3994

PROJECT REPORT

on

MANUFACTURE OF WHITE SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE

Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

by

AUGUSTINE GUNA RAM .B (10704001) THURKA DEVI .S.R (10704021)

under the guidance of

Ms.P.MUTHAMILSELVI B.Tech, M.E., (Lecturer, School of Chemical Engineering)

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SRM UNIVERSITY

(under section 3 of UGC Act,1956) SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur 603 203

Kancheepuram Dist.

MAY 2008

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report MANUFACTURE OF WHITE SUGAR

FROM SUGAR CANE is the bonafide work of AUGUSTINE GUNA RAM .B

(10704001) THURKA DEVI .S.R (10704021) who carried out the project work under

my supervision.

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT INTERNAL GUIDE

Date:

EXTERNAL EXAMINER INTERNAL EXAMINER

Date :

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, we thank Dr.C.Muthamizhselvan, Associate Director, S.R.M

University (Engg & Technology) for allowing us to work on this project.

We are extremely thankful to Dr.R.Karthikeyan, B.E., PhD, Professor and

Head, School of Chemical Engineering, S.R.M University, for permitting us to venture

on this project and providing us with good support and guidance.

We would like to thank Ms. P. MuthamilSelvi, B.Tech, .M.E, Faculty, School of

Chemical Engineering, S.R.M University, for her encouragement and guidance at all

stages of this project.

We would like to thank the management and staff of E.I.D Parry (India) Limited,

Pudukottai, for their valuable assistance.

We extend our sincere thanks to all the staff members of the School of Chemical

Engineering, S.R.M University, for their support and assistance.

ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT

Primarily, there are two important sources of sugar: one is Beet, the other is

Cane. Sugar from cane is the most economic and effective extraction of sugar. Extraction

of sugar from cane is 80% effective for a harvest of 1 hectare sugarcane, while that for

beet is only 34.5% effective extraction. The delivery of the cane to the factory depends

upon the time of day, weather, and some other factors. Very closely controlled operations

never have more than a few hours worth of cane in the cane yard. The color of the

washed, clarified, and decolorized liquor going into the crystallization process ranges

from water white to slightly yellow. Great care is taken to avoid conglomerates and fines.

Boiling rate and throughput are important. The boiling schemes used in the refinery are

more extensive and more extensive and variable than those used in the raw house. This is

because the starting material is of much higher purity. Ordinarily, three, four, or five

strikes of refined sugar are obtained. The syrup from the fourth strike may handle in

different ways. It may be used in the recovery house, but is more likely used in making

specialty syrups or brown sugars. It may also be sent back to decolorization or

clarification, and recycled. The refined sugar centrifuges are always batch type because

they leave the crystals intact. The centrifuging is easy and the cycles are short. The

drying of the sugar from the centrifuges is done by rotary dryer using hot air. This dryer

is universally misnamed the granulator because by drying in motion, it keeps the sugar

crystals from sticking together, or keeps them granular. The hot sugar from the granulator

is cooled in an exactly similar rotary drum using cold air.

CONTENTS

S.NO. CHAPTER PAGE NO

i. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ii. ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION 2

2. LITERATURE SURVEY 4

3. PROPERTIES AND USES 8

4. PROCESS FLOWCHART 13

5. PROCESS DESCRIPTION 15

6. MATERIAL BALANCE 22

7. ENERGY BALANCE 34

8. DESIGN OF EQUIPMENTS 52

9. COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMICS 62

10. PROCESS CONTROL 71

11. PLANT LOCATION AND SITE SELECTION 75

12. POLLUTION CONTROL AND SAFETY 83

13. CONCLUSION 87

14. NOMENCLATURE 89

15. BIBLIOGRAPHY 91

[1]

INTRODUCTION

[2]

INTRODUCTION

Sugar industry is one of the most important agro-based industries in India and

is highly responsible for creating significant impact on rural economy in particular

and countrys economy in general. Sugar industry ranks second amongst major agro-

based industries in India. As per the Government of Indias recent liberalized policy

announced on 12th December, 1986 for licensing of additional capacity for sugar

industries during 7th five-year plan, there will be only one sugar mill in a circular area

of 40 sq km. Also the new sugar mill is allowed with an installation capacity of 2500

TCD (Tone Sugar Cane crushed per day) as against the earlier capacity norms of 1250

TCD. Similarly, the existing sugar mills with sugar cane capacity of about 3500 TCD

can crush sugar cane to the tune of 3000 TCD with a condition imposed that

additional requirement of sugar cane be acquired through increased productivity and

not by expansion of area for growing sugar cane. [8].Cane sugar is the name given to

sucrose, a disaccharide produced from the sugarcane plant and from the sugar beet.

The refined sugars from the two sources are practically indistinguishable and

command the same price in competitive markets. [8]

In the production scheme for cane sugar, the cane cannot be stored for more

than a few hours after it is cut because microbiological action immediately begins to

degrade the sucrose. This means that the sugar mills must be located in the cane

fields. The raw sugar produced in the mills is item of international commerce. Able to

be stored for years, it is handled as raw material shipped at the lowest rates directly

in the holds of ships or in dump trucks or railroad cars and pushed around by

bulldozers. Because it is not intended to be eaten directly, it is not handled as food.

The raw sugar is shipped to the sugar refineries, which are located in population

centers. There it is refined to a food product, packaged, and shipped a short distance

to the market. In a few places, there is a refinery near or even within a raw-sugar mill.

However, the sugar still goes through raw stage. The principle by-product of cane

sugar production is molasses. About 10 15% of the sugar in the cane ends up in

molasses. Molasses is produced both in the raw-sugar manufacture and also in

refining. The blackstrap or final molasses is about 35 40% sucrose and slightly more

than 50% total sugars.

[3]

LITERATURE SURVEY

[4]

LITERATURE SURVEY

There are a bewildering number of sugars and syrups available in the shops

while other types are available for the industrial users. Some of the basic differences

are discussed below.[10] White sugar is essentially pure sucrose and there is no

difference between that derived from cane and that from beet. Different manufacturers

produce crystals of different sizes however and this leads to some apparent

differences. Smaller crystals dissolve more readily and might therefore appear to be

sweeter because none is left at the bottom of the cup and they seem sweeter on the

tongue if eaten alone. Similarly smaller crystals have more surfaces per spoonful and

appear whiter than larger crystals. There are several speciality white sugars: [10]

Caster sugar is just a very small crystal size white sugar Icing sugar is ground up white sugar, essentially sugar dust Sugar cubes are lumps of sugar crystals "glued" together with a sugar syrup Preserving sugar is a special large crystal

Gur come in many different styles but are essentially one of two types: sticky

browns and free-flowing browns. The sticky browns were originally the sort of

mixture that comes out of a cane sugar crystallizing pan. The extreme of this, still

made in India today, is "juggeri" or "gur" which is essentially such a mixture boiled

until dry. In modern refining practice both of these types are made by mixing a

refined or at least purified sugar with suitable syrup. The color of the sugar and the

syrup determines the color of the final product and the ratio of syrup to sugar plus any

drying applied determines whether the product is sticky or free-flowing. Syrups, of

which there are again an enormous range, range from pure sucrose solutions as sold to

industrial users to heavily treated syrups incorporating flavours and colors. Refiners

or "Golden" syrup is a sugar solution which has been carefully treated to invert some

of the sucrose. Inversion is a chemical process which breaks down the disaccharide

sucrose to its constituent sugars: glucose and fructose. This helps ensure that

crystallization does not occur during storage. Treacle is a similar product made from

molasses rather than a pure sugar solution. The steam is raised in bagasse fired boilers

which usually have a secondary fuel to accommodate imbalances in bagasse supply

[5]

and steam or power demand. The factory designer attempts to balance the site such

that bagasse is neither

left over nor insufficient: any secondary fuel costs money and a large surplus of

bagasse may cost money to dispose. Balancing is done by selecting the right mix of

turbine and electric drives for major equipment and selecting the pressure of the steam

to give the efficiency required. In many cases this does not recognize the full energy

value of the bagasse and is therefore wasteful in an overall sense. Today, more and

more factories are considering power export as another by-product of sugar

production. To do this they are improving the efficiency of their thermodynamic

cycles and converting equipment drives to optimize power output. Physical chemistry

assists with sugar purification during the crystallization process because there is a

natural tendency for the sugar crystals to form as pure sucrose, rejecting the non-

sugars. Thus, when the sugar crystals are grown in the mother liquor they tend to be

pure and the mother liquor becomes more impure. Most remaining non-sugar in the

product is contained in the coating of mother liquor left on the crystals. The mother

liquor still contains valuable sugar of course so the crystallization is repeated several

times. However non-sugars inhibit the crystallization. This is particularly true of other

sugars such as glucose and fructose which are the breakdown products of sucrose.

