3.5. Water Stress - European Environment Agency

Water stress 155

3.5. Water Stress

• Water stress is caused by activities in two sectors identified as priorities under theFifth Environmental Action Programme, namely, agriculture and industry, and also bythe household sector. Most progress has been achieved in the industrial sector, withsome improvement for households, but little progress has been made by theagricultural sector.

• EU countries are, on average, abstracting around 21% of their renewable freshwaterresources each year which is regarded as a sustainable position, although significantwater loss occurs in southern countries – around 18% of the resource is lost each yearin irrigation. Water abstraction will increase very slowly in the EU. Water pricing topromote conservation, re-use and leakage control is now an important considerationin the development of water policy.

• There are fewer heavily-polluted rivers due to reductions in organic matter discharges,phosphate-free detergents and improved waste-water treatment; implementation ofthe Urban Waste-water treatment Directive and upgrading of discharge can achievefurther reductions of phosphorus and organic matter discharges but the quantity ofcontaminated sludge will increase accordingly. The concentration of nitrate in EUrivers has been approximately constant since 1980 leading to eutrophication in coastalareas. Nitrate contamination of aquifers also remains a problem, due to diffusenutrient loads from agricultural areas.

Main findings

1. Focus on major water stress problems

Water stress occurs when the demand forwater exceeds the available amount duringa certain period or when poor qualityrestricts its use. It frequently occurs in areaswith low rainfall and high populationdensity or in areas where agricultural orindustrial activities are intense. Even wheresufficient long-term freshwater resourcesexist, seasonal or annual variations in theavailability of freshwater may at times causestress.

Water stress causes deterioration of freshwater resources in terms of quantity (aquiferover-exploitation, dry rivers, etc.) and quality(eutrophication, organic matter pollution,saline intrusion, etc.). Such deteriorationcan result in health problems and have anegative influence on ecosystems.

At European level, various policy responseshave been taken to address water stress andprevent the deterioration of water quality.Sustainable use of water is among the keyobjectives of the EU’s Fifth EnvironmentalAction Programme (5EAP), and is thesubject of policy initiatives including theGroundwater Action Programme and

Directives on Urban Waste-water treatment,Nitrate, Drinking-water and Bathing Waters.In February 1997, the European Commissionadopted a Proposal for a Water FrameworkDirective, pursuing a generic approach towater management and providing a frame-work for the protection of water resources.Table 3.5.1 lists the EU objectives, targetsand actions achieved in relation to waterresources. Water stress is also affected bysectoral policies, notably the CommonAgricultural Policy and its reform.

Water resources and water quality in Europeare affected mainly by the activities in threesectors: agriculture, industry and house-holds. This chapter focuses on the influencethese sectors have on the availability anddemand for water and on water qualityproblems caused by discharges of organicmatter, phosphorus and nitrogen into waterbodies. Europe’s water bodies are affected bymany other factors creating water stress (seeTable 3.5.2) but the issues selected foranalysis in this chapter are the most promi-nent on a European scale. In addition, therelatively high amount of good qualityinformation available on these issues pro-vides a sound basis for analysis at Europeanlevel.

Environmental Issues156

2. How much water is available?

2.1. Renewable resourcesThe total renewable freshwater resource ofa country is the amount of water flowing inrivers and aquifers, originating either fromprecipitation over the country itself (inter-nal water resources), or from water receivedfrom neighbouring countries in trans-boundary rivers and aquifers (externalwater resources). In the EU, the averageinternal water resource is estimated to beapproximately 1 190 km3/year (EEA,1999a), equivalent to 3 200 m3/cap/year.Although this is significantly lower than theglobal average of 7 300 m3/cap/year(WMO, 1997), EU countries appear to havesufficient water resources since averageabstractions are estimated at 660 m3/cap/year.

However, these resources are not evenlydistributed. There are substantial imbalancesbetween different regions. Map 3.5.1 illus-trates the wide spatial variability of freshwaterresources, with annual average runoff (waterresource per unit of area) ranging from over3 000 mm in western Norway to 100 mm overlarge areas of Eastern Europe and less than50 mm in southern and central Spain.

Transboundary river flows make up a signifi-cant share of the resources in many coun-tries. In Hungary, freshwater originatingfrom upstream countries accounts for asmuch as 95% of the total resource. In theNetherlands and the Slovak Republic thisproportion is over 80%; whilst Germany,Slovenia and Portugal all rely on importedwater for over 40% of their resources.Although there are international agreements

Table 3.5.1. EU objectives, targets and actions in relation to water resources

EC targets up to 2000

Prevent permanentoverdraft. Integrateresource conservationand sustainable usecriteria into otherpolicies, includingagriculture, planning andindustry. Markedreduction in pollution ofwater bodies.

To prevent all pollutionfrom point sources andto reduce pollution fromdiffuse sourcesaccording to bestenvironmental practices(BEP) and best availabletechnology (BAT).

Quality improvementstowards a betterecological quality andsafeguard of high qualitywhere it exists.

Actions achieved (achievements by 1998)

The approach on sustainable water use is now developed inthe Water Framework Directive (1997/8 proposal, probableadoption 1999) which sets target of good ecological status(including minimum water flow conditions where relevant) forsurface water, and good quantitative status for groundwater.These together define the sustainable limits for abstraction,and the Directive requires Member States (MS) to ensure thatabstraction does not exceed this. This requires MS to integratethese constraints into controls on agriculture, industry and anyother activity which could affect them.

The main groundwater pollution problems were identified andlegislated on in 1991 – nitrate (Directive on Protection ofwaters against nitrate pollution from agriculture) and pesticidecontamination (Directive 91/414). Implementation of theNitrate Directive has been unsatisfactory in the majority ofMember States and proceedings have been initiated againstthose MS that have not yet complied. Progress on 91/414 hasbeen glacially slow – seven years after adoption analysis iscomplete on only one active substance out of approximately800.

The BEP and BAT measures are set out in the GroundwaterAction Programme (GWAP, 1996) and implemented in theWater Framework Directive (1997/8 proposal, probableadoption 1999). They enforce existing quality objectives forpesticides, nitrate and biocides, and add two elements: arequirement to ensure that the quality is sufficient to supportconnected surface ecosystems; and a requirement to reverseincreasing pollution trends.

The overall purpose of the proposed Water FrameworkDirective is to establish a framework for protection of waterbodies to prevent further deterioration, and to protect andenhance the status of aquatic ecosystems and those terrestrialecosystems directly dependent upon them. It requires theachievement of good surface water status by 2015 unless it isimpossible or prohibitively expensive.

The Nitrate and Urban Waste-water treatment Directivesaddress surface water pollution. Implementation of the NitrateDirective is described above. Implementation of the UrbanWaste-water treatment Directive since 1991 has been patchybut considerable investment programmes are in place in allMember States.

Quantitativeaspects

Groundwaterand surface freshwater

Qualitativeaspects

Groundwater

Qualitativeaspects

Surface freshwaters

Objectives

Sustainable use offreshwater resources:demand for water shouldbe in balance with itsavailability.

To maintain the qualityof uncontaminatedgroundwater.

To prevent furthercontamination ofcontaminatedgroundwater.

To restore contaminatedgroundwater to aquality required fordrinking-waterproduction purposes.

To maintain a highstandard of ecologicalquality with a biodiversitycorresponding as much aspossible to theunperturbed state of agiven water.

Water stress 157

Water Stress Factor Reference to Chapter

Acidification (no direct description of surface water acidification in Chapter 3.4)

Chapter 3.11 Acidification from sulphur and nitrogen polluted depositions

Biodiversity Chapter 3.11 Includes some description of biodiversity in relation to freshwater

Climate change Chapter 3.1 Vulnerability to climate change in Europe

Chapter 3.11 Foreseen impact of climate change by 2050 by habitat-type(running water, bogs, marshes and fens)

Desertification Chapter 3.6 Main impacts on resources

Eutrophication of coastaland marine waters Chapter 3.14 Environmental conditions in regional seas

Heavy metals Chapter 3.3 Heavy metals losses during production, use and waste treatment

Pesticides Chapter 3.3 Organochlorines dispersal in soil, groundwater and some global scaleproblems

Radiation (No direct description of radiation in surface waters in Chapter 3.8)

River flooding Chapter 3.8 Occurrence of major floods

Soil-phosphorus Chapter 3.6 Analysis of phosphorus surplus

Sludge from waste-watertreatment plants Chapter 3.7 Case study: Sewage sludge – a future waste problem?

Water management Chapter 3.12 Box: Water management in Europe:(urban areas) the pricing issue and Case study : Water flows in Barcelona

Water stress in mountainareas Chapter 3.15 Mountains are the water towers of the lowlands

Wetlands Chapter 3.11 Wetlands: where all environmental pressures meet

Sectors

Aquaculture Chapter 3.14 Developments in aquaculture

Agriculture Chapter 2.2 Trends in agriculture (livestock, fertilisers and pesticides)

Table 3.5.2.Other Water stress related factors

to control the quantity and quality of im-ported water, tensions inevitably can arise,especially where total water availability in theupstream country is less than in the down-stream country.

2.2 How much water is being used?Fortunately, in most European countries theamount of water available is far greater thandemand. In the EU, EFTA and AccessionCountries (excluding Cyprus), total internalresources amount to 1897 km3/year, out ofwhich 296 km3/year are abstracted (16%)and 89 km3/year consumed (5%).

With total abstraction at around 240 km3/year (in 1995), the EU is using, on average,only 21% of its renewable resources (EEA,1999a) which can be regarded as a sustain-able position (OECD, 1998). The most

stressed countries with respect to waterquantity (highest ratios of abstraction pertotal resources) are Belgium and Luxem-bourg with high water stress and more than40% of resources being abstracted andGermany, Italy and Spain, with medium-highwater stress and values between 30% and35% (Figure 3.5.1). Such country averages,however, may conceal enormous regionaland temporal differences in the sustain-ability of usage within the country.

In order to meet their total needs for waterfor all purposes, most European countriesrely more on surface water than on ground-water (EEA, 1998). For example, Finland,Slovenia and Lithuania take more than 90%of their total supply from surface waters,although groundwater is the predominantsource in some countries, such as Denmark


30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50

60

50

40

30

20100

30

40

50

60

N o r w e g i a n S e a

N o r t hS e a

A r c t i c O c e a n

At

la

nt

ic

Oc

ea

n

TyrrhenianSea

I o n i a n

S e a

Ba

l ti

cS

ea

Adr iat ic Sea

Aegean

Sea

C h a n n e l

WhiteSea

B a r e n t s

S e a

M e d i t e rr

an

e a n S e a

B l a c k

S e a

Average annualrunoff

0 500 km

Runoff in mm

less than 5050 – 100

100 – 150150 – 250

250 – 500

more than 2000

500 – 2 000

Map 3.5.1

Source: EEA, 1998

and Iceland, where it satisfies practically theentire demand. In many countries, ground-water is the main source for drinking-watersupply, due to its easy (and low-cost) avail-ability and its high quality (EEA, 1999a). Itcan, however, be an expensive and time-consuming resource to restore once it hasbeen polluted or depleted, hence vigilanceand regular monitoring are required.

