3d1405431516_1edd6609ec27153f129fe39d7406782f

Marine and Petroleum Geology 04 "0887# 710Ð728

S9153Ð7061:87:,*see front matter Þ 0887 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reservedPII] S 9 1 5 3 Ð 7 0 6 1 " 8 7 # 9 9 9 3 1 Ð 6

Submarine fans and related depositional systems II] variability inreservoir architecture and wireline log character

M[ Richardsa\�\ M[ Bowmanb

a BP Exploration Alaska Inc\ P[O[ Box 085501\ Anchora`e\ Alaska U[S[A[b BP Exploration Technolo`y\ Sunbury on Thames\ TW05 6LN U[K[

Received 10 June 0885^ revised 7 June 0887^ accepted 19 June 0887

Abstract

The architecture and heterogeneity of deep!marine clastic reservoir systems can be assessed at three scales[ At the macroscale\lateral and vertical variations in the stacking patterns of submarine fans or fan complexes fundamentally a}ects the shape and scaleof a reservoir and its trapping geometry[ At the mesoscale\ the distribution and type of architectural elements\ "e[g[\ channel!levees\lobes\ sheet sands# within the fan system have a major impact upon reservoir compartmentalisation and the distribution\ continuityand connectivity of sand:shale bodies[ Finally\ at the microscale\ the vertical and horizontal arrangement of reservoir and non!reservoir facies and lithotypes de_nes ~ow units which fundamentally control ~uid ~ow and production performance[

Each type of submarine fan and related deep!marine clastic reservoir system "sand!rich fans\ mixed sandÐmud ramps etc[# exhibitsa predictable arrangement of architectural elements which form the basic building blocks of the system[ These features controlreservoir architecture\ seismic expression and the geometry of sandbodies and non!reservoir section[

A suite of reservoir architectural models is proposed for di}erent deep!marine clastic systems using unpublished and cited datafrom outcrop and subsurface studies[ These conceptual models are idealised simpli_cations which provide a preliminary frameworkfor understanding broad scale reservoir archsitecture and wireline!log character within contrasting types of fan and related systems[The models are of value in the exploration for turbidite reservoirs by highlighting the risk on reservoir presence and distributionfrom an appreciation of the architectural style[ Within appraisal and production they provide a basic framework from which anobjective reservoir description can be made[ Use of such conceptual analogue models for reservoir description will not adequatelyre~ect the reality and individuality of a speci_c reservoir[ Their use in understanding detailed reservoir complexity should thereforebe approached with caution[ Þ 0887 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved[

Keywords] Submarine fans^ Depositional systems^ Reservoir architecture

0[ Introduction

Appropriate description and characteristics of sandbodygeometry\ reservoir architecture and heterogeneity isessential in all stages of the exploration\ developmentand production value chain[ In frontier exploration\ aknowledge of reservoir architecture will constrain riskassessment and help the development of appropriate drill!ing strategies[ In appraisal and development\ under!standing reservoir architecture provides constraints onin!place hydrocarbon volumes and recovery strategy forreservoir depletion and also facilities planning[ Accuraterepresentation of the permeability architecture of the res!ervoir is achieved through understanding sandbody geo!metries\ shale distributions and their associated porosity!

� Corresponding author[ Tel[] 9933 0113 721999^ Fax] 9933 0113651888^ E!mail] richardmtÝbp[com

permeability variations[ These are critical for assessinguncertainty and optimising production strategies "Bryant+ Flint\ 0882^ Krum + Johnson\ 0882^ Halderson +Lake\ 0873^ Halderson + Damsleth\ 0889^ Reynolds\0883^ Cossey\ 0883#[

This paper reviews the reservoir architecture andcharacteristics of submarine!fan and related depositionalsystems[ It illustrates how changes and di}erences in thearchitectural elements of di}erent systems a}ect reservoircomplexity and heterogeneity[ The work is based on areview of published studies supplemented by unpublishedinformation from subsurface and outcrop analyses[

The synthesis reviews reservoir architecture and het!erogeneity at two scales[ The _rst includes the type\character and spatial distribution of di}erent archi!tectural elements such as channel!levees and lobes[ Thesearchitectural elements control broad scale reservoir com!partmentalisation\ sandbody and shale continuity and

