsh1p a-~t! &xpOaea b7 t_be Marx1s·ts lDJS~ co, (6) 'lbere are olaeses ant! consequent)1 class atruggl.e• •S.n

the soo1al1at oountl'iea vttbout e.xoeptton. * (1) 'Jhe ola

exploiting classes oont1nue to exist .and are alwaJe eobetd.ng

to etage a eomebao~ ftley are a'-aea in tbe1tt JdsaJon b)' the

-~~,

116

395

rtev o·aplta11st elements • are oonstant)¥ being seQerat~

(8) lbr the QOr~eot handlitg of liOrke_r-peasant relat.SoQ~ ant1

a11'1anoe and tbe e1Jm1natSon ot class dlfterem" betweea .J

thea. the d1otat0reb1p of tbe proletariat is a sst. a>tb

Marx and ten1·b ttmalntalnect ~tbat tbEl . ent1re period. betoH

tbe ad'f•nt of tbe lt1gbel' stage o·t QO•U2ist eooiet7 ia tbe

period of ~rana1 tSon hom oap1tal1sm to oo1D!ttln1sm,_ tbe

period of the CJiotato.-sb1p of tbe proletar1a\ . .218

1be quot~ttons o.t Marz1 ~le• antt Lenin ~~ten c1tec!

1n tb1e l'egard are as tollowst

In ~s.a, soolaltsa t Utopian and 'sobiet1ftc;s.. !bgels f)baervedt

ltlen at last (tb$ etate) beooutJs tbe real t-epresentatlve ot whole. ot eoolety,. 1t !'Onder$ itself U.DJleoeasary.. .As 8DOJ) as there 1a 11)

lo~er arv aoo1a1 e1ass to be held in sU'bleOtlona as aooD •• olass . rule• ~P.'d tbe #.na1v1duel atrusilt for extsteme based ~po,n our presebt snare~ · in pJIOdt.tC~~n ••t4t al'e )'emove~,,,,~tbi~ ur>.re reaatns to be reprease~,, and a·· speoial represelv .. 1broe, a stat·•·· ls ·rl) Jqtger neo•~sary ••• ,,

/' r~'

ll6 ' '

1'tle essence ot Marx•s ttlotr1bl ot the state ba• · been .ass~m11ate6 only b7 tbose vbo under. ttaDd that the dictatorship o~ a ;11M1• olats Is aeoessary m~ on]¥ 1br C)l•es $001et7 ln geMral not only for the 'PrOletariat til1otr ba• overth~vft tbe bottri@01e1~~ but al·eo fO.r tile . . entire h1etor1oal l)er1oa between oatt1 tall a• antl "Glassless• ac>ctet7, oolftln1am•• .

As we have mtett beJbre., the no.!@t writers also

regarded auperolaiJ8' or non...olaes etate as an 1mpotsib111ty . . . beibr~ · the aan" .part$ OOh!l'Ges of ~1.

in .reply to the. Chinese ob~Sottone, the SOv1et vritera r ; •

bave tbe t'b.llowtng to .e&Y,.: (1) "Man and ten1n. tn referring

to the dlotatorsbip ot tbe pJOletar.1at d'lr1ng tbe · per1o:4 ot

trans1t!Qn from oap1tal!em to oom.nunts, meant on11 the

flrat stage ot co•n1st~t Ol'· soo1aUs' B.ttenl«> a~cuaea tt~e

Chinese of 1aolat1ng thel!l!9e1ves •t.ro11 Uft with a tence ot

quotations• ana argue~ tbat lt 1$ qt,alte qleel' tbat,, 1n tP.

far as tbe smasb1~ of ex.,plD1tcrs ts oonoerne~• the

trenst tlo;n to CO!I!1!ln1sm aea!lS tbe: trt!nsStSon of tb$ til'et

stage ot ooanums!l-. t.,(\· to too1alts-.,, ~ltlus, botb Marx . and LeDin agttee, baetQai11t· that the d1ct~tor8b1p of t.~•

pl'OleterSat 1s necessar7 tor th~ traMitfon 1'rom.oap1ta11sm ' ~

to .. tbe tlre·t stage ot OO!ftlnts• •· se~tal!·s• ;... althougb botb

t~an and ~ni'D trequeDtly called tbts treDS1t1on to :SOotalia

tbe trabitton to OOII'l1!J01S' _a19 a&t Kattet pOints out. tbat

·• . I I a If I ll . f¢JI(.We. I .. I I i t

11?

3 9 .. ,

al tbousb Mar• ant1 t.nln t1lt1 use ••qlaltaa• eftc1 -oQ•nts•,. a• •• •

1Dterobarceabl.7,. a oaretul reading of th•S.r observ~t)Qtlj

quite clear17 establbbet that tbey al't l'&te:trl~ tc tftf

btgber. pb_as• ot ·tull oo•nts.__aao (a) 1b tbe attn••

arg·tlllent ·ot oontinued erlstence ot a1ae·e•• in a11 8boia11at

oouJltries:, · atteQO ·~plied tbat tbe a:>.viet tb1Qkltw a.ea no'

aseert tbat tber• txiata a o1ael1ese 80Ql.et7 111 the Sc)vie•

untoa. but rather that tb-.e olu•• are a>~ aatagold.a•i.o

to one aD6tber. Blaici••• tbe •xplo1t1M CJlae•" t.b the·

~•i•t tnd.ora ••• 11qlllc1atec1 lollS cc>t aQd tbe <tts-.·• atteiiPt*

to equat• O.rlml~al e1 ... Qt• in tbe sovlet UbioD w1tb ·tx.P~1.