2.3. Sectoral water useOn average, 14% of total water abstraction inthe EU is used for public water supply, 30% in

agriculture, 10% in industry (excludingcooling water) and 46% as cooling water,mainly for power generation (EEA, 1999a).Mediterranean agriculture is the biggest wateruser: irrigation accounts for about 80% oftotal water demand in Greece, 60% in Spain,52% in Portugal and more than 50% in Italy(the average figure in northern Europe isunder 10%). For the Accession Countries,industry is the biggest user (Figure 3.5.2).

Most of the water abstracted is not consumedbut returned to the water cycle, being

Water stress 159

10

50

30

40

20

0

Austria

Belgium

Bulgar

ia

Czech

Republic

Denmar

k

Estonia

Finland

France

German

y

Greece

Hungary

Icelan

d

Irelan

dIta

ly

Lithuan

ia

The Neth

erlands

Norway

Poland

Slova

k Republic

Slove

niaSpain

Sweden

United K

ingdom

Portugal

% t

ota

l ren

ewab

le re

sour

ce

Total water abstractionWater consumption

Nodata

Intensity of water abstraction and water consumption as a percentage of total renewable freshwaterresources in the EU

Figure 3.5.1

Source: ETC/IW

available, after proper treatment or naturalpurification, for subsequent use (see Box3.5.1). Water consumption (principallyevapotranspiration) in the EU is estimated tobe 77 km3/year, or around 32% of totalabstractions, with 80% attributable to agri-culture (mainly irrigation water), 20% tourban and industrial use and 10% to coolingand other uses.

The major water consumers are the Mediter-ranean countries, where irrigation is muchgreater than in central and northern Eu-rope. Also, the highest levels of total waterdemand per capita occur in countries withagriculture systems which heavily depend onirrigation (e.g. Italy, Spain).

Box 3.5.1: Definitions of water use

Various concepts are used to describe thediverse aspects of water use. Water abstraction isthe quantity of water physically removed from itsnatural source. Water supply refers to the shareof abstraction which is supplied to users(excluding losses in storage, conveyance anddistribution), and water consumption means theshare of supply which in terms of a water balanceactually is used (as evaporation) whilst theremainder is reintroduced into the source ofabstraction. The term water demand is definedas the volume of water requested by users tosatisfy their needs. In a simplified way it is oftenconsidered equal to water abstraction, althoughconceptually the two terms do not have the samemeaning.

EUGreece

Spain

Italy

Portugal

Denmark

Ireland

United Kingdom

France

Austria

Sweden

Germany

Finland

The Netherlands

Belgium- Lux.

EFTANorway

Switzerland

Iceland

AccessionCountries

Romania

Hungary

Poland

Slovak Republic

Slovenia

Bulgaria

Czech Republic

Estonia

Lithuania

Liechtenstein

0 25 50 75 100

%

Agriculture Urban use Industry Cooling and others

Sectoral water use in Europe Figure 3.5.2

Source: EEA, 1999a


2.3.1. Public water supplyPublic water supply (PWS) includes a widerange of users, most notably households,small industry, agriculture, commerce andpublic services. PWS is the major user inmany western European and Nordic coun-tries, but has a lower share in Mediterraneancountries (see Figure 3.5.2).

Within public water supply, households tendto dominate, accounting for 44% of the totalurban demand in the UK (DOE, 1999), 57%in the Netherlands, and 41% in Hungary(ICWS, 1996).

Large variations in PWS per capita are foundin Europe, ranging from 50 m3/capita/yearin Germany to 140 m3/capita/year in Italy,and from 30 m3/capita/year in Romania toover 200 m3/capita/year in Bulgaria. Icelandhas the largest PWS volume supplied (310m3/capita/year).

Urban water demand rose steadily betweenthe 1980s and 1990s in most countries,owing to growing population and the in-creased use of domestic appliances such asdishwashers (see also Chapter 3.12). Predic-tions indicate that population will continueto increase moderately over the next 15 yearsin most countries of the EU, with the totalpopulation reaching around 390 million in2010, although the number of households isprojected to increase, as household sizedeclines (see Chapter 2.2). Pricing mecha-nisms and incentives to encourage improvedefficiencies in water use by households willbe important influences on future demandfor PWS, and it is expected that future waterdemand for PWS will decline slightly in theEU (ETC/IW, 1998b).

Loss of water from leakage in the distribu-tion networks (still substantial in manycountries) could be reduced by improvedmaintenance of the water distributionnetwork. Comparisons of average leakagerates for eight countries (Table 3.5.3) showsthat between 10% (for Austria and Den-mark) and 33% (for the Czech Republic) ofsupplied water never reaches the final user.Individual cities and water companies canexperience higher losses, for example,Bilbao and Thames Water report losses of upto 40% and 34% respectively (EEA, 1999a;DOE, 1999).

2.3.2 Industrial water useThe biggest industrial water users are thechemical industry, the steel, iron and metal-lurgy industries, and the pulp and paperindustry, although in most European coun-tries industrial abstractions have beendeclining since 1980. In western Europe thisis due, primarily, to economic restructuringwith closures in water-using industries suchas textiles and steel, and a move towards lesswater-intensive industries. Technologicalimprovements in water-using equipment andincreased recycling and re-use have alsocontributed to the decline. In easternEurope, abstractions seem to have dimin-ished due to the serious decline in industrialactivity across the whole sector.

Generally, pricing mechanisms have beenused more extensively to encourage wateruse efficiencies in the industrial sector,where firms will adopt water-saving technolo-gies if costs can be reduced, than in thehousehold and agricultural sectors. Alsocharges for the discharge of contaminatedwater into the sewerage network are animportant incentive for industries to im-prove process technologies and to reducethe amount of water used and discharged.Industrial sectors with the largest waterneeds are the chemical industry, steel, ironand metallurgy industries, and the pulp andpaper industry.

In general, the quantities of water abstractedfor cooling are far in excess of those used bythe rest of industry (e.g. 95% of all industrialwater use in Hungary is for cooling). How-ever, cooling water is generally returned tothe water cycle unchanged, apart from anincrease in temperature and some possiblecontamination by biocides.

Forecasts of industrial water use in Europeare generally downwards because of in-creased efficiency in industrial processes,

Table 3.5.3. Leakage rates in various European countries

Country Leakage rate (%)

Austria1 10

Denmark2 10

Czech Replublic1 33

France1 30

Italy1 15

Slovak Replublic1 23

Spain1 20

UK (England and Wales)3 28

1 EEA, 1999a2 Danmark Statistik, 19983 OFWAT, 1997

Water stress 161

greater water re-use and the decline ofresource intensive industries in Europe(ETC/IW, 1998b).

2.3.3. Agricultural water useOver the past decades the trend in agricul-tural water use has, in general, been up-wards, due to increasing use of water forirrigation. However, during recent years inseveral countries the rate of growth hasslowed down. In Spain for example, the areaunder irrigation expanded from 1.5 to over3 million hectares during the period from1950 to 1980 and since then the irrigatedarea has been roughly stable.

In southern European countries, irrigation isnecessary to secure crop growth each yearwhereas in central and western Europe it isonly a means to maintain production in drysummers. The major irrigated areas in EUare in the Mediterranean countries andRomania and Bulgaria in the AccessionCountries.

Reforms of Common Agricultural Policy(CAP – see Chapter 3.13) will lead tochanges in types of crop being cultivated, thearea irrigated and the amount of water used.In principle, two trends can be distinguished.On the one hand, if production is reduced,the demand for production inputs, such aswater, is logically bound to diminish. On theother hand, there might be a switch towardsmore profitable crops, which at least insouthern climates frequently require irriga-tion.

Box 3.5.2: The challenge of water resources in Mediterranean countries

Water resources in the Mediterranean basin area,under increasing pressure, are about to be a majorchallenge regarding development and security overthe next decades. Various figures on exploitation ofthe resources, analysed against the fast-growingpopulation rate, notably in urban and coastal areas(see Chapter 3.14), lead to an estimate that around50% of the population may face a water shortageof less than 500 m3/cap/year available. Accordingto a prospective analysis of water resources issuesin the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea(Blue Plan, 1996) it is projected that in 2025 morethan 13 countries will be abstracting more than50% of their renewable water resources and 6countries more than 100%.

In this context, one should note that waters in theMediterranean region are naturally of variousqualities which hamper their exploitation; forinstance, salinity in some places prevents the use ofwater for human consumption and irrigation inmany southern countries. In addition, large

pollution discharges and local overexploitationfurther degrade the quality. Every year, about 15billion m³ of discharges within the catchment areaoccur, a large part of which is not treated; 75% ofthese discharges come from northernMediterranean countries. Loss of water resources,due to poor management, might represent 47% ofthe present demand (mainly from agriculture).Reversing that situation would contribute to 90% ofthe additional demand foreseen to 2010.

In spite of measures and actions, recourse to non-conventional sources of water is therefore expectedto contribute to the challenge. Re-use/recycling ofwaste water, mainly for agriculture, is a keydevelopment; it is expected, in Cyprus, to triple therate of re-use by 2010. Desalinisation is already inuse in most islands but the high production costslimit production for human consumption and evenfor industrial processes. However, these non-conventional sources are estimated to account forless than 5% of water supply in the area by 2025.

Source: MAP/Blue Plan; Environment Institute, Cyprus

0

1000

3000

2000

5000

4000

1980 1990 2000 2010

km3 /

year

World EU15 N. America Asia

Source: ETC/IW, 1998b;Shiklomanov, 1998

Total water demand – trends and projections Figure 3.5.3

Unlike in the industrial sector, there remainsscope for further improvements in theefficiency of water use by agriculture. Muchof the improvement could be realisedthrough changes in practice and behaviour,e.g. by undertaking irrigation more sparinglyand when evaporation is less likely to occur,encouraged by the use of price mechanismsand other instruments.

2.3.4. The overall demand for water in the futureIt is estimated, considering the present andfuture water demand sector by sector, thatthe total water demand in the EU willremain relatively stable until 2010 (Figure3.5.3), although further growth is projectedfor other regions of the world, due to eco-nomic development and increased irrigation(Box 3.5.2).


A similar analysis of the expected evolutionof the total water demand in several regionsof EU also shows only a slight increase ofdemand for water in all regions. This isbecause the rate of growth of the maindriving forces is expected to slow and theefficiency of water use is expected to im-prove, as national water conservation poli-cies and actions have an increasingly positiveimpact.