M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710Ð728711

connectivity[ Limited studies to date suggest a priori linkbetween recovery e.ciency and fan type with primarydepositional fabrics controlling production charac!teristics[ In these cases recovery e.ciencies are sig!ni_cantly higher for sand!rich systems "e[g[\ De|Ath +Schuleyman\ 0870^ Maher + Harker\ 0876# than theirmuddy counterparts\ "e[g[\ Tyler\ Galloway\ Garret +Ewing\ 0873^ Tyler + Gholston\ 0877^ Cutler\ Montoya+ Ucok\ 0889#[ This relationship re~ects the overridingimpact of net to gross together with sand! and shale!bodyarchitecture on reservoir performance[ The second scaleof reservoir heterogeneity assesses the lateral and verticalvariation in stacking patterns and the impact of shapeand scale of a reservoir\ together with its overall trappinggeometry[ This larger scale of investigation demands con!sideration of the fan system evolution and its impact onfundamental changes in sand! and shale!body archi!tecture within the reservoir envelope[ This is particularlyimportant because many reservoirs consist of a suite ofstacked turbidite systems\ each with their own sandbodyand shale geometries and architecture[ Careful con!sideration of the di}erences in architectural style withinthe reservoir may well impact optimal reservoir devel!opment and depletion planning[

1[ Variability of deep!marine clastic systems

This paper does not provide a detailed review of deep!marine clastic systems given the reviews published else!where "Reading\ 0880^ Walker\ 0881^ Reading + Orton\0880^ Reading + Richards\ 0883^ Stow\ Reading + Col!linson\ 0885^ Richards\ Reading + Bowman\ 0887#[ How!ever\ it is important to brie~y summarise the classi_cationframework to appreciate the range in external geometryand internal character of these systems[

Submarine fans re~ect a complex interplay between awide variety of allocyclic and autocyclic controls "Fig[ 0#[These result in a wide spectrum of fan types\ such thatno single model can be used to describe their variabilityin facies\ sandbody geometry\ reservoir architecture andseismic expression "Fig[ 1#[ Three key parameters areused here to categorise the variability of deep!marinesystems]

"a# the method of sediment supply to the fan"b# the number of entry points to the basin system"c# the dominant grain size of the system[

The classi_cation framework used here highlights theend!members of a hybrid association of fan types[ Eachend!member displays a predictable seismic geometry\acoustic character\ reservoir distribution and range oftrapping stypes "Reading + Richards\ 0883^ Richardset al[\ 0887#[ This forms the basis for a discussion ofarchitectural styles and wireline!log expression of di}er!ent turbidite reservoirs presented in this paper[

Fig[ 0[ Controls on the development of basin margin deep!marine clasticsystems[ The depositional record of deep!marine clastic systems re~ectsthe complex interplay between a range of autocyclic and allocycliccontrols[ The operation of these controls\ acting singly\ or in combi!nation\ results in a wide spectrum of deep!marine clastic system types[

Sand ] shale contents cited in this paper refer to thetotal proportion of sand occurring within the mappedextent of the complete depositional system[ They are notrestricted to the sand!rich proportions of the fan\ rampor apron[ In addition\ the wireline!log responses pre!sented for di}erent types of deep!marine clastic systemshave been taken from core!calibrated subsurface exam!ples[ Careful calibration of log information with coreshows that log!shape and signature can be used tobroadly distinguish the lithology and facies character ofdi}erent fan systems\ provided that the properties mea!sured by the logs provide a representation of primarydepositional fabrics[

The examples cited in this paper highlight those caseswhere the signatures of gamma ray "GR#\ spontaneouspotential "SP# and resistivity logs broadly mimic lithologyand grain!size trends observed in core from equivalentstratigraphic intervals[ The use of log facies without corefor calibration is fraught with problems[ No individuallog pattern is unique to a particular environment\ suchthat interpretations based solely on the basis of log shapealone are at best tenuous[

2[ Reservoir architectural elements and patterns

Submarine!fan and related systems exhibit a pre!dictable arrangement of architectural elements whichvary between fan type "viz[ sand!rich\ mixed sandÐmud\etc[^ Mutti + Normark\ 0876^ Reading + Richards\ 0883^Pickering et al[\ 0884#[ These architectural elements con!

M[ Richards\ M[ Bowman:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 710Ð728 712

Fig[ 1[ Classi_cation of deep!marine clastic systems by "a# sediment!supply mechanism\ "b# dominant grain size and "c# the number of entry pointsto a basin "after Richards et al\ 0887#[ Four main groups of deep!marine clastic systems are identi_ed including gravel!rich\ sand!rich\ mixed sand!mud rich and mud!rich systems[ The apices of each ternary diagram represent both the nature of sediment supply and the number of entry pointsfeeding the basin[ On this basis\ single!point source submarine fans\ multiple!point!source submarine ramps and line!source slope aprons arerecognised[ Submarine ramps and fans generally display more organised and predictable sandbody architectures and facies distributions and\therefore\ form attractive targets for hydrocarbon exploration and development[ By contrast\ the internal architecture and degree of organisation ofline source slope aprons show a greater variability\ thus de_nition and delineation of potential reservoir facies carries signi_cantly higher risk[Additional text annotations include commonly used terms for contrasting types of deep!marine clastic systems cited in the literature[

trol the overall reservoir architecture and seismicexpression of deep!marine clastic systems "Fig[ 2#[ As ageneral rule\ submarine ramps and fans display moreorganised and predictable sandbody architectures andfacies distributions[ As a result they present attractivetargets for hydrocarbon exploration and development[Each of these broad categories of turbidite systems exhi!bit similar architectures and facies distributions[ Changesin reservoir geometry tend to be related to the number offeeders to the system[ By contrast\ the internal archtectureof line!sourced slope aprons show greater variability inarchitecture and less organisation[ This distinctionbetween organised and less organised systems is usedbelow as the basis for discussing di}erences in archi!tectural styles within each class of deep!marine clasticsystem[