tS.r,w oliieet are •• -rt.-,le faa Mant•• •• v:l tohe••

Snoa·'))tSollS troa eo~ent 1t1o l'tlea~ • 1be ~o1aUat

ovQtrlbip or the ••u ot pl'O&ctton 11ahs up}Ditat~n

bapl•s1ble,, tor tMre rematna m ob~eottye .IO<i"o••OOD>IIio

baata tor ·tbe c1••10paent ot explbltatJoq. ftna1)J', th•

result -of tbe .t)ltneae apptoa~b to the l'e1at1ona betVMU tbe

vornr• an~ the s»tuaat• St to •a!tttQt that tbe . ...ol'ki~

o1aia aloae •an gUlt1e the J)fa•a1li:r7 aotl otber 110rldn« people b7 .. an.· ot d!OtatOrabip• llht4h is a !rOss 41ato~t~b

ot· MarxS.-.,J.enlhle*t 8~1 lbt 'be So•let l)Oattton e• ·k-.p

the wo.rki- olas• in tb• 1:ta~:

398

Be81~e ~bt Qblbl••t .. _, W.t•r!l wr1t•ra _. ... ~~

tbe ooDCJept .,adet•~1b1e bo.• tbt pl)tilt ot View o.l ~xis~

IAnitaill\ ·tVQ ·LepeDD.a ·~·u•a that a "'laaal.•~ al~p.Pplt "•

atate Sa m••ne• tzo•·• Har~,.t iQ.l~t ot ~#.tv..t•· aQ<t ,,_ .

• "part, 't the en,ire peopi•" S.. .• , • ab,ur4 f.D the lkb.t .. ot Manl•• ~•••' AU -e11 ttate .. nt•·•· deolaratSona ·ana ••••rtton• Qt the proc••• .~.-~~··· :aM ·lllfr~ alolana i'''~ to c11igutae the s••t• rulers .: •.•. ~ to ObilQQM tbe trui ctbaratte'

I ~ ' '

ot I)Qvtr in tbe SDvS..t state ·t the. dtotatottsbip ~t tbe .,.,.

~~-.tt.of ~e ~•,.t.r~~ ~calling it •an •nttret, ua-M~;Q oo *''P~··~•• ~, Ob!•r Vl'it•• that Man ~•n~ ;a.meu 'tla4 •xPii.. ottl¥ riQC)rded tbeb c!le~p!OYel 0~ t],e t•n wpeople:t•

'J

•tate" tQ ttltlr pol .. tc.s v1th the n•r•n tooia1 t1emi>orate. In a f4U)U8 paeilatt• o.t ht; or1t1que ot the Q?tlia p!Qg~a-..,

Marx vrott•

399

Abd lng•ls !o • t•tter to A. BabjJ .... ; ·addid the lbllow1·hl

OOilutefttt

wit~ akept1c1e• i1nQ~ tbe party will oont1nt.te to l•act.aa. Chul'Cbvar4 Ylewt JU.peop1e •$ state as or1»ple4 ~. tbt

oo li'tcuett pred0~;~1DollO·e oi the part7~ He undersoorea tbe ' .

poeiti'fe aoh18Y~nts t-Card1te tbe tJ.-·absfeP 0~ ·etat• tu·notSontt

to public organisations but t»tes tbat the PJO<tees leav .. \

lliob to bt ttesll'e(\ *!bVfJYert it Ia _,rtb e•~•s1sll8 tbat

soviet Marx!~.• tlOti provide a general thEOit7 agalMt vb1ola

••nr If not allot tb~ 'eeent Cbart~es in tbe Soviet at~tt•

11etea oan be ua•l.Dtd aM aslettsfct.. 'lbuw,. the r4tdt10t!o~ ~b

tbe ai1e ana OOIIlplex1t7 ot the soviet adiiSnistrattve appal'atQe

01' the 1norease in tb~ povets ana to 80.1le 4bctent in tbe

per1braanee of local so•t•t• aiDa• 1964 to SJit!lcat• a

•.• IQ. •

2M,.

~: ...

·~~ wu1£.tl~at10D and,,. at 4t:tatn leYel;at: ·a re&lc.tso .. ot

•tat• tuaot1ofll, altboqb t»t •~•••$f#:l7 • w~tlleriiW ave:,

o t tbe ttat•"~ tal -•Ilk P81'Un b•U••• ••' ·JltS.~ Hai'ld••· ~ .. modern .OolaU.-~ e()oiet$-ee oo:IW'inoi_ngi, ._,1•• -• q~e1tiQn ot 1tat' !b• ._,de.-Ji aoolaU•t etate., ·Sft the . tight g·rtp ot the qo.-rd,,-t :part¥ aPP-atu-.,: VQlltd- epp-r "> bt the olosest reaUtation ot tbat tb•r•ttca1 P.)asSb~U•

·;ketO.bfd '>7 Eagel• ot state ~.p~n4~ct abo.e olaiate.. Jif?J'. '!h~ view· Qt lerrr Botigb u• tkln to tboae ot l'alnt10d aM ~"~ . '

ward; lle v1-. _tbe i<J•a of the stat• ot tbe ;,bole pt!C)ple

a•· ?ef1-eottYe Of tlle t-efbl'Jhtiye !il10f. Ot 1\b:rtleoh• er .• that - • 0

lee! to oonstdftrable ••• t>attttoipatio'tl tn lille!t e~urar-ed

pQbUc oXtgan1aatto-.; !brtuiohe. ••n 1ntenenec1 tA:» •DIU•

tbe _pqblicatto·n -ot Soldlen! t•yDta ~••1 Oae Dq St~ the .Lit•

Of l'li_.,. tenteo•loh. 11• bov••r :not•• t~at the po1to7 vu not oo~tet;•teQ\· ~& law . -.againet •1arutw1- tbe $)VMt

ayat~a oontiJUecJ to be tntcu.~ot~~ 11t1 D\v~d x.ne ~U.S«••'• i;ba~ IIi aq .. -

otttoial a>•tet taterp.retat!o~s ot S>Y1et etate and 1ta

role cto 11Qt oon1bn tb the no•let 1'8a11ttea.aa$

AnDIW tbe W .. tern lfaP:dstst :A1tllUIIftt in ~18 ~•~r

Ma·rx" .tee• to take a t,~urab1e· •1ev ot the idea ot the

a tate of tbe wbo lt peoplt.• M!Ubahd bel1w• tllat tbe

toC:1alltt itat• sri taot "l'•pr .. •ntt• 11) •ibgle olail or

sroup aM S.e· the 1netruaent ot m eltQb olaea or groUP) the

ciolleotS.viat obaraotel! ot the .Oc1et,- p~oludes it t:rO•

bell'! auob an 1natnMDt~ Iaetead tbe ttate. be taken t9 •represent• tb• «>lleotlv~t .oo1•t7 or qst• 1•••14830