Such forecasts are best estimates based oncurrent knowledge, and should be inter-preted with caution. This is clearly demon-strated by the fact that the growth rates ofwater demand registered in some EU coun-tries during the past decade were muchlower than the forecasts made in the 1960sand 1970s and to bring the forecasts in linewith reality they were on several occasionscorrected downwards (Figures 3.5.4 and3.5.5).

2.4. Water shortagesLong-term water resources assessments donot take into account their irregular distribu-tion in time. Even where there are sufficientlong-term resources in an area, the seasonalor year-to-year variation of the resource will,at times, result in problems of water stress.For water resource planners, decisions onwater supply are frequently based on theresource they can expect in dry periods andlow river flow.

Recent years have shown how vulnerablecountries can be to low precipitation. Inseveral (mainly southern) European coun-tries periodic droughts are a major environ-mental, social and economic problem (Box3.5.3).

Extended or recurrent periods of droughtcan intensify the desertification process,which is caused by over-use of soil and water(see Chapter 3.6) leading to deterioration inthe natural vegetation cover. The result is areduction of infiltration into the soil andincreased surface flow; furthermore the soilis unprotected and the risk of erosionbecomes greater.

Semi-arid Mediterranean countries are themost susceptible to the effects of deserti-fication because of – for example – theirmountainous morphology with steep slopes(see Chapter 3.15), rainfall with consider-able erosion capacity and over-exploitedsystems due to the imbalance betweenresources and abstractions (EEA, 1997).

Intensive exploitation of aquifers can giverise to over-exploitation problems. Aquiferover-exploitation mainly depends on thebalance between abstraction and renewableresources. In Mediterranean countries theover-exploitation commonly arises fromexcessive abstraction for irrigation. Theresulting increase in productivity and changein land use can establish a cycle of unsustain-able socio-economic development within anirrigated region. Additional resources areexploited to satisfy the increased demandfrom the population and agriculture, exacer-bating the already fragile environment byreducing groundwater levels and, in somecircumstances, accelerating the desertifi-cation processes (EEA, 1997). Wetlands orwet ecosystems are also damaged when theaquifer water table drops (Box 3.5.4). It isestimated (EEA, 1999b) that about 50% ofmajor wetlands in Europe have ‘endangeredstatus’ due to groundwater over-exploitation(see also Chapter 3.11).

100

140

120

220

180

1970 1975 1985 1995

l/cap

/day

Actual demand

Batelle Institute 1976

Batelle Institute 1972

TU Berlin 1980

1980 1990 2000

160

200

Figure 3.5.5Domestic water use per capita in the FederalRepublic of Germany – projections and trends(per capita)

Source: Gundermann, 1993

0

10

30

20

60

40

1960 1980 2000 2020

km3 /

year

Actual demand

Forecast 1980

Forecast 1967

Forecast 1993

Forecast 1977

50

Figure 3.5.4 Forecasts and actual growthof total water demand in Spain

Source: Spanish Ministry forthe Environment, 1998

Water stress 163

Box 3.5.3 Droughts in Cyprus and Spain

CyprusIn Cyprus, water scarcity is creating seriousproblems and constraining infrastructuraldevelopment, not only of agriculture, but moresignificantly of other activities, including tourism, awater- intensive activity. In recent years annualprecipitation has fallen well below its historicalaverage. The country is suffering the third-worstthree-year drought period of this century, andwater in the reservoirs is down to only 10% of totalcapacity. As a result, and despite many resourcesbeing invested in water storage capacity, thequantities of water available for drinking andirrigation purposes have not been adequate.

The present water situation is not sustainable.Development of conventional surface waterresources in the past two decades has provedinsufficient to respond successfully to the extremeclimatic conditions of the past three years.

The 1990-95 drought in SpainLow rainfall during 1990-95 led to a significantreduction in run off and to a spectacular decrease

in most of the country’s water reservoirs. Thisadversely affected aquatic life and landscapes inmany regions (dry rivers, impact on ecosystems,deterioration of water quality, etc.). Although thedrought struck almost the entire territory, itespecially increased the problems related to waterstress in regions where water resources werealready under pressure (Map 3.5.2).

The strategies to confront the situation included avariety of emergency measures to develop newsources of supply (increased use of groundwater,water transfer, use of water of poor quality). Theincreased use of existing groundwater resourceswas a major source of additional supply. In total270 new wells with a pumping capacity of morethan 16 m3/s were opened during the period 1990-95. Also a number of measures aimed at reducingdemand were applied (information campaigns,assignment of priorities, restrictions of urbansupply). At one time during the period 1990-95,25% of the population in Spain, especially in thesouth of the country, was suffering restrictions ofdomestic water supply.

Changes of meanannual precipitation

over 1990 – 95compared to 1940 – 96

0 250 km

less than 1 %0 %

1 – 10 %11 – 20 %21 – 30 %31 – 40 %more than 40 %

increase

dec

reas

e

Salt-water intrusion in aquifers can result fromgroundwater exploitation along the coast,where urban, tourist and industrial centres arecommonly located. The intrusion of salt wateris a problem in many coastal European re-gions, but especially along the Mediterranean,Baltic and Black Sea coasts (EEA, 1995).

3. Just using water pollutes it

3.1. AgricultureOver the past 50 years, more intensive farmmanagement practices, have meant that the

use of commercial inorganic fertilizer hasincreased dramatically. Increased livestockdensities have resulted in the production andapplication of greater loads of manure tocultivated land. Together these trends havecontributed to excessive amounts of nutrients,in particular nitrogen, being applied to thesoil. Under these conditions, the nutrientload can exceed the removal capacity of thecrops and of the soil and leaching of nutrientsto water bodies may increase.

In many areas, much of the agricultural landhas been drained to enhance production.

Map 3.5.2

Source: ETC/IW

0˚10˚

40˚

0˚

40˚

10˚

F R A N C E

PO

RT

UG

AL

A L G E R I A

ANDORRA

Gibraltar Ceuta

Melilla

M O R O C C O

MallorcaIbiza

Menorca

aeSciraelaB

aeSnaenarretideM

na

ec

Oc

it

na

lt

A

B a y o f B i s c a y

Gulf ofLions

15˚ W

30˚ NLa Palma

Tenerife

Gran Canaria

FuerteventuraHierro

Gomera

C a n a r y I s l a n d s


Box 3.5.4 An example of wetland deterioration

Maintenance of wetlands is dependent on a naturalhydrological regime (see Chapter 3.11). In Spain,for the past two or three decades, the ‘la ManchaOccidental’ aquifer (5 500 km2) has been exploitedfor irrigation purposes. The abstraction, made byprivate farmers, has established more than 100 000ha of new irrigation land. This abstraction (morethan 600 M m3/year a few years ago) was higherthan the recharge (between 200 and 500 M m3/year,depending on the meteorological year) and hadtwo consequences: economic development of theregion and the exploitation of the aquifer.

The decline of the aquifer water level producedserious ecological impacts on some wetlands of LaMancha Humeda, the most important in theNational Park “Las Tablas de Daimiel”.

The Spanish administration declared the aquiferprovisionally over-exploited in 1987, and in 1995the administration produced its final declaration ofover-exploitation. Together with this measure, theadministration designed a programme to plan theabstractions. In 1993 a five-year programme wasestablished to compensate for the loss of farmer’sincome (PCR) when reducing their abstractions. Alarge part of the compensation (75%) came fromthe EU. The PCR programme gave rise to the‘Groundwater Users’ Community’ (the farmersreceive compensation through this organisation)and had the effect of reducing the abstractions, butthe economic impact was negative for the region,with a loss of jobs in agriculture and smallindustries (Llamas, 1996).

However, as a result, many of Europe’smarshes, wetlands, ponds and lakes havedisappeared. This has considerably reducedthe capacity of freshwater ecosystems to storeand remove many pollutants includingnitrogen.

3.1.1. Nitrogen loadAgriculture is the main source of nitrogenloading to water bodies. High inputs ofnitrogen to water bodies can cause signifi-cant ecological changes, especially in coastalareas. At excessive concentrations nitrate indrinking-water is considered to be a humanhealth problem (see Chapter 3.10).

In the five areas (Figure 3.5.6) with thelargest nitrogen export coefficient (i.e.

Poland, the European part of the Mediterra-nean basin, Danube basin, North Sea basinand western European countries) there areonly small differences in the percentage ofarable and total agricultural land. Themarked increase in load, i.e. from 6.5 kgN/ha in Poland to around 28 kg N/ha in thewestern European countries, can generallybe explained by more intensive agriculturalproduction, here illustrated by highernitrogen fertiliser application.

3.1.2. Nutrient surpluses are highest in regions with intensive livestock productionDespite documented decreases in fertiliseruse, livestock numbers and manure produc-tion (Chapter 2.2), European agriculture stilladds much more nitrogen to the soil than is

Point sources

Agriculture

Background

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Nordic Baltic basin* Poland Europeanpart

Mediterranean*

Danubebasin

North Seabasin*

WesternEurope

*No source apportionment

3.44.6

6.5

10.7

13.0

22.0

28.0

kg N

/ha/

year

Figure 3.5.6 Sources of N in selected larger areas (> 300 000 km²)

Annual nitrogen load perhectare (export coefficient)

compared with thepercentage of agricultural

land, and the application offertilisers per hectare of

total land area. No sourceapportionment for the Baltic

Sea catchment, theEuropean part of the

Mediterranean catchmentand the North Sea. Nordic:

Norway, Sweden, & Finland.Eur. Medd.: European part

of the Mediterranean basinW. Europe: Germany, the

Netherlands, Flemish part ofBelgium, Denmark, &

Austria.

Source: ETC/IW based on12 different sources

Water stress 165

required for crop growth. When this surplusof nitrogen leaches out of the soil andreaches a water body it can create pollutionproblems. Field balance studies show thatcountries in north-western Europe generallyhave the largest nitrogen surplus. In theNetherlands and Belgium the country aver-age nitrogen surplus is around 300 and 180kg N/ha of agricultural land, respectively,while in Luxembourg, Germany, Denmarkand the United Kingdom the surplus isaround 100 kg N/ha (Figure 3.5.7). Insouthern countries, the country averagesurplus is generally less than 50 kg N/ha.

Even in countries with a relatively lowaverage nitrogen surplus, there may beregions where the surplus is high; they aregenerally also the regions with high concen-tration of intensive livestock production (inparticular pigs and poultry).

3.2. Marked reduction in discharge from industryOnly a small part of the European industrialsector is responsible for the majority oforganic matter and nutrients in waste water,in particular the pulp and paper, foodprocessing and fertiliser industries.