2[0[ Gravel!rich systems

These systems "Fig[ 3# are generally small scale "³ 4Ð49 km in radius# and commonly associated with highgradients[ Reservoir trapping mechanisms developed aredominantly structural[

Gravel!rich slope aprons commonly develop adjacentto relict or active submarine fault scarps[ Sediment ismainly dervied from wasting and submarine rock fallfrom footwall scarps "Fig[ 4a#[ The systems are the sub!marine equivalents of talus or colluvium cones[ Thedevelopment of reservoir is largely controlled by the litho!logical character of the footwall[ Close proximity to theprovenance area commonly leads to poor sorting priorto sediment release into the basin[ Depositional productsre~ect a wide variety of mass!~ow processes and include


Fig[ 2[ Principal architectural elements of deep!marine clastic systems based on outcrop\ wireline log and seismic data "Modi_ed after Reading andRichards\ 0883\ and published with the permission of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists#[ Submarine fan\ ramp and slope apronsystems display a predictable arrangement of architectural elements\ which vary between turbidite system class[

both channelised and non!channelised chaotic boulderand cobble beds\ intraformational rotational slumps andexotic clasts[ The coarse!grained facies are commonlyinterbedded with turbidite sandstones and mudstones"Surlyk\ 0867^ Ineson\ 0878#[ Ephemeral input of moresandy material from up!dip alluvial fans and fan deltasmay liberate sand!grade material to the apron leading toreservoir development on the medial and outer fringes ofthe apron[

Gravel!rich submarine fans and ramps typically formbroad\ wedge!shaped sediment bodies[ These are domi!nated by relatively poor reservoir quality conglomerateand sandstone in their proximal parts[ They compriseadmixtures of debris derived from rock!fall and debris~ows "Facies A and F of Mutti + Ricc!Lucchi\ 0861^Surlyk\ 0867^ MacDonald\ 0875^ Ineson\ 0878^ Prior +Bornhold\ 0878#\ as well as thick!bedded gravel! andsand!rich high!density turbidites with erosive bases "Fig[4b#[ The best reservoirs commonly lie in the medial partsof the system where sand!rich\ high!density turbiditespredominate "Facies B\ Mutti + Ricci!Lucchi\ 0861^ cfLowe\ 0871#[ Rapid lateral and vertical facies variationsare the dominant depositional motif in both fan andramp[ This has signi_cant implications for sandbody con!tinuity and connectivity on a small scale "e[g[\ 099s m#[The distal margins of the systems pass abruptly into thin!bedded turbidites and interbedded\ hemi!pelagic shales"Ineson\ 0878^ Facies D\ Mutti + Ricci!Lucchi\ 0861^Prior + Bornhold\ 0878#[

Examples of this type of system include the {T| Fielddevelopments "Toni\ Ti}any + Thelma# and South\ Cen!

tral and North Brae _elds in the Jurassic syn!rift suc!cession of the North Sea Basin "Harms\ Tackenberg\Pickles + Pollock\ 0870^ Stow\ Bishop + Mills\ 0871^Roberts\ 0880^ Turner + Allen\ 0880#[ In these\ the res!ervoir inter_ngers with organic!rich mudstone sourcerocks of the Kimmeridge Clay Formation[

Conglomerate!rich systems display broadly blocky SPor gamma wireline log responses[ Identi_able trends inlog patterns are di.cult to recognise[ Conglomerate! andsandstone!rich intervals are also di.cult to distinguishwithout recourse to high!resolution tools such as dipme!ters[ These will often separate intervals of chaoticallydipping conglomerate from more consistently dippingsandstone[

2[1[ Sand!rich systems

These are submarine!fan\ slope apron and ramp sys!tems with more than 69) sand through the extent of thesystem "Fig[ 5#[ This net to gross value marks a lowerlimit for a change in seismic character and reservoir archi!tecture of deep!marine clastic systems[ Sand!rich systemsare generally small scale "ca 0Ð49 km radius# and sourcedfrom incision or failure of relict sand!rich shelves or bydirect access to littoral drift cells "Reading + Richards\0883#[ Reservoir trapping mechanisms are dominantlystructural in character[ Di}erential compaction may pro!vide additional stratigraphic trapping potential withinthe fan "e[g[\ Frigg Fan] Heretier\ Lessel + Wathne\ 0868^McGovney + Radovitch\ 0874^ Balder\ Jenssen\ Bergs!


