37? NQ fd 36^ - Digital Library/67531/metadc279129/m2/1/high... · three, chosen for this study...

37? NQ fd

Aiot 36^

TWENTIETH-CENTURY WORKS FOR TEXTLESS VOICE AND VARIOUS

WOODWINDS WITH THREE RECITALS OF SELECTED WORKS OF

STAMITZ, ROUSSEL, ALBINONI, WEBER, MILHAUD,

AND OTHERS.

DISSERTATION

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

University of North Texas in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

By

Nancy M. Gamso, B.S., M.M.

Denton, Texas

December, 1992

Gamso, Nancy M., Twentieth-Century Works for Textless

Voice and Various Woodwinds with Three Recitals of Selected

Works of Stamitz. Roussel. Albinoni. Weber. Milhaud. and

Others. Doctor of Musical Arts (Woodwinds Performance),

December 1992, 131 pp., 3 tables, 39 examples, 3 appendices,

annotated bibliography of selected works, bibliography, 44

titles.

The purpose of this study is to explore the literature

for textless voice and woodwind instruments. The primary

focus concerns the timbral and ensemble possibilities

exploited in three twentieth-century works in which the

voice is treated as an instrument i.e., without the usual

preoccupation with textual meaning. An historical overview

of vocal works with obbligato woodwinds and concerted works

for textless voice serves as an introductory chapter. The

variables of voice and instrument acoustical makeup, vocal

vowel formation and instrumental voicings, volume, vibrato,

resultant tones, range, and extended techniques

(fluttertongue, special vibrato demands, non-vibrato, etc.)

are the focus of the performance considerations for this

study.

Over thirty twentieth-century textless works for voice

and at least one woodwind instrument were located. The

three, chosen for this study represent different periods in

the century, and present contrasting styles and musical

merit: Aria (1931) by Jacques Ibert, Three Vocalises (1958)

by Ralph Vaughan Williams, and Duos I (1976) by Nancy

Chance. A style and performance analysis of these works

with pertinent research on the composers is presented.

Appendices include an annotated bibliography of selected

works for the medium, a written interview with Nancy Chance,

and performance notes provided by the composer, concerning

Duos I.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is with sincere graditude that I acknowledge the

following people for their assistance in this endeavor: my

committee, John Scott, Deanna Bush, and James Gillespie for

their editorial assistance; Marilyn Nims, Diana Gale, and

Rose Marie Chisolm for their performance assistance; Nancy

Chance for information in the Duos J; and my family and

friends for their generous and loving support.

1X1

PREFACE

The purpose of this study is to explore the literature

for textless voice and woodwind instruments. The primary

focus concerns the timbral and ensemble possibilities

exploited in three twentieth-century works in which the

voice is treated as an instrument, i.e., without the usual

preoccupation with textual meaning. In texted compositions

(numerous works) for voice and obbligato woodwinds the text

tends to affect the general character of the work and often

its overall structure. The programmatic association of the

clarinet in Schubert's Der Hirt auf den Felsen (1828) is an

obvious case. Similarly, John Banner's The Thrush, Edward

German's Bird of Blue, and Lawrence Willingham's Carol of

the Thrush, works for flute and voice, make overt

programmatic use of the obbligato instrument here alluding

to the sound of birds. Such narrow stereotyping certainly

does not constitute the majority of works written for

obbligato instruments. Yet, even in texted works of the

highest merit, the roles of the singer and instrumentalist

are inherently different.

In the absence of text, however, the composer is

better able to concentrate on matters of blend, timbral

IV

relationships and form without being constrained by

structural or programmatic implications of a text. The

variables of voice type and instrument acoustical makeup,

vocal vowel formation and instrumental voicings, volume,

vibrato, pitch, resultant tones, loudness, and special

effects (fluttertongue, special vibrato demands, non-

vibrato, etc.) become all-important without the distraction

or aid of a literary focus.

Past studies have focused almost exclusively on texted

literature for the voice and obbligato instrument and on

concert vocalises for the solo voice. Little research has

been done concerning the history, analysis, or performance

practice of music for untexted voice and woodwinds. This

study begins with an historical overview of texted works for

voice and woodwind obbligato and works employing textless

voice. In addition, this study brings together knowledge of

the special acoustical properties of woodwind instruments

and voice that should aid the performer and teacher alike.

The third chapter features a detailed analysis of the three

works. The concluding chapter summarizes the contributions

of the study. Appendices include an annotated bibliography

of selected works for the medium, a written interview with

Nancy Chance concerning Duos I, and program notes on Duos I,

provided by the composer.

Three works were selected from the bibliography of

works for their special problems encountered with the

medium. Aria (1930) by Jacques Ibert, Three vocalises

(I960) by Ralph Vaughan Williams, and Duos I (1976) by Nancy

Chance. A style and performance analysis of each complete

work to be performed and pertinent research on the composers

are presented. Marilyn Nims and Diana Gale performed the

vocal roles in these works. Their observations have aided

in this research.

VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE iv

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF EXAMPLES ix

PROGRAMS OF RECITALS xi

Chapter

I. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 1 Historical Survey of Vocal Music with Woodwind Obbligato The Use of the Voice without Text

II. PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS 18 Introduction Timbre in Voice, Flute, Clarinet vibrato Pitch Loudness Special Techniques

III. ANALYSES AND PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS OF SELECTED WORKS 47

Introduction Aria (1931) by Jacques Ibert Three vocalises (1958) by Ralph Vaughan Williams Duos I (1976) by Nancy Chance

IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 90

APPENDIX A: Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works ....95

APPENDIX B: Written Interview with Nancy Chance 107

APPENDIX C: Program Notes for Duos 1 110

BIBLIOGRAPHY 112

VI1

LIST OF TABLES

1. Cubic and simple difference tones 39

2. Harmonic Material 3, Reduction to sounding intervals, mm. 18-24, Chance Duos 1 77

3. Form of Chance Duos 1 84

Vlll

LIST OF EXAMPLES

1. Glottal "trill," Rosen Serenade 42

2. Fluttertonguing, Chance Duos 1 42

3. Syllables, McBride Vocalise 43

4. Syllables, Weigl Brief Encounters 44

5. Fluttertonguing,Chance Duos 1 44

6. Fluttertonguing, Rosen Serenade 45

7. Glissandi, McBride Vocalise 45

8. Key and Tongue Clicks, Rosen Serenade 45

9. Arrangements, Ibert Aria 50

10. Differences in editions, Ibert Aria 53

11. Differences in editions, Ibert Aria 54

12. Texture of opening, Ibert Aria 56

13. Dissonance between flute and piano, Ibert Aria 57

14. Thirds, Ibert Aria 59

15. Unisons, Prelude Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises... 63

16. Final measures, Prelude, Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises 64

17. Cross rhythms, Scherzo, Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises 65

18. Ending, Quasi Menuetto, Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises 67

19. Melodic Materials 1, Chance Duos 1 72

IX

20. MM 2, Chance Duos 1 7 3


22. MM 4, Chance Duos 1 74





27. Harmonic Materials 1, Chance Duos 1 77

28. HM 2, Chance Duos 1 77

29. HM 4, Chance Duos 1 78

30. HM 5, Chance Duos 1 7 8

31. Rhythmic Materials 1, Chance Duos 1 79

32. RM 2, Chance Duos 1 79



35. Principal Cadence, Chance Duos J 81

36. Transposition of principal cadence by a P4th, Chance Duos 1 81

37. Principal cadence with special effects and

rhythmic augmentations, Chance Duos 1 82

38. Foreshadowing, Chance Duos 1 83

39. Extension of motive, Chance Duos 1 83

presents

Doctoral Solo Recital

Nancy Gamso, Woodwinds

with Sarah Staton, Piano

Joueurs de f l u t e , Op. 27 Pan T i tyre Krishna Mr de la Pejaudie

Premier Solo for Bassoon

Intermission

Concerto in B f l a t Major for Clarinet Allegro moderato Adagio Poco presto

Albert Roussel

E. Bourdeau

Oohann Stamitz

Sonata for Clarinet and Piano, Op. 129 Allegro moderato Charles V. Stanford Caoine - Adagio (quasi Fantasia) Allegretto grazioso

Monday, March 6, 1989 8:00 p.m.

Recital Hall

X I

presents

Graduate Recital

NANCY GAMSO, clarinet and oboe

assisted by: Judy Fisher, piano

Paul Rennick, percussion

Monday, June 25, 1990 6:15 p.m. Recital Hall

Concerto in D minor, Op. 9, No. 2 Tomaso Albinoni Allegro e non presto (1671-1750) Adagio Allegro

Solo de Concours, Op. 10 pour Clarinette Henri Rabaud in Sib avec accompanyement de Piano (1901) (1873-1949)

Moderate - Largo - Allegro

- INTERMISSION -

Capriccio for Solo Clarinet Heinrich Sutermeister in A (1946) (b. 1910)

i Koiml

mt

X l l

Sources III for Two Performers (clarinet David Burge and percussion) (1967) (b. 1930)

I. i = ca, 60 II. J = 132

III. > = 40 IV. ) = ca. 46 (Cadenza I) V. Free Tempo (Cadenza II)

Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctorate of Music in Woodwinds

X l l l

presents

A Graduate Recital

NANCY M. GAMSO, flute, clarinet, saxophone assisted by

Philip Wilder, harpsichord Michael Kaprelian, ceilo

Rose Marie Chisholm, piano

Monday, March 9, 1992 6:15 p.m.

Sonata No. 2 in d minor, "La Vibray" Andante Allemande - Allegro Gavotte (les Caquets) - Tranquillo Sarabande - Largo Finale - Allegro

Philip Wilder, harpsichord Michael Kaprelian, cello

Recital Hall

Michel Blavet (1700-1768)

- short pause -

Concertino, Opus 26

Hillandale Waltzes Temp di Valse - Con garbo

I. Valse 4l4gante II. Valse passionie

III. Valse sombre IV. Valse volante V. Valse triste

VI. Valse de bonne humeur VII. Valse brillante et joyeuse

VIII. Valse oubliie

Carl Maria von Weber (1786-1826)

Victor Babin (1908-1972)

xiv

- short pause -

Scaramouche Darius Milhaud Vif (1892-1974) ModM Mouv' de Samba

Rose Marie Chisholm, piano

Presented in partial rtilfiUment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Musical Arts

x v

( n o n~l~ QJfi i ci. x^lWytvJ JVLUdli

presents

A Graduate Lecture Recital

NANCY M. GAMSO, flute and clarinet assisted by

Marilyn Nims, soprano • Diana Gale, soprano Rose Marie Chisholm, piano

Monday, July 13, 1992 6:15 p.m. Recital Iiall

TWENTIETH-CENTURY WORKS FOR TEXTLESS VOICE AND VARIOUS WOODWINDS

Aria for Voice, Flute and Piano (1931)

Marilyn Nims, soprano

Jacques Ibert (1890-1962)

Three Vocalises for Soprano and Clarinet (1958) / . Prelude Ralph Vaughan Williams

11. Scherzo (1872-1958) / / / . Quasi Minuetto

Diana Gale, soprano

Duos I for Soprano, Flute and Finger Cymbals (1976)

Marilyn Nims, soprano

Nancy Chance (b. 1931)

Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Musical Arts

x v i

CHAPTER I

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Historical Survey of Vocal Music with Woodwind Obbliaato1

The concept of combining the lyrical qualities of the

voice with the expressive and technical attributes of wind

instruments is not a new one. Since the Medieval period and

the songs of the trouveres and troubadours, singing has been

accompanied and enhanced by various instruments. In the most

elaborate accompanying situations in medieval song, wind

instruments alternate with the voice in simple counterpoint.

Flutes, recorders, and shawms were among the instruments

employed for these occasions.2 Though the designation was

far from specific, the practice of substituting available

instruments for vocal parts in ballatas, virelais, frottolas,

motets, and madrigals is thought to have been a common

xln the context of this discussion, the term "Obbligato" refers to "an independent part in concerted music, ranking in importance just below the principal melody and not to be omitted... The archetype of obbligato part is the instrumental solo which, with a basso continuo, constitutes the accompaniment of a vast number of late Baroque arias." Don Randall, The New Harvard Dictionary of Music (Cambridge, MA.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1986), 551.

2Denis Stevens, ed., A History of Song {New York: W.W. Norton, 1960), 19.

occurance during the Medieval and Renaissance periods.3 In

the Baroque period, this "theory of availability" in

instrumentation was less flexible.4 Titles of works

typically designated voice and one or two of several

obbligato instruments, depending on the order of preference.

These were inundated by such standard instructions as:

"...per violino o flauto," "vorr viol (fluit, blokfluit,

hobo)," or "pour violon ou flute allemande.5 The violin was

the preferred instrument for obbligato accompaniment;

woodwind instruments were used less frequently with the most

popular being the flute, recorder, and oboe.

An increase in the use of obbligato woodwinds followed

structural improvements on these instruments by a group of

Parisian craftsmen, namely those of the Hotteterre family in

the early part of the Baroque period. This increase in

obbligato woodwinds is demonstrated in works by composers

such as A. Scarlatti, Telemann, Handel, and J.S. Bach who

began using obbligato flute and oboe parts in their operatic

and cantata arias.6 In the late Baroque, these arias were

3Maria K. Stolba, The Development of Western Music - A History (Debuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1990), 148, 178.

4Ibid., 148.

5Ronald Wain, "Flute and Voice Ensembles," The Instrumentalist, XLV (January 1991), 13.

6Ibid., 9.

standardized into a da capo form with the obbligato

instrument participating in the opening ritornello,

interludes, and postludes anticipating the vocal line,

imitating melodic material, and otherwise unifying the

structure.

The clarinet first appeared during the mid-eighteenth

century, initially in association with vocal works. The

clarinet and its predecessor, the chalumeau, are found in a

number of works, including a Mass by Antwerp organist, J. A.

J. Faber in 1720, and in a Telemann Cantata for Whit Sunday

(1721), calling for a soprano aria to be accompanied by

"Flauto piccolo, Clarinetto et Quartett."7 In opera, the

clarinet was employed in a growing number of works, first

among them Handel's Tamerlano (1724) in which an aria calls

for the accompaniment of two cornetti, later replaced by two

clarinets. The clarinet first appears in French opera in

Rameau1s Zoroastre of 1749.8

Toward the midpoint of the eighteenth century, the

standardization of pairs of woodwinds in orchestral works

contributed to an established use of these instruments in

opera orchestrations. However, the contrapuntal passages for

woodwind obbligato characteristic of the early Baroque were

7Oscar Kroll, The Clarinet (New York: Taplinger Pub. Co., 1968), 47.

8Sumrall, 11.

replaced with less elaborate phrases by pairs of woodwinds.9

This followed the fashion in Italian arias in the 1750s and

1760s and continued throughout the Classical period. In his

operatic works, Mozart followed this trend. Within this

convention of short obbligato phrases, his works demonstrate

the timbral possibilities of the woodwinds in an obbligato

role. Mozart was fond of woodwind timbre and often used

flutes, oboes, clarinets, and bassoons in homogeneous or

heterogeneous pairs. Numerous passages are found in solo

arias and duets, and smaller ensembles (trios, quartets,

quintets, and sextets) in which the woodwinds appear in

unison with the voices, in thirds and sixths and occasionally

as obbligato instruments against the vocal parts.10 In La

Clemenza di Tito (1791), for example, Mozart chose to use the

Bb clarinet and the basset horn in F as true obbligato

instruments in two arias, "Parto, parto" (No. 9), and , "Non

piu di fiori" (No. 23). The role of the clarinet and basset

horn can be described as generally idiomatic for the

instruments, using arpeggiated passages that display both

9M. F. Robinson, "The Aria in Opera Seria, 1725-1780," Proceedings of the Royal Music Association, 88th Session (London, 1961-62), 38, cited in Sumrall, 9.