Over the past 25 years, emissions of oxygen-consuming substances from the pulp andpaper industry have been radically reducedbecause of the introduction of new tech-niques and various measures to clean proc-esses. In Sweden and Finland, which accountfor 60% of the EU production of woodpulpfor paper production, the organic matterload has been reduced by around 75%during over the past 15 years, even thoughproduction has increased by 20%.

Similarly, because of improved technologythere has been a marked reduction inindustrial phosphorus discharges in manywestern European countries. In the Nether-lands, the industrial phosphorus dischargewas reduced from 14 to 3 ktonnes between1985 and 1993 (RIVM, 1995) mainly due todischarge reductions at fertiliser plants inRotterdam harbour.

The phosphorus emission from two majorEuropean fertiliser companies (Hydro andKemira) fell from 15.6 ktonnes in 1990 to2.6 ktonnes in 1996 (Figure 3.5.8). Forcomparison, the total annual dischargefrom Denmark is around 5 ktonnes. In thesame period the phosphorus dischargedfrom the pulp and paper industry in Swe-den and Finland was halved from 1.2 to 0.6ktonnes.

220

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

The N

ethe

rland

s

Luxe

mbour

g

Belgium

Germ

any

Italy

Denm

ark

Irelan

d

Greec

e

Fran

ce

Finlan

d

United

Kingdom

Swed

enSp

ain

Portugal

Austri

aEU 15

kg N

/ h

a

Source: Eurostat

Average nitrogen surplus (difference betweeninput by atmospheric deposition, fertiliser and

manure and output by harvested crops)Figure 3.5.7

4

0

1990 1992 1994 1996

2

6

8

10

12

kto

nnes

Hydro

Kemira

Paper industry

Phosphorus emissions from large industries Figure 3.5.8

Source: Hydro, 1995, 1996;Kemira, 1996; Wahlström,1996; Statistics Sweden1990; 1996

3.3. Phosphorus loads

3.3.1. Regional loadsExcessive input of nutrients to water bodiescan result in eutrophication. Householdsand industry are the most important con-tributors to phosphorus pollution (Figure3.5.8). Agricultural activities also contributeto phosphorus loading. In Nordic countriesthe contribution from uncultivated land andforested areas is proportionally high asinputs from other sources are low.

With increasing population density andhuman activity phosphorus loading from thearea increases. In the Baltic Sea catchmentarea, for instance, the phosphorus export


coefficient is 0.23 kg P/ha per year, increas-ing to 2.7 kg P/ha per year in the North Seacatchment area. The results can be related toincreasing population density from less than50 persons per km2 in the Baltic Sea catch-ment to around 200 persons per km2 in theNorth Sea catchment area.

If there were no human activity (the back-ground level at Figure 3.5.9), phosphorusloads would only be 5% to 10% of thecurrent loads in densely populated areas. Indensely populated areas, 50 to 75% or evenmore of the phosphorus load to surfacewaters is derived from households andindustry, while agricultural activity generallyaccounts for the remainder. In these denselypopulated areas, municipal sewage dischargegenerally accounts for the major part of thepoint source discharge. However, in somecountries, e.g. the Netherlands (because offertiliser production) and Finland andSweden (because of the pulp and paperindustry), industrial effluents may accountfor most of the point sources discharge.Diffuse phosphorus loads from agricultureare in some countries quite significant. Inthe UK, for example, the agricultural contri-bution is as high as 43% (EnvironmentAgency, 1998), in Germany 46% (Umwelt-bundesamt, 1997), in Switzerland 50%(Siegrist and Boller, 1999) and in Denmark38% (Danmarks Miljøundersøgelser, 1997).In Norway, fish farms account for aroundhalf of the total phosphorus discharged (seeBox 3.5.5).

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

Weste

rn E

urope

(223)

North Sea B

asin*

(193)

Danube B

asin

(105)

European

par

t

Medite

rranean

*

(126)

Poland

(126)

Baltic

Basin*

(49) Nord

ic

(17)

IndustryHouseholdsAgricultureBackground

kg P

/ha/

year

*No source apportionment

Figure 3.5.9 Sources of phosphorus discharges in selectedlarger areas (> 300 000 km2 )

Annual phosphorus load perhectare (P export coefficient)

compared with populationdensity (inhabitants per

km2). No sourceapportionment for the

Baltic, the European part ofthe Mediterranean

catchment and the NorthSea. Nordic: Norway,

Sweden, and Finland; Eur.Med.: European part of the

Mediterranean basin; W.Europe: Germany, the

Netherlands, Flemish part ofBelgium, Denmark, and

Austria.

Source: ETC/IW based on12 different sources

3.3.2. Phosphate-free detergents have reduced the phosphorus produced per capitaThe organic matter and nutrient contentof waste water is primarily determined byexcreta from humans, by phosphorus fromdetergents and by the type of industriesconnected to sewers. Over the past 10-15years the most marked change in thephosphorus content of waste water in manyEuropean countries has been due tonationally imposed reductions in thephosphate content of detergents. Today, inmany countries phosphate-free detergentsconstitute the majority of detergents beingsold.

The downward trend in consumption ofdetergents containing phosphate occurredespecially from the late 1980s to 1992/93with a more than 50% reduction in the useof phosphate in detergents in many coun-tries. In 1992, the average detergent-phos-phorus consumption per capita was between0.1-0.4 kg P/year. Phosphate-free detergentsare used much less in the Accession Coun-tries (Ijjas, 1996).

The marked reduction in the phosphoruscontent of detergents is also reflected in thewaste water flowing to waste-water treatmentplants. In Denmark, Finland and Switzer-land, for instance, the phosphorus beingproduced per person was reduced fromaround 1.2-1.7 kg P/year in the 1980s toless than 1 kg/year in the 1990s. Muchsmaller changes have occurred in the percapita production of organic matter andnitrogen.

4. Waste-water treatment

Industry and households produce wastewater containing all sorts of pollutantsincluding organic matter and nutrients(mainly phosphorus). The extent to whichthe pollutants in waste water are dischargedinto surface waters depends on the waste-water treatment facilities available. Simi-larly, agricultural activities lead to thedischarge of a variety of pollutants to waterbodies, the most important being nitrogenresulting from the excess application ofartificial fertilisers and manure. At a locallevel, the accidental spills of oxygen con-suming liquid manure and silage juice tosmall streams can severely threaten thenatural fauna dependent on good oxygenconditions in the water thus reversing theimproved conditions resulting from waste-water treatment.

Water stress 167

Box 3.5.5: Fish farms: one of the fastest-growing food industries

From 1984 to 1996, the production in Europe’s fishfarms increased by more than 250%, making it oneof the fastest-growing food production activities. InEurope, about 5% of all fish production in 1995 wasattributable to fish farms. Yet this industry’scontribution to the human diet is actually greaterthan the numbers imply. Whereas a proportion ofthe conventional fish catch is used to make fishmealand oil, virtually all farmed fish is used as humanfood.

Salmon from west – carp from eastEurope’s fish farms fall into two distinct groups: inwestern Europe the fish farms grow high-valuespecies such as salmon and rainbow trout,frequently for export, whereas in central andeastern Europe the fish farms grow lower-valuespecies such as carp that are mainly consumedlocally (Figure 3.5.10).

In the period 1984 to 1996, European production ofAtlantic salmon increased 15 fold (Figure 3.5.11).Since 1987 the growth has been 40 to 60 ktonnesper year, except for a period of consolidation in theearly 1990s, because of problems of marketing andcontrol of parasites and diseases. In 1984 theproduction of rainbow trout was five times thesalmon production, and has nearly doubled overthe last 13 years. The production of common carpwas nearly constant between 1984 to 1991 anddeclined thereafter by 35%. The reduction wasmost significant in Romania and Hungary (60-70%).

As currently practised, fish farming also causesenvironmental damage. The farmed fish needartificial feeding and in many cases treatment withchemicals; these and the surplus of food and thefaeces may be discharged to the surroundingwaters. It is inevitable that fish escape from fishfarms. The escapees may be of completely differentgenetic stock from native and the long-term effectson native stocks are unknown.

Chemicals in fish farmingChemicals, particularly formalin and malachitegreen, are used in freshwater farms to controlfungal and bacterial diseases. In marine farmsantibiotics are used for disease control but amountshave been drastically reduced in the past yearsfollowing the introduction of vaccines.

Fish farms’ discharge is equal to untreated wastewater discharge from five million personsIn marine areas the fish are reared in large cages ornet enclosures in sheltered coastal areas. When theyare fed, the situation is the same as it would be if afarmer threw some of his fertiliser or manure straightinto the water. Inland fish are generally reared inartificial ponds, from which outflows of organic matterand nutrients are easier to control. Annually, around 3to 8 ktonnes of phosphorus and 30 to 60 ktonnes ofnitrogen are discharged from European fish farms.The amount of nutrients being discharged is equal tountreated waste water from five million persons.

The comprehensive development of the feedcomposition and the feeding technology have overthe past years resulted in reduced load of nutrientsfrom fish farms, calculated per tonne of fishproduced. The effect of the technologyimprovement on the total nutrient loading has partlybeen halted by the marked increase in production.

Big production increase still expectedIn the long term, there is a real possibility thatproduction of farm fish will still continue toincrease. This will probably result in risingdischarges of nutrients, organic matter andchemicals. The choice of technology for fish farmswill be one factor that affects the extent of theincrease. Fish farms should increasingly takeaccount of pollution problems. In addition, theconcept of integrated coastal management andplanning provides an appropriate framework forassessing environmental effects of fish farms.

01984

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996

1000

to

nnes Rainbow Trout

Atlantic Salmon

Common Carp

Source: FAO Aquacult PC, 1998

Figure 3.5.11

Norway72%

EU28%

Other5%

AC769%

EU26%

Atlantic Salmon

Common Carp

AC73%Norway

9%

EU88%

Rainbow Trout

Figure 3.5.10

Total Atlantic salmon,rainbow trout and commoncarp production are 420 258and 71 ktonnes, respectively.

Source: FAO Aquacult PC,1998

AC7: Bulgaria, Czech Rep. &Slovak Rep. (Czechoslovakia), Hungary, Poland, Slovenia& Romania.

Fish-farming by European regions in 1996

Main fish-farming productions, 1984-96


4.1. Better waste-water treatment in Northern EuropeAround 90% of the EU population is con-nected to sewers and around 70% to munici-pal waste-water treatment plants (Figure3.5.12). However, some regional differencesdo exist. In northern countries generallymore than 90% of the population is con-nected to waste-water treatment plants, whilethe percentage in southern Europe variesbetween 50% and 80%. The absence of asewer connection does not necessarily implyinadequate sewage treatment, because ruralpopulations not connected to sewers mayhave efficient individual treatment systems.

The more advanced waste-water treatment isfound in the northern Member States with57% of the waste water treated in plants withnutrient removal (tertiary treatment) and afurther 23% treated in plants with biologicalremoval of organic matter (secondary treat-ment). Tertiary treatment is found in theNordic countries, Austria, Germany and theNetherlands, while most of the waste water inthe United Kingdom and Luxembourg istreated in plants with secondary treatment.