Fig[ 3[ Block diagrams illustrating the gross deposition environments and log responses of gravel!rich deep!marine clastic systems[ Systems are furtherdivided into "a# slope aprons\ "b# fans and "c# ramps "Modi_ed after Reading and Richards\ 0883\ and published with the permission of the AmericanAssociation of Petroleum Geologists#[ Log responses are shown from published literature and unpublished subsurface analogues reviewed in the text[The wireline log data provide a general view of the types of log responses expected from gamma ray\ spontaneous potential and resistivity logs wheredown hole logging tools remotely image primary reservoir properties and fabric[


Fig[ 4[ Depositional architecture and lithological distributions within gravel!rich "a# slope apron\ "b# submarine fan and submarine ramp systemsbased on an analysis of subsurface and outcrop analogues[ Slope apron systems may be locally derived\ and contain _ne!grained slope material\leading to poor reservoir quality[ Greater reservoir potential exists within the submarine fan and ramps because of the more common developmentof active feeder systems and the down dip development of sandy apron fringes within the medial and distal fan:ramp fringe[ Lithology symbols withinwireline log sections have been further di}erentiated for ease of representation[


Fig[ 5[ Block diagrams illustrating the gross depositional facies\ environments and log responses of sand!rich deep!marine clastic systems[ Systemsare further subdivided into "a# slope aprons\ "b# fans and "c# ramps "Modi_ed after Reading and Richards\ 0883\ and published with the permissionof the American Association of Petroleum Geologists#[ Log responses are shown from published and unpublished subsurface analogues reviewed inthe text[ Note the overall clean\ block!shaped nature of the logs throughout the sand!rich systems[ The wireline log data provide a general view ofthe types of log responses expected from gamma ray\ spontaneous potential and resistivity logs where down hole logging tools remotely imageprimary reservoir properties and fabric[


lien\ Rye!Larson + Lindholm\ 0882^ Sarg + Skjold\0871#[

Little detailed information is available in the publishedliterature concerning the internal reservoir architectureof sand!rich slope aprons[ One example is the PalaeoceneT19:T29 systems of the North Viking Graben in theNorth Sea Basin[ They are likely to be disorganised sys!tems of limited basin!ward extent\ which form isolatedwedge!shaped sand bodies parallel to a basin margin[Coarse!grained high!density turbidites and sandy debris~ow units developed adjacent to the margins of thesesystems would form the principal reservoir targets "Fig[6a# "Shanmugam et al[\ 0883^ Shanmugan + Moiola\0883^ 0884a#[ Reservoir lithofacies appear to be domi!nated by discontinuous sandbodies which pinch!out lat!erally over short distances "Shanmugan + Moiola\0884a#[ In consequence\ successful interwell correlationof sandbodies in reservoirs is unlikely without supportingdynamic data "e[g[\ RFTs#[ More distal elements of theapron would probably include thickly bedded sandstoneturbidites with increasing basinward interbedding ofhemipelagic mudstone[

Sand!rich fan and ramp systems are typically domi!nated by channelised sand bodies in the upper part of thefan[ These pass down!dip into channelised lobes0 "Nelson+ Nilsen\ 0873^ Busby!Spera\ 0874^ Kleverlaan\ 0878\0883^ Cossey + Kleverlaan\ 0884^ Hilton\ 0884#[ Studiesof outcrop and subsurface examples demonstrate that theproximal\ medial and distal parts of the system showsimilar sand!shale ratios through the extent of the fan orramp "Fig[ 6b#[ The midfan comprises elongate lobeswhich at a larger scale coalesce to form a broad sand!sheet "e[g[\ Link + Welton\ 0871^ Heller + Dickinson\0874^ Chann + Dott\ 0872^ Kleverlaan\ 0878^ Busby!Spera\ 0874] Link + Nilsen\ 0879^ Smith\ 0884#[ Reservoirfacies are dominated by high density turbidites and:orsandy debris ~ows "Facies B of Mutti + Ricci!Lucchi\0861^ Shanmugan et al[\ 0884b# arranged into broad\lenticular channels and lobate\ channelised sheets[ Thereare minor thin!bedded turbidites developed during fanabandonment and in marginal areas of the fan[ Reservoircontinuity and connectivity is typically very good withinfan lobes although individual sandbodies may vary inareal extent with slump and debris ~ow related sandsbeing of the lowest lateral continuity "Shanmugan et al[\0884b#[ Lobe abandonment sequences often provideinternal barriers which a}ect reservoir plumbing "e[g[\McGovney + Radovitch\ 0874#[

Mid!fan sections are dominated by abrupt verticalchanges from mudstone into thick\ amalgamated sand!stones\ The sandstones of the mid!fan sequence showlittle evidence for cleaning!upward trends in wireline!logdata\ whilst cored intervals show an absence of coars!