!b1e •tev 1e olo••r to tbe 8o•1•t SbterpretatSof\

:1)1'· Potllailti•••· aU _.Qb ~.,.. lalla Uncle.r •Ub.era. 11,ed sta11nt.e•" ·vttb t»· r.ea1 _,lutSo' Be adVOoat• a

~ac!loal demooratto meld.: "Stetory ba• ..,t ~t give.a ut •

aQac•sat\11 txtertenc;e ot the 4!nooretlo l'Oa<1 tQ iOOla1,_.t

' \

Vbat it baa p:ovlc!N ,.._ aM tbat t• mt tns~bt#C).a:at ....

is •• negat1•• •-J~P1•1 to avc.ta and aoae a!ltaktl a-n ' ~

vbtob to l.'ett.ot ~•~ att oM tb1ilg 1• CJtr·ta~n i eooiaUa• .... '\;

v111 be (1emoor-atio or it v111 m~ be •' •14 • Poulan'•••

OOU14 be a.tbl~l but I Yotarf ~r 11atate Of ttte· lfho1•

peoopl•" ot a>¥1et dl•pe.-atto-.131 fbe ·•aae mq be ••U ot tbe tt-ebe!e tbat tall under tbe label of lbrp .. 40-f41._,tf39

~· Vtater-~ Mac;l1ta oou·14 .QPl¥ 11Jipatb1s• Vl.tb tbe ~1ne••

poa1t1oa. ' '

With aittusohwt ·A1l-1>eople1$ ·.et~~e ···1~ tell ftO• tbe

.,,~~·* dth 10ae ·vrf.ter• ••n ~~~M ,. "~P to ~· d1otatorab1p ot the prol.ta~lat. !be inttiai ~aO.tion vaa· . \ . . . ., qu1 t• boattle.· c•~tatn· .tilpo:tant l'Qif;ltf. ot orlttc.le• .., . . .. be l'lf)tea,~ (1) Prol4!110tt n.:'l.)·~-tr>l«>vJ 1trit1ag in Prs¥~dt 1.~·

"~7.t:- ccnc!~4 tbe ~1eiontata• vbo ·a1Jiet1 to c10wligr•c1t ' " I '

t~e ro1e o.t the. eootalut stat,. (rl) t11 Peo~'1••• State ••• ... I ( . . I .. . . j d's (.'. ·

233

4 u 3 .

vaa· a!OI!W to oounterpoae it to tbe "41lotatoreb~p qt the

Proletat'-•\ 836 <•> eb~tba«s• oopteDcted that tb• a14

people •a etat• 1e m raew at at~ It a lao Se s eoo1aUJt

atate f.n vb1ob -tb• tralti of general fe!I001'a07 idlerent lD

1t ma 1ta ·••17 bttSWQg oo .. to Ugh-t sre detplt $Jld -

ete breactl7." QUite pro.pertt tbff c!lct~atoreb1» ot. tbe PJOla..

t..lt-1at S. alto· oa11ec1 popular ••• ~at 1.8 inv'Ol.ec!, ttl•!tetor•, .. are two eta«•• of ctevetopJ~ent ot one anc! tbe tJa•• t7pe ot

• 0 •

ttat-.,,.:.lt 'D'lua. alL.peopte·•~ !tate vae a . ..,. extfDiioil

ot tb@. c1Sotatoreb!p ot the ~let~Sat v1tb0ut a"T •••Jttial

o()babge~ 2S$ (&) The AlL.,PeQpi.e •e a'ste <».nt1m., to be a

olaas stat..: (6) 1be d1otstor•h1g of tbe Proletert.at •till r~ihl in txiat•JlQ-.. .>tbtag bas esaelitia11y obaQ:ed. 830

· (1) me t.Ol• 'Of P.ubllo oteailieattt>ns va• Wl'OMlf oftr-.atreaa.&. !beir ita.POrtauo• ueed to be dOv~ra«•<~. lh•r• .,_. .,_,

0 •

Deed to npbaab• tbe pretPa1~anoe Of ·atat• Q1'88U. A• 1t

te, tile pablto o·rsard.e'ationa are touncJ to be 1nett1oien~,

llncc>ntro llable allt1 ~a-eal>1e. as? !~he a 'at• apparatu-• o·b)• agaia ••tabll•h~cl ita ltl9Maa07• .A11 ·people·•• etate •• tbtl•

robbed Qt sOb of lt• •anc11.. ••• • .. ;or revteSon in Ma~e1-

see Kanet,. :n.aoa,, •OS.:

see Ihlf., p. ••

~··~tO. Xaaet mtee that wen b••r~ tb• Jaal pro.,;ra-. , . Professor ab"J¥>ko'V bt••lt bat! written t.n 19601 "at the present ·•tagt of oo~ntst QOilltr&tqtk>n., 1t .....

(f/~. oonttt.•·-~1'-"'IVP) •.

~-. '--' 0.