Each subsequent step therefore becomes more difficult until one reaches a point

where it is no longer viable to continue. [8]

In a raw sugar factory it is normal to conduct three boiling. The first or "A"

boiling produces the best sugar which is sent to store. The "B" boiling takes longer

and the retention time in the crystallizer is also longer if a reasonable crystal size is to

be achieved. Some factories re-melt the B sugar to provide part of the A boiling

feedstock, others use the crystals as seed for the A boiling and others mix the B sugar

with the A sugar for sale. The "C" boiling takes proportionally longer than the B

boiling and considerably longer to crystallize. The sugar is usually used as seed for B

boiling and the rest is re-melted. Factories are frequently in much undeveloped places

and have no connection to an external power supply. This requires special techniques

to start the factory and means that any breakdown in the power house impacts on the

entire neighborhood. Wives soon tell their husbands what happened to dinner when

their spouses lost power. In modern sugar plants, white sugar is manufactured from

[6]

sugarcane rather than, beet since; the yield conversion is 10 Tons of sugar per hectare

in case of sugarcane, while it is only 6.25 Tons of sugar production is possible from

one hectare of beet cultivation. Hence, due to this utility and economic basis, sugar is

mainly prepared from cane rather than from beet. [9].

[7]

PROPERTIES AND USES

[8]

Properties of cane sugars:

Sugar consists mainly of sucrose and to a certain extent of glucose and

fructose. Thus properties of sugars are listed below:

(A) Physical properties

Property

Taste Sweet

Crystal Mono-clinic

Solubility Very soluble in cold water and dilute

alcohol. Solubility increases with increase

in temperature. It is insoluble in

chloroform, ether and glycerine.

Specific gravity at 20C 1.05917

Optical activity Dextro-rotatory

[9]

(B) Chemical properties

Property

Action of heat Perfectly dry sugar can be heated to

160C

without decomposition. It then melts

forming a non-crystallizing substance. In

the presence of moisture it decomposes at

100C, becoming a caramel and liberating

water. On further heating changes to CO2

and formic acid.

Action of heat on dilute solutions

By prolonged heating at the boiling point

the dissolved sucrose slowly combines

with

water and breaks up into glucose and

fructose.

Sugarcane characteristics:

Sugarcane contains not only sucrose but also numerous other dissolved

substances, as well as cellulose or woody fibre. The percentage of sugar in the cane

varies from 8 to 16% and depends to a great extent on the variety of the cane, its

maturity, condition of the soil, climate and agricultural practices followed. The

constituents of ripe cane vary widely in different countries and regions but fall

generally within the following limits:

Constituent Percentage range:

Water 69.0 75.0

Sucrose 8.0 16.0

Reducing sugars 0.5 2.0

Organic matter other than sugar 0.5 1.0

Inorganic compounds 0.2 0.6

Nitrogenous bodies 0.5 1.0

Ash 0.3 0.8

Fibre 10.0 16.0

Organic matters other than sugar include proteins, organic acids, pentosan,

coloring matter and wax. Organic acids present in cane are glycolic acid, malic acid,

succinic acid and small quantity of tannic acid, butyric acid and aconitic acid. These

vary from 0.5 to 1.0% of the cane by weight. The organic compounds are made up of

phosphates, chlorides, sulphates, nitrates and silicates of sodium, potassium, calcium,

and magnesium and iron chiefly. These are present from 0.2 to 0.6%.

Coloring matter is so complex that very little is known about them and there is

a great need for research in this direction. Coloring matters consist of chlorophyll,

anthocyanin, saccharatin and tannins. Canes which have been injured or which are

over-ripe contain ordinarily invert sugar as well. When severe frost damages

sugarcane, all buds are killed and the stalk split. Then the juice produced has low

purity, less sucrose, high titrable acidity, and abnormal amounts of gum, which make

processing difficult and at times impossible. Frost is generally not a very common

phenomenon in Indian crops. Insects and pests cause a greater damage.

Cane juice has an acidic reaction. It has a pH of about 5.0. The cane juice is

viscous owing to the presence of colloids. The colloids are particles existing in a

permanent state of fine dispersion and they impart turbidity to the juice. These

colloids do not settle ordinarily unless conditions are altered. The application of heat

or addition of chemicals brings about flocculation or coagulation. They may be

coagulated by the action of electric current and adsorption by sucrose attractions using

[10]

[11]

porous or flocculent material. Some colloids are flocculated easily while others do so

with great difficulty.

Uses:

All sugars from whatever source are used almost entirely for food. The per capita consumption of sugar is an indicator of degree of economic

advancement of a country.

Apparently, human nature is such that one of the first uses of income above the subsistence level is to satisfy the sweet tooth.

Sugar is the lowest in calorific value of all carbohydrates in an ordinary diet, as well as the cheapest.

[12]

PROCESS FLOWCHART

[14]

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

[15]

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

The cane is moved from the cane yard or directly from the transport to one of

the cane table. Feed chains on the tables move the cane across the tables to the main

cane carrier, which runs at constant speed carrying the cane into the factory. The

operator manipulates the speed of the various tables to keep the main carrier evenly

filled. In order to remove as much dirt and trash as possible, the cane is washed on the

main carrier with as much water as is available. This includes decirculated wash water

and all of the condenser water. Of the order of 1 2 % of the sugar in the cane is

washed out and lost in the washing, but it is considered advantageous to wash. In

areas where there are rocks in the cane, it is floated through the so- called mud bath to

help separate the rocks. The sugar recovered is normally 10-wt % of the cane, with

some variation from region to region. Sugar cane has the distinction of producing the

heaviest yield of all crops, both in weight of biomass and in weight of useful product

per unit area of land.

EXTRACION OF JUICE: The juice is extracted from the cane either by milling, in which the cane is

pressed between the heavy rolls, or by diffusion, in which the sugar is leached out

with water. In either case, the cane is prepared by breaking into pieces measuring a

few centimeters. In the usual system, the magnets first remove the tramp iron, and the

cane then passes through two sets of rotating knives. The first set, called cane knives

turns at about 700 rpm, cuts the cane into pieces of 1 2 dm length, splits it up a bit,

and also act as a leveler to distribute the cane more evenly on the carrier. The second

set, called shredder knives turn faster and combine a cutting and a hammer action by

having a closer clearance with the housing. These quite thoroughly cutter and shred

the cane into a fluffy mat of pieces a few centimeters in the largest dimensions. In

preparing cane for diffusion, it is desirable to break every plant cell. Therefore the

cane for diffusion is put through an even finer shredder called a buster or fiberizer. No

juice is extracted in the shredders. In milling, the cane then goes to the crusher rolls,

which are similar to the mills, but have only two rolls, which have large teeth and are

widely spaced. These complete the breaking up of the cane to pieces of the order of 1

3 cm. The large amount of juice is removed here. [2]

[16]

MILLING: The prepared cane passes through a series of mills called a tandem or milling

train. These mills are composed of massive horizontal cylinders or rolls in groups of

three, one on the top and two on the bottom in the triangle formation. The rolls are 50

100 cm diameter and 1 3 m long and have grooves that are 2 5 cm wide and deep

around them. There may be anywhere from 3 7 of these 3 roll mills in tandem,

hence the name. These mills, together with their associated drive and gearing, are

among the most massive machinery used by industry. The bottom two rolls are fixed,

and the top is free to move up and down. The top roll is hydraulically loaded with a

force equivalent about 500 t. The rolls turn at 2 5 rpm, and the velocity of the cane

through them is 10- 25cm/s. After passing through the mill, the fibrous residue, from

the cane, called bagassae, is carried to the next mill by bagassae carriers and is

directed from the first squeeze in a mill to the second by turn plate. In order to,

achieve a good extraction, a system of imbibition is used, bagassae going to the final

mill is sprayed with water to extract whatever sucrose remains; the resultant juice

from the last mill is then sprayed on the bagasse mat going to the next to last mill, and

so on. The combination of all these juices is collected from the first mill and is mixed

with the juice from the crusher. The result is called the mixed juice and is the material

that goes forward to make the sugar.[2] The mills are powered with individual steam

turbines. The exhaust steam from the turbines is used to evaporate water from the

cane juice. The capacity of the sugarcane mills is 30 300 t of cane per hour.

BAGASSE: The bagasse from the last mill is about 50-wt% water and will burn directly.

Diffusion bagasse is dripping wet and must be dried in a mill or some sort of bagasse

press. Most bagasse is burned in the boilers that run the factories.