0 The term {lobe| is used here in the context of the original de_nitionof Mutti "0868# to denote unchannelised fan related deposits[

ening!upward grain size trends[ Examples of sand!richramps and fans include the Jurassic\ early post!riftMagnus and Miller systems and Palaeogene Frigg\ Cod\Balder\ Andrew and Forth fans of the North Sea Basin"Heretier et al[\ 0868^ Sarg + Skjold\ 0871^ McGovney +Radovitch\ 0874^ Kessler\ Zany\ Engelhorn + Eger\ 0879^Brewster\ 0880^ Garland\ 0882^ Rooksby\ 0880^ Alex!ander\ Scho_eld + Williams\ 0881^ Dixon et al[\ 0884^Shanmugan et al[\ 0884b#[

Sand!rich fan systems have a limited range of log motif[Blocky "{box car|# to poorly developed _ning!upward\shaling!upward log signatures appear to dominate\re~ecting the sand!rich nature of both channel and chan!nelised!lobe facies "McGovney + Radovitch\ 0874^De|Ath + Schuleyman\ 0870#[ These may succeed a thinbasal interval which exhibits a coarsening!upward and:orcleansing!upward motif[

2[2[ Mixed sandÐmud rich systems

Mixed sandÐmud rich sytems refer to those fans andrelated deep!marine clastic environments where sand!] shale percentages lie in the range 29Ð69) "Fig[ 7#[ Theyare commonly formed by direct sediment input from largemixed load delta\ shoreline and coastal plain systems[Mixed sandÐmud rich fans and ramps form moderatescale features "09Ð249 km radius# and account for a majorproportion of the published geological record of deep!marine clastic systems "Reading + Richards\ 0883#[ Slopeaprons are less common\ but of similar scale[

Mixed sandÐmud rich slope aprons are characterisedby a variety of mass!~ow processes leading to complexand commonly disorganised lithofacies distributions"Fig[ 8a#[ Systems are dominated by slump packages ofdeformed hemi!pelagic shales and thin!bedded turbidites[Slide blocks are also common\ together with chutes _lledwith slope mudstone or thick and thin!bedded turbiditesand debris ~ows "Nelson + Maldonado\ 0877^ Hill\ 0873^Shanmugan + Moiola\ 0883#[ Gullies and constructionalchannel systems may traverse the slope apron surfacefeeding more stable areas of the system where laminatedmudstone and sandy mudstone predominate[ Localdevelopment of sandstone turbidites within gully andchannel areas may lead to discontinuous\ often lenticularpackages of potential reservoir sandstone "Surlyk\ 0876#[The disorganised nature and complex distribution ofpotential reservoir facies preclude such systems as pri!mary exploration targets[

Mixed sandÐmud rich submarine fans and ramps aredominated by two main architectural elements^ channel!levee complexes and depositional lobes "Figs 7\ 8b^Walker\ 0867^ Normark\ 0867^ Normark\ Piper + Hess\0868\ Droz + Bellaiche\ 0874^ Bouma + Deville!Wickens\0883#[ The apparent dominance of either of theseelements in seismic data\ is controlled by the net to grossand grain size of the system[ Increased mud content


Fig[ 6[ Depositional architecture and lithological distributions within sand!rich "a# slope apron\ "b# submarine fan and "c# submarine ramp systemsbased on an analysis of subsurface and outcrop analogues[ Slope apron systems may be locally derived and contain _ne!grained slope material\leading to poor reservoir quality[ Sand!rich submarine ramp and fan systems display similar sand ] shale ratios throughout the full extent of thesystems^ a feature in direct contrast to their more mixed sand!mud counterparts[ Lithology symbols within wireline log sections have been furtherdi}erentiated for ease of representation[


Fig[ 7[ Block diagrams illustrating the gross depositional facies\ environments and log responses of mixed sandÐmuch rich deep!marine clastic systems[Systems are further subdivided into "a# slope aprons\ "b# fans and "c# ramps "Modi_ed after Reading and Richards\ 0883\ and published with thepermission of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists#[ Log responses are shown from published and unpublished subsurface analoguesreviewed in the text[ Note the variability in log responses within each of the mixed sandÐmud systems[ The wirelineÐlog data provide a general viewof the types of log responses expected from gamma ray\ spontaneous potential and resistivity logs where down hole logging tools remotely imageprimary reservoir properties and fabric[ Note the potential development of relatively clean sandstones within slope apron systems related to slopefailures[ Careful analysis of FMS:SHDT dipmeter and Cybil type logging tools may provide a means of remotely imaging slump and slide packagesof slope aprons from the more coherent and predictable architectures associated with submarine fans and ramps[