10In a survey study done by this author, the majority of bel canto arias in Mozart's operas from Idomeneo to Die Zauberflote used the woodwind instruments in this capacity.

instruments' extended range.11

The bassoon was omitted from the preceding discussion of

the obbligato woodwind instruments because of its primary

role as the bass line. In the Baroque period, there are,

however, occasional instances of more active bassoon parts,

usually exploiting the full bass range. Such parts are found

in an aria in Traetta's Olipiade and in works by Steffani

(1655-1729), Kapelmeister at Hanover, ca. 1689, where they

were performed by fine French bassoonists.12 In Steffani's

works, the bassoon is used as an obbligato instrument with

the voice. Two interesting occurences of the use of five

bassoons and continuo in the accompaniment of soprano arias

by Schiitz and Reiser are to be noted. They appear in

Heinrich Schiitz's Psalm 24 (Vol. XIII, No. I of his

Sammtliche Werke) and in Reiser's Octavia (1706).13 In the

secular cantata Durchlaucht'ster Leopold (?1718), Bach used

the bassoon, "col violoncello," in the bass aria (No. 7).14

^Mozart wrote many of his clarinet works for his friend and fellow Mason, Anton Stadler, an excellent clarinetist and the performer of clarinets and basset horns with a lower extension of a major third. Mozart's inclusion of the two obbligati arias in La Clemenza di Tito were due in part to his friendship with Stadler.

12Lyndesay G. Langwill, The Bassoon and Contra-Bassoon (London: Ernest Benn, 1965), 75.

13Ibid., 73-80.

14Ibid., 84.

Handel generally scored one or two bassoons in the accepted

treatment of the bass line. One notable exception is the

scene between Saul and the witch of Endor in the oratorio

Saul (17 39), in which two bassoons soli accompany the ghostly

voice over a sustained bass.15 Mozart's treatment of the

woodwinds, as noted previously, also extends to the bassoon.

A rarely performed aria, "Nehmt meinen Dank," K. 383 (1782)

opens with a very lyrical bassoon, flute, and oboe obbligato

and closes with an extended bassoon solo.16

Woodwind obbligato parts first appear in solo song

literature in a limited capacity in late eighteenth-century

Europe. The Breitkopf Thematic Catalog, a recognized record

of published works of the eighteenth century, records only

three chamber works for voice and woodwind obbligati; two for

oboe and one including clarinet, though the clarinet work is

not used in a true obbligato capacity.17 The genre, however,

was most popular in eighteenth-century London where music for

this medium was heard in numerous public performances at the

Pleasure Gardens, Marylebone Gardens, Ranelagh Gardens, and

Vauxhall Gardens. Although the majority of these works have

not survived, the importance of the immense volume of vocal

15Ibid., 86.

16Ibid., 88.

17Sumrall, 23.

music produced for these light entertaining events cannot be

dismissed. Frank Kidson is quoted as saying: "If we

eliminated from the published music of the time all that had

its first public hearing at the public gardens, there would

be very little to show what English music was like in the

eighteenth century."18 An example of this type of song is

James Hook's "0 whither can my William stray" for soprano,

clarinet, and piano, dating from the last quarter of the

eighteenth century. The clarinet doubles the voice line

throughout the work and finishes with an instrumental

postlude for the last few measures. Two additional songs for

soprano solo and accompaniment are representative of this

genre composed for the Pleasure Gardens. They exploit the

flute for its birdsong-like associations and include "Lo,

here the gentle lark" by Henry Bishop and "The gypsy and the

bird" by Sir Julius Benedict.19

A few surviving American songs dating from this period

have been identified. A work entitled "Sweet echo" for

voice, German flute, and violin was printed in the American

Musical Magazine (17 86); reference is made in the same

18Rosemary Hughes, "Solo Song," The New Oxford History of Music, edited by Egon Wellesz and Frederick Sternfeld (London: Oxford University Press, 1973), VII, 337 as cited in Sumrall, 16.

19Sumrall, 22.

8

journal to songs accompanied by piano and flute or oboe

obbligato from 1784.20

In the nineteenth century, the increase in the size of

the orchestra and the general interest in orchestral music

contributed to a decline in interest in chamber music. What

is lacking in volume, however, is compensated for in quality

as is evidenced by a handful of works including Schubert's

famous Der Hirt auf dem Felsen for soprano, clarinet, and

piano. Other early nineteenth-century songs with woodwind

accompaniment include: Weber's Ein Entmutigter Liebende and

Ein Begluckter Liebender, both songs scored for voice, flute,

cello, and piano; Meyerbeer's Des Schafers Lied for tenor and

obbligato clarinet and Hirtenlied for clarinet, soprano, and

piano; Spohr's Sechs Deutsche Lieder for voice, clarinet, and

piano; A. Panseron's J'attends Romance for voice, oboe, and

piano, A. Ch. Adam's Le Retour a la Montagne, Die Riiekkehr

ins Gebirge, Tyrolienne for voice, oboe, and piano; and W.R.

Bexfield Song to Ellen, Op. 4 for voice, bassoon, and piano.

As this sampling of vocal chamber works indicates, the

bassoon and oboe are rarely represented in the nineteenth

century. After their enormous popularity in Baroque cantatas

20Sonneck, O.G., Early Concert Life in America (1731-1800) (New York: Musurgia Pub., 1949), p. 415 as cited in Becker, 3.

and operas, the double reed instruments are employed with

some fregency in the chamber works of the twentieth century.

In the opera and sacred vocal genres of the nineteeth

century, woodwinds again assumed a position of importance in

supporting the voice in an obbligato manner. This is

evidenced in the clarinet obbligato of Schubert's "Romance"

from the opera Die Verschworenen and the Erstes Offertorivm,

Op. 46; in Spohr's opera Der Zweikampf mit der Geliebten in

which an important clarinet obbligato is employed; in

Donizetti's L'Blisir d'Amore, scoring a bassoon obbligato in

"Una furtiva lagrima;" in Gounod's Faust in which two

bassoons play an important role; in a Serenade in Act IV of

Verdi's Requiem using a bassoon accompaniment in the "Quid

sum miser;" and the flute obbligato in "II dolce suono mi

colpi," the "Mad-Scene" in Act III of Donizetti's Lucia di

Lammermoor.21

In the present century, vocal music with woodwind

obbligato embraces a variety of styles found in all

twentieth-century art music, from the most conservative neo-

classical works, prominent among English music for voice and

clarinet, (A. Cooke, Songs of Innocence, A. Bliss, Nursery-

Rhymes, and G. Jacob Three Songs are only a few) to the most

21Langwill, 97.

1 0

radical experimentation with the voice in terms of the size

and makeup of the ensemble, technique, use or absence of text

and various other modifications. In the opinion of Ursula

Greville, the twentieth century marks a point of no return in

the relationship of the voice with "accompanying" instruments

in chamber music.

...never has the voice consciously been allowed to merge into or mix with the texture of sounds with which it is thus environed, nor has the accompaniment dared, for a moment, openly to usurp the 'divine right' of the voice to dominate. The exception -- and there are not a few -- are the accidents, for not until today, or late yesterday, have there existed the idea of co-operation, the recognition of the social, democratic, and communal sympathies of the voice in the realm of sound.22

This change in treatment of the voice from that of

soloist to an equal chamber partner has been embraced by many

twentieth-century composers. In its new role, the voice

functions as a new instrumental timbre and many twentieth-

century works demonstrate this equality.

Among the numerous of works for voice and various wind

instruments composed at the beginning of the century,

certainly one of the most influential is Schoenberg's Pierrot

Lunaire (1912). This landmark composition was immediately

followed by Maurice Ravel's Trois Po&mes de Stephane Mallarme

22Ursula Greville, "Voice and the Chamber Ensemble," Cobbett's Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music, 3 vols. Compiled and edited by Walter Willson Cobbet with supplementary material edited by Colin Mason. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), 11:555.

11

(1913) for voice, piano, string quartet, two flutes, and two

clarinets and Stravinsky's Pribaoutki (1914) for voice,

flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and

string bass. These works were succeeded by Hans Eisler's

Palmstom (1926) for speech song, flute (also piccolo),

clarinet in A, violin (also viola), and cello; and Anton

Webern's Six Songs (1917-21) for soprano, clarinet, bass

clarinet, viola, and cello. All are indebted to Schoenberg's

song cycle in their approach to instrumentation, serial

techniques, and the use of Sprechstiime.23 Homogeneous

groupings of accompanying instruments also were employed

early in the century, as in Berceuse de Chat (1916) for voice

and three clarinets by Stravinsky, Milhaud's Cocktail (1921)

for the same combination, and Webern's Five Canons (1923-4)

for voice, clarinet, and bass clarinet. Thirty years later,

Dallapiccola scored the Goethe Lieder (1953) for three

clarinets.

The numerous works for voice and small ensembles of

various woodwinds demonstrate the willingness on the part of

twentieth-century composers to experiment with different

combinations of timbres. Perhaps the most common

conservative combinations consist of voice with flute and

piano, as in Arthur Benjamin's The Piper, Delibes' Le

23Becker, 8-9.

1 2

Rossignol, and Ibert's Aria (1931); and voice, clarinet, and

piano as represented by such works as Argento's To be Sung

Upon the Water and Rorem's Ariel. Other woodwinds are

employed only rarely. In the case of the double reed

instruments (oboe, bassoon and their family members)

instrumentation often involves an ensemble of 3-11

instruments, thus lessening the impact of these instruments

in a true obbligato role. William Richard Bexfiels's Song to

Ellen, Op. 4 for voice, bassoon, and piano is an exception.

Historically, the saxophone seems to have been used the

least in combination with voice, having only been invented in

the mid-nineteenth century. A few representative works have

emerged which include Jean Absil's Nostalgia d'Arabella, Op.

22 and Phantasme, Op. 72 for alto, alto saxophone,

percussion, and piano; and jazz inspired compositions by

Boris Blacher Jazz-Koloraturen (1927) for soprano, alto

saxophone, and bassoon and the Jerome Rosen Serenade (1964)

for soprano and alto saxophone.24 The ensemble possibilities

promise to be interesting, given the saxophone's dual role in

both jazz and art music.

Vocal works with woodwind obbligato have changed and

developed throughout the history of music. The medium has

followed the trends of each style period, from the obbligato,

24These works are reviewed in Appendix A.

13

contrapuntal nature of the Baroque, the restrained, employment

in the Classical period, the programmatic, expressive

character of the Romantic period to the equal partnership and

the use of the voice and instruments in new methods of

expression in the twentieth century. Because of the

compatible nature of the voice and woodwinds, this

partnership continues to be an significant medium in chamber

music.

The Use of the Voice without Text

The vocalise, a vocal composition without text, began as

a technical exercise for the voice. In the mid-eighteenth

and early nineteeth centuries collections of solfeggi and

exercises for the voice with piano accompaniment were

published. These included both newly-composed etudes or the

melodic content of previous works, often provided with

instructions for solving technical problems. Representative

examples of the former include The Singer's Preceptor (1810)

of Domenico Corri, Traite complet ce l'art du canto (1840)

and of the latter, the supplement to L'art du chat (1755) of

Jean-Baptiste Berard, with selected compositions by Lully,

Rameau, and others.25

25Owen Jander, "Vocalise," New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. (New York: Macmillan, 1980), 51.

14

It was not until the early twentieth century that

composers began to utilize textless vocal parts in concert

works in order to exploit the timbral potential of the voice.

The following list includes works that are among the best

known compositions without text.

Gabriel Faure - Vocalise-etude (1907) Maurice Ravel - Vocalise en forme d'habanera (1907) Sergei Rachmaninov - Vocalise, op. 34, no. 14 (1912) N. K. Medtner - Sonata-Vocalise, Op. 41, No. 1 (71922-3)

. - Suite Vocalise, Op. 41, No. 2 (71926) Aaron Copland - Vocalise (1927) Alfredo Casella - Three vocalizzi (1929) Fransesco Cilea - Vocalizzi da concerto (1932) Ottorino Respighi - Three vocalizzi (1933) Heitor Villa-Lobos - Vocalise-etudes (1929)

. - Bachianas Brazilieras No. 5, Aria (Cantilena Introduction and Conclusion) (1938-45) Reinhold Gliere - Concerto for Coloratura Soprano and Orchestra, Op. 8 (1943)

In 1907, A.L. Hettich, a professor of voice at the Paris

Conservatoire, commissioned works to be used as vocal etudes

for his students in the study of contemporary etudes.

Faure, Honneger, Ibert, Roussel, and Ravel responded to the

commission and their respective vocalises were published by

A. Leduc in A.L. Hettich1s Repertoire moderne de vocalises -

Etudes (1907). Interestingly, the Faur£ Vocalise-etude was

first entitled Piece, was written for oboe solo.

In the Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brazilieras No. 5, the Aria

movement entitled "Cantilena" with text by Ruth Correa, is

framed with a vocalise in unison with the first celli. The

Rachmaninoff Vocalise has become quite popular in both its

15

vocalise and violin version. The work was dedicated to the

coloratura soprano Antonina Nezhdanova who expressed

disappointment at the absence of text. Speaking as a true

Romantic, Rachmaninoff is reported to have replied with a

flattering tone, "What need is there of words, when you will

be able to convey everything better and more expressively

than anyone could with words by your voice and

interpretation?"26 The work, originally scored for voice and

piano, was later orchestrated by the composer and premiered

by Koussevitzky in Moscow in January of 1916. This work was

the inspiration for the concerted vocalise works to follow,

namely the Medtner and the Glidre, ambitious attempts in

creating multi-movement works for untexted voice that

constitute the height of virtuosity in the vocalise

application.27 The Copland Vocalise is dedicated to Ethyl

Luening, wife of composer and flutist Otto Luening. This

performing duo has been the recipient of several dedications

for vocal, flute works in the twentieth century, including

Robert McBride's Nonsense Syllables (1937) and Vocalise

(1952).

26Martyn, Barrie, Rachmaninoff: Composer, Pianist, Conductor (Aldershot, Hants, England. Brookfield, vt.: Gower Pub. Co., 1990), 240.

27Ibid., 241. Little historical information is available concerning Medtner's or Gli^re's vocalises. The Gliere has been recorded by Joan Sutherland and the London Symphony Orchestra (London 430006-2 LM).

16

As a timbral color in symphonic works, the vocalise

technique has been used in a number of works, including

Vaughan Williams' Symphony No. 3, "The Pastoral," (1921),

Debussy's "Sirenes" from Nocturnes (1897-9), Hoist's The

Planets (1914-16), and Ravel's Daphnis and Chloi (1911-13).

Vaughan Williams' use of the vocalise is of interest to the

present discussion. His biographer, Michael Kennedy,

describes the entrance of the vocalise in the finale.

The impression is strong throughout the work of Vaughan Williams's 'vocal' use of instruments, but in his finale he calls in the human voice for the startling effect he achieves when, over a drumroll, [a] cantilena is sung off-stage. The result is unbearably poignant, like a lament for the flowers of the forest cut down in the 1914-18 war; yet the grief is somehow transcended and becomes more cosmic than personal without losing intensity.28

It is probable that Vaughan Williams was well aware of

Hoist's earlier use of the technique in the Planets. Ralph

Vaughan Williams and Gustave Hoist were close collegues and

Hoist considered the Pastorale Symphony among his favorite of

Vaughan Williams' works.

Hoist, Debussy, and Ravel all chose to use the vocalise

in ethereal settings. Hoist used a six-part chorus of female

voices in the last movement of the Suite, "Neptune, the

28Kennedy, 171.