In the southern Member States 29% of wastewater is discharged without any treatmentand only 43% of the waste water is treated insecondary treatment plants. Here the high-est level of treatment is generally found inFrance and Italy, where more than half ofthe waste water was secondarily treated.

In the Accession Countries (excludingCyprus; AC10) 40% of the population is notconnected to sewers and from 18% the wastewater is discharged without any waste-watertreatment (untreated). The remaining 42%of the waste water receives treatment beforebeing discharged into surface waters, withmost waste water receiving secondary treat-ment.

In many areas of Europe, but in particular inAC10, many of the sewer systems are old,overloaded and leaking, potentially affectinggroundwater quality. In addition, manysewer systems have an inflow of groundwater,diluting the waste water and resulting inmore water going to treatment plants. Atmany of the waste-water treatment plantsoperational problems and low level ofefficiency are frequent problems and someare heavily overloaded.

4.1.1. Marked improvement in waste-water treatmentOver the past 15 years marked changes haveoccurred in the proportion of the popula-tion connected to waste-water treatment aswell as in the waste-water treatment technol-ogy involved (Figure 3.5.13).

There has been a dramatic increase in sewerconnections in those EU countries where theconnection rates were comparatively low: inAustria and Spain, it has nearly doubled overthe past 15 years. However, there is still someway to go: in 1995 only half of Spain’spopulation had their waste water treated intreatment plants, and some of the wastewater going to sewers was discharged un-treated.

In the late 1980s and in the 1990s many ofthe western countries constructed treatmentplants with nutrient removal, e.g. there was amarked increase in tertiary treatment inAustria and the Netherlands from 1990 tothe mid-1990s.

4.1.2. Marked reductions in emissions from urban waste-water treatment plantsOver the past 15 years reductions of 50-80%in organic matter discharges and 60-80% inphosphorus discharges have been observed

Rural population is the population not connected to sewers; EU north: DE, FI, NL, LU, UK; EUsouth: FR, IT, GR, ES, PT; AC10: Accession Countries minus Cyprus

Source: Compiled on basis of information from European Waste Water Group (1997) andother sources (ETC/IW, 1998a).

100

90

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

80

EU10 EU north EU south AC10

27%

34%

8%

19%

12%

23%

9%

7%4%

57%43%

8%

29%

18%

3% 2%

31%

8%

18%

40%% W

aste

-wat

er t

reat

men

t

Rural population

Secondary

Primary

Untreated

Primary, secondary & nutrient removal

Figure 3.5.12Population served by different treatment levels inthree European regions

Water stress 169

100

% o

f po

pul

atio

n

80

60

40

20

0

Austria

1980 1985 1989 1995

100

% o

f po

pul

atio

n

80

60

40

20

0

Finland

1980 1985 1990 1993

100

% o

f po

pul

atio

n

80

60

40

20

0

The Netherlands

1981 1985 1989 1994

100

% o

f po

pul

atio

n80

60

40

20

0

Spain

1980 1985 1992 1995

PrimaryTertiary

SecondaryPrimaryTertiary

Secondary

PrimaryTertiary

SecondaryPrimaryTertiary

Secondary

Development in waste-water treatment in selected EU countries Figure 3.5.13

Only data for untreatedwaste water for the last year

Source: OECD 1997

in many of the northern EU countries. Partof the reduction in phosphorus dischargescan be explained by the shift to use phos-phate-free detergents (see above).

Compared to the marked reduction indischarges of organic matter and phospho-rus, there have only been small reductions inthe discharge of nitrogen. Only a few coun-tries have upgraded their waste-water treat-ment plants to include nitrogen removal: forinstance in Denmark 73% of the waste wateris treated in plants with nitrogen removaland current nitrogen emissions from waste-water treatment plants are around 40% ofthe discharges in the mid-1980s.

4.2. Future waste-water treatment

4.2.1. EU Member StatesUnder the baseline scenario, the existingwaste water facilities in 10 EU Member

States, covering 90% of the EU population,are assumed to have been upgraded fully toimplement the requirements of the UrbanWaste-water treatment Directive (UWWT, seeBox 3.5.6). The scenario is based on resultsreported by national contacts to the Euro-pean Waste Water Group (1997).

Full implementation of the UWWT Direc-tive, which is expected before 2010, shouldhalve the population not connected tosewers (from 64 to 29 million persons). Thiswould mean that 95% of the total wastewater is discharged to sewers (Figure 3.5.14).

With a marked upgrading in waste-watertreatment, most waste water would eitherreceive secondary treatment or secondarytreatment plus nutrient removal. Swedenand Denmark currently have most of theirwaste water treated in plants with nutrientremoval, while major upgrading of the waste-


Box 3.5.6 Urban Waste-water treatment Directive (UWWTD)

The UWWTD obliges Member States to provide all agglomerations of morethan 2 000 population equivalents (p.e.) with collecting systems, andsecondary treatment (i.e. biological treatment) for all agglomerations of morethan 2 000 population equivalent (p.e.) discharging into fresh waters andestuaries and for all agglomerations of more than 10 000 p.e. discharging intocoastal waters.

Member States have to identify water bodies as sensitive areas in accordancewith the criteria of the Directive (eutrophication, high concentration ofnitrates in surface waters intended for abstraction of drinking water, areaswhere further treatment is necessary to fulfil other directives). In sensitiveareas and catchment of sensitive areas Member States have to ensure theprovision of more advanced treatment.

For agglomerations smaller than those described above and which areequipped with a collecting system the treatment must be appropriate, whichmeans that the discharge allows the receiving waters to meet the relevantquality objectives.

The deadline for the implementation of these collection and treatmentsystems is 31 December 1998, 31 December 2000 or 31 December 2005,depending on the size of the agglomeration and the identification of thereceiving waters.

Member States have to ensure that by 31/12/1998 the disposal of sludge fromurban waste-water treatment plants is subject to general rules or registrationor authorisation in order to minimise the adverse effects on the environment.The disposal of sludge to surface waters has to be phased out by thisdeadline.

The Directive also contains requirements concerning the discharge ofbiodegradable industrial waste water from plant representing 4000 p.e. ormore. The deadline for this application is 31 December 2000.

water treatment plants is planned in Austria,Belgium and Ireland.

Some countries, such as Spain, Italy, Portu-gal and the UK, have decided that mostwaste water should receive secondary treat-ment, while in the other EU countries mostof the water bodies have been classified assensitive and the waste-water would thereforebe treated in plants with nutrient removal.

With full implementation of the UWWTDirective, the discharge of organic matterafter implementation of the UWWT Directiveis expected to fall from 3.4 to 1.2 MtonnesBOD5, a reduction of 65% from currentlevels. In addition, phosphorus and nitrogendischarges should decrease by 31% and 21%respectively; from 210 to 145 ktonnes P, andfrom 1030 to 810 ktonnes N.

The investment cost of implementing theUWWT Directive in the EU has been esti-mated at 140 EUR per capita for waste-watertreatment alone and 300 EUR per capita forwaste-water treatment and collecting systemstogether. Beside, the intensification of waste-water treatment will increase the quantity ofcontaminated sludge generated by thetreatment process (see Chapter 3.7).

Construction of waste-water treatment plantswill be concentrated in the catchment areasof heavily polluted rivers, and so the improve-ment in water quality should be even greaterthan suggested by the emission reductions.Thus, the number of river stretches heavilypolluted by organic matter should be mark-

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

mill

ion

po

pul

atio

n eq

uiva

lent

sco

nnec

ted

to

tre

atm

ent

typ

e

Situation at31/12/94

After UWWT Directiveimplementation

100

41

184

146

64

31

233

243

29

Rural populationPrimary, secondary& nutrient removal

PrimaryUntreated

Secondary

Figure 3.5.14 Development in the number of population equivalents connected to different types of waste-watertreatment (EU10)

Person equivalents (p.e)EU10: DE, ES, FI, FR, GR, IT,

LU, NL, PT, UK.

Source: Compiled fromEuropean Waste Water

Group, 1997

Water stress 171

edly reduced, especially in southern andeastern parts of the EU, where the currentwaste-water treatment level is low.

Reduced discharges of nutrients from pointsources are also expected to reduceeutrophication effects, especially in waterbodies with current high concentrations.For these and other water bodies, nutrientconcentrations will be largely determinedby the diffuse loads from agriculturalactivities.

The baseline scenario, with full implementa-tion of the UWWT Directive, has beenapplied to estimate the downstream concen-tration of nutrients in large EU rivers (Euro-pean Commission, 1999). The results dem-onstrate that overall river phosphorusconcentrations could decrease by 0.1-0.2 mgP/l in the period 1990 to 2010, while thenitrate concentrations are likely to remainunchanged in most rivers. In many rivers innorth-western Europe, phosphorus concen-trations have already decreased by around0.1 mg P/l during the first half of the 1990s.

4.2.2. Accession CountriesSimilar baseline scenarios have also beendeveloped for the implementation of theUWWT Directive in the AC10. In thesecountries around 40% of the population isnot currently connected to sewers. Thus theeffect of implementation of the Directivewill depend significantly on the develop-ment of sewerage in the coming years.Three possible ‘what if’ scenarios for theperiod 1995 to 2010 have been assessed(EEA, 1999):

A: Moderate development of sewerage andwaste-water treatment as a requirementfor normal areas (secondary treatment);

B: High effort on sewerage developmentand waste-water treatment as a require-ment for normal areas (secondarytreatment);

C: High effort on sewerage developmentand waste-water treatment as a require-ment for sensitive areas (secondarytreatment plus nutrient removal).

The predicted changes in waste-watertreatment are illustrated in Figure 3.5.14.The proportion of the population notconnected to waste-water treatment isexpected to decrease from the current 40%to around 31% under scenarios B and C.

Waste-water treatment will also improve.Currently most discharges are untreated or

mechanically treated. In the future wastewater will be either treated biologically, as inscenarios A and B; or biologically withnutrient removal, as in scenario C. ScenarioC is similar to the expected situation in thepresent EU following implementation ofUWWT Directive, except that the proportionof population not connected to sewers ishigher in the Accession Countries.

Under scenarios A and B, the extent ofbiological treatment of waste water is ex-pected to increase from the current 31% to59% and 67%, respectively by 2010. If real-ised, this should result in a reduction oforganic matter being discharged from thecurrent value of 1.1 Mtonnes to around 0.45Mtonnes, that is a 60% reduction (Figure3.5.16). Implementation of scenario C shouldresult in a small additional reduction (5%) inthe amount of organic matter discharged toabout one third of the current loads.