Fig[ 8[ Depositional architecture and lithological distributions within mixed sandÐmud "a# slope apron\ "b# submarine fan and "c# submarine rampsystems based on an analysis of subsurface and outcrop analogues[ Slope apron systems comprise slides and slumps dominated by locally derivedslope clastics with isolated\ ponded sandstones[ Submarine!fan and ramp counterparts display variable sand ] shale ratios depending on locationwithin the system and the type of architectural element penetrated in a well bore "cf channel!levee vs lobe#[ Sand ] shale ratios vary with channel!levees\ whilst associated lobe deposits show a proximalÐdistal decline in sand content[ Note that the sand ] shale ratio within the core of the systemmay compare super_cially with a sand!rich fan or ramp[ Lithology symbols within wireline log sections have been further di}erentiated for ease ofrepresentation[


results in a reduction in the relief and acoustic expressionof lobes and an apparent increase in channel!levee com!plexes as the principal architectural element of the system"Reading + Richards\ 0883#[ Both structural and strati!graphic traps are common in these systems "Walker\0867#[ Internal traps may be associated with lobe swit!ching and abandonment[ Additional drilling targets mayalso develop within inner and mid!fan channels by back!_lling and ~ow stripping "Piper + Normark\ 0872#[

Such fan systems display a high degree of variability atreservoir scale with consequent implications for reservoirproperty variations and sandbody continuity:connectivity[ Examples of mixed sandÐmud rich fan andramp systems include the Forties\ Nelson and Gannetfan and ramp systems\ North Sea Palaeogene "Kulpecz+ Van Geuns\ 0889^ Armstrong\ Ten Have + Johnson\0876^ Bowman\ 0887^ Whyatt\ Bowen + Rhodes\ 0880^Wills\ 0880#\ the Miocene Yowlumne Field\ San JoaquinBasin California "Berg + Royo\ 0889# and the PermianSpraeberry Trend of West Texas "Tyler + Gholston\0877#[

The two architectural elements of mixed sandÐmudfans and ramps lead to di}erent reservoir architecturesand levels of heterogeneity[ Channel!levee systems formthe conduits through which sediment is distributed to themain area of the fan "Fig[ 8b#[ The channel!levees maybe mud!_lled where there is rapid fan abandonment[They may also comprise a coarse!grained\ highly het!erogenous channel!_ll\ ~anked by levee siltstone andmudstone "Winn + Dott\ 0868^ Walker\ 0867\ 0874^Weuller + James\ 0878^ Tyler et al[\ 0873^ Mutti et al[\0874^ Schuppers\ 0881\ Zelt + Rossen\ 0884^ McGee\Bilinski\ Gary\ Pfei}er + Sheiman\ 0883^ Maha.e\ 0883^DeVries + Lindholm\ 0883^ Clark\ 0884#[ Channel!_llfacies vary from sandy conglomerate and pebbly sand!stone with thick!bedded\ high!density turbidites "FaciesA and B of Mutti + Ricci!Lucchi\ 0861# to _ne!grained\thin!bedded turbidites and hemipelagic mudstones "Fac!ies C and D of Mutti + Ricci!Lucchi\ 0861#[ Individualsandstones are commonly lenticular and erosively based[

Constructional lobes form overlapping\ layered sandbodies with a high reservoir heterogeneity potential[ Sandcontent is highest within the core or apex and decreasetowards lobe margins[ The lobe core may be dominatedby massive\ thick!bedded high!density turbidites "e[g[\Kulpecz + Van Geuns\ 0889^ Kleverlaan\ 0878^ Bouma +Deville!Wickens\ 0883#[ Where more classical turbiditesoccur\ "Stevens Fan] Webb\ 0870^ MacPherson\ 0867^Marnosa!Arenacea Fan] Ricci!Lucchi + Valmori\ 0879#they form poorly developed cycles "e[g[\ the Stevens Fan]Webb\ 0870^ MacPherson\ 0867^ Marnose!ArenaceaFan] Ricci!Lucchi + Valmori\ 0879^ Auger Field] McGeeet al[\ 0883#[

Mixed sandÐmud rich fan systems show a wide range inlog response depending on location[ Within the channel!levee system\ two log motifs appear to be most common[

At the levee margin corsening!upward "cu#\ cleaning!upward "decreasing# gamma "GR# or SP pro_les re~ectprogressive stacking and amalgamation of thin!beddedturbidites deposited by overbank ~ows[ The second logmotif is a broadly _ning!upward "fu#\ shaling!upward"su# occasionally ratty trend\ re~ecting stacked inter!bedded channel!_ll and conglomerate and sandstone tur!bidites\ separated by _ner grained turbidites andhemipelagic mudstone[ Depositional lobes display erraticbut broadly cleaning!upward:coarsening!upward grad!ing into shaling!upward:_ning!upward signatures "Mac!Pherson\ 0867^ Webb\ 0870#[ Similar log responses arerecorded at the fan fringe where the cu:fu cycles occur asgamma!ray bows with limited SP or GR de~ection fromthe shale baseline[