17

Mystic." The chorus, placed offstage, is given a sustained,

chordal line throughout. In "Sir&nes," Debussy uses the

voices to portray the water spirits. Eight sopranos and

eight mezzo-sopranos add to the tonal texture with sustained

notes, rhythmic undulating figures and occasional imitations

of melodic motives in the winds and strings. The

indicatation, "a bouche fermee," is used on occasion. Ravel

employs the vocal timbre of sopranos, contraltos, tenors and

basses who participate in the stage action in Daphnis and

Chlo6. An "A," indicating the syllable "ah," is placed at

the beginning and alternated with passages for "Bouches

ouvertes." For performances without the chorus, Ravel has

included alternate parts, rewriting for winds the choral

parts for a large ensemble comprised of woodwinds: piccolo,

flute, alto flute, oboe, English horn, clarinet, bass

clarinet, bassoon; and muted brass, especially horns and bass

trombone.

The technique of vocalise has had a selective

application in concert music for voice. Initially a vehicle

for vocal virtuosity, the vocalise has been used increasingly

by twentieth-century composers to explore the timbral

possibilities of the voice. This new-found use of the voice

as an instrument promises to be an inportant avenue for the

future development of the twentieth-century chamber music

with its rich and varied tonal palette.

CHAPTER II

PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS

Introduction

The performance considerations noted in this chapter

combine information in the areas of timbre, vibrato, vocal,

and instrumental technique with observations of the

performers for this study/performance. The purpose is to aid

in the analysis and performance of the works selected for

this study.

A few similarities in all the instruments studied can be

noted. The voice, flute, and clarinet all show an increase

in harmonic partials in louder dynamic situations and

subsequently, a weakening in upper harmonics in softer

dynamic levels. The upper regions of their respective ranges

demonstrate a lack of upper partials with the flute and voice

both approaching a sine wave (pure tone).

The differences in voice type and make of instrument

contribute to the timbral blend of the performing

instruments. A particular voice type is characterized by the

relative strength of the upper partials of a given tone as

well as the singer's range. The same tone sung by a mezzo-

soprano, a lyric soprano, and coloratura soprano will display

1 8

1 9

different variations of partial intensities that will be

perceived aurally as being relatively "brighter," "darker,"

"rounder," or "with more edge". Similarly, certain makes of

clarinets, mouthpieces, reeds, flutes, and flute headjoints

will elicit the same perceptions.

Timbre in Voice. Flute, and Clarinet

To achieve a compatible ensemble, a fundamental

understanding of the acoustical properties of vocal and

instrumental timbres is necessary. Such knowledge is

essential in ascertaining those timbral aspects of a given

composition that are potentially problematic. This study

does not offer an indepth scientific explanation of the

passages under consideration; rather it summarizes the most

current and authoritative research in more general terms and

applies the information to various performance situations

that arise in the works being analyzed.

In the three works chosen, the distinct combination of

instruments, intervals, musical figures, etc., provides a

challenge to the performers' execution of the various

timbres. Certain situations seem to require that the

instruments approximate a similar timbre while others may be

enhanced by a distinct difference. For example, the

inclusion of the piano in the Ibert Aria complicates the

texture requiring the vocal line to be more distinct from the

flute. In the Chance Duos I, however, a similarity of timbre

20

emphasizes the instrumental quality of the voice and enhances

the dissonant character of the work. In the Vaughan Williams

Three Vocalises, the register of the clarinet is a major

determining factor if timbral similarities are preferred.

The relative inflexibility of the clarinet tone limits that

ensemble member's range of timbral flexibility. Each of the

works requires a different musical character that is

partially expressed in the timbral aspects of the ensemble.

Vocal Timbre

The vocalise technique emphasizes the vowels of words

almost exclusively.1 The most common vowel formations used

by singers of Western European and American art music for

sustained tone are generally restricted to "ah" as in hst or

father; "ee" as in £ve or each, "oh" as in own and "oo" as in

ooze or moon. Composers of works for textless vocal parts

invariably ask for an "ah" vowel when specified at all. The

"ah" syllable is the most resonant vowel syllable for most of

the soprano range. However, other vowel formations can also

enhance the timbre of the tone in various registers and in

conjunction with other instruments.

The vocal tract functions somewhat like a cylindrical

tube closed at one end (at the larynx). The first two, and

J-Melodies set to texts comprised of "nonsense" syllables are the exception.

21

to some extend the third, standing wave patterns of the

spectrum envelope of this tube are the most important in

vocal acoustics. These correspond to a node-antinode pattern

in a tube. The manipulation of vowels creates a distinctive

intensification at specific frequencies at these node-

antinode points in the tube and allow recognition of the

vowel. This unique set of frequencies (or pitches) is

referred to as formants. The first formant has a frequency-

ranging over a few hundred hertz on either side of 500 Hz,

the second the same range around 1500 Hz, and the third,

around 2500 Hz.2 The female vocal tract is on average 17%

shorter than the male's, thus, the formant pattern of the

same vowel sound in females is about three semitones higher,

and the child's formant pattern is a semitone higher still.

The brain's recognition process of the vowel makes an

allowance for such variations. The exact set of formants is

not fixed. Each vowel resonates at its own frequency,

approximately at a stable set of formants, regardless of the

pitch being sung. The resonant frequency will rise under the

two conditions: the reduction of the diameter of the tube at

a pressure antinofle and with the expansion of the diameter at

a pressure node. In general, the "ah" vowel raises the first

2Murray Campbell, The Musician's Guide to Acoustics {New York: Schirmer, 1988), 480.

22

formant frequency by lowering the jaw and expanding the

diameter at the first formant pressure node. Both "ee" and

"oo" vowels produce a low frequency first formant. The

second formant is enhanced by the "ee" sound while the "ah"

vowel has an overall fall in the second formant frequency.

The "ee" vowel's second formant is around 2000 Hz, 500 Hz, or

approximately a perfect fourth higher than the cylindrical

model. The "oo" vowel results in a further drop in the

second formant frequency of below 700 Hz.

In summary, each vowel sound has its own timbral

characteristics that are a result of these combinations of

formant frequencies. Researchers concerned with tone color

have borrowed terminology from the field of phonetics to

describe the timbral characteristics or "sound color" of a

given vowel.3 These descriptive terms include: Openness

(relative to the size of the oral cavity), Acuteness

(brightness), Laxness (the distinction between long and short

vowels), and Smallness, (the dimensions of the acoustic tube

or the overall size of other sorts of resonators).4 The "ah"

3Wayne Slawson, Sound Color (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985). The author's choice of terminology for timbre or tone color.

4Ibid., 57. This aspect has an indirect relation to timbre due to the physical tendency of relatively large or long objects to resonate at low frequencies and small or short objects to resonate at high frequencies.

23

vowel exhibits a high content of openness throughout much of

the middle to high range of the soprano voice. Acuteness, or

the bright quality of timbre, is the result of an increase in

frequency of the second formant as is the case in the "ee"

vowel. The laxness of a vowel corresponds to the relative

relaxed state of the muscles. Short vowel sounds such as "a"

as in apple and "ah" have a medium laxness, while the long

vowels, "ee" and "oo" have a low laxness. The idea of

smallness does not have any correlation to features in

vowels. It does, however, contribute to the overall timbre

because of this tendency of resonating objects, as noted.

The vowel "oo" has a medium-low smallness (meaning a larger

diameter and lower frequency), "ah," a medium smallness

quality, and "ee," a medium-high smallness, indicating a

smaller diameter and higher frequency.

In preparing the works in this study, the performers

determined the kind of character of each musical phrase

through experimentation. Various syllables or colors were

chosen depending upon the context. For example, each note

could be altered to add more openess or more acuteness. A

long "oh," vowel (adding openness) creates a darker timbre

while syllables with smallness produced a brighter tone.

In addition to affecting timbre, the singer can

manipulate the vocal formants to intensify the amplitude of

pitches. As an example, the first formant of the vowels,

24

"oo" or "ee" resonates at a frequency around that of the

pitch E4 SO that the first formant of these vowels matches

this pitch as it is vocalized. By opening her mouth

progressively wider, the soprano can keep this first formant

in tune with the sounding note up to 932.3 Hz or

approximately the pitch A#5. Similarly the vowel "ah,"

resonating at a higher frequency of around 7 00 Hz, can

resonate with pitches between E4 and G4 at their second

partials; with a rise in pitch, however, the first partials

of tones corresponding to the "ah" first formant frequency --

approximately from the pitch F5 -- are tuned to this formant.

This phenomenon of "formant tuning" has been

systematically categorized and used in vocal training and by

a number of vocal pedagogues, among them Berton Coffin.5

Using the International Phonetic Alphabet, he has carefully

charted the vowel formations corresponding to the tuned

formant for each syllable in four languages over the entire

vocal range. Coffin has developed the method based on his

understanding of vocal tone development and cultivation.

Such a thorough application of this technique further

demonstrates the extent to which acoustical study has been

applied to vocal pedagogy. Although scientific application

does not ensure a greater musical product, understanding how

5Berton Coffin, Overtones of Bel Canto (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow, 1980)

25

a mechanism works is beneficial to the performer interested

in applying those acoustical principles in new performance

situations. The voice is an extremely flexible instrument

capable of creating a much broader palette of timbre than

instruments. The singer who is willing to experiment with

timbre can contribute tremendously to the blend and contrast

of an ensemble setting.

Flute Timbre

In comparison to the other orchestral wind instruments

the flute is possibly the closest in tone quality to the

human soprano voice. Its flexibility, comparable tessitura,

and vocal-like vibrato contribute to its compatibility as an

ensemble partner. Like the voice, the flute, in its low and

middle registers, displays strong harmonic overtones. In the

third register the timbre approaches a sinusoidal wave

pattern, displaying a nearly pure tone with very little upper

harmonics, similar to the lack of upper partials in the

extreme range of the voice. As in singing, the flutist can

change the shape of the formants by manipulating the shape of

the airstream in the flute tone, though to a lesser degree.

Many flute teachers profess the merits of modifying the oral

cavity to enhance timbral quality and variety. Nevertheless,

with the exception of the extreme range (around 1000 Hz, C6) ,

the general conclusion of acoustical researchers is that such

26

changes in the size of the oral cavity have very little

effect on timbre. Any perceived change in tone quality is

attributed to a change in the focusing of the air jet.6 This

focusing of the air jet is manipulated by the flute

embouchure and determines the pitch as well as tone.

Variations in embouchure shape, the relative relaxation of

the lips, the direction of the air stream, and the amount of

lower lip covering the embouchure plate all contribute to a

wide variety of tone color and pitch flexibility. A flutist

at the artist level is able to use these various tone

qualities to adapt to many performance demands. In

Kincaidiana, John Krell recounts William Kincaid's views on

flute tone.

Flutists should emulate [the violinist's] tonal options and try to approximate them. For example, the flute can produce a finger-board flautando (lots of loose air across the mouth hole) or a bristly bridge tone {pressure of tight air directed more into the flute) together with all the intermediate intensities. ...Flute tone, then, is an extremely complex phenomenon capable of great variations and modulations. The flutist should be able to change the color of his tone to suggest perfumes, to indicate textures of light and darkness, to reflect emotions of rage, repose, etc. Tone is one of the most central means of musical communication. Since music has many different kinds of things to say, the flutist should be capable of producing a variety of tonal qualities.7

6Campbell, 287.

7John Krell, Kincadiana; a Flute Player's Notebook (Culver City, CA: Trio Assoc., 1973), 9-13.

27

Although rather poetic, this statement illustrates the

expressive breadth of timbre demanded of the flute.

Regardless of the acoustical limitations of a fixed tube with

which the vocalist is not encumbered, the flute is among the

most timbrally expressive of the woodwinds.

As alluded to previously, flutes and flute headjoints

vary in relative strength of the harmonics displayed

throughout the scale. This is aurally perceived in qualities

expressed by terms as "brilliance," "warmth," "edge,"

"lightness/ heaviness," "intensity," etc. Competitive

manufacturers are continually developing flute design

variations that will deliver an ideal flute tone. This ideal

is difficult to define, considering the variety and abundance

of professional flutists in this country alone. However, in

questioning the application of blend with voice, similar

perceived qualities are to be considered.

While the singer is capable of producing remarkably

flute-like tones, the flutist is limited in imitating the

variety of vocal timbres. However, the flutist can strive to

adopt the singer's timbral flexibility and contribute to the

timbral palette of the ensemble in this way.

Clarinet Timbre

The clarinet performs acoustically as a cylindrical

tube, and with the action of the reed, acts as a closed pipe.

28

The fundamental register of the clarinet is identified by a

near absence of even-numbered partials and an exaggeration of

the odd-numbered harmonics, displaying five distinct peaks in

the spectrum envelope. In the second and third registers

fewer harmonics are present and the even partials are more

significant.

Conflicting studies report the ability of the oral

cavity to function as a resonating chamber in clarinet tone

production. According to some studies, variations in the

size and shape of the oral cavity proved to effect little

change in the harmonic spectrum while others supported a

significant change.8 There is evidence to suggest that the

tongue placement, while changing oral cavity volume, actually

acts to manipulate the air pressure and flow.9 This affects

the tone quality, especially in the higher registers.

Embouchure variations, i.e., placement and pressure placement

of the lips upon the mouthpiece, create an important variance

8Charles E. Lawson, "An Investigation to Determine if the Oral Cavity Acoustically Influences the Radiated Wave Form of the Clarinet" (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms, 1974) . Geoffrey Rendall, The Clarinet: Some Notes upon its History and Construction (London: Ernest Benn, 1971). Fredrick Thurston, Clarinet Technique (London: Oxford University Press, 197 3).

9Lawson, 79.

29

upon tone quality. A difference of .0065 inches in lip

placement can make a noticable difference in quality.10

The affect of the mouthpiece and reed combination upon

timbre is also significant. Considerable research in

mouthpiece design has resulted in an abundance of timbral

choices. Various makes and models of instruments, custom

barrels, reeds, and ligatures all make claims of offering

various degrees of refinement in tone qualities. As with the

flute, careful analysis of tone qualities should be

considered.

The clarinet is acoustically more limited than the flute

in the variety of timbres possible. Fortunately, the rich

harmonic spectrum of the clarinet tone blends with the voice

without necessitating close similarities of tone color.

Other attributes of the clarinet, such as the expressive

dynamic control and the legato playing style, compensate for

the lack of timbral variety.

Conclusions and Applications of Timbre Study

Through study of the acoustical basis for timbre of

these instruments, it must be kept in mind that perception of

timbre and timbre combinations often belies physical fact.

The area of interest in this study focuses upon what is

perceived in an instrument1s timbre in performance

10Ibid.

30

situations. With this in mind, a few applications of this

knowledge may support perceived experiences.

1) The timbres of the human voice, flute, and clarinet can

vary considerably according to individual voice and

instrument type and technical training. This allows for

numerous variables in timbral combinations beyond the gross

physical characteristics of their timbral acoustical

spectrums.

2) The timbre of the voice can be manipulated with more

variety than the instruments, but characteristic vocal tone

quality may be sacrificed in the attempt.

3) Adjustments in embouchure shape and pressure, as well as

direction of the air stream, are possible in wind instruments

to approach timbral blend with the voice.

4) Considerable unconscious adjustment takes place between

artists as a matter of course in extended ensemble

experience. The ability of the ear to make subtle

adjustments in timbre cannot be underestimated.

5) Other factors that contribute to timbre characteristics

in a performance setting include: dynamics, vibrato,

combination of instruments and the texture of the musical

context. These factors all must be considered in making tone

color decisions.

31

vibrato

vibrato is produced by several different methods: the

Thoraco-Abdominal (known as diaphramatic vibrato), the

Laryngeal (throat vibrato), a synergetic combination of the

two, and the Jaw vibrato. The various types of vibrato

generally produce a fluctuation in both the amplitude

(loudness) or frequency (pitch) with a more significant

fluctuation of amplitude in the case of the diaphramatic and

of frequency in the others.

Vocal vibrato is expected and applied in trained singers

except in specified cases such as early music or for special

effects. The vast majority of trained concert singers use a

laryngeal vibrato exclusively. This results in a fluctuation

in frequency primarily and to a lesser extent in amplitude.