Only small changes are expected in thefuture amount of nutrients dischargedunder the two first scenarios, namely areduction of 12% and 10% for phosphorusand nitrogen respectively. In scenario C withhalf of the waste water being treated in

Source: EEA, 1999

A: Wastewater treatment as a requirement for normal areas. (Secondary treatment)B: High effort on sewerage development and wastewater treatment as a requirementfor normal areas.C: High effort on sewage development and wastewater treatment as a requirementfor sensitive areas. (Secondary treatment & nutrient removal)

Population not connected to sewers

Mechanical

Higher treatment

A B CEarly 90s

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

Untreated

Biological

40%

18%

8%

31%

2% 2%

59%

39%31%

67%

2%

50%

19%

31%

Development in waste-water treatment in theAccession Countries (excluding Cyprus) Figure 3.5.15


plants with nutrient removal, a 50% reduc-tion in phosphorus discharges and a 40%reduction in nitrogen discharges would beexpected by 2010 compared to the currentloads. This would potentially reduce thenitrate and phosphorus loading from riversin the Accession Countries to both the Balticand Black seas by around 15% and 28%respectively.

The cost for the most radical implementa-tion of the UWWT Directive in the AccessionCountries as in scenario C is estimated at 9billion EUR (around 100 EUR per capita),for the construction of treatment plants (vanDriel, 1998); this does not include costs ofadditional sewer construction and sludgetreatment and disposal.

5. Trends in quality

5.1. Improvement in oxygen conditions and river quality

5.1.1 Organic pollution, a success storyThe most important sources of the organicwaste load are: household waste water,industries such as the paper industry or foodprocessing industry, and silage effluent andslurry from agriculture. Severe organicpollution may lead to rapid deoxygenationof river water and disappearance of fish andaquatic invertebrates.

Increased industrial and agricultural produc-tion coupled with more of the population

1000

800

600

400

200

0

BO

D5

& N

itro

gen

in k

tonn

es

BOD5 Phosphorus total Nitrogen total

1200

Pho

spho

rus

in k

tonn

es/1

0

Early 90sScenario A*Scenario B*Scenario C*

* Please refer to text

Phosphorus dischargesshould be divided by 10

Source: EEA, 1999

Figure 3.5.16Change in emissions from urban waste-watertreatment plants as result of three scenarios,Accession Countries

being connected to sewerage meant that thedischarge of organic waste into surface waterincreased in most European countries fromthe 1940s onwards. Over the past 15-30 yearshowever, biological treatment of waste waterhas increased, and the organic loading hasconsequently decreased in many parts ofEurope. The result is that many rivers arenow well oxygenated.

The changes in the river Rhine is an illustra-tive example (Figure 3.5.17). Up to the early1970s, the Rhine was polluted with suchexcessive amounts of organic matter that theoxygen depletion was so serious in thecentral and lower reaches that the river wasvirtually dead. Since then, the oxygenconditions have markedly improved, and as aresult the number of invertebrate species hasnearly reached the numbers observed earlythis century.

Information from about 1 000 river sitesacross Europe shows that in the mid-1990s,35% of the sites had an annual averageconcentration of organic matter measured asBOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) below2 mg O2/l (the typical value for unpollutedrivers) while 11% were heavily polluted andhad an average BOD greater than 5 mg O2/l.Rivers with high BOD levels are generallysubject to high human and industrial use. Inthe Nordic countries and western Europeless than 10% of the rivers have BOD levelshigher than 5 mg O2/l, while around 25% ofthe rivers in southern and eastern Europeare heavily polluted with organic matter(Figure 3.5.18).

Generally, the concentration of organicmatter in European rivers has fallen overthe past 10 to 20 years, particularly in themost polluted rivers. In western Europethere has since the late 1970s been amarked decrease in the number of heavilypolluted rivers from 24% in the late 1970sto 6% in the 1990s, while the decrease insouthern and eastern Europe started in the1980s and are less significant. The de-crease reflects improvements in the treat-ment of domestic sewage and industrialwaste water.

Improvements in the oxygen conditions ofEuropean rivers are consistent with thereduction in concentrations of organicmatter. The oxygen concentration in theriver Rhine has, for instance, increased froman annual average value around 5 mg O2/lin the 1970s to current values around 10 mgO2/l (see Figure 3.5.17).

Water stress 173

Porifera

Mollusca

Tricladida

Insecta

Hirudinea

Bryozoa

Crustacea

Oxygenconcentration

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

1900

1955

1965

1975

1985

1995

Oxy

gen

co

ncen

trat

ion

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

1989 -1995

1986 -1988

19781971

1955

1900 -1920

Num

ber

of s

pec

ies

Source: German FederalMinistry of the Environment,1998

Development of biotic community of the Rhine (selected animal groups) and oxygen concentration(at Bimmen)

Figure 3.5.17

Source: ETC/IW

50

40

30

20

10

0

% o

f riv

ers

with

BO

D >

5 m

g O

2 /

l

EasternEurope

NordicCountries

WesternEurope

SouthernEurope

1975-801981-861987-911992-98

Percentage of heavily polluted rivers (i.e. rivers withBOD concentration levels greater than 5 mg O2/l)

Figure 3.5.18

5.1.2. Ecological impactsThe oxygen consumption caused by organicmatter pollution has a strong impact on theriverine fauna. Heavily polluted rivers have alow biodiversity and an invertebrate faunadominated by species tolerant to low oxygenconcentrations. Many European countriesuse either biochemical organic pollutionindicators (e.g. oxygen levels, BOD andammonium concentrations) or invertebrateindices for classification of river quality.

In general, most of the countries classify80% to 95% of the river stretches as havinggood and fair quality. However, in somecountries such as Belgium, Bulgaria, theCzech Republic, Denmark, Lithuania andPoland more than 25% of the river stretchessurveyed have been classified as poor or badquality. The rivers with poor or bad qualityare generally rivers polluted by waste-waterdischarges and are in regions of high popu-lation density and intensive farming.

An illustration of the bad quality of some ofthe rivers in eastern Europe, also to illustratethat the measures to improve quality are


rather straightforward, could be the situa-tion in the river Elbe after the reunificationof Germany in 1990. Here it proved neces-sary to introduce a new water quality class‘ecologically destroyed’ to describe the waterquality of some stretches of the river. In1995, because of the closure of major indus-tries and the construction of new waste-watertreatment plants, especially in the NewLänder and the Czech Republic, waterquality in the Elbe has markedly improved.In the catchment area of the Elbe more than125 waste-water treatment plants are beingbuilt at a cost of DM 14 billion (GermanFederal Ministry of the Environment, 1997).

5.2. Phosphorus levels are declining in rivers and lakesInformation from about 1 000 river stationsin Europe shows that 90% of the stations had

30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

60

50

40

30

3020100

30

40

50

60


N o r t hS e a

A r c t i c O c e a n

At

la

nt

ic

Oc

ea

n

B l a c k S e a

TyrrhenianSea

I o n i a nS e a

Ba

l ti c

Se

a

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

Adriat ic Sea

Aegean

Sea

C h a n n e l

WhiteSe

a

B a r e n t s

S e a

Phosphorus in µg P/lAverage of annual means

1994–1996

> 500

Annual averagephosphorus

concentration in rivers

0 500 km

250 – 500

125 – 250

50 – 125

25 – 50

< 25

Orthophosphate in µg P/lAverage of annual means

1994–1996

> 500

250 – 500

125 – 250

50 – 125

25 – 50

< 25

Average of annual means providedfor 1994, 1995, 1996. Where totalphosphorus is not available,orthophosphate has been presented

a mean concentration of total phosphorusexceeding 50 µg/l (Map 3.5.3). The concen-tration in rivers unaffected by human activi-ties are for comparison generally less than25 µg/l. The lowest concentrations arefound in the Nordic countries, whereas theriver stations in a band stretching fromsouthern England across western and centralEurope to Romania have relatively highconcentrations.

The phosphorus concentration in Europeanlakes and reservoirs is similar to the state ofthe rivers. In the Nordic countries morethan half the lakes have a concentrationbelow 10 µg/l, whereas in most other coun-tries, a large proportion of the lakes havephosphorus concentrations far exceeding anear natural state, in this context consideredas below 25 µg/l.

Map 3.5.3

Source: ETC/IW

Water stress 175

The concentration of phosphorus in EUrivers has decreased since the mid-1980s,particularly in the most polluted rivers. Thelong time-series available for some riverstations reported under Council Decision(77/795/EEC) on Exchange of Information,indicates roughly a 25% reduction of theconcentrations (Figure 3.5.19), from theearly 1980s the early 1990s. The changeshave been most pronounced in the previ-ously most polluted rivers.

Similar changes have been observed in manylakes (e.g. lake Constance; Figure 3.5.20).Here the phosphorus level increased in the1960s, but since the mid-1970s, when meas-ures were taken to reduce the phosphorusload, the lake phosphorus concentration hasdecreased. Although the phosphorus level ofEuropean lakes has decreased markedly,water quality in many lakes in large parts ofEurope is still poor and below that of lakesin good ecological state.

The declining concentrations of phosphorusresults from improved waste-water treatmentand reduced content of phosphorus indetergents. Having reduced the pollutionfrom the point sources it may, in many cases,also be necessary to take measures to reducethe diffuse load of phosphorus from agricul-tural areas, particularly where the absorptioncapacity of the soil may be exceeded, forexample, in parts of Ireland, where suchmeasures are being introduced.

5.3. Nitrate in European waters

5.3.1. Why worry about nitrate?Nitrate in drinking-water is considered to bea public health problem because nitraterapidly reduces to nitrite in the body. Themajor effect of nitrite is that it reduces thecapacity of the blood to transport oxygen.This phenomenon has only been observed atnitrate levels significantly above the 50 mg/llevel therefore this level delivers sufficientprotection against this occurring. In addi-tion, nitrite reacts with compounds in thestomach to form products which have beenfound to be carcinogenic in many animalspecies, although the link to cancer inhumans is at the moment suggestive. Never-theless, these two factors together totallyjustify a precautionary approach being takenin the establishment of this parameter.

5.3.2. Drinking waterIn Europe, most people are served withdrinking-water taken from groundwatersources (EEA, 1999b). Most groundwater

1980 1985 1990 1995

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

Tota

l P (m

g P

/l)

All stationsLongest timeseries

Source: Codling andBøgestrand, 1998

Development in river phosphorus concentration in126 large river stations – median of annual averages Figure 3.5.19

1960 1970 1990 2000

90

70

50

30

101980

Tota

l P (u

g P

/l)

Volume-weighted annualaverages of phosphorus (inepilimnion)

Source: IGBK, 1998

Development in lake Constance phosphorusconcentration Figure 3.5.20

supplies in the EU are generally from deepwells not affected by high nitrate levels,although private and small communalsupplies are usually derived from shallowgroundwater sources, and if these arecontaminated with nitrate the population isat risk.