2[3[ Mud!rich systems

These are systems where the overall sand content is lessthan 29) "Fig[ 09#[ They are common in basins withmature alluvial drainage systems\ having large sourceareas\ particularly where river and deltaic feeder systemsare dominated by _nd!grained suspended load[ Mud!richsystems are volumetrically the most important deep waterclastic systems in the world|s oceans today "e[g[\ Kolla\Kostecki\ Hendersen + Hess\ 0879\ Damuth + Kumar\0864^ Mchargue + Wenn\ 0875^ Kolla + Coumes\ 0876^Weimer\ 0889#[ Exploring and exploiting reservoirswithin such systems presents a major challenge today inocean basins o} continental margins[ Mud!rich aprons\fans and ramps are large scale systems "49Ð2999 kmradius\ Reading + Richards\ 0883#[

Mud!dominated slope aprons are similar to their sand!ier and mixed sandÐmud counterparts "Fig[ 00a#[ Theslope margin is characterised by erosional gullies androtational slumps generated by sediment loading andfoundering together with curvilinear extensional faultsrelated to down!slope translation of submarine slidemasses "Gorsline + Emery\ 0848^ Nardin\ Hein\ Gorsline+ Edwards\ 0868#[

The base of the apron is dominated by silt! and mud!dominated lobes\ debris ~ow masses and uneven top!ography generated by the compressional toes of slides[The nature of depositional processes within the slopeapron leads to a complex and irregular distribution ofmainly _ne!grained lithofacies[ Reservoir potential isgenerally low^ slope aprons more commonly form sealsto more organised systems[ Potential reservoir qualitysandstones may develop where retrogressive slumpingexhumes relict coarser grained shelf and upper slopedeposits[ Catastrophic failure of these deposits mayleadto the deposition of sands within topographic lows at thebase of the apron system[ Similarly\ slide gullies locatedalong the margins of the slope apron may form conduitsfor basinward sediment transport particularly where


Fig[ 09[ Block diagrams illustrating the gross depositional facies\ environments and log responses of mud!rich deep!marine clastic systems[ Systemsare further subdivided into "a# slope aprons\ "b# fans and "c# ramps "Modi_ed after Reading and Richards\ 0883\ and published with the permissionof the American Association of Petroleum Geologists#[ Log responses are shown from published and unpublished subsurface analogues reviewed inthe text[ Note the variability in log responses in each of the mud!rich systems[


Fig[ 00[ Depositional architecture and lithological distributions within mud!rich "a# slope apron\ "b# submarine fan and "c# submarine ramp systemsbased on an analysis of subsurface and outcrop analogues[ Mud!rich slope apron systems dominated by slides and slumps characterised by locallyderived slope clastics[ Isolated\ ponded sandstones and siltstones may develop through failure of local up!dip deltaic depocentres[ Submarine!fanand ramp counterparts display variable sand ] shale ratios depending on location within the system and the type of architectural element penetrated[Lithology symbols within wireline log sections have been further di}erentiated for ease of representation[


deltas prograding to the shelf edge\ feed sediment directlyinto the basin[

Mud!rich fan and ramps are typically large systems"up to 0999s km# and dominated by well developed chan!nel!levee compexes "Fig[ 00b#[ Good quality reservoirsands are generally restricted to heterogenous channel!_lls within the axis of channel!levee complexes "Imperato+ Nilsen\ 0889^ Weimer\ 0889\ 0884#[ The outer fan areais dominated by thin sheet sands of limited reservoirquality[

Mud!rich fan systems are dominated by large scale\ratty cleaning!upward "decreasing# GR or SP wirelinepro_les re~ecting a broadly coarsening!upward grain sizepro_le[ This is attributable to the advance and build!up ofthin!bedded\ levee!margin turbidite sands[ Superimposedthinner\ cleaning!upward log characters may re~ect thedepositional record of crevasse units[ Small scale shaling!upward ratty pro_les record heterogenous channel!_llgravelly and sandy turbidites separated by _ner silt!grai!ned turbidites and hemipelagic muds[

Fig[ 01[ Schematic representation of subsurface architecture and log responses from a complex reservoir system[ The gradual evolution from sand!rich to mud!rich depositional systems re~ects the gradual abandonment of basin deposition over time[ Studies of many clastic turbidite reservoirsshow them to commonly comprise an association of di}erent deep!marine clastic systems rather than any single submarine fan\ ramp or apron type[Recognition of these di}erences in architectural patterns and contrasting scale of heterogeneity will have a signi_cant impact on understandingsandbody connectivity\ reservoir property distributions\ recovery e.ciency and production behaviour for turbidite reservoirs[

3[ Conclusions

The highly variable reservoir architecture of deep!mar!ine clastic systems re~ects the complex interplay betweena range of autocyclic and allocyclic controls[ It is essentialto appreciate this variability when de_ning hydrocarbonpotential\ assessing risk\ and developing a strategy forexploitation of a basin[