404

tentftlat tb•·1'7••:ta8 aeoc>adltt: web ·• •a.ua1 reac11bff at tt~• · ·, 1961 progra.,. britWs out o1••rlr _that it did ·ata at,

(1) basteblng ot tbe wttber1~ avq ot the etate by trar-.t• errSng state tuaot1oma to the pttblic on·atd:aatfo!Wt (2) ooubter.

po1t·ng a11 ~ I>•P~• •• a tete to ·the d1ctatorsbtp of ttte

Proletariat (1fb1oh OhetJX)kov dOes -IDt ac)Oept)_1 ('S) d1ebaQ41*

tbe · dictatorship ot tbe Pro1etarSat oMe aM ft>r all.: a. Hc>V~Y•r.•. 11'1 tbe ultSbte ana11t1t and t:oa tb.• point ot •t.ev

o , • • , 1 I ~

ot .ott.tal •tteot~., -w•o alt.peop1e·•11 state trtaa· to be 184 eJ&~

dtreoted by tbe Pet•• {flat 1s ~table bowwer Sa ·that ••ra 8 •uaeat10-il i>·t l.Qoa.D1bg Qt tbat OoDCrol· ~SUitt OCU'l·--t~n

in aoac1a1o •• •11 p~ty ctl"les.

Cautioa. qo·otimltt and stablllt7 (.borc!er,.~ ·()~ at•·"

nat Sob) were ·~- tbe balmarb ot lh-•abMV· -~ !llrusdb·ey:t•

reat10iht18l thM.»t1o cre1brru: aM fla~btlotaMe and bJit•Ploai. drama atatu! out in OQqtrast., ~ftlschw loob.(1 ll~ a aan lb

a burry.. All tboet vbo lfltre alal'Jie<l b7 Ehrusohf'l •a baste

tn u•htri·Jll ta oo..ante• .,_ 19!0 2oet ~ t1.e !u eoubel#.IW ' 0 •

oautiob oac• b~ waa out.·. 1he <JOtle·ottve 1eat1e1'8b1p'- o.t oottne1,

took tiM to •~tt1• ·4)vrt.. Altboug'-• ke•pt.,g a 4iats·aae troa

lbru•cbev1atJ legao7 wai natural, 11> .tramat.-1o ottioial ••uno·e...

1fiie·~~~ ·rt·a· ~~ht!- :l . . · . . -_ ·expedltDt to \~aqter to pubUq _otcabilat~.- .. •1>9•• all tbe .ttate At.m2oaa of ~~1tlU'al aDd e~oat$.0~ ··r---.:··· a~ _X.iletj ~8>9_. ~~~- os.t_·~--·-·l&'•• r.aee.r ot soviet wtitetJs• aee __ ~ .,., pp.9~3~

ass Bee Jtane.t,: ~.aoa, a.9~ aao lUQ.,, p~aa..ee ..

405

••nt·o._ •• ·t~tQq va• lladt.t. Jlit tbe SOY1et writera ·bad

a bang ot llb~:Qb ·,., tbe wiDe! woe bl6v1~. Mu.••t•rt ·orSt1cJa-. Of tbe ta11.en lb!Uiohe¥ vas ao•tbing natural arMt oould gq

·well vitb the .new Hg~ llen(l•t a apate ot artS.o1 .. U orlt1o1s11a ~e attltu4e towatcte a11 peopl.f '• etate vas · ... ~tllb1Yelebt 1n tbe ablebC3t ot a ole~ out ,e'eotlon o~ it ·l>J tbe 1eac1erab1J... Bovwv., •arjcue espeots ot tbe C)O DC$ept

ver• or1t1olaet! •• 1f8 ·bav• rPtec1 abo•••· In the etad,, tt.·• ~ .. .. . .

·aonoept va• mt aband0fttc1 but mdSfte<1. Sollt pose1b1e reaso.-

_,be •teet,, (1) 1\,l •. lt111 it right. J.a t~lqrito tba·t thel'e . " " . . . . . . ~

waa z.eattr ·~ atteraatt•·'- Reversion. to. the c!1otatoreb1p .. ... -ot Pro tetor1at ~ 8bowln~ the cteat11aMe ot one cla•• • would

•oaroel.7 •bow p10greas Oft the 1181'0b tDwaras oowamts''

('2) DrezbntY VSI!i tJ'8!1)';184 !>7 'tal'1oUfJ proJOunoMt~te Of ata11.

(J»n..alltagon1st1o olaSI.ft!t tbefS.lt !Qu!uecb" and tbe 1061 pl'QgraJDt jtltl 111 tO~ce _aM ·acNOoatill't df.abantblel\' ot tbe

4iotatorlblp Of th• lo'~).•t$r-lat aDd itt "PlaOCBtllt witb

the st•t• ot ttt. •1• people)atl eJtd bis own in 1979 tba~ a ntw btatorloal QO-~t7 (tbe ·B>viet »eop1t) be• •MtCect

406

.lM in tbe ••t•t ~Son., (3) ._.~' ~~era ·~bOther -~-t•.aoru . ._,.

obpo~t•• vae- -~ ~~.a ot~a,r c1lst~notl~n b.•tveen th•

Soviet thliort an4 e>tber oo .. nlst atat•e~ wbioh "".still

t!lctatorsbips ot the hol•tada' 1!4* (4). ·OM of tbe b;l.~ . ' ... . . . . . . . . .

11rke ot tbe Brefll~ era bas bet~ the e.~s• on the 11Q1tS..

Dat1on•l ootpoalt!on of tbe OIStt and 4ra'd-~ tog•tber ot ' ' .

St vas suatov wbo tir~ cteo1area 111 1911 tbat all peopte•s stat-e represented the ~poUtl~al IUPf.l'atructUH*'

113 . corf-espond1ag to. •4evelope4 aootaUst tQC1ety\ · !Itt tb•

~noeptt as tt haa clw~]Qpe4 Wl~ett Breimb8v, -.110 dSttttria:w eobs~cle~abl.v trom tM original Ebrueclwv1an euta., oa .rrt•

oonootattons wf.Qb bavo c~i• .. ea•lallOe to ••Ul) •• at4

to1'111llat1oDa OD at~t.. . (1) ~at_, tbe ootioD .!»I'UIIOM4

•- 4 i 1 ~ . . . •. Iii . ' ft. I ' 1 I . f I

unt1er lbrusobev that tbe state is w1 th~ri'M is under-

m!Ded. on the contrar1 tt 1s f!lven to understand tbat all

ptople •s state will remain in existence tor a considerably

long time, 1f aot "1l'lctef1n1te~" asft)aald Bill suggests. MS

(a) 'lbe idea of trauter of state• fUctlons to the social

organisations is dropped. 916 (3) 'lbe prlmaCf of state

organs and bodies over social organ1sat!oas is st1'esse4. 247

(4) 1be all people •s state 1s not a weak state but e strong

one aDd aest1no6 to become evon stm~er. '.lhe sta11b1st

bent bore le clear onougb. 948 (5) All-people •s state iD now

aeparate6 t10m tbe society of "1\llt..scalo construction ot

commun1am" of Bbruachav•a conception. It 1s attaobea instead

~ tba society ot Beveloped socialism - a stage •tch 1e

ttnV1aaged as a stable and prolonged period aged. M9 (6) 'lhe

working oloss atld tbere1bl'e tba OP~U continued to leacJ.