CLARIFICATION: The juice from either milling or diffusion is about 12 18% solids, 10 15

pol (polarization) (percent sucrose), and 70 85% purity. These figures depend upon

geographical location, age of cane, variety, climate, cultivation, condition of juice

extraction system, and other factors. As dissolved material, it contains in addition to

[17]

sucrose some invert sugar, salts, silicates, amino acids, proteins, enzymes, and

organic acids; the pH is 5.5 6.5. It carries suspension cane fiber, field soil, silica,

bacteria, yeasts, molds, spores, insect parts, chlorophyll, starch, gums, waxes, and

fats. It looks brown and muddy with a trace of green from the chlorophyll. In the juice

from the mill, the sucrose is inverting (hydrolyzing to glucose and fructose) under the

influence of native invertase enzyme or an acid pH. The first step of processing is to

stop the inversion by raising the pH to 7.5 and heating to nearly 100C to inactivate

the enzyme and stop microbiological action. At the same time, a large fraction of the

suspended material is removed by settling. The cheapest source of hydroxide is lime,

and this has the added advantage that calcium makes many insoluble salts. When the

mud settles poorly, polyelectrolyte flocculants such as polyacrylamides are sometimes

used. The heat and high Ph serve to coagulate proteins, which are largely removed in

clarification.[4]

The equipment used for clarification is of the Dorr clarifier type. It consists

of a vertical cylindrical vessel composed of a number of trays with conical bottoms

stacked one over the other. The limed raw juice enters the center of each tray and

flows toward the circumference. A sweep arm in each tray turns quite slowly and

sweeps the settled mud toward a central mud outlet. The clear juice from the top

circumference overflows into a header. Diffusion juice contains less suspended solids

than mill juice. In many diffusion operations, some or all of the clarification is carried

out in the diffuser by adding lime. It also contains nearly all the protein (0.5 wt% of

the juice solids) and cane wax. The mud is returned to the fields. Although, the

clarification removes most of the mud, the resulting juice is not necessarily clear. The

equipment is often run at beyond its capacity and control slips a little so that the

clarity of the clarified juice is not optimum. Suspended solids that slip past the

clarifiers will be in the sugar. Clarified juice is dark brown. The color is darker than

raw juice because the initial heating causes significant darkening.

EVAPORATION: Cane juice has sucrose concentration of normally 15%. The solubility of

sucrose in water is about 72%. The concentration of sucrose must reach the solubility

point before crystals can start growing. This involves the removal by evaporation of

93% of the water in the cane juice. Since water has the largest of all latent heats of

[18]

vaporization, this involves a very large amount of energy. The working of multiple-

effect evaporator can be seen in fig. In each succeeding effect, the vapors from the

previous effect are condensed to supply heat. This works only because each

succeeding effect is operating at a lower pressure and hence boils at lower

temperature. The result is that 1 kg of steam is used to evaporate 4 kg of water. The

steam used is exhaust steam from the turbines in the mill or turbines driving electrical

generators. The steam has therefore already been used once and here in the second use

it is made to give fourfold duty. The usual evaporator equipment is a vertical body

juice-in-tube unit. Several variations are in use, but the result is the same. The only

auxiliary equipment is the vacuum pump. Today, steam-jet-ejectors are general,

although mechanical pumps were formerly used. Since the cane juice contains

significant amounts of inorganic ions, including Calcium and sulfate, the heating surfaces are quick to scale and require frequent

cleaning.

CRYSTALLISATION: The crystallization of the sucrose from the concentrated syrup is traditionally a

batch process. The solubility of sucrose changes rather little with temperature. It is

about 68 brix at room temperature and 74 brix at 60C. For this reason, only a small

amount of sugar can be crystallized out of solution by cooling. Evaporating the water

must instead crystallize the sugar. Sucrose solutions up to a super saturation of 1.3 are

quite stable. Above this super saturation, spontaneous nucleation occurs, and new

crystals form. The sugar boiler therefore evaporates water until the super saturation is

1.25 and then seeds the pan. The seeding consists of introducing just the right number

of small sugar crystals (powdered sugar) so that, when all have grown to the desired

size, the pan will be full. After seeding, the evaporation and feeding of syrup are balanced so that

theSuper saturation is as high as possible in order to achieve the fastest possible rate

of Crystal growth, without exceeding 1.3. The boiling point of a saturated sugar

solution at 101.3 kPa (1 atm) is 112C. Sugar is heat-sensitive and, at this

temperature, thermal degradation is too great. The boiling is therefore done under the

highest practical vacuum at a boiling point of 65C. The sugar boiler therefore must

manipulate the vacuum along with the steam and feed. A strike is 50 metric tons of

[19]

sugar and it is boiled in 90 min. at the end of this time, the mixture of crystals and

syrup, called massecuite, must still be fluid enough to be stirred and discharged from

the pan. In practice, about half of the sugar in the pan is in crystal form and half

remains in the syrup. In this case, the pan yield is said to be 50%.Some very good

sugar boilers are able to achieve as much as 60% yields on first strike. [10]

VACUUM PANS: Vacuum pans have a small heating element in comparison to the very large

liquor and vapor space above it. The heating element was formerly steam coils but is

now usually a chest of vertical tubes called calandria. The sugar is inside the tubes.

There is a large center opening (down comer) for circulation. The vacuum pan has a

very large discharge opening: typically 1 m dia. At the end of a strike, the massecuite

contains more crystals than syrup and is therefore very viscous. This large opening is

required to empty the pan in a reasonable time. At the top or dome of the pan, there

are viscous entrainment separators. The pan may also be equipped with a mechanical

stirrer. This is usually an impeller in or below the central down comer, driven by a

shaft coming down all the way from the top. The strike is started with liquor just

above the top of the calandria. The strike level cannot be very near the top because of

vapor space must be allowed for separation of entrainment. In operation, the boiling is

very vigorous with much splashing of liquid. The vacuum is maintained mostly by

condensing the vapors in a barometric condenser. In some cases, a surface condenser

is used. This serves as a source of distilled water and recovers heat. More often,

however, a jet condenser is used in which the cold condensing water is sprayed into

the hot vapour and both condensate and condenser water are mixed. A supplementary

vacuum pump is required to remove noncondensable gases.

CENTRIFUGING: The massecuites from the vacuum pans enter a holding tank called a mixer

that has a very solely turning paddle to prevent the crystals from settling. The mixer is

a feed for the centrifuges. In a batch-type centrifuge, the mother liquor is separated

from the crystals in batches of about 1 t at a time.

[20]

BOILING SYSTEMS: In raw-sugar manufacture, the first strike of sugar is called the A strike, and

the mother liquor obtained from this strike from the centrifuges is called A molasses.

The pan yield in sugar boiling is about 50%. Because crystallization is an efficient

purification process, the product sugar is much purer than the cane juice and the

molasses much less pure. As an approximation, crystallization reduces the impurities

by factor of 10 or more in the product sugar. Therefore, almost all of the impurities

remain in the molasses. Enough molasses accumulates from boiling two first strikes to

boil a second strike. The B sugar from the second strike is only half as pure as that from the first

strike, but the B molasses is twice as impure. This can go on to a third strike. At this

point, 7/8 of the sugar from the cane juice is in the form of crystals and 1/8 in the C

molasses.. The trick is to maneuver to obtain good sugar, but at the same time have

the C or final molasses as impure as possible. The purity of the feed to the final strike

is adjusted to obtain the lowest possible purity of final molasses. Some of the C sugar

is redissolved and started over, some is used as footing for A and B strikes. The C

sugar is of very small crystal size so it is taken into the A or B pans as seed and grown

to an acceptable size. This practice is actually a step backward because it hides

impure C sugar in the center of better A and B sugars. The product raw sugar is a

mixture of A and B sugars.[1]

PACKING, STORING AND SHIPPING: Sugar is sometimes stored in bulk and then packaged as needed. Others

package the sugar and then warehouse the packages. The present trend is away from

consumersized packages and toward bulk shipments .[1]

[21]

MATERIAL BALANCE

MATERIAL BALANCE

MILLING:

BASIS: 3000 Tons of sugarcane crushed / day

3000 Tons of Sugarcane is to be crushed per day to obtain 350 Tons of Sugar per

day.

At Milling Section, 35% cane wt% of water is added.

Amount of Sugarcane in = 3000 Tons

Amount of Water in = 1050 Tons

Amount of Raw Juice out= 3150 Tons

Amount of Bagasse out = 900 Tons

RAW JUICE HEATER:


At the Raw Juice heater, 1% cane wt% of Water is evaporated.