The architectural elements of the four main types ofturbidite system vary in a predictable and systematicmanner[ These architectural elements are a fundamentalcontrol on reservoir geometry and the distribution ofpay and non!pay\ which\ in turn\ impact permeabilityarchitecture and production performance[

Complexity is compounded where reservoirs comprisestacked turbidite systems of signi_cantly di}erent res!ervoir architecture "Fig[ 01#[ Such stacked reservoir sys!tems are relatively common phenomena[ Here\predictions of reservoir architecture based upon a singlemodel will fail to appreciate the spatial changes in res!


ervoir geometry and shale architecture[ This will havea direct commercial impact through erroneous reservesassessment and development planning[

In exploration and appraisal\ an awareness of di}erentarchitectural elements and styles and their relationshipto sand thickness and net reservoir distribution will aidin the risk assessment of prospects[ In production andreservoir management\ a detailed understanding of theorganisation of reservoir and non!reservoir facies withinarchitectural elements provides the basic framework forunderstanding reservoir quality distribution\ ~uid ~owand production performance[ The starting point for allthese studies lies in the careful description\ analysis andfacies interpretation of core data[ Once complete\ coreobservations and interpretations can be used to calibratewireline logs and aid in the interpretation of rock proper!ties from seismic data[ It is only at this stage that mean!ingful links can be drawn between the character andorigin of depositional units within cored wells\ and thelog signatures and acoustic response of adjacent\ uncoredintervals within the reservoir section[

The conceptual models of reservoir architecture pre!sented in this paper provide a framework for the analysisof deep!marine clastic reservoir systems[ They are widelyapplicable as predictive paradigms for exploration[ Theywill not re~ect the detailed nuances of individual reservoirsystems at a small scale[ As such\ their value in devel!opment and production is that they provide the startingpoint rather than a _nal solution to reservoir descriptionand performance prediction[

Acknowledgements

This paper summarizes a signi_cant volume of workcarried out over the past seven years as part of an internalresearch applications project in BP focused on the sedi!mentology and stratigraphy of deep!marine\ basin mar!gin turbidite systems[ The results presented here representa summary of numerous technical studies and discussionsheld with geoscientists and reservoir engineers in BritishPetroleum on deep!marine clastic outcrop and reservoirsystems[ It is by necessity brief in its content and doesnot fully document the wealth of help\ guidance anddiscussions provided by fellow colleagues in BPX[ Theauthors gratefully acknowledge their help and con!tributions to the subject over the past seven years[ Theauthors are grateful to Jed Damuth and an anonymousreferee for providing constructive suggestions on furtherimproving the manuscript[ This paper is published withthe permission of BP Exploration Company Limited[

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Weimer\ P[ "0884#[ Sequence strategraphy of the Mississippi Fan "lateMioceneÐPleistocene#\ northern gulf of Mexico[ In K[ T[ Pickering\R[ N[ Hiscott\ N[ H[ Kenyon\ F[ Ricci!Lucchi\ + R[ D[ A[ Smith"Eds[#\ Atlas of deepwater environments] Architectural style in tur!bidite systems "pp[ 83Ð093#[ London] Chapman + Hall[

Weuller\ D[ E[\ + James\ W[ C[ "0878#[ Braided and meandering sub!marine fan channel deposits\ Tesnus Formation\ Marathon Basin\West Texas[ Sedim[ Geol[\ 51\ 16Ð34[

Whyatt\ M[\ Bowen\ J[ M[\ + Rhodes\ D[ N[ "0880#[ Nelson*successful

application of a development model in North Sea exploration[ FirstBreak\ 8\ 154Ð179[

Wills\ J[ M[ "0880#[ The Forties Field\ Bloack 10:09\ 11:5a\ U[K[ NorthSea[ In I[ L[ Abbots "Ed[#\ United Kin`dom Oil and Gas Fields\ 14Years Comm[ Vol[ "pp[ 290Ð297#[ Geol[ Soc[ Mem[ No[ 03[

Winn\ R[ D[ Jr[\ + Dott\ R[ H[ Jr[ "0868#[ Deep!water fan!channelconglomerates of Late Cretaceous age\ southern Chile[ Sedi!mentolo`y\ 15\ 192Ð117[

Zelt\ F[ B[\ + Rossen\ C[ "0884#[ Geometry and continuity of deep!water sandstones and siltstones\ Brush Canyon Formation "Per!mian# Delaware Mountains\ Texas[ In K[ T[ Pickering\ R[ N[Hiscott\ N[ H[ Kenyon\ F[ Ricci!Lucchi\ + R[ D[ A[ Smith "Eds[#\Atlas of deepwater environments] Architectural style in turbidite sys!tems "pp[ 056Ð071#[ London] Chapman + Hall[

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