(7) All-Pc:"Ople •s state is pro3Scte6 as the stable• or4ert¥,

consol1aatill:lt llOO.td.th&rS.~ state tdticb is utrengthened

see B>Dalt1 81111 '242, p.12S.

see Unger, a.l4s, p.284.

see Kanet, o. 002• PP~ 92-93.

see ronald J. 11111, n.14a, p. ue. Be wr1tett "The state 1s now called upon to develop, ss part of a bros6 prooess of development of the total poU.tical qstsm - itself a concept tbat bas onl3 reoeotly been accepted 1D tbe scvtet tTDio!tt 1n plaoe of the legal 1DSt1tutiona1 desoJt1pt1ons prevalent hitherto. Pbllowi~~g f!Om tbisl

lt baa been asserted tbat the recognition that tbe a:»v et state requires tbe uti!Dst strengbtbening • ls •amther ma~r coDtr1butSon to tbG Marxlst-LeDlldst tbEOq of soolaUet statehood• ( tashSD).

see Ubger • a. 243, p. 289.

128

~ .~~

aDd m t weakened as the days pass by. It 1s tbe ob1et

instrument wb1ob, witb the help of blgb-teohnlques of manage

ment, belps mabage a complex, techmlDg1oa1]¥ adVanced Soviet

soc1e~. It is b@COmihS well-ordered, welt.establSshed,

stable, constttuttoDal and p!'Otesslonal institution ttest1ned

to last ver-r loDg. (8) SUch a state S.s (Jeclared ~ be 1D

conformity ~tb tbe ob3ectt.ve laws of soc1a1S.sm ubicb Lenin

~nune1ated. 1he last ~ aspects are examined 1D 6eta111b

subsequent pages. (9) !be West~rD ~stems epproaob and other

political ecncepts are 1mreas1n~ll' used to describe the

SOviet state. The ~viet state D3W appears in torm nDre b

app~x1mation to its tl[estern COUJ'lterpart mre thaD aqvtl-' nl( _

be-re. (lO) !be tttJO factors repeatedly stressed are, (a) the

lea<1ing role ot tbe working class ana tberefore tha OPstJ,

(b) tbe Soviet state being multi-national but at the same time

all-people •s state slnoe all peoples are ctrav1ag olosv.

( 11) 1be deepening of detll)oratio process d'>es mt involve transfer

of state fUnctions but t\tnetlons like keepiag tbe populatjon

vell-lnft>rmed about tbe aot1v1tles of state orgaus tb.rougb

public and other tned1a1 compulsor~ per1od1c meet1Qg by tbe

members of ~preme 1bvieta and otber state bodies witb the

people of tbelr constt~eney, compulsorY answering .the ~stioDS

trom tbe pub11o, eDCOuraglDg 1n1ttat1Ye from the masses, atren.

~tbeD orgaiiS ot peopla•s control, respeott~ the .Pnb11o oplD~n•

ete. (12) 1he aovlat state 1s projeoted mre aa a modern welt.

develDped welfare state tban aD 1deole~1oa1 state. 1be •rldng

class ana OPSU eontlrmes to 1ea41 (13) All people's state is

tbe state of a tecbm1o~1ca1~ advanoecJ soo1et)1' and tberetore

an 1nstrwnent of effective management.

I.1J ri ting in the late 1960 •s, Cbkbikvad&e stresses the

leading role of the working class dur1ng the entire transi

tion period. The pb1lanthropic work1D& class is sa16 to

have 11 tbe same r1gbtstt as peasantr1 and 1nteU1gents1a,

enjOJS no "extra pl'i;.vilegesn but shoulders greater Clllties

and sets examples tor otbers. tbe tw·xs ot state are

enumerated as, (lJ economic organisation fUnction, (2)

cultural and educational fUnction, (3) protection of public

orcler, (4) external .fwtct1ons (forei&n policy). But the

most interesting part 1s Cbkbikvadze •s content!on that,

"exploiting classes are still there, and it is stbte power

alone that can help the wol'lt1n& oless to paral,yse and

suppress them in their ft&bt against tbe new economic

relotions." lb1s is qaeer since he bad earlier written

(in the same book on PP• 64.65) tbat all such classes and

antagonism were abolished. Be also tells us tbat CPSU's

role is "1mmeasurabl¥ enbancecl 'fter tbe victor1 of socialist

revolut1onn. QA whGle b1stor1cal !1POCb" is needed for state

to wither aw~, as necessary internal and external conditions

he.c1 to be created. Be also refers to "all-round develop.

mcnt or socialist democraeyr• and "gradual 1ntroduct1 Jl'l ot

communist self-adm1n1strat1on".250 ijrigor1Jan and I.

Dolgopolov's book (19?1) masr be taken as a tJp1cal

see Cbkb1kvadze, :tse .sgya,et .state amt Le,w, (Progress, 19691, PP• 46-89.