In flute vibrato, manipulation of the thoraco-abdominal

muscles results in a fluctuation in amplitude. Some

variation in frequency also occurs with the natural tendency

of the flute to sound at higher frequencies with an increase

in amplitude. The use of laryngeal vibrato is used less

commonly, inspite of arguments advanced in support of its

relative merit and applications. Controversy has arisen over

its misapplication, referred to by the French as the bleating

of a nanny-goat or Chevrotement, because this type of vibrato

32

results in a more significant frequency fluctuation.11 This

is not to imply that these methods of vibrato are unrelated

phenomena. Certainly some sympathetic movement in the larynx

occurs in the application of diaphramatic vibrato. The

purpose of this study, however, is to determine the aural

results of each type of vibrato rather than their physical

origins.

Traditionally, the use of vibrato in clarinet

performance has been shunned in the United States for two

reasons. First, American clarinetists have adopted

characteristics of both the French and German styles of

playing, in regard to vibrato, the tendency has been to

favor the German consistency of tone over the use of vibrato,

characteristic of the French style. Secondly, the use of

vibrato, which has been closely associated with the jazz

idiom, further alienated its usage on the concert stage.

With the last generation of professional clarinetists,

however, vibrato is gaining acceptance in this country.

Clarinet vibrato is usually activated by movements in

the tongue and jaw with a small minority of players using the

abdominal or laryngeal methods. In the case of the "jaw"

vibrato, the fluctuation is more prominent in frequency

i:LJochen Gartner, The Vibrato with Particular Consideration given to the Situation of the Flutist {Regensburg: Gustav Bosse Verlang, 1981), 76.

33

rather than amplitude. Applications of vibrato in clarinet

playing tend to be conservative in comparison to flute

vibrato, activated at the ends of held notes or in selected

passages.

Some opinions regarding instrumental vibrato not

necessarily supported by scientific fact are of value and

should be included because they reflect a tendency in aural

perception. These include the related statements that the

flute needs vibrato because of its "pure tone" and relative

lack of upper partials; conversely the clarinet does not

require vibrato because of its rich harmonic palette.

Neither of these statements are scientifically accountable

but do represent widely accepted views among a sizable

portion of the professional community and therefore should be

noted.

The fluctuation of frequency has been reported to be

greater among singers than instrumentalists by as much as a

difference of a quarter tone. The rate of pulsations per

second for both voice and instruments is at a range of 5.6 to

8 per second.12 In this author's experience of using a tuning

device, singers register a vibrato oscillation averaging 10-

20 cents above the pitch. The same perceived depth and speed

12Carl E. Seashore, ed., University of Iowa Studies in the Psychology of Music (Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1932), vol. 1, Vibrato, 164.

34

of vibrato by a flutist registers an average of 5 cents below

to 15 cents above the pitch while the clarinetist under the

same conditions registers an oscillation averaging of 10 - 20

cents below the pitch center. The pitch difference between

the singer and clarinetist both using a wide vibrato can

therefore be as much as 40 cents. For this reason alone, the

use of clarinet vibrato should be questioned.

In the case of the clarinet, players are divided in

their preferences for a "pure tone" or the judicious use of

vibrato as the situation merits. In light of the evidence

stated above, the use of a very prominent vibrato by the

between the singer and clarinetist would result in an

unusually large pitch center. Some players are known to use

a fast, shallow "shimmering" vibrato. This kind of vibrato

is not aurally perceived as a large fluctuation in pitch and

has been proven to be effective in ensembles with voice.

Since the use of vibrato in clarinet playing is such a highly

charged issue, the judicious use of it is generally

suggested.

Some twentieth-century composers have used vibrato as a

compositional device. In the Duos I, for example, Nancy

Chance uses a normal vibrato, a smorzato vibrato, and no

vibrato as structural elements in variations of the recurring

main theme. In other compositions surveyed, the technique is

used as a melodic enhancement. In Stanley Walden's Coronach;

35

A Kaddish, the soprano and English horn parts have recurring

sections in which a quarter tone, non-synchronized alteration

in pitch is notated. The voice part fluctuates the pitch in

the manner of a vibrato while the English horn is instructed

to use a key manipulated pitch alteration ("half-close B

key").13 This mechanical type of pitch alteration produces a

change in timbre as well as pitch. The Vocalise for soprano,

flute, and piano by Henry Cowell realizes a tone color

vibrato in a different manner. A series of quarter notes is

notated with an alternating accent and harmonic symbol. A

note explains the harmonic symbol as an unaccented tone and

the accents to be stressed by "sudden thrusts of the

diaphram." Since the tempo marking is quite fast, the effect

is that of a heavy vibrato.

Pitch

In equal temperament tuning all semitones equal 100

cents, allowing complete freedom in modulation of keys. The

major drawback to this system is the mistuned major third

which is too large an interval by 14 cents and the minor

third, too small by 16 cents. In performance of instruments

in which the pitch can be instantly regulated, this

13Stanley Walden, Coronach; A Kaddish (Bryn Mawr, PA: T. Presser Co., 1989), 6.

36

adjustment can be made to tune to an aurally perceived

correct interval.

Various studies have determined the following phenomena

in tuning difficulties.14

1) The greater the dynamic contrast, the more difficult the

pitch-matching task.

2) Certain tone quality combinations present pitch-matching

difficulties not found with other combinations.

Findings by A. W. Blatter shed further light on the

difficulty to correct tuning in a performance situation. By

using electronically produced sine waves and complex

waveforms, Blatter tested both men and women instrumentalists

and pianists for their abilities to match various

combinations of electronically created timbres. The results

of Blatter's research pertinent to this study are summarized.

1) When matching harmonically complex timbres to

harmonically simpler timbres the tuning is usually flat.

2) When matching harmonically simpler timbres to

harmonically complex timbres, the tuning is usually sharp.

3) Harmonically similar timbres are easier to tune than

dissimilar ones, while more complex timbres are more

accurately tuned in the majority of situations.

14Studies, cited in Blatter, "The Effect of Timbre on Pitch-Matching Judgements" (Doctoral diss., University of Illinois, 1974). Murray Campbell, The Musician's Guide to Acoustics (New York: Schirmer, 1988).

37

4) Frequencies in higher ranges are easier to tune, with

females reaching their maximum accuracy at 800 Hz (G5) and

nearly as accurate above. Males improved up to 1800 Hz

(A/A#g) and decreased in accuracy at 3800 Hz (A#/B7).

5) The instrument performed by the test subject did not make

a significant difference in results.15

Although these findings only apply to unison pitch-

matching, significance to this study is apparent in a number

of situations in the works under consideration. In preparing

the Duos I, for example, unisons between the voice and flute

are more accurately tuned when the voice and flute use a

similar timbre. Conversely, difficulty in matching unisons

between the voice and clarinet arise when the timbres differ

significantly. The timbre of the voice in the low register

compared to that of the flute in the opening of the Ibert

Aria must be carefully adjusted for the passing unisons to

sound in tune.

Contrasting dynamics between the flute and voice occur

in both the Ibert Aria and the Chance Duos I. This causes

difficulties in tuning intervals.

In addition to these tuning problems, the phenomenon of

difference tones plays a significant role in the combination

of voice and flute or clarinet. When two pitches are

15Blatter, Alfred, w . , "The Effect of Timbre on Pitch-Matching Judgements" (Doctoral Thesis, University of Illinois, 1974).

38

simultaneously sounded in intervals of a perfect fifth or

smaller, difference and summation tones are created. Simple

difference and summation tones are the difference between two

frequencies (f2 - fx in which f2 represents the higher

frequency) or the sum of two frequencies (f2 + fj . The

summation tone has not proved to be aurally significant in

musical contexts. The difference tone is quite audible

between tones of high frequencies and at a loud dynamic

because the difference of the two frequencies may lie several

octaves below. The "cubic" difference tone is even more

audible and is derived from fx minus f2 (2fx - f2) .16 This

results in a different set of difference tones, as

illustrated in table 1. Cubic difference tones are more

audible at quieter dynamic levels than simple difference

tones.

16"The name is an historical accident, arising from a mistaken idea about the origin of the cubic difference tone." Campbell, 65, 169.

39

Notes performed: I B g - -g-

Cubic difference tones: <1? C ZZ3I

Simple r\\ difference tones: —

Table 1: Cubic and simple difference tones.

The difference tones become an additional voice in

situations in which the voice and instrument fulfill the

above criteria. Certain composers, including Nancy Chance in

Duos I, use these tones to enhance the dissonant quality of

the work.

Both Marilyn Nims and Diana Gale, the singers for this

performance study, noted that in performance situations

without a reference instrument, i.e., piano, the tendency is

to place the pitch sharp, attempting to brighten the tone

quality. Instrumentalists performing with singers should be

prepared to perform 10 - 20 cents sharp as needed. The

ability to perceive a correct interval is more difficult if

the dynamic of the flute or clarinet is quieter than the

voice or the timbre is less rich. In works requiring the

vocalist to attack notes in a more instrumental fashion,

40

(correctly placing the pitch at the attack of the note) pitch

accuracy is one of the most difficult challenges. Singers

tend to approach a tone with a certain variability in pitch

center while instruments tend to be more accurate from the

beginning of the tone.

Loudness

Although loudness has been mentioned previously in the

context of fonnant tuning and vibrato, a summary of the

physical characteristics of loudness perception would be

helpful in performance situations.

1) The richness of the timbral harmonic spectrum for the

voice, flute, and clarinet are all dependent on the dynamic

at which the tone is performed. The louder the tone the more

enhanced the upper harmonic spectrum.

2) Certain vowels are perceived louder or more intense

because of an enhancement of upper formants. The "ah" vowel,

for instance, will sound more present than "oo" at the same

intensity.

3) Certain instrumental equipment, i.e. mouthpieces, head

joints, reeds, will produce a louder intensity level than

others.

4) The use of vibrato enhances perceived loudness.

5) Although low tones have a minimum threshold of audibility

of more decibels than higher notes, lower notes require a

41

relatively smaller change in decibels to affect the full

gamut of musical dynamics.

6) There is a greater decrease in loudness of low pitches

than high pitches with an increase in distance from the sound

source.

7) Difference tones are aurally more noticable at a louder

dynamic.

Extended Techniques

In several of the works for an ensemble of textless voice and

woodwinds, the fluttertongue (flatterzunge) technique is used

for both the instrument and voice. The technique is produced

by a rolling "R" sound in the voice and flute. In the reed

instruments, the effect is more difficult to execute because

of the intrusion of the mouthpiece into the oral cavity. The

same effect can be produced on reed instruments with a throat

growl. In the Finale of Jerome Rosen's Serenade for soprano

voice and alto saxophone, a note specifies: "Flutter tongue

for saxophone, analogous sound (tongue or glottal "trill")

for voice," as illustrated in example 1. In this movement

the fluttertongue technique is alternated with rapid, slurred

techical passages and key and tongue clicks.

42

Voice

Sax.

E £

Example 1: Glottal "trill." Finale of Rosen Serenade Reprinted by Permission of American Composers Alliance, NY.

Since Duos I was intended as a study in dissonance, the

fluttertonguing adds an agitated quality to the selected

passages. The technique is difficult to execute at quieter

dynamic levels since the rolling "R" motion is facilitated by

the air stream. Both the voice and the flute are required to

either add the fluttertongue to a normal tone (a: m. 27,

Soprano part) or move from the fluttertongue to a normal tone

without a break (b: m. 42, Flute part), demonstrated in

example 2.

•ftifrt.

)opr

P ! TP

Example 2: Fluttertonguing. a: m. 27 of Soprano part, b.: m. 42 of Flute part, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

43

The fluttertongue technique is used as one of the

timbral variations of the main theme and is used frequently

throughout the work.

Most of the special techniques in the works surveyed are

recognized instrumental techniques, i.e., fluttertonguing,

variations of vibrato, timbre trills, etc. The Nancy Chance

Duos I and the Jerome Rosen Serenade are among the most

demanding for the singer and instrumentalist. The key and

tongue clicks in the Rosen work is an unusual technique.

Stems without note heads indicate the technique and the

saxophone key clicks are alternated with vocal clicks ("tch"

or "1' s") .17

Surveying various vocal and instrumental techniques used

by twentieth-century composers for textless voice and various

woodwinds, the following techniques and notational

indications were found and are illustrated in examples 3-8.

1) Various syllables:

t?rVcjf irtsinyiui V*HA-DL£-A-DA WHA-3N.6.-A-DA WHA DA-DA-DA-DAj

Example 3: Syllables. McBride Vocalise. Reprinted by Permission of American Composers Alliance, NY

17Jerome Rosen, Serenade for Soprano Voice and Alto Saxophone (New York: American Composers Alliance, 1964).

44

Soprano

Clarinet

i = w

PermLIim oflSrican S p L e r s l l S a n R e p r i n t e a **

2)Fluttertongue:

Permission of Seesaw°Sic9CorSrationU°H J' R e p r i n t e < 3 by

"76. * 1 r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . S ? e S u i „ a r c o p m s S ?P S o S e i .

Voice

Sax.

45

m N

* Tt L' ' h —

1 V

— 4 p= J j^\ 1 1 r r *

Example 6: Fluttertonguing. Rosen Serenade. Reprinted by Permission of American Composers Alliance, NY.

3) Glissandi and Fall off. Indicated with upward or downward

sweeping lines:

Sop. &LL

f Poo-W:

r i Atf

Example 7: Glissandi. McBride Vocalise. Reprinted by Permission of American Composers Alliance, NY.

4) Key and Tongue Clicks:

Voice

Sax.

K, - S t " fc==

I , 1

/ ' ^ ^ / t—— -LU L J

1 li) L J ' [ J > ; ^

= - — t

Example 8: Rosen Serenade. Reprinted by Permission of the American Composers Alliance, NY.

46

In the avant garde twentieth-century works, demands are

often made on the voice that are considered strenuous. There

is a general consensus among most singers who feel that, in

making the conscious decision to perform the often non-

idiomatic demands of many twentieth-century works, one may

sacrifice permanently the delicate control and tonal beauty

required for works of a more vocal character. Of the works

chosen for this study, the Nancy Chance Duos I treats the

voice in this manner. In an interview with the composer,

Chance stated that although she has done some singing, she

did not have vocal technique in mind when composing the work

but treated the voice as an instrument.

CHAPTER III

ANALYSES AMD PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS OF SELECTED WORKS

Introduction

The output of twentieth-century works for textless voice

with a woodwind chamber ensemble is small. However, the

works found pose a variety of performance challenges to the

singer and the instrumentalist alike. The vocal parts of

some of the more avant garde works contain voice parts with

non-idiomatic melodic lines, rapid technical passages,

difficult combinations of intervals, and extended articulated

or strongly accented passages. These technical obstacles are

combined with another challenge to the singer: the absence of

the interpretative nature of the poetry found in texted

music. For the instrumentalist, performing works with a

singer is notably different than with other instrumentalists.

Although the more experimental works provide technical

problems that require special preparation (fluttertonguing,

smorzato vibrato, jazz style, etc.), the most difficult

challenge is adjusting to the singer's concept of pitch,

vibrato, rhythm, attack, articulation, and phrasing. All of

47

48

these elements of music are approached with a noticable

difference by singers than instrumentalists and both

performers must make some compromises.

The three works chosen for this study represent a wide

range of styles and techniques that demonstrate some of the

traditional as well as more experimental uses of this medium

in the twentieth century. Each work provides both artistic

and idiomatic challenges to the performers. Ibert's Aria for

soprano, flute, and piano allows the performers to explore

tone color and ensemble within the stylistic confines of song

form. The Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises for soprano and

clarinet provides an opportunity for the performers to find a

balance between contrast and blend of the two diverse tone

colors. Nancy Chance's Duos I for soprano, flute, and

finger cymbals is structured around dissonance and extended

techniques. The challenges to the performers range from the

small structural details such as rhythmic and pitch accuracy

to the larger ideas of timbre, interpretation, and phrasing.

The three works provide unique settings for the ensemble of

untexted voice with a woodwind instrument.