Hence, 1% of 3000 = 30 Tons of H2O is evaporated. This heater is maintained at a

temperature of 70C.

[22]

Amount of Raw Juice in = 3150 Tons

Amount of Raw juice out= 3120 Tons

JUICE SULPHITATOR:


In Juice Sulphitator, pH of Raw juice is reduced from 9.0 to 7.0.

To obtain this 5 x 10-4 % of CaO and 2 x 10-4% of SO2, respective to weight of cane

are added.

Hence, Amount of CaO added = 5 x 10-4% of 3000 = 1.5 Tons

Amount of SO2 added = 2 x 10-4% of 3000 = 0.6 Tons

Amount of Raw Juice In = 3120 Tons

Amount of Mixed Juice Out = 3122.1 Tons

[23]

HEATER:


In Juice Heater, 3% cane wt% of Water is evaporated. The temperature maintained

in Heater is 103 C

Hence, Amount of Water evaporated = 3% of 3000 = 90 Tons of H2O is evaporated.

Amount of Mixed Juice In = 3122.1 Tons

Amount of Mixed Juice Out = 3032.1 Tons

CLARIFIER:


Clarifier is a settling tank which separates Press mud from Mixed Juice, giving

Clear Juice. Clarifier is operated at a temperature of 102C. 4% of Cane wt% of Press

Mud settles out.

Hence, Amount of Press Mud Separated = 120 Tons

Amount of Mixed Juice In = 3032.1 Tons

Amount of Clear Juice Out = 2912.1 Tons

[24]

EVAPORATOR I:

BASIS: 2912.1 Tons of Clear Juice Entering Evaporator

In first effect evaporator, 85% water content in Clear Juice is reduced to 65% water.

Hence, Amount of Water evaporated = 582.42 Tons

Amount of Clear Juice In = 2912.1 Tons


EVAPORATOR II:


[25]

In second effect evaporator, 65% of water content in Clear Juice is reduced to 55%

water.

Hence, Amount of water evaporated = 291.195 Tons



EVAPORATOR III:


In third effect evaporator, 55% water content in Clear Juice is reduced to 44%

water.




[26]

EVAPORATOR IV:


In fourth effect evaporator, 45% of water content in Clear Juice is reduced to

40% water.

Hence, Amount of Water evaporated = 145.605 Tons



PAN A:

BASIS: 1601.65 Tons of Clear Juice Entering Pan-Boiler.

In Pan-Boiler (A), 53% of Water content in Clear Juice gets evaporated.




[27]

A-CENTRIFUGE:

BASIS: 990.1 Tons of Clear Juice Entering

In A-Centrifuge, 90% of Brix content is present in A-Massecuite. Brix is the

amount of solid content present in a solution.


Amount of A-Massecuite Out = 337.741 Tons ( of which 90% = 305.767 Tons are

solids)

Amount of A-Molasses Out = 650.363 Tons

PAN-B :

BASIS: 650.363 Tons of Molasses Entering

In Pan-Boiler (B), 65% of water content in A-Molasses is evaporated.


Amount of A-Molasses In = 650.363 Tons

Amount of A-Molasses Out = 312.805 Tons

[28]

B-CENTRIFUGE:


In B-Centrifuge, 95% of Brix content is present in B-Massecuite.

Brix is the amount of solid content present in a solution.

Amount of A-Molasses In = 312.805 Tons

Amount of B-Massecuite Out = 110.352 Tons ( of which 95% = 104.834 Tons are

solids)

Amount of B-Molasses Out = 232.453 Tons

PAN-C:

BASIS: 232.453 Tons of B-Molasses Entering

In Pan-Boiler (C), 75% of water content in B-Molasses is evaporated.


Amount of B-Molasses In = 232.453 Tons

[29]

Amount of B-Molasses Out = 100.27 Tons

C-CENTRIFUGE:


In C-Centrifuge, 97% of Brix content is present in C-Massecuite.

Brix is the amount of solid content present in a solution.

Amount of B-Molasses In = 100.27 Tons

Amount of C-Massecuite Out = 52.144 Tons (of which 97% = 50.58 Tons are solids)

Amount of C-Molasses Out = 48.497 Tons

[30]

CENTRIFUGE:

BASIS: 3000 Tons of Sugarcane crushed / day.

Centrifuge is used to separate Molasses and pure Sugar from a mixture of

Massecuites.

In centrifuge, 5% cane wt% of Final Molasses is obtained.

Hence, Amount of Final Molasses obtained = 5% of 3000 = 150 Tons

Amount of A-Massecuite in = 337.741 Tons

Amount of B-Massecuite in = 110.352 Tons

Amount of C-Massecuite in = 52.144 Tons

Amount of Sugar crystals Out = 351.826 Tons, along with 0.4106 Tons

of water.

[31]

DRIER:

BASIS: 3000 Tons of Sugarcane crushed / day.

Amount of Sugar crystals In = 351.826 Tons, along with 0.4106 Tons of water.

From Drier, 11.7% of Cane Wt% of pure dry white Sugar Crystals are obtained.

0.4106 Tons of water gets evaporated.

[32]

[33]

ENERGY BALANCE

ENERGY BALANCE

JUICE HEATER:

REFERNCE TEMPERATURE: 25C

Specific heat of sucrose [Cp(s)] = 0.299 Kcal / Kg[3]

Specific heat of water at 30C [Cp(Win)] =0.999 Kcal / Kg [3]

Specific heat of water at 71C [Cp(Wout)] =1.004 Kcal / Kg [3]

Latent heat of vaporization [ ] = 540.5 Kcal / Kg [3]

Enthalpy of solid in = m x Cp(s) x T

= 501 x 0.299(32-25) x 103

=1048.593x103 Kcal.

Enthalpy of water in = m x Cp(Win) x T

=2649 x 0.999(32-25) x 103

=18524.457x103 Kcal.

Enthalpy of solid out = m x Cp(s) x T

= 501 x 0.299(71-25) x 103

=6890.754x103 Kcal.

[34]

Enthalpy of water out= m x Cp (Wout) x T

= 2619 x 1.004(71-25) x 103

=120955.896x103Kcal.

Enthalpy of vapor out = m x

= 30(540.5)x103.

=16215x103Kcal

Total Enthalpy in =19573.05 x 103 Kcal

Total Enthalpy out =145009.71 x 103 Kcal

Hence;

Total heat required = Enthalpy out Enthalpy in

= 125436.66 x 103 Kcal

JUICE SULPHITATOR:

Enthalpy of solid in = m x Cp(s) x T = 501x0.299x(71-25)x103

= 6890.754x103Kcal.

Enthalpy of water in = m x Cp(W) x T

= 2619x1.004x(71-25)x103

= 120955.896x103Kcal.

[35]

[36]

Specific heat of Ca(OH)2=21.4 cal/mol [ From Data table][3]

=21.4/74 Kcal / Kg

=0.289 Kcal / Kg.

Enthalpy of Ca (OH)2 in= m x Cp x T

= 1.5x0.289x(71-25)x103

=19.941x103 Kcal.

Specific heat of SO2 =7.7+0.00537-(0.000000837)2 [3]

=8.072 cal/mol

=8.072/64=0.126 Kcal / Kg.

Enthalpy of SO2 in = m x Cp x T

= 0.6x0.126(71-25)x103

=3.478x103 Kcal


= 503.1x0.299(70-25)x103 Kcal

= 6769.21x103 Kcal

Enthalpy of water out= m x Cp(Wout) x T

= 2619x1.004(70-25)x103

= 118326.42x103 Kcal

Total Enthalpy in = 127870.069x103 Kcal

So, Amount of heat released = 2774.439x103 Kcal

HEATER:

Enthalpy of solid in = m x Cp(s) x T [5]

= 503.1 x 0.299 x (70-25) x 103

= 6769.21x103 Kcal


= 2619 x 1.004 x (70-25) x 103

= 11832.42x103 Kcal


= 503.1x0.299x(103-25)x103

= 11733.298x103 Kcal .