41J

representaUve or an emere1ns trend which shuns doctrinaire

approscb. Developed socialism and all-people's state are

there to st&~ t'or a lon,g t1me to come. lhe Soviet soc1et¥

is viewed as a stable developed 1Dd~str1al societ¥• lt

· needs ,reater order, stabiUty, profess•onalism .i.n ever1

field. ln tbe b1sb. tech era, b1gher tecbn1qu.es of scientific

management are to be discovered and applied. Communism

withering away of state, world revolution and other radical

elements of 1deolou are uDder.ple..yed, it not abandoned. In

tbe contest with u.s., what is needed is bus~ess-like,

matter-of-tact, dowa-to-earth approach befitt1ng an industrial

soc1et1. Ideological radicalism is both 1mpract1cal and

embarrasiag. ln br1et, the sov1et societ,y bas to be an

order~, stable, modern industrial soCiety w1tb professionalism

and scientific mana~ement as its ball-macks. Ibe state 1n

sucb a soc1et1 is not w1tber1ng but ~ett1ng consolidated. All

1ts organs operate smootbll with well-ordered well-established

procedures. AccordiJl&ly, Gr:igoriyan and Dolgapolov give a

dispassionate account ot the ~ture of state law, twnctions

ot state ortans etc. Tbe1 tell us tbat the Soviet state ot

tho vbole people is "the first trull popLilar state 1n history"

but S63 nothing about its witber1na awa.v. "Soc1al.1st

Democracy bas been extended1 e.nci new democratic institutions

set up. The principles of tbe organisation and activity ot

soviet state organs are being improved, and tbe importance

4 .:. j_

or the forms of direct democracy has been enhanced.

Important changes bave nlso occurred in tbe world pos.1.t1on

of tbe Soviet state which bas emerged from the capitalist

encirclement and together w1tb other socialist countries

constitutes tbe world socialist system".251 Brezbnev•s

greatest theoretical c~ntribut1on was the concept ot

developed socialism, wbicb exbades stability, is

said to be a lont, b1storical11 indeterminate sta~e on the ,.,.;c,~u

road to C01IlUlun1sm. All people •s state" consol1dative air

to it. &rtner, the historical oo1UWW11ty of soviet

people is alread¥ w1 tnessing drawJ.Dg together of peoples

and obliteration of all class-national distlnct~ons. lhe

~ov.1.et state, deolared Brezbnev in 19721 262 "bas become one

251 See L. lrr1gorJ.an and I. Dolgopolov, j)!nnamentAl,g o{ §oVAet State Law (Progress, l971), p.43.

252 All subsequent quotations are from Brezhnev's ke1note address on tbe occasion ot 50th anuiversar.v ot the U~SR on Dec 22, .1972 as reprod&.tced 1n CDS~ vol JUUV no.Sl1 .Jan 17, 1973 pp.l-30. Jee also ---a--r:v1ew • ' artiCLe by M. Abisov on a so1ent1t1o conference held in September/October 1971 under the ~SRices of tbe Institute of lllarxism-I.ellin1sm ana o""her organisations 1n S">o1al Scienees1 1(7) Jan-March 1972, pp.205-214. Fedose.vev deCJ.e.red 1n the conte1·ence that the growing role ot the p&rt.v was a law (some speakers called it obJective la~1 p.206) ot socialist and communist construction (p.~5). tbe role of "primary part1 organisations11 in "bu1lcU.ni ot communism" was said to be increasing (p.207). Ker~ov dwelt on the "problems of consolidating tbe Soviet state (sic) and ot Developing Socialist Demooraey" ( p.212). Atanase1ev spoke about tbe problems of manatement ( p.212). ~rot. Toporn1n, KircheJ ko and otb~rs stressed "the need to raise the professional level of manae;,ement" ( p.212). lbe leading role of t.be work1D& class underlines b¥ Ulazeman and others ( P• 212) and Gl4. See also Nikolai Dem1cbenko1 "I be Republic ot Soviets as a form ot socialist stawbood" in §oc1a1 ScieAc§Sl 4( 10) 1 1972, pp.47..S9. He stresses the leading and gu ding role of the party and tbe

( f/n contd ••• )

of the mi~tiest powers in the world"• ObvieuslJ, it 1s

not waninb or withering. He stressed the role of the

part1 and noted the changed world s1tQat1on and the

emergence of a socialist cofllaliun.lt¥ of ra ti.:Jns. "tile

communist are a restless peoplen but this restlessness 1s

is channelled in ph1lantbrop1c1 constructive dii·ection.

"\\e \-Jant to do a a much as possible improve tbe people •s

life, to make them happier and to do 1t as QLlicltll as

possible." Brezbnev remarks, "what we are building is not

a realm or idlers where the land rlows witb milk and bone1,

but the most organized and most bard-working soci~t.v 111 tbe

bi:J tory of mankind. 7hose wbo livo in this societ1 will be

the bard-workint, consc1encious, b1ghl.1 organised an<i bighl¥

cl~ss-conscious (sic l) people". Ihus, idealism has to

61ve wa_r to pra&matism. Be underscores thtJ lead1n!;, 1·ole of

tbe P'"-rt1, de o1s1 ve role of science ( "we now 11 te ra.J.l1 can

not take one step forward without the aid of the latest

acb1evements of science •••• "j and tbe need for innovator¥

e.pproacb. "Further development and improvement of soc1al1st

democracy" does not mean transfer of state functions but

1ncluoe, ( 1) still more active participation of the masses

in ma.natements the tuller implementation by the Soviets

(~tate organs) at tb;.;:ir diverse tunet1ons in the iU1danoe

t/n 252 Contd.

soviets (state bodies and not public organisations) See PP• 56-59.

4 -~- 3

of public life (no mention of public organisations) ,

the more consistent implementation of the principle of

aeco~ntability of executive agencies to representative

bodies. Xhe fUrther strengthening of socialist legalit¥

(sbow1ng stab1l1t¥ and prolonged cont1na1t1 ot tbe present

order), and the improved activity ot peoplo's control

agencies". X be shift fl'Om Kbnls chev • s posi ti<bn is clear

enougb. Averytb1ng w.1tb1n the consolidating system.