ARIA (1931) BY JACQUES IBERT (1890-1962)

Although the place of his birth and death are both

Paris, Jacques Ibert's music is colored with sounds he

encountered in his travels, especially in Italy, Spain, and

49

Tunisia. A major portion of his career was spent as director

of the Academie de France in Rome (1937-60). Ibert's musical

style is difficult to categorize because of the many diverse

influences which he openly embraced; he believed "all systems

are valid, provided that one derives music from them." Early

study in drama served to connect music with the other arts

and reflected his philosophy that musical expression was one

part of a total creative expression in response to human

experiences.1

Ibert's apparent affection for the various woodwind

timbres is evident in a number of small chamber works and the

three Concerti: the Flute Concerto (1934), the Concertino da

camera for alto saxophone (1935), and the Symphonie

Concertante for Oboe (1948-9). There is certainly sufficient

evidence to indicate that Ibert felt a deep admiration for

the flute as an instrument capable of enormous expressive

variety and technical prowess. The Flute Concerto (1934) has

become one of the most brilliant examples a of twentieth-

century work for the instrument, exploiting the flute's full

range and providing a rich palette of expressive

opportunities.

Ibert's vocal compositions including opera, cantatas and

a number of songs date from the period of 1910 to 1951, the

•David Cox, "Jacques Ibert," The New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (New York: Macmillian, 1980), 1.

50

most productive span of his career. The opera Angeligue is

considered one of his most successful works. The

programmatic character of his songs are well adapted to his

view of music as an "interior adventure."2 Many of them are

orchestrated and those from the film score of Don Quichotte

(1932) were gathered into an orchestral song cycle. The

flute was exploited as an obbligato instrument previous to

the Aria, in the songs Deux stales orientees (1925) for voice

and flute.

According to the score, the Aria (1931) originally

appeared in the Hettich collection, Repertoire moderne de

vocalises-etudes (1907). The work was arranged (and

subsequently published in 1931 and 1932) for a variety of

vocal and instrumental combinations which are listed on the

cover of the piano score and illustrated in example 9.

VOCALISE (collection HETTICH) . .

ALTO rr PIANO VIOLONCELLE HT PIANO

FLUTE, VIOLON ET PIANO

FLUTE Hautl»U). CLAMNKTTE XT PIANO.

CLARINBTTK EM LA XT PIANO PLOTS ET PIANO

CHANT, FLUTE ET PIANO

SAXOPHONE ALTO MI > OU SASSON

DEUX VOIX MT PIANO

Example 9: J. Ibert Aria, cover page, piano score. Reprinted with permission of Theodore Presser for A. Leduc.

2Ibid.

51

From the above list it is obvious that the number of

parts varies in the different arrangements. Six versions

imply two instruments: the alto (viola) and piano, 'cello and

piano, clarinet in A and piano, and the flute and piano.

Four indicate three instruments: the flute, violin, and

piano; flute or oboe, clarinet, and piano; voice, flute, and

piano; and two voices and piano. From studying the edition

for alto (viola) and piano, it is apparent that the second

part of the three-part arrangements is derived from the

accompaniment.

The arrangement chosen for this study/performance

contains the following footnote. La partie de Piano est

celle de la transcription pour Flute et Violon (dont seule la

reparation instrumentale est modifiee). "The piano part is

that (of the transcription for flute and violin of which only

the instrumenatal part(s) are modified)."3 This note raises

two issues. First, that the flute, violin, and piano version

preceded the voice, flute, piano arrangement and that in the

transcription for flute, violin, and piano, the flute

corresponds to the part of the voice and the violin to that

of the flute. Such a supposition is supported by evidence in

the piano score with instances of violin markings in the

flute line such as a mute indication ("Sourdine"), bowings

3Appears on the instrumental and piano parts, Ibert Aria for Soprano, Flute, and Piano, Leduc, 1931.

52

and harmonic symbols. It is most probable that this evidence

does not constitute a preference of one transcription over

another but merely demonstrates an example of Ibert1s attempt

to control printing costs.

The second issue concerns the modification of the

instrumental parts, as noted. This distribution of melodic

material differs in the two versions. The passages in

question occur at mm. 13-19 (Example 10, a. and b.) and mm.

30-39 (Example 11, a. and b.).

53

3..

Voice

Voice

b.

Violin

Violin

Example 10: Differences in editions. J. Ibert Aria mm. 13-19 of the Voice/Flute/Piano (a.)f and Flute/Violin/Piano (b.) versions. Reprinted by permission of Theodore Presser for A. Leduc.

Voice T e m p o

a.

Flute

Voice

Flute

54

Tempo

H T e m p o

Flute

Viol in

Violin=

P o c o r l t . . / / T e m p o

Violin

Example 11: Differences in editions. J. Ibert Aria mm. 31-39 of the Voice/Flute/Piano (a.), and Flute/Violin/Piano (b.) versions. Reprinted by permission of Theodore Presser for A. Leduc.

55

These passages in the flute, violin arrangement

transform the work from a song without words in the voice,

flute version, to a chamber work. In the second passage,

mm. 30-39, Ex. 10, of the voice, flute version, the voice is

imitated by the flute in canon, an octave higher. In the

flute, violin version, however, the violin part leads the

melodic line with the flute imitating in canon an octave

lower. These two factors, the octave displacement and the

instrument leading the melodic canon, also determine the

ensemble focus of the work.

In mm. 32-33, melodic lines extend higher in the flute,

violin version than the voice, flute arrangement. When

applied to the voice, flute version, the range is difficult

for the singer but can be managed. Adapting the flute,

violin arrangement for flute and voice is quite effective,

distributing the melodic interest more equally between the

two instruments.

The Aria is set in a slow tempo (Larghetto quarter note

=48) in 4/4 time with the principal tonality in F Major.

The style is cantabile, reminiscent of the Rachmaninoff

Vocalise (1912). The range of the voice is relatively low,

from C4 to Bb5( lying primarly in a lower tessitura.

Traditional notation is used and no extended techniques are

required for any of the instruments.

56

The melodic interest is primarily in the vocal line with

the exception of the return of the A section in which both

solo instruments share the melodic interest. The piano part

provides a rhythmic and harmonic accompaniment and color

throughout.

The form of the Aria is A B A1 Coda. The texture is

homophonic for the first two sections and polyphonic in the

A' section. The voice, performing the aria melody, is

accompanied by the flute and the piano in a five-note scale

in contrary motion (see example 12).

FLl'TE

PIANO

1 r f,' -

Larghetto U=4s) ft — " " " "

A 4 - - ~

PP 1 -< t- ! .

y yinr •

i l l ' 1

L "" O « — "~"U' - 11

Example 12: Texture of opening, mm. 1-3, Ibert Aria. Reprinted by permission of Theodore Presser for A. Leduc.

It is curious that the arrangements of the Aria involve

two or three instruments. In example 13, the nature of the

piano part is at odds with the flute line with passing

dissonances.

57

FLUTE

PIANO

—-r i i' i 1 — P = - ~ —

=a> J j j !

ft* J tr J * ~

Example 13: Dissonance between flute and piano parts, mm. 7 8, Ibert Aria. Reprinted by permission of Theodore Presser for A. Leduc.

Since the flute part of this study/performance plays a

supporting role throughout the work, it is conceivable to

perform this edition without the piano. The work stands on

its own and is effective in performance as a duo.

Performance with the piano part is also effective, though the

texture is more contrapuntal.

Performance Considerations

In this work, vibrato is a major performance

consideration. In the voice and flute, the difference in

depth, speed, and application of vibrato is most apparent.

Flute vibrato is generally not used during moving technical

passages and is shallower and faster than the voice. This is

58

especially the case in the high register of the flute. Both

performers can adjust these vibrato attributes, depth, speed,

and application, to affect a closer match.

In terms of the experimentation with timbre, the

performers found that the low register of the flute, as in

the opening, produced a rather bright and resonant timbre

compared to the voice in the same register. A darker tone on

the flute, combined with a brighter, more intense "oo" vowel

by the singer, seemed to offer a better blend. In the

imitative section (mm. 30-39), the flute line, in a

relatively bright register for the instrument, tends to

overshadow the voice in a less resonant register. The

passage demands careful attention to dynamic balance and

timbral blend. The addition of the piano requires the other

performers to play with a more projected tone to clarify the

parts in the thick texture.

In several instances the voice and flute share some

dissonant suspensions. These offer an opportunity for the

performers to use their timbral and vibrato blending skills

to enhance these dissonance-consonance situations.

Difference tones are produced by some consonant

intervals of these intervals and can enhance the aural

richness. However, these are masked when the piano part is

present.

59

The tuning of the major and minor thirds is critical in

the Aria. The closing six measures alone, in example 14,

contain nine thirds to adjust.

k im

m Example 14: Thirds in last six measures, mm. 40-45, Ibert Aria. Reprinted by permission of Theodore Presser for A. Leduc.

THREE VOCALISES (1958) BY RALPH VAUGHAN WILLIAMS (1872-1958)

Ralph Vaughan Williams is credited with "re-creating an

English musical vernacular and establishing the symphony as a

form of central significance for the English revival."4 From

an early period of his life, he collected folksongs and

adapted these in his own works as well as for The English

Hymnal (1906). He became an authority in the collection of

folksongs, especially those of Sussex, Norfolk, and Essex and

4Hugh Ottaway, "Ralph Vaughan Williams," The New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (New York: Macmillian, 1980), 577

60

collected over 800 in all. His music is decidedly English in

style and character and is compared to Bartok and Kodaly who

elevated folk music in Hungary.5 In the last decade of his

life, Ralph Vaughan Williams was active in London's

performance series, the Cheltenham Festival, and the Three

Choirs Festival as well as various London concerts; in spite

of deafness and poor health, he continued to compose. His

last works include the last three symphonies, the morality

play The Pilgrim's Progress (1949) and a number of songs and

cantatas. The Three Blake Songs (1957) for voice and oboe

were written for the film The Vision of William Blake. This

work is for tenor or soprano, and the oboe part may be

transposed for Bb clarinet as suggested by the composer.6

The Three Vocalises were written in March of 1958 before

the premiere of the Ninth Symphony. His long-time friend and

singer, Margaret (Mabel) Ritchie (1903-1969) was its

dedicatee. Her career in opera was highlighted by the roles

of Pamina in Mozart's Die Zauberflote, Lucia in the first

Glyndebourne production of Britten's Rape of Lucretia, and

Miss Wordsworth in Britten's Albert Herring. Her voice has

been described as small, clearly produced, and of a pure

quality. She is reported to have "an unfailing sense of

5Ibid., 569.

6Michael Kennedy, The Works of Ralph Vaughan Williams (London: Oxford University Press, 1964), 640.

61

style and showed unusual flexibility in the execution of

florid passages."7

In his biography of the composer, Kennedy notes that the

work was published after the composer's death from the

manuscript housed in the British Museum (50481). He notes:

"It is probable that the composer would have added more

dynamic indications had he been able to revise the work

before publication. No dynamics other than those which

appear in the manuscript have been added."8 This statement

also appears on the published score. The premiere of the

Three Vocalises occured at the Free Trade Hall in Manchester

on October 8th, 1958, six weeks after the composer's death.

The performers were Margart Ritchie and Keith Puddy. The

first London performance was for the B.B.C. Home Service, on

December 22th of 1958 with Margaret Ritchie and Gervase de

Peyer performing.

The movements of the Three Vocalises are entitled I.

PRELUDE. Moderato; II. SCHERZO. Allegro moderato; III.

QUASI MENUETTO. Moderato. The duration of the work is

approximately five minutes and is of a medium difficulty.

The vocal range is from a C3 to C5 but is generally contained

7Desmond Shaw-Taylor, "Margaret (Mabel) Ritchie," The New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (New York: Macmillian, 1980), 57.

8Kennedy, 640.

62

within the staff. Like the Ibert Aria, no special effects

are indicated for the voice or clarinet. Standard notation

is used.9

The first movement, the PRELUDE, is in an ABA' form.

The key signature contains one flat and begins with an

opening section marked senza misura. The pitch of the

movement is in D. The voice makes an opening statement and

the clarinet imitates, rising to a brief unison with the

voice on an F natural. This leads to a contrary motion

pattern of triplet and duplet groups of eighth notes opposed

in the vocal line, contributing to the senza misura style.

The voice and clarinet exchange melodic and accompanying

roles for the remainder of the opening section.

In the opening of this first movement, several unisons

occur that are especially problematic to tune because of the

higher placement of pitch center used in vocal tone

production.

In m. 1, the soprano has only the initial D in the

clarinet part as a point of reference before settling on the

F. The clarinet must rise to the F held by in the soprano

part and match the pitch. A similar passage occurs in m. 5.

In this case, the A in the clarinet part implies the fifth of

9There is an editorial error between the concert pitch clarinet line and the transposed line, involving the lack of a slur marking in mm. 19-22 of the Prelude movement in the Bb part.

63

the chord and is less problematic for pitch matching. Both

of these instances are illustrated in example 15.

SOPRANO VOICE

colla parte CLARINET

(concert pitch)

senza mtsura

Sopr.

Oir. (C)

I r

Example 15: Unisons, mm. 1-2, 5, Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises. Reprinted by remission of Oxford University Press, copyright 1960.

A measured central section in 3/4 (mm. 9-22) is notated

with a quarter note = quarter note tempo marking. The style

is lyrical in the voice part and is imitated in canon by the

clarinet. A modulation to F minor occurs in this section at

the climax of the melodic material and descends in range and

implied dynamics, to the D minor tonality.

The strict imitative style of this section is an ideal

context for comparing the differences between the voice and

clarinet in terms of timbre and vibrato. A detailed

64

discussion of the performer's decisions about such matters

follows this analysis.

The abbreviated return features a truncated restatement

of the opening material. A rapidly rising scale passage to

the upper range of both the voice and clarinet suggests a

climactic ending. The reiteration of a consonant-dissonant

figure in the voice sounding below a held D in the clarinet

adds to this impression (example 16).

Cl«r. (C>

J* y 4 fr J' u .

fi

rrr. XX

Example 16: Final measures, mm. 24-27, Prelude to Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises. Reprinted by Permission of Oxford University Press, copyright 1960.

The second movement, entitled SCHERZO, is in the style

of a duple metered folk dance. Formally, the movement could

be diagrammed as A - A - B - A1. The tonality of Bb Major

modulates to Eb minor in the B section.

The Soprano part alone introduces the melodic material,

marked piano, with one brief interjection from the clarinet.

The theme is then reiterated in the clarinet while the voice

creates a syncopated accompanying figure.

Texturally, the B section (mm. 17-29) is very active in

a contrapuntal exchange of thematic motives featuring

65

staccato eighth-note duplets against triplets. A short

passage of both instruments performing sixteenth notes in

contrary motion marks a return to the Bb Major tonality and

the end of this section.

Marked pianissimo, the movement ends with a short

reference to the staccato eighth-note idea of the opening and

cadences on a perfect fifth, the voice above the clarinet.

This highly contrapuntal movement requires exact

rhythmic execution. Syncopation and cross rhythms throughout

the movement complicate the texture, as demonstrated in

example 17.

Sopr.

Clar. (C)

I r

J T J J Z I A

Example 17: Cross rhythms, mm. 22-24, Scherzo, Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises. Reprinted by Permission of Oxford University Press, copyright 1960.

The spirit of the movement implies a quick tempo. The

ability of the singer to perform rapid sixteenth-note

passages without the aid of consonant syllables limits the

tempo of the movement.

Both the second and third movements have extended

staccato passages for the soprano and clarinet. Performance

66

problems associated with this articulation are discussed at

the end of the analysis.

The third moveanent, QUASI MENUETTO, has a piano marking

indicated at the opening and no other dynamic markings. The

form can be described as A B A1 Coda with a tonality in Ab

Major in the A { mm. 1-23), A' (mm. 32-35) and Coda (mm. 36-

39) sections with the B section (mm. 24-31) in A minor.