Enthalpy of water out = m x Cp(Wout) x T

= 2529x1.012x(103-25)x103

= 199629.144x103 Kcal

Enthalpy of vapor out = m x [5]

= 90(540.5) x 103

= 48645x103 Kcal

Total Enthalpy in = 125095.63x103 Kcal

Total Enthalpy out = 263222.602x103 Kcal

[37]

Hence;

Total heat required = Total Enthalpy out- total Enthalpy In

=138126.972 x 103 Kcal

CLARIFIER:

Enthalpy of solid in = m x Cp(s) x T

= 503.1 x 0.299 x (103-25) x 103

= 11733.298x103 Kcal


= 2529 x 1.012 x (103-25) x 103

= 199629.144x103 Kcal


= 436.81x0.299x(102-25)x103

= 10056.677x103 Kcal

Enthalpy of water out = m x Cp(Wout) x T

= 2475.29 x 1.012 x (102-25)x103

[38]

[39]

= 192884.498 x 103 Kcal

Enthalpy of mud juice= m x Cp x T

= 118.2 x 0.126 x (102-25) x 103

= 1146.77x103 Kcal

Enthalpy of lime out = 1.5 x 0.289 x (102-25) x 103

=33.38x103 Kcal

Specific heat of SO2 =77+0.6053(102)-0.00000083(102) 2[3]

=77.532/64 Kcal / Kg

=1.211 Kcal / Kg

Enthalpy of SO2 out = m x Cp x T

= 0.3x1.211x(102-25)x103

= 27.974 x 103 Kcal

Total Enthalpy in =211362.442 x 103 Kcal

Total Enthalpy out =204149.306 x 103 Kcal

Total heat released = Total Enthalpy In Total Enthalpy Out

=7213.136 x 103 Kcal

EVAPORATOR-I:

(85% water to 65% water)

Datum temperature =102C.

Clear juice balance:[5]

Enthalpy in: Hf = m x Cp x t

T=102-102=0

Cp=0.96 Kcal / Kg

m=2912.1x103kg

Hf =0.

Enthalpy out=Hp = m x Cp x t

t=0 Hp=0

Latent heat of input steam (s) at 126c=540.5 Kcal / Kg.[5]

Enthalpy of steam in = S x s.

Enthalpy of vapor out = m x . ( at 102=536.45 Kcal / Kg)

=582.42x536.45

=312439.209x103 Kcal.

[40]

Hf + Ss =Hp + m.

0+(540.5) S = 312439.21

S=578.056 ton

Amount of steam required =578.056 x 103 kg.

EVAPORATOR-II:

(65%water to 55% water)

Datum temperature: 78c Hf= m x Cp x t

Cp= 0.96 Kcal / Kg; t=120-78=42

Hf= 2329.68 x 0.96 x 42

= 93932.698x103 Kcal.

Enthalpy of vapor in= V1 x .

=V1x 536.45.

Since datum temperature is 78C, t =0.

Hp=0

[41]

at 78= 531.11 Kcal / Kg.


= 291.195 x 531.11 x 103

= 154656.577 x 103 Kcal

Hf + m = Hp + vapor out Enthalpy.[5]

(93932.698x103) + (V1 x 536.45) = 0 + 154656.577 x 103

V1 = (154656.577-93932.698) / 536.45

=113.195x103 kg.

Vapor required for II effect = 113.195x103 kg.

EVAPORATOR-III [55% Water-45%Water]

Datum Temperature: 66C

Enthalpy of feed Hf = m x Cp x t

= 2038.486 x 0.96 x (78-66) x 103

= 23483.358 x 103 Kcal.

Enthalpy of vapor in =V2 x 531.11

[42]

=V2 x 531.11 [s at 78 =531.11 Kcal / Kg]

Enthalpy of product Hp=0

Since; t =66-66=0

Enthalpy of vapor out =m x

=291.23 x 529.18 x 103

=154113.091x103 Kcal.

Hf + vapor in= Hp+ m .[5]

V2 x 531.11=0 + [154113.091x103-23483.358x103]

V2 = 130629.733 / 536.601x103 = 243.439 ton

Vapor required for III effect = 243.439x103 kg

EVAPORATOR-IV: [45% Water-40% Water]

Enthalpy of feed Hf = m x Cp x t

= 1747.263 x 0.96 x (66-55) x 103

= 18451.097 x 103 Kcal

[43]

Enthalpy of vapor in = V3 x 534.211

= V3 x 534.21 [s at 66 =534.211Kcal / Kg]

Enthalpy of product Hp=0

Since; t=0

Enthalpy of vapor out =m

=145.605x528.25.

=76915.841x10^3Kcal

Hf + V3 = Hp+ m [5]

Now; V3 = 0 + (76915.841-18451.097) x103

V3 = 58464.744 / 534.211 = 109.441x103 kg

Vapor required for IV effect = 109.441x103 kg

PAN -BOILER A:

Reference Temperature: 25 C

Enthalpy of juice in = m x C p x t

= 1601.65 x 0.96(55-25) x 103

[44]

= 46127.52 x 103 Kcal.

Enthalpy of vapor in = S x = S x 0.4574

Enthalpy of juice out = Enthalpy of crystallization + sensible heat of

water & sucrose

= (304.312 x 526) + (248.982 + 436.81)

0.96 x (60-25)

=183109.671 x 103 Kcal


= 611.546 x 540.5 x103

= 330540.613 x 103 Kcal

46127.52 x 103 + 554.222 x S = 523440.524 x 103

S= 861.233x103 kg.

PAN BOILER-B:

Reference Temperature: 25 C

[45]

Enthalpy of molasses in = m x C p x t = 650.563 x 0.96 x ( 60-25) x 103

= 21852.157 x 103 Kcal

Enthalpy of vapor in = S x

= 540.5 x S

Enthalpy of molassesout= Enthalpy of crystallization + sensible

heat of water & sucrose

= [78.623 x 530] + [234.179x0.96x

(65-25) x 103]

= 50662.664 x 103 Kcal

Enthalpy of vapor out= m x

= 337.558 x 540.5 x 103

= 182450.09 x 103 Kcal

i.e;(21852.157x103) + 556.951 S = (239290.074 x 103)

Hence; S =390.717 x 103 kg.

PAN- BOILER C:

Reference Temperature: 25C

[46]

Enthalpy of molasses in = m x C p x t = 232.453 x 103 x 0.96 x (65-25)

= 8926.195 x 103 Kcal

Enthalpy of vapor in = S x 540.5

=540.5 S

Enthalpy of molasses out= Enthalpy of crystallization + sensible


= [36.536 x 539] + [6.793 x 0.96 x

(70-25) x 103]

= 22448.762 x 103 Kcal

Enthalpy of vapor out = 132.183 x 540.5 x 103

= 71444.912 x 103 Kcal

(8926.195 x 103) + 558.80S = (96614.991x103)

S = [(96614.991-8926.195) x 103]/558.8

hence; S= 156.923 x 103 kg.

CRYSTALLISER-A:

[47]


Enthalpy of Massecuite in = m x Cp x t = 309.741 x 0.96 x (60-25) x 103

= 10407.298 x 103 Kcal.

Enthalpy of vapor out = S x

= S (540.5)

Enthalpy of massecuite out = Enthalpy of crystallization + sensible


= (261.978 x 530) + [47.7647 x 0.96 x

(50-25) x 103]

= 139994.693 x 103 Kcal

(10407.298 x 103) = 540.5S +139994.696 x 103

S = -233.754 x 103 kg

Hence; Amount of heat released = 233.754 x 103 Kcal

CRYSTALLISER-B:

[48]


Enthalpy of massecuite in = m x Cp x t

= 80.352 x 0.96 x (65-25) x 103

= 3085.516 x 103 Kcal.

Enthalpy of vapor out = S x

= S (540.5)


Heat of water & sucrose

= (71.841 x 539) + [8.511 x 0.96 x

(55-25) x 103]

= 38967.4158x103 Kcal

(3085.516 x 103) = 540.5S + 38967.4158 x103 Kcal

S= - 66.386 x 103 kg

Hence; Amount of heat released = 66.386 x 103 Kg

CRYSTALLISER-C:

Enthalpy of massecuite in = m x Cp x t = 52.144 x 0.96 x (70-25) x 103

[49]

[50]

= 2256.621 x 103 Kcal.

Enthalpy of vapor out = S x ()

= S (540.5)



= (19.966 x 542) + (2.182 x 0.96 x 35 x 103)

= 10894.887 x 103 Kcal

(2256.621 x 103) = 540.5S + 10894.887 x 103 Kcal

S = -15.989x103 kg

Hence, Amount of heat released = 15.989 x 103 Kg

[51]

DESIGN OF EQUIPMENTS

[52]

DESIGN OF EQUIPMENTS

EVAPORATOR:

Data : [8]

Evaporator drums operating at 1.45 bars.

Amount of water to be evaporated = 582.426 tons/day.

Heating surface required A= Q / (UxT).

Overall U=1653.75w/m2k.

Q=140564.783x10^3kcal.

t =102-55=47C.

Area of Evaporator Drum, A= [Q/(Uxt)]/4

=140564.783x103/(1653.75x47)

=1808.45/4

=452.1125 m2.