~othUlg aga.wst it and notbiDg be1ond 1t. Brezbnev declared

that ''we now nave a mature, and techn1callt well-equipped

econom1c s1stem in both City and countr1s1de". "Tbe

wo1·k1ng class ~s retained its leacU.ng role", althougb the

"process of drawl.ng to&ether of all classes and social

grou.ps hos ta.cen place", and "the social homogeneity of

soc1o.l1st soc1ety 1s being arrimed more and more olearqu.

11Tbe et'.t'aeing of tbe essential d1sUnct1ons between pb¥s1oal

and mental labour and between working and 11v1ng conditions

1n city and countryside 1s act1vel¥ under w~", "law and

order have been streJlithened", and "the role and effective

ness ot' the Soviets (state orsans) bave been enbwlced."

A developed soc1al1st societ.J bas been ba11t. the state of

tbe whole people bas developed. But leading l"'le of the

working class continues despite obliteration of the all

rowld cU.st1.nct.•ons. lhe task of "constru.ct1on of communism"

has begun. "ihe Soviet Union is moving toward communism".

J. A I. 'i ' ~k

Witb a strong, consolidated s~Gte and leading role of

the working class and its party, tbe c~su. No time-table

tor tbe attainment of corwnwusm. ~he state has tbus come

to stay tor long.

lt is tb1s posl.t1on that bas been reiterated ever

s1nce. For example Prot. Boris 7onor.n10 and Macbulskf

(19?4) 263 link these ideas stra1gbt to Lenin. "As Lenin

bad foreseen, the state is the main tom ot democra01

UDder soc1al1sm including tbe stase of mature socialism"•

Enumerating all modem, Western attributes of state, the¥

declare tbe state 1nd1spansable. ~here is no alternative

to 1t. "fbere is no or6an1sat1on of comparable scale in

soo1et1"• l'be socialist state emplo1s ''botb methods ot

persuation and methods of coercion, issu1D& legal acts

that are mandator¥''• Ibe socialist state is rather nspec1al"

1D that "it is an economic as well as political orsanisation"

aDd "the economic role ot state increases w1tb tbe develop.

ment of socialist eoc1et1." "1'he socio-economic, political

and ideological processes developing in socialist soc1et.f

necessitate fUrther strengthen1ng of tbe state, and its more

ett1c1ent use as the basic 1Dstrument for creatine and

develop1ns the new SJstem. :I:b1s 1s an ob~ective law of

socialism, to 1gaore wbicb can onl¥ be detrimental to 1ts

253 see B. topomin, ~. Macbulsky • S0eia11sm and pemgcra.cx• A fieplx tg Qppoftun1st§, (Progress, 1974), Tbe subsequent cita ions are from this source.

progress •••• lhe chief means towards strengthening the

socialist state •••• •• is fUrther aevelopment of its

democratic basis".

The most important points to noLe are that the

strengthening or state is now declared "an obJective law of

socialism" and Western political concepts (like the concept

of power, systems theo17 and its components etc.) are

1ncreas1Qgl¥ employed to de~cribe tbe Soviet state.

lbe deepening or tbe democratic process involves

not the transfer o£ state tunctions but (a) .t.nvolv1Jl& the

largest number of people into the state ana political wom, (b) enbancing the role the public organ1sations, (c) keeping

the popula t1on "poll ti calJ..J enl1~btened " 1 weU-intormed

about tbe activities or the state organs, tbrougb public

and other media, compulsorJ, periodic meetings by tbe members

ot SUpreme Soviet and otber state bodies with the people of

tbei_r coustituencies to report the work done, promises

fulfilled, compulsor.v answering of the questions from public

encouraging t;reater initiative from the masses, strengthening

the organs of people's control and respecting Public opinion

etc. Safarov ( 1974) stresses some of tbese aspects264

outlined above but ma~es no mention of the withering aw~ ot

see h.A. Satarov "!ntorm1Dg tbe popula~1on about the Act1v1Ues o} state Asenc1es", §o!iet Law §Dd !aOJernment, vol. Alll, no.3, winter, 19"14-"151 PP• 28-44.

state. 255 At the 25th party congress in 19761 Brezbnev

speaks250 about "the all round development of the political

SJStem of ~ov1et society. This m~ans improvement of

soCialist democrac.r, consolidation of tbe leaal basis of

the lite of the state aDd soc1etJ, and invigoration of

tbe activities of social organisations" (but no transfer of

state functions to the public organisations). •awe bave

sougbt to promote the all-round development of the

activit¥ ot stata agencies aoo social organisations,

stimulating their 1n1tat1ve 1n ever1 possible way. ln tbe

sphere of state construction, tbe party devotes special

attention to the work of the Soviets". (state bodies),

.,Another matter we have constBlltly dealt w1 tb is improve

ment of our legislation and consolidation of socialist law

and order". "The time bas evidently come to 1ss11e a code

of laws of the wbole state. tbis will help to enhance the

s tab1l1 ty of our whole law and order. 1 t will make our

laws more access~ble to all Soviet o1t1zenan. Tbe state

security and intelligence oraans are stren,thened. The

25&

256

See A. I,asb1n1 ~oca,al,1sm and th9 itay ( P.rogress, 1979) PP• 162, 214lnesp. PP• 162- 69. lbe book was first written BGss1an in 1974.