In the EU, the concentration of nitrate indrinking-water has been regulated since1980 by the Drinking-water Directive. Thisestablishes a guide level of nitrate of 25 mg/land a Maximum Allowable Concentration(MAC) of 50 mg/l. No complete overview ofnitrate in drinking-water exists in the EU,only information from selected nationalsurveys. A study of more than 5 000 samplesfrom private well waters throughout Belgiumhas shown that 29% exceed the MAC of 50mg NO3/l (Verbruggen, 1997). Thirteenpercent of the Finnish population has watersupply from private wells, of which 12% has anitrate content exceeding 25 mg NO3/l(Wahlström et al., 1996).

Nitrate levels were evaluated at more than3 000 sampling sites in France in 1992-93(IFEN, 1996). The sampling sites were


mainly abstraction points for supplyingdrinking-water from both groundwater andsurface water. In all, water in 25% of thesampling sites had nitrate concentrationover 40 mg/l. In addition, the nitrate con-centration exceeded 50 mg NO3/l at 12% ofthe water abstraction points sampled. Themost serious situation was observed inregions where intensive livestock and arablefarming takes place (e.g. Brittany, Parisbasin, and Rhone valley).

In many countries the main measure tocombat the nitrate problem has beenclosing the nitrate-affected shallow wellsand taking groundwater from deeper wells.Taking water supplies from deeper aquifersis a short term solution and is not sustain-able in the long run. A reduction in thepollution of groundwater and surfacewaters can only be achieved if there is asubstantial reduction in the nitrogensurplus in the agricultural sector and hencein nitrogen inputs to water.

In the Accession Countries agriculturalactivities are generally less intensive com-pared to the EU, however, some regions areaffected by high nitrate levels. This is espe-cially of concern because of the relativelyhigh proportion of rural population in theAC10. The rural population is more at riskbecause of the use the more heavily pollutedshallow wells for drinking water. In 10different regions in Bulgaria, an average of35-45% of the population is exposed toelevated nitrate levels (OECD, 1993). InLithuania in 1996, 37% of samples fromprivate groundwater water supplies con-tained concentrations of nitrate exceedingthe MAC (EEA/WHO, 1999). Elevatednitrate levels are also found in local watersupplies in all but two of the 41 districts ofRomania. According to a 1990 survey of

water supplies in the countryside, 7% wereabove 200 mg NO3/l, 10% were between100-200 mg NO3/l, and a further 19% werebetween 45-100 mg NO3/l (OECD, 1993).

5.3.3. Nitrate in rivers and coastal areasApart from Nordic rivers, 68% of the riverstations (Map 3.5.4) had mean nitrateconcentrations exceeding 1 mg/l. Theconcentration in unaffected rivers is 0.1-0.5mg/l. The highest concentrations werefound in rivers in the intensive agriculturalregions in the northern part of westernEurope. In the Nordic countries, concentra-tions are low, 70% of the sites have levelsbelow 0.3 mg/l.

The concentration of nitrate in EU rivers hasbeen approximately constant since 1980(Figure 3.5.21) and there is no overallindication that the reduced application ofnitrogen fertilisers to agricultural land (seeChapter 2.2) has resulted in lower levels ofnitrate in the 1990s.

The impact of nitrate is more significant incoastal and marine waters than in inlandsurface waters. In many coastal areas en-hanced nitrogen loading leads to increasedgrowth of annual macrophytes and in somecases mass occurrence of filamentous algae.At even higher nitrogen loading the amountof phytoplankton (algae) increases markedly,and the water becomes turbid. In enclosedor semi-enclosed marine waters (for instancethe Baltic Sea), large amounts of phyto-plankton will sediment out and oxygenconsumption will consequently increase,possibly resulting in oxygen deficits and killsof animals unable to escape the area affectedby low oxygen content (see chapter 3.14).

6. Policy responses to alleviate water stress

Over the past 25 years, the EU has developedand adopted a number of directives concern-ing water quality, aimed at specific processesor industries (e.g. chlor-alkali, titanium,dioxide), specific substances (e.g. dangeroussubstances, nutrients) or specific uses ofwater (e.g. drinking water, fish, bathing).The majority of these Directives have beentransferred to national law, and their appli-cation is leading to improvements in manyareas. In contrast to the many initiatives onwater quality in the European Union, therehas been much less activity concerning waterquantity, and until recently there has beenno policy in place, which integrated waterquality and quantity.

Source: Codling andBøgestrand, 1998

Development in river nitrogen concentration in 126large river stations – median of annual averagesFigure 3.5.21

2

3

2.5

3.5

1980 1985 1990 1995

Nitr

ate

nitr

og

en (m

g N

/I)

ind

ex 1

986

= 1

00

Longest timeseries All stations

Water stress 177

Nitrate in mg N/lAverage of annual means

1994 – 1996

more than 7.5

Annual average nitrateconcentration in rivers

0 500 km

2.5 – 7.50.75 – 2.5

0.3 – 0.75less than 0.3

Map 3.5.4

Source: ETC/IW

The proposed Water Framework Directive(see below) seeks to address these deficien-cies by an integrated approach covering allaspects of water management (includinggroundwater) under one framework docu-ment. It is also intended to integrate conser-vation and sustainable use criteria into otherpolicy areas, such as agriculture, land-useplanning, industrial production processesand economic development.

Another initiative towards an integratedmanagement of water resources is the EU

groundwater action programme, whichestablishes objectives related to groundwaterquality and the over-exploitation of aquifers.However, these initiatives are relativelyrecent and there are no parameters yetavailable to measure the progress in pursu-ing the targets established.

The EU regulation 2078/92 on agri-environ-mental measures (see Chapter 3.13) has co-funded actions for the protection of riversand water extraction areas. The expansion ofagri-environmental measures is the central

30˚ 20˚ 10˚ 0˚ 10˚ 20˚ 30˚ 40˚ 50˚

60˚

50˚

40˚

30˚

20˚10˚0˚

30˚

40˚

50˚

60˚


N o r t hS e a

A r c t i c O c e a nA

tl

an

ti

cO

ce

an

TyrrhenianSea

I o n i a n

S e a

Ba

l ti

cS

ea

Adr iat ic Sea

Aegean

Sea

C h a n n e l

WhiteSea

B a r e n t s

S e a

M e d i t e rr

an

e a n S e a

B l a c k

S e a


element of a strategy to integrate environ-mental considerations into agriculturalpolicy. However, the pace and extent ofintegration will need to be considered infuture adjustments of the CAP.

6.1 Water quality: what do the trends tell us about the effectiveness of current policies?The assessments in this chapter illustratethat the measures to reduce pollution andhence improve water quality have beenimplemented with varying degrees of suc-cess. Organic matter and phosphorus dis-charges into surface waters have beenreduced markedly in several areas over thepast 20 years and have lead to lower concen-trations. In contrast, nitrate levels in rivershave remained high. For groundwater nofirm conclusions about state and trends ofpollution can be drawn. This is partly due toa lack of comparable data on groundwaterpollution and to the fact that the time lag forpollutants to reach groundwater may be upto 20 to 30 years.

Although many large rivers have improvingquality, there is little evidence that this trendis being observed in smaller rivers, to whichnational regulatory authorities often give alower priority in terms of monitoring andimprovement measures. Small rivers andheadwaters are ecologically important,providing diverse habitats for aquatic biota.For example, they provide important spawn-ing grounds for many fish species. Becauseof their physical size, and often low flows,providing only limited dilution of pollutants,they are particularly susceptible to humanpressures and activities. Channel modifica-tions, discharges of inadequately treatedsewage and run-off from agricultural landare all important pressures on small rivers.

Generally, control of discharges has beenmost effective for point sources such as urbanwaste water and industrial effluents, and inthe case of pollutants like phosphate fromdetergents, where the use has been restrictedor completely banned. Nevertheless, controlof point source discharges varies, and mostMember States have room for improvement.In the Accession Countries, the constructionand upgrading of waste-water treatmentplants to north-western European standardswould result in considerable reductions inpollutant discharges.

In the case of diffuse sources, such as nitraterunoff from agriculture, effective control hasrarely been achieved. Today, the use offertilisers and the load of nutrients spread in

manure has decreased compared to maxi-mum levels in the 1980s. This is mainlybecause of the effect of the CAP reform(decoupling of payments from productionaids to direct aids linked to farming areawith price reductions), and a reduction incattle livestock, but also due to economicrecession in the AC10. However, the nutrientinput from agriculture is still too high. Inaddition, when agriculture in the AC10regains some of its former production levels,major problems with diffuse source pollutionmay occur in this region.

The implementation of the Nitrate Directivehas been unsatisfactory in the majority ofMember States (European Commission,1998) and proceedings have been initiatedagainst those Member States that have notyet complied. Implementation of the UrbanWaste-water treatment Directive has likewisebeen patchy and slow but considerableinvestment programmes are in place in allMember States to comply with the Directive’sobjectives. Achievement of these objectivesshould have a great impact on the futurestate of the EU’s waters.

6.2 Water quantity – supply-side and demand- side strategies

6.2.1. Supply-sideSupply-side strategies, which focus on meas-ures (reservoirs, new wells, water transfers,etc.) that increase or assure supply, havetraditionally been used for addressing thewater quantity problems associated withwater stress.

At present about 3 500 major reservoirs with atotal gross capacity of approximately 150 km3

are in operation in the European Union(EEA, 1999c). The greatest storage capacitiesexist in Spain (52 km3), Sweden (21 km3) andFinland (18 km3). Despite its large reservoirstorage capacity, Spain still experiencesperiods of severe drought, indicating thatmore than just supply-side measures areneeded for efficient water resource manage-ment. Reservoirs are expensive to build andcan cause problems like sedimentation,eutrophication, reduction of the biodiversitydownstream, interruption of fish migration,etc. The establishment of a common policyfor ecological quality and minimum flows tobe guaranteed by reservoir management is akey question, for instance, in order to main-tain the aquatic biodiversity (EEA, 1999c).

Water transfer schemes are used (for exam-ple in France, Spain and Greece) to over-

Water stress 179

Box 3.5.7 The role of non conventional water resources in Europe

DesalinationInitially sea-water desalination technologies werebased on distillation and hence energy consump-tion was very high. The development of moreefficient technologies (such as inverse osmosis) hasreduced the cost of desalination considerably(below 1 EUR/m3). However, this technique stilltends to be considerably more expensive thansupply from conventional (surface water andgroundwater) sources. Desalination of sea water orbrackish groundwater is therefore mainly applied inplaces where no other sources are available.

Sea-water desalination in Spain accounts for about0.22 km3/year. Although this volume is small incomparison to the country’s total renewable waterresources (111 km3/year), it represents a significantshare of resources in the areas where thistechnology is applied (mainly the Canary andBalearic Islands). In Greece five desalination plantsare in operation, all of them on islands.