Steam is available to Ist effect pressure=1.96bar. [7]

Density of liquid =1400kg/m3.

Density of water vapor = PM/RT .

=1.45x10^5x18/[8314x(102+273)]

=0.837kg/m3.

Design pressure =0.05x1.936

=0.0968+1

p=2.0328 bar.

[53]

Material:

Evaporator low carbon steel.

Tubes- brass.

Permissible stress for low carbon steel (f) =980 kg/cm2 [5]

Modulus of elasticity for low carbon steel (Es) =19x105 kg/cm2

Modulus of elasticity for brass- 9.5x105kg/cm2

Conical head at bottom cone angle -120

Conical head at top cone angle -120.

CALENDRIA SHEET THICKNESS:

Ts = pDo/2fj+p.

where; f=980 kg/cm2; Do=3m; j=0.85

Ts= (2.0328x3000)/[(2x980x0.85)+2.0328]

=3.656mm.

The actual thickness must be much more so as to allow for corrosion and give rigidity

to the shell.

it may be taken as its =12mm.[6]

TUBE SHEET THICKNESS:

K= [EsxTsx (Do-Ts)]/ [EtxNtx (do-tt)]

Number of Tubes, NT=A/a

Where; A- Heat Transfer Area

a- Area of Tube

Do-Shell Diameter=3000 m

[54]

Now: a= dox l

Where; A=452.1125m2; Length of tube (l) =3.576 m

do-Outer diameter of tube=60.325x10-3 m

a =x60.325x10-3x3.576

=0.6932m2.

NT=A/a=652.2

Now K =19x105x12(3000-12) / [9.5x105x652.2x (60.325-5.5) x10-3]

K =0.3646 m

SHELL SIDE PRESSURE:

F= [(2+K)/(2+3xK)] 0.5

F= [(2+0.3646) / (2+3x0.3646)] 0.5

=1.0396 Bar

EFFECTIVE TUBE SHEET THICKNESS

Tts=fDo [(0.25x2.0328) / 980] 0.5

=1.039x3000x [(0.25x2.0328) / 980] 0.5

=71.021mm.

With corrosion allowable the thickness may be taken as 75mm.

EVAPORATOR DRUM DIAMETER:

Rd= (V/A) / 0.0172x ({l-v}]

Assuming drums with wire mesh as separator device, Rd may be taken as 1.3.

V=582.42x103 / (24x3600) kg/s

=density of vapor =0.837 kg/m3

A=5.642 / [1.3x0.0172x (1400-0.837) / 0.837]

Drum area =6.171 m2

Drum diameter; d= (4x6.171) x

=2.803 m.

NO.OF.TUBES:

No.of.tubes =heat transfer area / ( x outer diameter of tube x length).

=425.1125 / (x60.325x10-3x3.576)

=627.

DESIGN SUMMARY:

PARAMETERS VALUES

CALENDRIA SHEET THICKNESS 12 mm

TUBE SHEET THICKESS 0.3646 m

SHELL SIDE PRESSURE 1.0396 Bars

EFFECTIVE TUBE SHEET

THICKNESS

75 mm

EVAPORATOR DRUM DIAMETER 2.803 m

NUMBER OF TUBES 627

[55]

CRYSTALLIZER:

Q = U x A x Tlmtd.

Uo-Overall heat transfer coefficient in k.

1/Uo=1/ho+1/hi+do/di+Rd.[6]

Outer diameter of tube (do)=1.25=31.75mm

Inner diameter of tube (di) =0.95=24.13mm

Mass velocity of water =815.016kg/s. Nt=3784; Np=4

Average temperature of water = 60c.

Specific heat at 60 C, Cp=4.2258 kJ/kg k. [56]

[57]

Viscosity =0.77x10-3 N3/m2.

Thermal conductivity k=0.6526 W/mK.

Density =994.032 kg/m3.

Now, Npr= cp / k [7] = (4.2258x1000x.77x10^-3)/0.6256

=5.20

Mass velocity of water = mw =815.016 kg/s

Flow area At= {( di2)/4} x {Nt/Np}

= {(x(0.02413^2))/4}x{3784/4}

=0.43261 m2/pass.

Water velocity =V=mw/ (xAt) [6]

=815.016 / (994.032x0.4326)

=1.895 m/s.

NRe = (dixxV) /

= (0.0213x994.032x1.895) / (0.77x10-3)

=59030.461>10000.

Therefore:

By Dittus Bolter Law;

NNu=0.023x (NRe) 0.8x (NPr)] 0.3

=0.023x (59030.461) 0.8x (5.2) 0.3=247.394

Now, hi = NNu x K / di

[58]

hi = (247.394x0.6256) / (0.02413)

=6413.9945 W/m2K

ho =1.51(K3x2xg/2)1/3x(NRe)1/3

=1.50x18423.18x0.201

=5590.32w/m2.k

Rd=8.81x10-5

Here; 1/Uo=1/ho+1/hi+do/di+Rd

1/Uo=(1/5590.32)+(16413.9945)x(31.75/24.13)x(8.81x10-5)

=5.286x10-4 m2 K/W.

Uo=1891.7896 W/m2K

Inlet Temperature of Water = 30C

Outlet Temperature of Water= 45C

Required area, A =Q / (Uoxt lmtd).

Effective Q =349793.58 kg/hr.

Tlmtd = (30-60)-(70-60) / ln (30/10)

Tlmtd= 18.205

A=Q / (Uox Tlmtd) [6]

=349793.58 / (1891.7896x18.205)

=10.157 m2.

r- Radius of Crystallizer and is taken as 0.5 m

Length of the Crystallizer (l) =A / ( x r) =10.157/ ( x 0.5) = 6.466 m

[59]

DESIGN SUMMARY:

PARAMETERS VALUE

AREA OF CRYSTALLISER 10.157 m2

LENGTH OF THE CRYSTALLISER 6.466 m

CRYSTALLISER:

[60]

[61]

COST ESTIMATION AND

ECONOMICS

[62]

COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMICS

The cost for 4000 TPD crushing capacity plant with Chemical Engineering

Plant Cost Index (CE) =130 (Basis = 1957 -59; CE = 100) is as follows:

Cost for 4000 TPD crushing capacity = Rs. 10.25 x 107/-

TO FIND PRESENT COSTS:

A cost index is merely an index value for a given point in time showing the

cost at that time relative to a certain base time. If the cost at some time in past is

known, the equivalent cost at the present time can be determined by multiplying the

original cost by the ratio of the present index value to the index value applicable when

the original cost was obtained. Obtained from the Internet that Chemical Engineering

Plant Cost Index is given as:

Cost index in 2002 = 402

Original cost value is obtained when cost index was 130.

Thus,

Present cost of Plant = (original cost) x {(present cost index)/(past cost index)}

= (10,25,00,000 /-) x (402/130) = Rs. 31.70 x107 /-

Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) = Rs. 31.70 x 107 /-

Generally fixed capital investment cost is 85% of total capital investment.

Therefore Total Capital Investment = (FCI)/0.85 = 37.29 x 107 Rs.

ESTIMATION OF TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT

COSTS: (I) DIRECT COSTS:

(A) Material and labor involved in actual installation of complete facility (70-85%

of fixed-capital investment)

a) Equipment + installation + instrumentation + piping + electrical + insulation +

painting (50-60% of Fixed-capital investment)

[63]

a. PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST (PEC):

RANGE = 15-40% of Fixed-capital investment

Let Purchased Equipment Cost = 30% of Fixed-capital investment

PEC = 30% of Rs. 31.70 x107 /-

= Rs. 9.51 x 107 /-

b. INSTALLATION, INCLUDING INSULATION & PAINTING:

RANGE = 25-55% of purchased equipment cost.

Let Installation Cost = 35% of Purchased equipment cost

= 35% of Rs. 9.51 107 /-

= Rs. 3.33x107 /-

c. INSRUMENTATION & CONTROLS, INSTALLED:

RANGE = 6-30% of Purchased equipment cost.