The quasi menuetto is implied through the use of triple

meter and the melodic reiteration of a strong and sustained

downbeat. The melody of the A section is in a long, lyrical

style, while the B section is staccato throughout.

The movement opens with a one-measure figure in the

clarinet followed by the statement of the main theme in the

voice part. As in the second movement, the voice is alone,

this time for only a portion of the theme after which it is

joined by the clarinet in counterpoint. The melodic interest

is shared and exchanged by the instruments in a polyphonic

texture. The second statement of the theme is in a

homophonic texture with the voice performing the melody,

accompanied by a staccato arpeggiated figure in the clarinet.

A brief two-measure return of the counterpoint leads to a

contrasting section in A minor.

The staccato melody in the voice is accompanied by an A

drone in the clarinet. This is followed by the clarinet,

restating the staccato melody. The voice accompanies,

67

emphasizing an E with sixteenth-note ornaments. Briefly, the

style of the first section returns with the Ab tonality. In

a one-measure cadenza-like bar, marked free tempo, the voice

is required to perform a very rapid group of thirty-second

notes in contrary motion to a similar figure for the

clarinet. This measure has three melodic figures. The first

two are identical and the third is an extension of the idea.

The third, extended figure then leads directly into the

closing material. The free tempo marking raises questions

about the interpretation of this passage (example 18). The

performance tempo would depend partially on the flexibility

of the singer.

(free temt>n)

Clar.

Example 18: Ending of Quasi Menuetto, m. 36-37, Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises. Reprinted by Permission of Oxford University Press, copyright 1960.

The ending of the movement features staccato eighth

notes in the highest notes of both instruments' tessituras

Once again the Ab Major tonality is confirmed by a tonic

dyad.

68


The performance for this study features the combination

of a clarinet and a lyric soprano. Although the acoustical

structure of timbre in the voice and clarinet are less alike

than that in the voice and flute, the tone colors are still

compatible. The disparity in timbre of a relatively "dark"

clarinet tone and a bright soprano voice is somewhat mediated

by the following solutions. The clarinetist used a brighter

barrel and softer reed and the soprano created a longer

resonating space by raising the soft palate and lowering the

larynx.

In respect to the question of vibrato, the consensus of

the performers was that the clarinetist should use a

shimmering effect vibrato and only on held chords that had

been determined to call for it. The singer greatly subdued

her normal vibrato, beginning unison intervals and ending the

work with a straight tone. This was felt to resolve the

difference in vibrato usage without creating an enormous

disparity in pitch between the voice and clarinet.

The next most important ensemble concern is the staccato

passages for both instruments in the second and third

movements. The quality of staccato needs to match in attack,

length, and release. In this situation, the soprano has a

very clear and crisp staccato. In order to imitate the

effect, some clarinetists might find a tongue- stopped

69

staccato to be the most similar although this author has

found a breath-stopped articulation to be more effective in

some passages.

DUOS I BY NANCY CHANCE (b. 1931)10

Nancy Laird Chance was born in Cincinnati, Ohio on March

19, 1931. She studied composition with Vladimir Ussachevsky,

Otto Luening, and Chou Wen-Chung at Columbia University and

piano under Lilias MacKinnon and William R. Smith. Chance is

the only composer to have won the ASCAP's Rudolph Nissim

Competition for Orchestral Composition on two occasions, in

1982 for Liturgy, a chamber work for harp, 5 percussion

players and strings and in 1984 for Odysseus, written for

solo voice and orchestra. She has been the recipient of

numerous awards and honors including two National Endowment

of the Arts Composer's Fellowship/Grants in 1981 and 1983,

the Norlin/MacDowell Fellow Award (1982), given annually in

honor of Aaron Copland, the Sundance Institute Composer

Fellowship at Sundance Film Composer's Laboratory, and is a

member of the Artist's Fellowships Music Composition Panel

for the New York Foundation For The Arts.

Chance's works have been premiered by numerous American

orchestras and professionial chamber groups, among them, the

10Several printing errors occur that the composer has confirmed to the author. These will be noted in the Appendix.

70

Cleveland Chamber Symphony, the Manhattan Percussion

Ensemble, St. Louis Symphony Orchestra, the Jupiter Symphony

and Da Capo Chamber Players. Her works are primarily for

chamber ensembles, employing a variety of instrumental and

vocal combinations. Her most recent works, however, have

been orchestral works, film scores and movements from the

requiem mass. Chance now lives in rural New York where she

continues to compose.11

The Duos I (1976) is scored for soprano, flute, and two

pairs of finger cymbals, played by the soprano. When asked

if the work was a commission or a dedication, the composer

replied that it was neither. When the composer was asked if

her study with Otto Luening, who wrote and was the dedicatee

of several flute and untexted voice works, had inspired Duos

I she responded that it had not.12 The sole intent of the

work was, in her words: to "reverse the usual process of

dissonance resolving to consonance, and to see if the ear

could be conditioned, within the confines of a short work to

accept a particular reiterated sharp dissonance as a point of

rest, a proper and satisfying cadence."13

1J-Unpublished biography provided by the composer.

12Written interview with the composer. See Appendix B.

13Taken from program notes, provided upon request from the composer.

71

The work combines a number of extended techniques such

as fluttertonguing, "smorzato vibrato," no vibrato, extremes

in dynamics and extended trilled passages to enhance this

experimentation with consonance and dissonance. In most

cases, the dissonance is approached by a consonant interval,

major or minor third, moving in contrary motion to a

dissonance of a minor second. The resolution of the third to

a minor second is the principal idea of the work. The aural

perception of this dissonance as a cadence point is not only

confirmed through repetition but through dynamic and rhythmic

resolve.

Chance is very articulate in her intentions to

explore the possibilites of using the voice as an instrument.

She states that "by omitting the text and treating the voice

instrumentally, it was also possible to explore certain

acoustic phenomena associated with close dissonance, in

particular the production of audible beats in forte

passages, which lends a certain aural exitement to the work."

She indicates that the "instruments" should attempt to match

tone quality and vibrato, etc. The forte passages should be

emphasized to produce "audible beats," presumably difference

tones and conflicting frequency beats.14

14Program notes.

72

The work is built structurally upon melodic, harmonic,

and rhythmic materials. These materials are used to form a

series of phrases which are grouped into the large divisions

that give rise to the work's form. In order to comprehend

the large formal character of the work, the structural

details must first be identified. The following is a

categorization of the melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic

materials of the work.

Melodic Materials (MM):

The minor second is the kernel of nearly all the melodic

material. With the exception of MM3 in Example 21, all other

melodic materials relate to this interval. Selected melodic

materials are given in Examples 19-26.

Selected Examples (MM)

S l o w J = ^fO

-"Tl J.., V. -4) « r\ f g i MJ. I LJ I tZ

\ normal j V i b ra+"o mp mj mp

Example 19: MM1 - Descending minor 2nd (m2nd). m. 1, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

73

Fl. ¥-

3 mofio.' to ZEZ

SroJ-x- mp

* f 4 = -

1

Example 20: MM2 - Expansion of the descending half-step to whole-step. Ascending m2nd, descending M2nd. m. 3, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

broade n

£ troo-den - —

Example 21: MM3 - Use of the Tritone, Perfect 4th and Perfect 5th, in various combinations, m. 11, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

74

norm. 3>J+r +r "M

2 ,

^ allanp _ - - . 9 _

Example 22: MM4 - Extended trilled passage of m2nd M2nd melodxc intervals. mm. i8-23, Change Dufs 1. Repknted by

a?? °- S e 6 S a W M U S i c CorPoration, New York, Copyright . All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

C.YGS.C. .

Example 23: MM5 - Scale passage, series of whole and half-steps: A pentachord, E tetrachord. m. 30, Chance Duo<? r

YOTk^Copyright™!!?!011 Ml86®®?1* " U S i C Co^°ration, New ' copyright secured^ * " r i S h t S r e S 6 r V e a' international

In MM6, Example 24, the excerpt is a reordered chromatic

cell and an expansion of the major second kernel.

75

Example 24: MM6 - Reordered chromatic cell, expansion of M2nd idea (MM2) to include m3rd and M2nd. m. 36., Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 197 6. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

In MM7, Example 25, the resting points of the melodic

line create a descending pattern with half step

characteristics and an octave displacement.

iiii & i;

Example 25: MM7 - Descending pattern with half-step characteristics with an octave displacement, mm. 42-43, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

76

In MM8, Example 26, the arrangement of minor 2nds are

projected melodically and contrapuntally between the flute

and voice lines.

m S: 4

Example 26: MM8 - New arrangement of m2nd, M2nd melodic intervals, projected melodically and contrapuntally between flute and soprano parts, mm. 51-52, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

Harmonic Materials (HM)

The harmonic materials found in Duos I also revolve

around the kernel of a minor 2nd. The extensions of the

interval are much more elaborate than those of the melodic

materials. Since they occur in some form or another in every

measure, only a representative selection is presented. In

conjunction with the minor 2nd, the major 2nd, and the

tritone interval occur with some frequency. The harmonic

materials are given in Examples 27-30 and in Table 2.

77

Selected Examples (HM)

n o v m a l V i fc rat"o mp mp

normal yMb^aTo

Example 27: HM1 - minor 2nd kernel harmonic material, mm. l-2, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

*

Example 28: HM2 - m3rd preparation for m2nd resolution, m. 5, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

Wi4okt- TH.iLi.Sl

Wt-towg iRiixt :

Table 2: HM3 - whole-step trilled passage. Alternation of m3rd, M2nd, m2nd (reduction to sounding intervals). mm. 18-24, Chance Duos I.

78

FI-IH

3

t

m p ?

i

f

Example 29: HM4 - Movement from consonant interval to unison to dissonance (M2nd) . mm. 40, Chance Duos J. Reprinted by-Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

ft. TP"

Example 30: HM5 - Sustained tones on: Tritone moving to a M2nd above to a M2nd below, m. 51, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

Rhythmic Materials (RM)

The basic pulse at quarter-note =40, is divided into

two to nine notes to the beat. Rhythms seldom begin on down

beats and ties over the beat extend the vagueness of the

pulse. Rhythmic materials are demonstrated in Examples 31-

35.

Selected Examples (RM)

79

>

V 4- f-

3 ft* • > I

rr.- .-rrr >r i - # • & ' moif-o Vt bra "tap

s$i. Sf" Iff 3

1

<T>oi"h> *J I lorato pp

4* # ff

I pp

=ez

f

Example 31: RM1 - Triplet figure, often with rests occuring in one of the divisions or in hocket. mm. 44-45, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 197 6. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

m

Example 32: RM2 - Avoidance of downbeats through use of ties, mm. 39-40, Chance Duos J. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 197 6. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

80

n

Soon •II O1 I •

-s:

p

£

m

&

-pi+i

i

Or esc.. _ _ -

r

Example 33: RM3 - Entrances on up beats, m. 41, Chance Duos J. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

P P 6: *>r

Example 34: RM4 - Note patterns in odd metric divisions, m. 46, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 197 6. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

Application of Structural Materials

Chance uses these structural materials in various ways.

For instance, in several places the principal cadence of the

work, an interval of a minor third moving to a minor second,

is recalled. This motive is quoted in transposition a major

third higher and a tritone lower. It also appears twice in

81

the recapitulation with extended techniques and rhythmic

augmentations. These passages are noted in Exairples 37-39.

Fl-

S o p r

s j p p n o Vi b r . f

p p v« b r .

m m T

Example 35: Principal cadence, m. 5, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

Fl,

> o p r .

* fl—|C^ p p no vi br

•*» 3

mmmi

no. a Vitr.

Fl

Sop

pp— v?br

PP

Example 36: Transposition of principal cadence by a M3rd higher and tritone lower. m. 17, 33, Chance Duos J. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

82

m jfeEEf i

pp 3 fit* _ -

—

pp

Example 37: Principal cadence with special effects and rhythmic augmentations, m. 64, 66-67, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 197 6. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

Some structural materials are used to foreshadow an

extended developments of a particular motive. Such is the

case with the melodic motives of mm. 29 and 32 in the flute

part, which appear in an extended passage in mm. 50-54. It

is demonstrated here in Example 38-39.

83

h=f-pf-T==«

Example 38: Foreshadowing. Flute part, mm. 29, 32, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

R.

* h fl.

S-H

Example 39: Extension of motive. Chance Duos I, mm. 50-54 Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.

84

Formal Aspects of Duos I

In Duos I, the melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic materials

form the structural basis of the work in the flute and voice

parts. The finger cymbals add a timbral quality as well as

percussive voice. They serve to introduce or conclude

phrases or to provide rhythmic accent.

The series of phrases ebb and flow in their level

of intensity. This intensity is expressed through

dissonance, dynamics, or extended techniques. Silence

defines the form of the work. Groups of phrases, divided by

rests, combine to create major divisions in the form. The

form is diagrammed in Table 3.

A B

Phrases: 1 la 2 3 4 mm: 1-5 6-9 10-12 13-24 25-31

Transition

5 5b 6 3a/4a (mm. 32-34) 35-45 46-48 49-54 55-59

Recapitulation

(mm. 60-69)

Table 3: Form of Chance Duos I

85

The opening phrase of each major division is presented

by the flute. The major divisions are made apparent by one

or a combination of three methods: a lengthy rest, as in the

division between sections A and B; an abrupt change in

character, as in the change from A to B and B to the

Transition; and new material, used between A and B, and

between B and C. The recapituation is obvious through an

exact recollection of the opening four measures.

In the formal diagram in Table 3, note the indication of

phrases 3a/4a in section C. These are abbreviated ideas,

recalling the whole-step trill passage from section A and the

Ab pentachord/E tetrachord scale passage from section B. The

truncated restatement of such material immediately preceding

the recapitulation, creates a certain symmetry in the piece.

In this work, it becomes the performer's responsibility

to interpret the intent of the composer through the character

of their instruments. For the flutist, the role can be

characterized as the instigator. It is the first instrument

to be heard and initiates nearly every phrase of the work.

The flute part is the most technically active and remains in

a higher range than the voice throughout most of the work.

However, the flute is not to be considered the most important

character in the work. The voice, used as an instrument, is

of equal importance to the flute. The voice adds the

dissonance and reacts to the initiations of the flute. The

86

finger cymbals add a third component to the texture. Since

the pitches of the cymbals (in this study/performance

approximately an F and G) lie above the range of the voice

and most of the flute, they are aurally striking in their

contrasting pitches. Their primary role, as mentioned

previously, is to introduce or conclude the phrases. The

clash of both sets of cymbals accents the loud, agitato

passages of the work. The cymbals also end the work playing

a two-measures solo.


Because of the rhythmic complexity, Duos I requires a

tremendous degree of individual rhythmic accuracy. The pulse

is not outwardly apparent and must be internalized for

ensemble.

The second major performance problem involves the

accuracy of pitches. Many passages require the performers to

produce consonant as well as dissonant intervals. The most

common interval of the piece is the minor second. The

tendency to pull a minor second up to a unison is very strong

in the human voice and this frequently sustained interval is

difficult to adapt to. The higher pitch center of the

soprano presents a challenge to the flutist, especially in

the frequent quiet passages in which the flute has a tendency

87

to sound flat. Because of its atonal nature, the work

requires a vocalist with strong relative or perfect pitch.

Various experiments with timbres were made. For some

dissonant intervals, the singer for this study used a timbre

produced with lips slightly parted. The effect is very

similar to the flute in the same register and the quality of

the vocal timbre seems to enhance the dissonance. In many

passages, the singer used a vowel with more "oh" than the

traditional "ah." Under the circumstances of this

performance, that timbre blends best with the flute. The

flutist found that a brighter, clearer tone is effective in

this piece. This timbre seemed to be the most functional for

the various extended techniques required and fit the

character of the work. Duos I requires the flutist to

perform with a good tone at the extremes of dynamics and

range while maintaining an accurate pitch center.