See Brezbnev, V.l. SUbseq~ent citations are from this report.•RePQrt of the CPSU,~c. and Immediate Tasks ot: tbe Party at Bome and Abi'Cl.Bd (Mo'Scow, 1976)

11soc1al orsa.nlsations are t.n integral part =>f the Soviet

political s.vstem. Altogether they involve ne~rl¥ the

wbole of tbe count17 •s adult population, and that is a

significant fact. our social or&ao1sations are one or the important channels through which citizens are enabled

to part1o1pa te in runuing the at fairs of sooie)$11• I be

role of t.u.•s and I.c.L. 1s then highlighted. "Gen~e

democraQY 1s impossible without socialism and that

socialism is impossible w1tbout a steady development of

democracj. we see the improvement of our soc~alist

democrac.v above all 111 a steaey ei·tort to ensure ever

fQller participation by the working people 1n runniDe all

the affairs of soe1et.v t 1n further developing the democratic

principl~s ot our state s.vstem, and in creat1n~ the conditions

tor the all-ro~ flourishing of the individual. Xbis is

the direction 1n wb1cb the part1 has worked and will

continue to work in the tu~re." thus, the over-all stress

is on consolidati )n and continuation of "state systemn

(system•s approaob tully adopted). the gaidance or the

party cont1nues too. Declares Brezbnev, "the part1 has no

secrets rrom tbe people.. ana suggests "a stead¥ ra1s1ng

of the level of party guidance •••• " Be also underlines the

need tor pragmatic scientific manaLement w1tb newer ideas

and techniques. ln the light of tbe Brezbnev report the

soviet state appears more like a consolidated modern well-

developed welfare state than an ideoloi1cal one doomed

to wither awa~. Brezbnev rep~uted most of tbese points 1n

19~7 on tbe occasion of the 60th anniversar¥ of tbe

October RevoluUon. 267

A bost of books and articles b1gbl1r.bt various

aspects elabor~ted above.258

257

258

See "Brezbnev•s speecb on 60th ann1versarr"1 CtsP, vol.~~~ no.44, Nov. 301 1977, pp. 2.4.

see F. Burlatstq, khj ~odem Staift and roJ..1t1gs (Progress~ l978) esp, Chapter 3~ V::'f. cblrk1n1 & I. A. Xud1n1 A eocial,a,st Oriented §t~~~ Instrum§nt pt jevolutionar,y Cban~e ( Proaressl. 1978) R.I.Koaopol~:A et al. M. Kum1n1 "The State o1· the Whole People · the working class0 , Soc~~1§m& lheoif §Dd Pragt1c~, 8(49) August 19771 PP• 4?:53. §oiifiliSiii; Igeou @Ad Practice 1(42) Jan 1977 pp. 73-78. -sorris toporn1n1 government by tb9 People, New limes, 49 I-ec JS77 PP• 1&.28. b~or a review of Brezbnev s book, ~eo;.:.~~

e P S S ie Soc1etg.L see Po 1t1cal S3stem of Developed Soo1al1Sm", B~!iet ~ev1Dit vol. AlV1 581 tee. 151 19771 PP• 4-12. ln the same issue, see also •socialist remocrac.y and Humanism", PP• 10.23. Shertsov1 v., 11Democratisation ot the Soviet state ot tbe whole people", §py!et .fuiview, vol. ..u V, no. 33, ~ ul¥ 21, 19?7 t PP• 9-14. Shevtsov, v. "~he state of the Developea Socialism, D.a1l,y l1ay1g, Part ll, vol.23, no.l78, o:)ept. 1977, u. BurlatskJ, "~be Soviet Constit"tion on the Political Sfstem of Advanced Socialismn, Sgcialism: lb@orv and ~ract1se, 2(55), 19781 pp.l9-24. Earberov, l-1. 3tu.te ot a l'ltew ~,ype" 1 lDid.t pp. 25-32. ~af'arov, R., uaub.l.io Op.uaon Wlder neve.lopec Socialism", lb1d., PP• 78-84. The press ot 7rutb " ~·reedom, ~ftect1ve Criticism", lbid., PP• 85-88, 90. SeJraO¥an, F.\ "Political System of Developed Soc1e.J.1sm", Soyie i-<11l1t.arl heview. (9) Sept. 1978 pp. o-~ Vasileft Vsevoloil1 "Integra tad S3s tem of ~ower" ~t 21 Feb. 1979 PP• o9-72 r. Uatopolsq, "State of tbe Whole People", Haarinls f!gm the Soyiet Press, vol.XAV111(3) Feb 15, 1979, PP• 12-20. Viktor snevtsov, soviet Political S1atemu ..21f 4(69) April 1979, PP• 30-55. 'lhe author gives tbree stages of development of Soviet

( f/n contd ••• )

4 v

1'b1s is the pos1 tioD wb1cb was f1nall.y iDcorpora ted

1n tbe consti~tion. tbe preamble of the 1977 constitution

declares tbat "tbe eJ.ms of tbe dictatorship of the

proletariat baviD& been tultiUed, the Soviet state bas

become a state of tbe whole people. !rbe leading role of the

communtt partr, vanguard of all the people, bas grown ••••••

the political system ••••• ensures effective management of

all public affairs, ever more active part1c1pat1on of tbe

working people in runn1ns the state.... ~be supreme goal

ot tbe soviet state is the building or a classless communist

soc1etr 111 wb1ch there will be public, communist self

government. The maiD a1ms of the i)eole •s soc1al1at state

are a to lay the material and technical. f~undation ot

communism, to perfect socialist social relations and transform

them into communist relations, to mould the citizen of

commwust society, to raise the people's living and ctlltllral

standards, to sates'lard the countl't's sec11rity, and to

fUrther the coasol1dation ot peace and development ot

international co-operat1on."269 Article 1 declaresa "lbe

Ulllon ot Soviet Socialist Repub11o is a socialist state of

f/n 268 cont1w.es.

soc1e t1. ( 1) 'I be first stage 1s the trans1 t1on tor capitalism to socialism" ( 2) lbe second stage is the completion of the bUilding ot socialism, its consolidation and the creation of developea socialist societ1"t (3) "7h1rd staae is the stage of developed socialist soc1et1", pp.32-43.

259 See The Constitution, n. 139, pp.l3-l5.

I 2 • "1 J

the whole peogle, espress1ng the will 8Dd ~terest

ot the workers, peasants and 1Dte1Ugents1a1 the

working people of all tbe nations and nationalities

ot the country". Article a declares, uAll power in

the ossa belongs to tbe people". the leading role ot

the party is mentioned ill Article 6. tams, there

is no transfer of state fUnctions, no mention ~t

withering awa~ of state.

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