Let Instrumentation Cost = 10% of Purchased equipment cost

= 10% of Rs. 9.5 x107 /-

= Rs. 0.951 x 107 /-

d. PIPING INSTALLED:

RANGE = 10-80% of Purchased equipment cost

Let Piping Cost = 40% of Purchased equipment cost

= 40% of Rs. 9.51 x 107 /-

= Rs. 3.804 x 107 /-

e. ELECTRICALS INSTALLED:


Let Electrical cost = 25% of Purchased equipment cost

= 25% of Rs. 9.51 x 107 /-

= Rs. 2.3775 x 107 /-

Therefore Total cost for (A) = Rs. 19.9725 x 107 /-

(B) BUILDINGS, PROCESS & AUXILARY:


Let Buildings, process and auxiliary cost = 30% of PEC

= 30% of Rs. 9.51 x107 /-

= Rs. 2.853 x107 /-

[64]

(C) SERVICE FACILITIES & YARD IMPROVEMENTS:


Let Facilities and yard improvement cost = 50% of PEC

= 50% of Rs. 9.51 x107 /-

= Rs. 4.755 x107 /-

(D) LAND:


Let the cost of land = 6% of PEC

= 6% of Rs. 9.51 x107 /-

= Rs. 0.5706 x107 /-

Therefore Total Direct Cost = Rs.28.1511 x107 /-

(II) INDIRECT COSTS: Expenses, which are not directly involved with material and labour of actual

Installation of complete facility (15-30% of Fixed-capital investment)

(A) ENGINERING & SUPERVISION:

RANGE = 5-30% of Direct costs

Let the cost of engineering and supervision = 10% of Direct costs

= 10% of Rs. 28.151 x107 /-

= Rs. 2.815x107 /-

(B) CONSTRUCTION EXPENSES & CONTRACTORS FEE:

RANGE = 6-30% of Direct costs

Let construction expense & contractors fee = 15% of Direct costs

= 15% of Rs. 28.1511x107 /-

= Rs. 4.22 x107 /-

(C) CONTINGENCY:

RANGE = 5-15% of Fixed-capital investment

Let the contingency cost = 8% of Fixed-capital investment

= 8% of Rs. 31.70 x107 /-

[65]

= Rs. 2.536 x107 /-

Thus, Total Indirect Costs = Rs. 9.574x107 /-

(III) FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT: Fixed capital investment = Direct costs + Indirect costs

= Rs 37.7251x107 /-

WORKING CAPITAL:

RANGE = (10-20% of Total-capital investment)

Let the Working Capital = 15% of Total-capital investment

= 15% of 37.29 x 107 /-

= 0.15 x 37.29 x107 /-

= Rs. 5.5935 x 107 /-

TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT (TCI):

Total capital investment = Fixed capital investment + Working capital

= Rs.43.3186 x107 /-

(IV) ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCTION COST:

MANUFACTURING COST = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead cost.

FIXED CHARGES: (10-20% total product cost) i. DEPRECIATION: (depends on life period, salvage value and method of

calculation-about 10% of FCI for machinery and equipment and 2-3% for Building

Value for Buildings)

Consider depreciation = 10% of FCI for machinery and equipment and 2.5% for

Building Value for Buildings)

i.e. Depreciation = (0.10x37.7251x107) + (0.025x 2.853x107)

= Rs. 3.8443x107 /-

ii. LOCAL TAXES: (1-4% of fixed capital investment)

[66]

Consider the local taxes = 2% of fixed capital investment

i.e. Local Taxes = 0.02 x 37.7251x107 = Rs. 0.7545x107 /-

iii. INSURANCES: (0.4-1% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the Insurance = 0.6% of fixed capital investment

i.e. Insurance = Rs. 0.226 x107 /-

iv. RENT: (8-12% of value of rented land and buildings)

Consider rent = 10% of value of rented land and buildings

= Rs. 0.2853x107 /-

Thus, Total Fixed Charges = Rs. 5.1105x107 /-

DIRECT PRODUCTION COST: (about 60% of total product cost)

Now we have Fixed charges = 10-20% of total product charges (given)

Consider the Fixed charges = 15% of total product cost

Total product cost = Total fixed charges/0.15

Total product cost = 5.1105 x107/0.15

Total product cost (TPC) = Rs. 34.07 x107 /-

i. RAW MATERIALS: (10-50% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of raw materials = 25% of total product cost

Raw material cost = 25% of 34.07 x107 = Rs. 8.5175 x107 /-

ii. OPERATING LABOUR (OL): (10-20% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of operating labour = 12% of total product cost

Operating labour cost = 12% of 34.07x107 = 0.12x34.07 x107

= Rs. 4.0884x107 /-

iii. DIRECT SUPERVISORY & CLERICAL LABOUR :(10-25% of OL) Consider the cost for Direct supervisory and clerical labour = 12% of OL

Direct supervisory and clerical labour cost = 12% of 4.0884 x107 /-

= 0.12 x 4.0884 x107 /-

Direct supervisory and clerical labour cost = Rs. 0.4906 x107 /-

[67]

iv. UTILITIES: (10-20% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of Utilities = 12% of total product cost

Utilities cost = 12% of 34.07 x107 = 0.12x34.07x107 /-

= Rs. 4.0884x107 /-

v. MAINTAINANCE & REPAIR (M & R): (2-10% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the maintenance and repair cost = 5% of fixed capital investment

i.e. Maintenance and repair cost = 0.05x37.725x107 = Rs. 1.8863 x07 /-

vi. OPERATING SUPPLIES: (10-20% of M & R or 0.5-1% of FCI)

Consider the cost of Operating supplies = 15% of M & R

Operating supplies cost = 15% of 1.8863x107 = 0.15x1.8863 x107 /-

= Rs. 0.2829x107 /-

vii. LABORATORY CHARGES: (10-20% of OL)

Consider the Laboratory charges = 14% of OL

Laboratory charges = 14% of 4.0884x107

= 0.5724x107 /-

viii. PATENT & ROYALTIES: (0-6% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of Patent and royalties = 2% of total product cost

Patent and Royalties = 2% of 34.07x107 = 0.6814x107 /-

Thus, Direct Production Cost = Rs. 20.6079x107 /-

GENERAL EXPENSES = Administrative costs + distribution and selling costs + research and development costs

ADMINISTRATIVE COSTS :(2-6% of total product cost)

Consider the Administrative costs = 5% of total product cost

Administrative costs = 0.05x34.07 x107

Administrative costs = Rs. 1.7035x107 /-

DISTRIBUTION & SELLING COSTS: (2-20% of total product cost); includes

costs for sales offices, salesmen, shipping, and advertising.

[68]

Consider the Distribution and selling costs = 15% of total product cost

Distribution and selling costs = 15% of 34.07x107 /-

= 0.15x34.07x107

= Rs. 5.1105x107 /-

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT COSTS: (about 5% of total product cost)

Consider the Research and development costs = 5% of total product cost

Research and Development costs = 5% of 34.07x107 /-

= 0.05x34.07x107

= Rs. 1.7035x107 /-

FINANCING (INTEREST): (0-10% of total capital investment)

Consider interest = 5% of total capital investment

i.e. interest = 5% of 43.3186x107 = 0.05x43.3186x107

= Rs. 2.1660x107 /-

Thus, General Expenses = Rs. 10.6835x107 /-

TOTAL PRODUCTION COST = Manufacture cost + General Expenses = (29.1254x107) + (10.6835x107)

Therefore Total product cost = Rs. 39.8089x107 /-

GROSS EARNINGS / INCOME: Wholesale Selling Price of cane sugar per T = Rs. 8000 /-

As we know sugar factory operates only 120 - 200 days in a year and the

production of cane sugar per hour is 26.4818 T per hour (from material balance). The

working hours per day are 20.

Assuming factory operates only 150 days in a year.

Total Income = Selling price per T x Quantity of product manufactured (T/year)

= 8000 x (26.4818 x20) T/day x150 days/year

Total Income = Rs. 63.56 x107 /-

Gross income = Total Income Total Product Cost

= (63.56 x107) (39.8089 x107)

Gross Income = Rs. 23.75x107 /-

[69]

Let the Tax rate be 40%.

Taxes = 40% of Gross income

= 40% of 23.75x107 = 0.40 x 23.75 x 107

Taxes = Rs. 9.50 x 107 /-

Net Profit = Gross income - Taxes = Gross income x (1- Tax rate)

Net profit = (23.75x107) x (1 0.40) = Rs. 14.25x107 /-

RATE OF RETURN:

Rate of return = (Net profit x100)/ Total Capital Investment

Rate of Return = (14.25 x107 x 100)/ (43.3186 x107)

Rate of Return = 32.89%

Payout period = (FCI) / (Net profit + Depreciation)

= (37.7251 107) / (14.25 107 + 3.8443 107)

Payout period = 2 years

[70]

PROCESS CONTROL

[71]

PROCESS CONTROL

Cane Preparation plays an important role in achieving higher crushing rate with improved pol extraction in minimum power consumption. During cane

preparation, the cane structure is to be districted into small pieces. There are different

devices used in different combinations to achieve fine cane preparation such as:[5]

Cane-kicker Leveller Cutter Kicker leveller Cutter-Shredder Kicker leveller Cutter-fibrizer.