Vibrato (when specified as normal vibrato) between the

performers was found to be increasingly compatible as

rehearsal time progressed. As in the Ibert Aria, matching

the depth and speed of the vibrato applies here as well.

The various types of attacks specified in this work

included tenuto, smfz, meaning a sforzando attack at a mezz-

forte level, accents, flutter tongue, accented staccato, and

an sffz marking, meaning a sforzando at a fortissimo level.

88

Each of these require careful rehearsal to match the quality

of each type between the voice and flute.

The dynamics used are equally extreme: rapid crescendos

to forte followed by a subito mezzo-piano, long crescendos

over six bars to a fortissimo, subito pianissimos, fortissimo

decrescendo to pianissimo over one bar, pianissimo in the

extreme range of the flute, etc. Balance is an inportant

issue with these dynamic demands. Care must be taken in the

extremes of the voice and flute dynamic range.

The extended techniques required include: smorzato

vibrato ("a particularly slow and heavy vibrato"), no

vibrato, flutter-tongue, and extended whole-step trilled

passages. The composer requested that the smorzato vibrato

be unmeasured, gradually becoming slower and syncronized

between the performers. The initial speed of this type of

vibrato was difficult for both instruments to perform rapidly

so that the effect diminishes from approximately 5 to 2

pulses per second. The gradual slowing is difficult to

perform and to syncronize between the players while

maintaining the steady pulse. An equivalent speed of the

simultaneous trills required attention and rehearsal to

achieve. The fluttertongued passages were complicated by the

low dynamic level, since the rolled "R" action by the tongue

requires a strong air stream.

89

For the flutist, the most difficult challenge is to

maintain a pitch center and pleasing tone while affecting the

extended techniques required. For the soprano, the greatest

challenge is to perform a part that involves attacking and

maintaining pitches in close intervals. This is complicated

by the additional task of playing the finger cymbals. The

trills and fluttertonguing are quite difficult for both

players because these effects seldom occur with such extended

application.

Duos I is a highly effective composition and will be

perceived as such only if the performers are able to produce

a technically accurate and musically appealing performance.

CHAPTER IV

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This study has attempted to identify and resolve the

performance challenges of three twentieth-century works that

employ the voice without text in combination with various

woodwind instruments. The premise of the thesis is that,

after a lengthy history of texted works with woodwind

obbligato, as outlined in Chapter I, a set of conventions

evolved defining inherently different roles for the singer

and instrumentalist. The instrumentalist's may be

subordinate to the vocalist's or it may be a more equal

partner, presenting stereotypical programmatic gestures by

way of depicting the text; at the other end of the spectrum,

the instrumentalist emerges as the dominant partner,

overwhelming the singer's verbal utterances through the

prominence of its purely musical utterances. Regardless of

what point an instrumentalist's part lies on this spectrum,

it is undeniable that the roles of the singer and

instrumentalist are different in texted works. In

compositions without a text, however, the voice is no longer

90

91

the purveyor of the word, of explicit meaning. As an

"instrument," it assumes an implicit character found in the

realm of instrumental music.1 Here, the voice, like the

instrument, is dependent upon attributes other than words to

convey musical meaning. Without the physical requirements

and poetically explicit implications of words, the singer

(and the composer) are afforded a new expressive dimension of

a richly varied palette of tone color. Nevertheless, when a

singer is present, the audience expects words. Many

composers of this century have exploited just this sense of

unresolved tension in experimental works for untexted voice

and instruments.

As was shown in Chapter III, performances of works with

non-texted vocal parts presented unique performance practice

problems. In the Ibert Aria, the ensemble problems centered

on the use of vibrato and timbre in achieving balance. In

addition to blending two diverse tone colors, the Vaughan

Williams Vocalises presented a problem of matching styles of

articulation. The most serious problems of balance were

encountered in the most experimental work of the group, the

Chance Duos I: the approximation of similar timbre, vibrato,

etc., in the context of frequent dissonance, extended

techniques, and a complex rhythmic structure.

J-Edward T. Cone, The Composer's Voice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), Ch. 2-3.

92

An analysis of scientific findings pertaining to the

acoustical phenomena affecting our perceptions of timbre,

vibrato, pitch, articulation and other factors, was explored

in Chapter II. The information in this chapter provided

supporting scientific evidence for the thesis that certain

works for the medium require a close blend or match in aural

attributes such as timbre, vibrato, and articulation. For

example, the atonal nature and extensive use of dissonance in

the Nancy Chance Duos I present many problematic acoustical

situations. To highlight the structural role of the

distinctive cadential gesture of the piece, the performers

opted for very similar and specific timbres. The other two

works, the Ibert Aria and the Vaughan Williams Three

vocalises, presented different types of challenges in a tonal

context. In the Ibert, it was noted that the contrapuntal

nature of the work created balance problems that were further

complicated when the flute was in a higher tessitura than the

voice. Some adjustment of timbre and vibrato provided the

solution of this work's problems of balance. Likewise, the

disparity of timbre between the soprano and clarinet required

some acoustical adjustment in the Vaughan Williams.

Another issue explored in Chapter II centered on pitch

placement, which is problematic in all the works discussed in

this study. Factors influencing pitch placement, such as

interval, difference tones, timbre, vibrato, dynamics, range,

93

and extended techniques were discussed in connection with

representative passages from each of the three works.

Although the solutions to the particular performance problems

were not intended to be conclusive, they represent viable

solutions that were arrived at through extensive

experimentation and can thus serve as a general guide for

others who wish to perform these works.

The analytical chapter of this thesis demonstrated that

compositions without words require an organizational

structure very different from that found in texted music.

Very simply, composers writing for this medium cannot rely on

established structural models that evolved in relation to

specific poetic structures. Considering this, it is

understandable that composers are tentative in their efforts

to explore this medium, as is evidenced by the brevity and

paucity of works. The analyses of the three chosen works for

this medium involved historical, structural, formal, and

performance perspectives. However, the main thrust of the

analytical chapter dealt with the Chance Duos I which is both

the most complex structurally and the most demanding in terms

of performance requirements of the three works under

consideration.

The appendices provide an annotated bibliography of

selected works for textless voice and at least one woodwind

instrument (Appendix A) and performance information on the

94

Chance Duos I (Appendices B and C). The majority of works

for this medium consist of short chamber pieces of a light,

entertaining character. They are roughly divided in half

between those using some tonal system with standard

performance techniques and those employing atonal systems and

extended techniques. Most of the works were written in the

last forty years by American composers.

Works for textless voice with woodwind instruments prove

to be an interesting and viable medium. The successful

performance of this medium is dependent upon resolution of

certain technical challenges, as addressed in this study. By

addressing and resolving these challenges, it is hoped that

performers will be encouraged to experiment with the medium

and composers will be persuaded to attempt larger works for

textless voice and woodwinds to demonstrate, on a greater

scale, the potential of this combination.

APPENDIX A

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SELECTED WORKS

95

96

The works listed in this appendix include all known

published works for a small ensemble (two to six performers)

consisting of a minimum of one voice part that is a least

partially untexted and a minimum of one woodwind instrument.

These works were primarily extracted from Richard

LeSueur's Art Songs with Obligato Instruments, an unpublished

expansion of a previous publication by the same author. His

listing is a compilation of works found in all international

publishing house catalogs and various additional sources. He

has been recognized as an authority in this type of

cataloguing and is associated with the Library of Congress in

this capacity. Some works were found in bibliographies of

works as cited in the bibliography.

Blacher, Boris Jazz Koloraturen (1927) Germany: Bote and Bock

Instrumentation: Soprano, Alto Saxophone, Bassoon Dedication or Commission: None indicated Vocal Range: F#4 - D6 Degree of Difficulty: Medium Difficulty Notation/Special Effects: Standard notation, 3 stave score, 3 copies

I.: Slowfox II.: Allegro molto (Charleston tempo) Soprano part is indicated "Kolratur auf 'Ah'" at the beginning of the first movement. No other syllabic indication is given. Some variation in attack must take place since no consonant articulation is specified, in consideration of the various accents and articulations. No altissimo is required for the saxophone. The length is approximately seven minutes. The bassoon line functions as a walking, and at times, chromatic bass line. The soprano and saxophone share in the idiomatic jazz melodic material. The tonality is in a C blues for the first movement and in a very

97

chromatic and rambling second movement with a "tonal" center around C. The mood of the entire work is of a jazz solo transcription. The jazz idiom requires performers familiar with the style. Vocalists may feel very restricted with the "ah" syllable in a situation in which jazz scat syllables would be more appropriate.

Carillo, Julian. Preludio a Cristobal Colon (1944) Bryn Mawr, PA: New Music

Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute, Violin, Guitar, Harp, Octavina Dedication or Commission: None Vocal Range: not applicable (16th tones) Degree of Difficulty: Very difficult Notation/Extended Techniques: graphic system of numbers to accommodate 96 intervals per octave (16th tones)

Poco lento. The composer claims to have written the first composition in the world in 16th tones. Carillo's notation uses numbers from 0 - 96 to indicate the particular pitch. The work is limited to one octave, presumably in demonstration of the notational system. The work is divided by fermatas into phrases that employ various combinations of the instruments. Most of the sequences of pitches vary within a half or quarter step. The work is brief and lento throughout.

Chance, Nancy. Duos I (197 6) New York: Seesaw/American Composers Alliance

Instrumentation: Soprano, Finger Cymbals - played by the Sop., Flute Dedication or Commission: None Vocal Range: B3 - G5

Degree of Difficulty: Very Difficult Notation/Special Effects: Standard, hand calligraphy on velum, two copies of score; fluttertonguing, smorzato vibrato, no vibrato. Confirmed copying errors: m. 57, flute scale should be slurred, m. 38, 2nd note should be an 8th note, m. 52 and m. 62 in the finger cymbals part should have a "let ring" indicating slur marking.

(See analysis in body of paper.)

98

Cowell, Henry. Toccanta / Symphonic Set (Orchestral version) (1960) Boosey and Hawkes (presently out of print)

Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute, Cello, Piano Dedication or Commission: Vocal Range: F4 - A5 Degree of Difficulty: Medium difficulty Notation/Extended Techniques: Standard notation, no extended techniques

I. Allegro quasi Andante II. Interlude III. Moderato pomposo ma vivo IV. Interlude V. Allegro. The following note appears for the singer: "The Soprano is to be like a Vocalise, to blend instrumentally rather than to be a solo always. The vowel "ah" may be used or at the wish of the singer, other vowels may be chosen." The three solo instruments share in the melodic interest with the piano accompanying. Movements feature various contrasting styles. The Toccanta is one of the largest works for this medium.

Vocalise (1964) New York: C.F. Peters Edition, 1964.

Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute, Piano Dedication or Commission: None indicated Vocal Range: F4 - B

b5

Degree of Difficulty: Medium difficulty, duration 8 min. Notation/Special Effects: Standard notation, full score; indication for piano: "press the piano strings next to the bridge, damping their tone throughout the whole work;" a vocal effect of the same note alternatingly sung soft and loud is indicated with a harmonic (°) and an accent (>) .

Quasi Andante with rhythmical freedom, tempo rubato. Allegro L'istesso tempo. These three tempo markings represent the three sections that are presented in a form of A B C A B C A B C A. The circular character of the form is emphasized by the static nature of each section. This work approaches a pre-Minimalist style with the ostinato texture and form.

Crumb, George. Lux Aeterna. New York: C.F. Peters Edition.

Instrumentation: Soprano, Bass Flute (Soprano Recorder), Sitar, Percussion (2)

99

Dedication or Commission: "For the Children of the Night." Commissioned by the Philadelphia Composer's Forum. Vocal Range: G3 - B5 Degree of Difficulty: Very difficult Notation/Special Effects: Spatial notation; vocal vowels are indicated in vocalise section; piece requires certain theatrical effects, i.e., performers should wear special clothing, seating indicated; includes detailed performance instructions.

Very slow, with a sense of meditative time; pregnant with mystery. This work uses the vocalise technique for a special effect only in the open entrance of the voice. After the voice intones the Lux Aeterna text. The vowels are used deliberately to correspond to a timbre change and a glissandi to a higher note. Although it does not constitute a true vocalise work, it is included for this unusual example of the technique.

Ibert, Jacques. Aria (1931) Paris: Leduc.

Instrumentation: Mezzo-Soprano, Flute, Piano. Other transcriptions, see Chapter III. Dedication or Commission: none indicated Vocal Range: C4 - Abs Degree of Difficulty: Medium difficulty Notation/Special Effects: Standard notation, 2 copies for flute and voice, l piano score.


McBride, Robert. Nonsense Syllables A Vocalise for Soprano with Flute (1952) New York: American Composers Alliance

Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute Dedication or Commission: For Ethel and Otto Luening Vocal Range: E4 - Dg Degree of Difficulty: Medium Difficulty Notation/Special Effects: Standard notation, hand calligraphy on velum; syllables indicated for vocal part.

This jazz style work features triple rhythms, indicating a swing feel, as well as an alternation of triplet with

100

sixteenth-note passages. The high range of flute (to G6) is used occasionally. This piece has a light, encore nature and is relatively brief (7 0 measures in length).

Vocalise (1952) New York: American Composers Alliance

Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute Dedication or Commission: For Ethel and Otto Luening Vocal Range: Db4 - D6 Degree of Difficulty: Medium difficulty Notation/Special Effects: Standard notation, hand calligraphy on velum. Score and separate part for flute. Vocal and flute glissandi.

Allegretto Commodo ben Ritmatico. Syncopated rhythmic, articulated passages are alternated with short lyrical, slurred passages. Rhythmic patterns are repetitive and should not present a major problem in ensemble. Familiarity with jazz style is helpful but not necessary. Scat syllables are carefully specified including phonetic markings. Vocalist is required to do glissandi over wide intervals. Extreme range of the flute is covered with extended, rapid staccato passages.

Reif, Paul. Encounters (197 8) New York: Seesaw Music

Instrumentation: Voice, Clarinet Dedication or Commission: None indicated Vocal Range: A3 - A

b5

Degree of Difficulty: Medium Difficult Notation/Special Effects: Some spatial notation, hand calligraphy/optional stage directions, timbre trills, vibrato, breath attacks, timbre trills for clarinet.

As in the Crumb, Reif uses the untexted voice in the introduction only. Opening untexted introduction is marked "Very Free" and features the effects noted above. The vocalise does not use any extended techniques. The introcuction is followed by the texted portion, using Shakespeare's Sonnett LXXIII. The introduction is staged with directions such as "walks slowly on stage," "sliding," and "watches singer intently." The texted portion notes: "They meet in centerstage. During the aria, player stands behind singer."

101

Riegger, Wallingford. Duo (1950) Hackensack, NJ: Mobart

instrumentation: High Voice, Flute Dedication or Commission: none indicated Vocal Range: D#4 - C6 Degree of Difficulty: Medium Difficulty Notation/Special Effects: Standard notation, voice part is noted "Oboe or Flute may be substituted," short glissandi in the vocal part.

Lento. Vivace. Tempo I. The ABA form indicated by the tempo markings is in fact a short slow introduction and conclusion to a very staccato, spritely center section. Most of the melodic interest lies in the flute line with the vocalist often accompanying. The extreme high range of the flute is exploited throughout (to A#g) .

Rosen, Jerome. Serenade (1964) New York: American Composers Alliance.

Instrumentation: Soprano Voice and Alto Saxophone Dedication or Commission: Pat and Art Woodbury Vocal Range: Db4 - A5 Degree of Difficulty: Very Difficult Notation/Special Effects: Some standard notation, unmeasured sections and aleatoric instructions with minimal notation for two improvisation movements, shape notations for a chance music style; hand calligraphy on velum; fluttertongue for both instruments, key clicks and clicking noise with voice, altissimo for saxophone (written G#).