It is observed that with second and third combination, the cane preparation is

better. By good cane preparation, the following advantages are derived:

1. High bulk density of the prepared cane.

2. High percentage of open cells containing more sugar in cells.

3. High preparation Index

4. Long fiber length

The cane preparation is judged by Preparatory Index.

PREPARATORY INDEX It is defined as the degree of achievement of

preparation. The formula for calculating the preparatory index is as follows:

% P.I = [(% pol extracted by leaching) / (% pol extracted by disintegration)] x 100

If the value of P.I is desired to be between 80 to 85% for better cane

preparation is good. The temperature to be maintained in each equipment in a sugar

plant is controlled by a Temperature valve controller which is fixed in the equipment

itself. Any deviations from standard temperature in the equipment or in the flow tube

are sensed by a sensory valve and are indicated in the control room. Suitable changes

in the valves are made to bring the temperature to stability. Similarly, the pressure

inside evaporators and vacuum pans are controlled by suitable pressure valves. The

even operation of a process is dependent upon the control of the process variables.

When the flow sheet is laid out for the processs,the temperature, pressure and fluid

flow quantities are theoretically fixed in accordance with the heat, pressure and

material balance. the translation of flow sheet into an operable plan requires that

[72]

special provision be made to assure the relative constancy of the various quantities

and qualities. Automatic control is employed to measure suppress and correct and

modify changes of four principal types of process variation.

1. Temperature control

2. Pressure control

3. Flow control

4. Level control

It is the object of all controllers to regulate process variables, and to do so they must

be capable of first measuring the variables. Some instruments are equipped to indicate

the variable in a continuously readable from and others recorders, are equipped with

pen and ink on a traveling chart calibrated for time. In modern process industries,

digital control systems (DCS) are used for effective control of process variables.

Flow metering

The measurement of flow rate is done for the purpose of determining the

properties of the materials introduced, the amount of material evolve by the process.

Secondly flow measurement is made for the purpose of cost accounting usually for

steam and water services. Instruments like venturimeter , orificemeter ,rotameter are

used to measure the flow rate.

VARIABLE MODE OF CONTROL

Temperature P, PI, PID

Pressure P, PI, PID

Flow P, PI, PID

[73]

CONTROL ROOM:

Well engineered display is important in individual indicating and recording

instruments becomes crucial in control room design when data on large and often

critical process operations must be used by a human operator. Indicator and recorders

must be

coordinated with controls, switchs, alarms and auxiliary equipments so as to present a

clear easily grasped display of the process condition. There are four essential parts of

every control station. They are

1. Process variable indicator

2. A set point mechanism

3. An adjustment device, called manual, that directly manipulates signal to control

valves.

4. An output signal indicator.

Control room is where the sensors of all equipments are connected to each

other using suitable soft wares. Usually, HONEYWELL software is used for

controlling the equipments in a sugar plant. Using sensors, the valves in each

equipment are controlled. Thus, the parameters in each equipment are controlled. [5]

[74]

PLANT LOCATION AND SITE

SELECTON

[75]

PLANT LOCATION AND SITE SELECTON

The geographical location of the final plant can have strong influence on the

success of the industrial venture. Considerable care must be exercised in selecting the

plant site, and many different factors must be considered. Primarily the plant must be

located where the minimum cost of production and distribution can be obtained but

other factors such as room for expansion and safe living conditions for plant operation

as well as the surrounding community are also important. The location of the plant

can also have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project. [10]

The choice of the final site should first be based on a complete survey of the

advantages and disadvantages of various geographical areas and ultimately, on the

advantages and disadvantages of the available real estate. The various principal

factors that must be considered while selecting a suitable plant site are briefly

discussed in this section. The factors to be considered are:

1. Raw material availability

2. Location (with respect to the marketing area)

3. Availability of suitable land

4. Transport facilities

5. Availability of labors

6. Availability of utilities (Water, Electricity)

7. Environmental impact and effluent disposal

8. Local community considerations

9. Climate

10. Political strategic considerations

11. Taxations and legal restrictions

[76]

Raw Materials Availability:

The source of raw materials is one of the most important factors influencing

the selection of a plant site. This is particularly true for the cane sugar plant because a

large volume of sugar cane is consumed in the process, which will result in the

reduction of the transportation and storage charges. Attention should be given to the

purchased price of the raw materials, distance from the source of supply, freight and

transportation expenses, availability and reliability of supply, purity of raw materials

and storage requirements.

Location:

The location of markets or intermediate distribution centers affects the cost of

product distribution and time required for shipping. Proximity to the major markets is

an important consideration in the selection of the plant site, because the buyer usually

finds advantageous to purchase from near-by sources.

Availability of Suitable Land:

The characteristics of the land at the proposed plant site should be examined

carefully. The topography of the tract of land structure must be considered, since

either or both may have a pronounced effect on the construction costs. The cost of the

land is important, as well as local building costs and living conditions. Future changes

may make it desirable or necessary to expand the plant facilities. The land should be

ideally flat, well drained and have load-bearing characteristics. A full site evaluation

should be made to determine the need for piling or other special foundations

Transport:

The transport of materials and products to and from plant will be an overriding

consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected so that it is

close to at least two major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway or a seaport. Road

transport is being increasingly used, and is suitable for local distribution from a

central warehouse. Rail transport will be cheaper for the long-distance transport. If

possible the plant site should have access to all three types of transportation. There is

usually need for convenient rail and air transportation facilities between the plant and

[77]

the main company head quarters, and the effective transportation facilities for the

plant personnel are necessary.

Availability of Labors:

Labors will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled

construction workers will usually be brought in from outside the site, but there should

be an adequate pool of unskilled labors available locally; and labors suitable for

training to operate the plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance.

Local trade union customs and restrictive practices will have to be considered when

assessing the availability and suitability of the labors for recruitment and training.

Availability of Utilities:

The word utilities is generally used for the ancillary services needed in the

operation of any production process. These services will normally be supplied from

acentral facility and includes Water, Fuel and Electricity which are briefly described

as follows:

Water: - The water is required for large industrial as well as general purposes, starting

with water for cooling, washing and steam generation. The plant therefore must be

located where a dependable water supply is available namely lakes, rivers, wells, seas.

If the water supply shows seasonal fluctuations, its desirable to construct a reservoir

or to drill several standby wells. The temperature, mineral content, slit and sand

content, bacteriological content, and cost for supply and purification treatment must

also be considered when choosing a water supply. De-mineralized water, from which

all the minerals have been removed, is used where pure water is needed for the

process use, in boiler feed. Natural and forced draft cooling towers are generally used

to provide the cooling water required on site.

Electricity: - Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants and fuel

is ordinarily required to supply these utilities. Power, fuel and steam are required for

running the various equipments like generators, motors, turbines, plant lightings and

general use and thus be considered, as one major factor is choice of plant site.

[78]

PLANT LAYOUT : After the flow process diagrams are completed and before detailed piping,

structural and electrical design can begin, the layout of process units in a plant and the

equipment within these process unit must be planned. This layout can play an

important part in determining construction and manufacturing costs, and thus must be

planned carefully with attention being given to future problems that may arise.

Thus the economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will

depend on how well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is

laid out. The principal factors that are considered are listed below:[5]

1. Economic considerations: construction and operating costs

2. Process requirements

3. Convenience of operation

4. Convenience of maintenance

5. Health and Safety considerations

6. Future plant expansion

7. Modular construction

8. Waste disposal requirements

Costs:

Adopting a layout that gives the shortest run of connecting pipe between

equipment, and least amount of structural steel work can minimize the coat of

construction. However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation

and

maintenance.

Process Requirements:

An example of the need to take into account process consideration is the need

to elevate the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a

pump.

[79]

Convenience of Operation: Equipment that needs to have frequent attention should be located convenient

to the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at

convenient positions and heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must be

provided to allow easy access to equipment.

Convenience of Maintenance:

Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily

withdrawn for cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent

replacement of catalyst or packing should be located on the out side of buildings.

Equipment that requires dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large

pumps, should be places under cover.

Health and Safety Considerations:

Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and

confine the effects of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be

provided from each level in process buildings.

Future Plant Expansion:

Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any

future expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs,

and service pipes over-sized to allow for future requirements.[4]

Modular Construction: In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant

manufacturers site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping

and instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or

sea.

The Advantages of modular construction are:

1. Improved quality control

2. Reduced construction cost

3. Less need for skilled labors on site

[80]

The Disadvantages of modular construction are:

1. Higher design costs & more structural steel work

2. More flanged constructions & possible problems with assembly, on site

[82]

POLLUTIO

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