I. Prelude Molto Allegro; Improvisation I; III. Nocturne Quietly; Improvisation II; V. Finale. The avant garde character of this piece is evident. The prelude is unmeasured with technical passagework for the saxophone and long, lento expressivo notes for the voice. The two improvisation movements can be considered chance music. In "Improvisation I" the voice and saxophone are given "source material" on a one line staff and a set of instructions such as "Either part may start. The first part invents an opening phrase in the manner suggested above. The second part answers in its manner." The "Nocturne" is in standard, metered notation style in a less dissonant dialogue. "Improvisation II" uses shapes (oval for voice, rectangle for saxophone) over a single line staff. Arrows and single notes indicate a direction of movement. This movement uses a great deal of contrary motion and dynamic extremes. The "Finale" employs the extended techniques of fluttertonguing, and key

102

and tongue clicks. This movement is also unmeasured with rests indicated by single line and double line cesuras. The work ends with key and tongue clicks. Serenade requires performers with substantial technical prowess and the ability to make a highly improvised piece effective.

Stock, David. Scat (1971) New York: American Composers Alliance

Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute, Bass clarinet, Violin, Cello Dedication or Commission: Commissioned by Richard Pittman conductor, for the Boston Musica Viva Vocal Range: Ab2 to D5 Degree of Difficulty: Very Difficult Notation/Special Effects: Standard notation, two scores, four parts; scat syllables indicated for each note, glissandi, fluttertongue, fall offs Premiere: Cambridge, MA, 1971, Elsa Charlston, soprano (written with soprano Phyllis Bryn-Julson in mind who performed it subsequently) Composer comments: "The voice is treated instrumentally, as a slightly-more-than-equal partner to the instruments."

All movements are connected, with no break except tempo and style change. Fast, Swinging is indicated at opening with scat syllables indicated in the voice. A slow second section, marked Slow, relaxed, opens with instrumental interlude, the voice joining after. The last movement is marked Very Fast -- Imaginary and is quite sparce and pointillistic, gradually becoming more dense in texture. All parts are very demanding, requiring rapid leaps of over two octaves in some instances and in the extreme ranges of all the instruments. The work is in a quasi-jazz style although swing rhythms are specified in the notation but not used throughout.

Stravinsky, Igor. Pastorale (1923) London: Schott.

Instrumentation: Soprano, Clarinet, Oboe, English Horn, Bassoon Dedication or Commission: None indicated Vocal Range: C#4-F#5 Degree of Difficulty: Medium Difficulty Notation/Special Effects: Standard; none

103

Largetto. In this one movement, relatively short work, the bassoon and clarinet provide the arpeggiated harmonic accompaniment while the oboe and english horn share an obbligato countermelody beneath the vocalise. The counter melody is in extremely awkward keys for the instruments(F# Major for oboe, D*5 Major for English horn), requiring rapid alternate fingerings, especially for the English horn. Otherwise, the work is not difficult and in a pleasant pastorale style. Vowels are indicated in Russian and French (A-y, A-ou) and presumably an English equivalent is acceptable.

Vaughan Williams, Ralph. Three Vocalises (1958) London: Boosey and Hawkes, 1960.

Instrumentation: Soprano, clarinet Dedication or Commission: Margaret (Mabel) Ritchie Vocal Range:C4~C6 Degree of Difficulty: Medium Difficulty Notation/Special Effects: Standard; none


Walden, Stanley. Coronach; A Kaddish (1989) Bryn Mawr, PA: Theodore Presser

instrumentation: Mezzo-soprano, Chanter, and English Horn Dedication or Commission: Jan DeGaetani and Philip West Vocal Range: F#3 - A5 Degree of Difficulty: Medium Difficulty Notation/Special Effects: Standard, some unmeasured sections; quarter tone alterations in voice and E.H.

The vocalise technique is alternated with the Jewish prayer (Kaddish), intoned by the Chanter. The Coronach is a Scottish and Irish lamentation for the dead. During the chant (in Aramaic, not in Hebrew) the voice and English horn accompany with microtonal alterations in pitch and vowels. No vowels are indicated otherwise. The composer notes: "The Mezzo-soprano part purposely lacks syllabic notation (except where indicated). The choice of syllables is left to the discretion of the singer, to best realize her musical and emotional intentions."

Weigl, Vally. Brief Encounters New York: American Composers Alliance

104

Instrumentation: Mezzo-soprano, Wind duo, or Wind trio (Clarinet, Oboe, or English Horn, and Horn, Mvt. VI requires Bassoon)

Dedication or Commission: None indicated Vocal Range: F#3-Gs Degree of Difficulty: Not Difficult Notation/Special Effects: Standard, hand calligraphy on velum; no special effects.

I. Lament Moderato; II. Intermezzo Allegro vivace; III. Evocation Moderato mosso; IV. Alia Dansa Vivace ma non troppo; V. Arioso Adagio; VI. Rondelette Allegro; VII. Old Time Divertimento Vivace. The voice is included in movements I, III, IV and VI only. Clarinet or oboe are indicated alternatives for the voice with an alternate clarinet part included. An "Ah" vowel is indicated at the beginning and throughout the movements with the exception of Mvt. VI in which "La" is indicated. The style is fairly contrapuntal and imitative. The seventh movement, marked optional, is scored for trumpet (or clarinet), horn, and bassoon. The piece is not technically or musically demanding and could be performed by student groups.

Other works not available for review

Brant, Henry. Encephalograms (1955) New York: Composer's Facsimile Edition

Devoto, Mark. Fever Dream Vocalise. Publisher unknown.

Instrumentation: Sop, Fl, Cello, Piano, Percussion

Dresden, Sem. Four Vocalises. Amsterdam: Donemus

Instrumentation: Mezzo-Soprano, Bassoon, Clarinet, Flute, Piano, Viola, Violin

Freeman, Harry. Two Vocalise. Ottowa: Canadian Music Center.

Instrumentation: High voice, Clarinet, Piano

Knussen, Oliver, vocalise with Songs of Winnie the Pooh. (Publisher unknown)

105

Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute, English Horn, Clarinet, Cello, Piano

Kolinski, Mieczyslaw. Concertino (1974) Berandol

Instrumentation: Soprano, Clarinet, Piano

Kurimoto, Yoko. June End Songs Japan Federation.

Instrumentation: Voice, Alto Recorder, Guitar

Luening, Otto. Suite for Voice and Flute (1936-37) New York: American Composers Alliance/Galaxy.

Mortari, Virgilio. Canzone Italy: DeSante.

Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute

Peck, Russell. Automobile New York: Carl Fischer

Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute, Double Bass, Percussion

Sandstrom, Sven David. Just a Bit Stockholm: Nordiska

Instrumentation: Sop, Bassoon, Harp, Violin

Schaffer, Boguslaw. Bergoniana Ahn and Simrock

Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute, Horn, Double Bass, or Cello

Sharvil, Uri. Divertissement Jerusalam: Israeli Music

Instrumentation: Medium Voice, Flute, Bassoon, Arabic Drum, Piano

Sueyoshi, Yasuo. Musique pour la voix vocalise Tokyo: Ongaku No Tomo Sha Corp.

Instrumentation: Soprano, 2 Flutes, 3 Percussion

106

Szczeniewski, Boleslaw. Songs without Words Ottowa: Canadian Music Center

Instrumentation: Low Voice, violin, Flute, Cello

APPENDIX B:

WRITTEN INTERVIEW WITH NANCY CHANCE

107

108

MAY, 1992

General:

1) What is it that interests you in the use of voice in the small ensemble?

"It is the most expressive of all the instruments --such a great shame if one did not make use of it."

2) I'm assuming from various dedications, that Otto and Ethyl Luening performed voice and flute works together. Did your work with Otto Luening at Columbia influence any of your works?

"One of the reasons Otto was such a wonderful teacher is that he made no effort to impose his ideas or style on his students, but strove to bring out and shape the student's sense of what music should be."

3) Have you written any other works using the vocalise technique or are there plans for such in the future?

"No."

Duos I Background:

1) Is the work dedicated to anyone?

"No."

2) Under what conditions was the work composed?

"Truly can't remember."

3) Was there any preparation required, as in special vocal study, that helped make performance decisions as pertaining to the special techniques required or was the voice conceived primarily as an instrumental color?"

"See 'Program Notes.' Also, I have been a singer myself."

109

4) In analyzing the work, I've noted the recurring and expanded melodic, harmonic, rhythmic motives, technical devices and over all form that give the work cohesion. Is there a compositional plan or method involved that you worked from?

"See 'Program Notes'."

Performance Questions:

1) Regarding the "smorzato vibrato" which are measured by the small notes above the staff, is it your intention that they divide the assigned beats evenly, indicating an exact number and implied rhythm of pulsations or that they be used as an approximat i on?

"The small notes are spaced to indicate gradual slowing down or speeding up of pulses -- pulses should be entirely free of metric beat."

2) In the scale passage in the flute part, m. 57, should the passage be slurred as in the previous instance or articulated as indicated?

"Slurred -- (copying error)."

3) In m. 38, the flute part contains an extra eighth note value. I have assumed that the second note, Eb, should be an eighth note rather than a quarter. Is this correct?

"Yes"

4) In m. 52 and m. 62 there are notes for the finger cymbals that indicate a stopped note rather than the slur used previously, indicating "let ring". Should they be stopped notes or allowed to ring?

"Ring -- (copying error)"

APPENDIX C

PROGRAM NOTES FOR DUOS I BY NANCY CHANCE

PROVIDED BY THE COMPOSER.

110

111

It was my intent in this work to reverse the usual

process of dissonance resolving to consonance, and to see if

the ear could be conditioned, within the confines of a short

work, to accept a particular reiterated sharp dissonance as a

point of rest, a proper and satisfying cadence. By omitting

text and treating the voice instrumentally, it was also

possible to explore certain acoustic phenomena associated

with close dossonance, in particular the production of

audible beats in forte passages, which lends a certain aural

excitement to the work.

The two "instruments" should strive to produce sounds as

similar as possible, re: vibrato, tone quality, etc. Forte

passages should be loud enough to actually produce audible

"beats" in the particular performing space which you use --

these can be very interesting and exciting. Keep in mind

that the sharpest dissonances are at usual cadence points,

and try to convey a sense of repose and rest with the

dissonances at these points --an interesting exercise in

psychology of music.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Backus, John. The Acoustical Foundations of Music. New York: W.W. Norton, 1969.

Becker, Jeral Blaine. "Published American Works for Solo Voice and Small Instrumental Ensemble: 1920-1940." Ph.D. diss., Washington University, 1975.

Benade, Arthur H., Johan Sundberg, "Acoustics," The New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. New York: Macmillan, 1980. 1:77-87.

Benade, Arthur H. Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics. London: Oxford University Press, 1976.

Bersano, James R. "Formalized Aspect Analysis of Sound Texture." Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1979.

Blatter, Alfred Wayne. "The Effect of Timbre on Pitch-Matching Judgements." Doctoral Thesis, Univeristy of Illinois, 1974.

Campbell, Murray. The Musician's Guide to Acoustics. New York: Schirmer, 1988.

Coffin, Berton. Overtones of Bel Canto. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow, 1980.

Cohen, Aaron. "Nancy Laird Chance," International Encyclopedia of Women Composers, Second Edition, 2 vols. New York: Books and Music USA, 1987. I: 144.

Cone,Edward T. The Composer's Voice. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974.

Cox, David. "Jacques Ibert," The New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. New York: Macmillan, 1980. IX: 1-2.

Dunlap, Kay, Barbara Winchester. Vocal Chamber Music: A Performer's Guide. New York: Garland Publishing, 1985.

112

113

Francois, Jean-Charles. "Fixed Timbre, Dynamic Timbre," Perspectives in New Music, XXVIII:2 (Summer, 1990), 112-18.

Gartner, Jochen. The vibrato with Particular Consideration given to the Situation of the Flutist. English translation by Einar w . Anderson. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse Verlang, 1981.

Gillespie, James. "Works for Soprano and Clarinet," Instrumentalist, XXXI:6-7 (December 197 6, January 1977): 63-65; 47-50.

Greville, Ursula. "Voice and the Chamber Ensemble," Cobbett's Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music, 3 vols. Compiled and edited by Walter willson Cobbett with supplementary material edited by Colin Mason. London: Oxford University Press, 1963. II: 555-57.

Hall, Donald E. Musical Acoustics: An Introduction.. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1980.

Jander, Owen. "Vocalise," The New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. New York: Macmillan, 1980. XX:51.

Kroll, Oskar. The Clarinet. Revised and with a repertory by Diethard Riehm. Translated by jHilda Norris. Translation edited by Anthony Baines. New York: Taplinger Pub. Co., 1968.

Langwill, Lyndesay G. The Bassoon and Contra-bassoon. London: Ernest Benn, 1965.

Lawson, Charles E. "An Investigation to Determine if the Oral Cavity Acoustically Influences the Radiated Wave Form of the Clarinet." D.M.A. diss., University of Iowa, 1974.

LeSueur, Richard. Art Songs with Obligato instruments (ensembles of five or less). (working copy), Ann Arbor: Vocal Arts Information Services, 1990.

Levarie, Siegmund and Ernst Levy. Tone: A Study in Musical Acoustics. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1968.

Lust, P., comp. American Vocal Chamber Music 1945-1980: An Annotated Bibliography. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1985.

114

Martyn, Barrie. Rachmaninoff: Composer, Pianist, Conductor. Aldershot, Hants, England. Brookfield, vt.: Gower Pub. Co., 1990.

Miller, Jan Roger. "A Spectrum Analysis of Clarinet Tones." Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1956.

Noske, Fritz. French Song from Berlioz to DuParc, translated by Rita Benton. New York: Dover, 197 0.

"Obbligato," The New Harvard Dictionary of Music, ed. by Don M. Randell. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1986, 553.

Orenstein, Arbie. Ravel Man and Musician. New York: Columbia University Press, 1975.

Ottaway, Hugh. Ralph Vaughan Williams. London: Oxford, 1964.

. "Ralph Vaughan Williams," The New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. New York: Macmillan, 1980. XIX: 569-580.

Pierce, John R. The Science of Musical Sound. New York: Scientific American Library, 1983.

Rendall, Geoffrey F. The Clarinet; Some Notes upon its History and Construction. 3rd ed. Revised and with some additional material by Philip Bate. London: Ernest Benn, Ltd., 1971.

Seashore, Carl E., ed. University of Iowa Studies in the Psychology of Music. Vol. 1, Vibrato. Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1932.

Shaw-Taylor, Desmond. "Margaret (Mabel) Ritchie," The New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. New York: Macmillan, 1980. XVI: 57.

Silsbee, Robert H. "Acoustics," The New Harvard Dictionary of Music, ed. by Don M. Randell. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1986, 7-13.

Slawson, Wayne. Sound Color. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985.

Stevens, Denis, ed. A History of Song. New York: W.W. Norton, 1960.

Stolba, K. Marie. The Development of Western Music - A History. Debuque, IA: Wm.C. Brown, 1990.

115

Sumrall, John N., Jr. "The Literature for Clarinet and Voice and Its Historical Antecedents." D.M.A. diss., University of Illinois, 1974.

Thurston, Frederick. Clarinet Technique. London: Oxford University Press, 197 3.

Vaughan Williams, Ursula. Ralph vaughan Williams, a Biography. London: Oxford, 1988.

wain, Ronald L. "Chairiber Music for Solo Voice, Flute, and Keyboard or Continuo, Including an Annotated Bibliography of Selected Literature." Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1971.

. "Flute and Voice Ensembles," The Instrumentalist, XLV (January 1991): 38.

Wilson, Sir Stewart, M. Dawney. "The Vocal Music of Ralph Vaughan Williams," Musical Opinion, CXII (July 1989): 234-5.

37? NQ fd 36^ - Digital Library/67531/metadc279129/m2/1/high... · three, chosen for this study...

Documents

Transcript of 37? NQ fd 36^ - Digital Library/67531/metadc279129/m2/1/high... · three, chosen for this study...