Water re-useThe term ‘water re-use’ refers to supplyingwastewater for a secondary use. The mainapplications of this technique are irrigation in

agriculture, parks, recreational areas, golf courses,etc. Usually, simplified water treatment is carriedout, in order to guarantee minimum qualitystandards of the water to be re-used. Few studiesand data about the re-use of waste-water areavailable, and further research is needed to assessthe long-term effects of irrigation with treatedwaste-water on soils and agriculture.

In France, waste-water re-use has become a part ofregional water resources management policies. It ispractised mostly in the southern part of the countryand in coastal areas, compensating local waterdeficiencies.

In Portugal it is expected that by the year 2 000 thevolume of treated waste-water will be around 10%of the water needs for irrigation in dry years. It isestimated that between 35 000 and 100 000 hacould be irrigated with treated waste-water.

In Spain, the total volume of waste-water reclaimedamounts to 0.23 km3/year, being used mainly forirrigation in agriculture (89%), recreational areasand golf courses (6%), municipal use (2%),environmental uses (2%) and industry (1%).

come the uneven geographical distributionof resources, and they constitute an essentialelement of water resource planning. Watertransfer can, however, have several disadvan-tages, such as the need for major investmentin construction works, losses through leaksand evaporation and possible negativeenvironmental impacts, for example throughthe introduction of alien species. Waterquality problems can also arise because ofmixing of water from different sourcesduring a water transfer.

Increasingly, non-conventional sources suchas desalination and water re-use are playingan increasingly important role in Mediterra-nean areas which face acute problems ofwater stress (see Box 3.5.7).

6.2.2. Demand-sideDemand-side strategies focus on water conser-vation and waste prevention measures. Ingeneral, demand-management measures tendto be especially promising under circum-stances where either water is very scarce orenvironmental consciousness very high.

In order to achieve reduction or preventionof water stress by demand-based strategies,policy must rely on economic principles andparticularly on pricing (Box 3.5.8). Nowa-days prices do not always cover the full costof water services and therefore users do notpay the real cost of the water they use. Oneaim of a future water policy could be toimplement the (full) cost recovery principle(CRP). The main question is to determine

which services and costs have to be coveredby each particular tariff system and how itimpacts on the economic situation of users.The main consequence of the implementa-tion of the CRP is that most subsidies will beremoved and the revenues will have to beprovided by higher tariffs, which should tendto reduce water demand. This type of policycan produce negative impacts on someregions where water is crucial for theireconomic or social development. As abenefit, the CRP implementation will reflectthe “real value” of water, and the need forefficient management of water resources.

6.3. The Water Framework Directive – a new approach?Pressure for a fundamental rethink of EUwater policy came to a head in mid-1995.There was a need for a more global andcoherent approach to water policy to replacewhat many saw as a piecemeal and sometimesinconsistent approach that had been put intoplace. As a result the requirements of theproposed directive on the ecological qualityof surface waters were incorporated into aproposed framework directive that aimed tobe the cornerstone of a new water policy. Thisproposed Water Framework Directive willrationalise the Community’s water legislationby replacing six of the ‘first generation’directives. The aims of these directives will betaken into in the Framework Directive,allowing them to be repealed.

The overall purpose of the proposed Direc-tive is to establish a framework for the protec-


Box 3.5.8 Water prices and subsidies

A study being carried out (Planistat, 1998) for theEuropean Commission shows what is the currentsituation of pricing in four different Europeanbasins and what have been the main obstacles forthe implementation of the cost recovery principle(CRP). The basins that have been studied are: theAdour-Garonne in France, the Henares in Spain, theTavy in UK and the whole territory in theNetherlands.

In England and Wales, the costs of providing publicwater supplies are covered solely by the chargesthat the water companies make on their customers.These charges are under the control of anindependent regulator who conducts periodicreviews of the price limits which apply to eachcompany. These reviews are conducted with fullconsultation and the outcome is available for publicscrutiny, subject only to genuine needs forcommercial confidentiality. Water abstractioncharges, whether by water companies or otherabstractors such as irrigators, are limited to recoveronly the costs the Environment Agency incurs inmanaging water recourses.

In the Netherlands, the collective water supply isself-financing. There are not known governmentgrants for collective drinking-water services. Thereis no collective irrigation thus no tariffs areapplicable. As in the UK, problems of dataavailability have been found when trying to assesshow the CRP is implemented.

In the Spanish Henares basin, different rates of costrecovery have been found, depending on the high,medium or low section along the river. In thehighlands, the tariff system applied for theregulation and distribution of water result in a lowrate of cost recovery (46% for agriculture and 58%for urban use). In the middle and low section, therate is close to the CRP, varying between 99% and74%, depending on the approach used forassessing the revenues to be got from the tariffsystem.

In the French Adour-Garonne basin the drinking-water supply is almost entirely self-financing (about98%), but the irrigation tariff only covers from 30%to 40% of the total cost of the services.

tion of inland surface water, transitionalwaters, coastal waters and groundwater inorder to prevent further deterioration, and toprotect and enhance the status of aquaticecosystems and those terrestrial ecosystemsdirectly dependent upon them;

• It requires the achievement of ‘good’surface water and groundwater status by2015 unless it is impossible or prohibi-tively expensive.

• It also promotes the concept of sustain-able water use based on the long-termprotection of available water resourcesand also contributes to mitigating theeffects of floods and droughts. TheFramework Water Directive will, there-fore, contribute to the provision of asupply of water of the quality and in thequantity needed, for sustainable, balan-ced and equitable use of the resource.

• It supports the protection of transbound-ary, territorial and marine waters and theachievement of the objectives of interna-tional agreements to prevent and elimina-te pollution of the marine environment.

• The proposal also stimulates theprogress reduction of pollution byhazardous substances.

A key feature of the proposed Directive isthat it requires Member States to manageand co-ordinate administrative arrangementsat the River Basin level (or, where appropri-ate, e.g. in the case of small River Basins) toaggregate into River Basin Districts. Thisapplies to groundwater as well as surfacewaters. The more integrated approach to

protect the aquatic environment togetherwith integration of environmental considera-tions into sectoral policies should help toalleviate water stress in the future.

ReferencesBlue Plan, 1996. Water in the Mediterranean region.Situations, perspectives and strategies for sustainablewater resources management. Euro-MediterraneanConference on local water management. Marseilles,25-26 November 1996.

Codling, I.D. and Bøgestrand, J., 1998. Quality ofsurface fresh water. – Common procedure for theExchange of Information – 1993-1995. SynthesisReport to the European Commission, Brussels.

Danmarks Miljøundersøgelser, 1997. VandmiljøplanensOvervågningsprogram.Ferske vandområder – vandløbog kilder. Faglig rapport fra DMU, nr. 214. (in Danish)

Danmarks Statistik, 1998. Miljøstatistik. Copenhagen.(in Danish).

DOE, 1999. Personal Communication, Department ofEnvironment, UK.

EEA, 1995. Europe’s Environment. The DobrisAssessment. D. Stanners and P. Bourdeau (Eds). Officefor Official Publications of the European Communities.European Environment Agency, Copenhagen.

EEA, 1997. Water resources problems in SouthernEurope – An overview report. Topic Report 15, InlandWaters. European Environment Agency. Copenhagen.

EEA, 1998. Europe’s Environment. The SecondAssessment. Office for Official publications of theEuropean Communities & Elsevier Science Ltd.

EEA, 1999a. Sustainable Water Use in Europe –Sectoral Use of Water. Topic Report 1, Inland Waters.European Environment Agency. Copenhagen.

EEA, 1999b. Groundwater quality and quantity inEurope. Environmental Issues Series,. EuropeanEnvironment Agency. Copenhagen. (in press).

Water stress 181

EEA, 1999c. Lakes and reservoirs in the EEA area.Topic Report 2, Inland Waters. European EnvironmentAgency. Copenhagen. (in press).

ETC/IW, 1998a. Nutrient discharges from point(industry and consumers) in the 10 Accession countries.Technical Report to the EEA from the European TopicCentre on Inland Waters. December 1998.

ETC/IW, 1998b. Contribution from the EuropeanTopic Centre on Inland Waters to RIVM’s study onpriorities, Water demands in Europe. European TopicCentre on Inland Waters. Report for EuropeanEnvironment Agency.

EEA (forthcoming), 1999. Environment and Europeanenlargement - Appraisal of future trends: Implementa-tion of the Urban Waste-water treatment Directive.Scenarios and projects no 3. Environmental issues no.8. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen.Office for Official Publications of the EuropeanCommunities, Luxembourg.

EEA/WHO, 1999. Water resources and human healthin Europe. Environmental Issues Series (in press).

Environment Agency, 1998. Aquatic eutrophication inEngland and Wales. A proposed management strategy.Environmental Issues Series, UK Environment Agency.

European Commission, 1998. The implementation ofCouncil Directive 91/676/EEC concerning theProtection of Waters against Pollution caused byNitrates from Agricultural Sources. Report of theCommission to the Council and European Parliament.COM(97) 473 final.

European Commission, 1999 (fortcoming). Economicassessment of priorities for a European EnvironmentalPolicy Plan (working title). Report prepared by RIVM,EFTEC, NTUA and IIASA for Directorate General XI(environment, nuclear safety and civil protection).

European Waste Water Group, 1997. Urban waste-water treatment in the EU. Report from the EuropeanWaste Water Group.

FAO Aquacult PC, 1998. AQUACULT PC – Time Seriesof Aquaculture and Capture Fishery Production.http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/FISHERY/statist/fisoft/AQUACULT.HTM

German Federal Ministry of the Environment, 1997.Towards Sustainable Development in Germany.http://www.bmu.de/englisch/index.htm

German Federal Ministry of the Environment, 1998.Water Resources Management in Germany. http://www.bmu.de/englisch/index.htm

Gundermann, H., 1993. An estimate of the futuredemand for water in a region – Forecastingtechniques, in La economía del agua, SociedadGeneral de Aguas de Barcelona (ed.).

Hydro, 1995-1996. State of the Environment report1995, & 1996. Http://www.hydro.com/

ICWS, 1996. Long range study on water supply anddemand in Europe – Integrated Report, InternationalCentre of Water Studies. Amsterdam, the Netherlands,Report 96.05 to the EC Forward Studies Unit.

IFEN, 1996. Environmental Performance Indicators inFrance – 1996-1997 edition. Report from the FrenchInstitute for the Environment (IFEN).

Ijjas, I., 1996. Removal of Phosphate from Detergentsin the Danube Basin. Executive Summary. Report fromPHARE Project No: EU/AR/205/91, Contract No: 95-0036.00.

IGBK, 1998. Langjährig Entwicklung chemischerParameter im Bodensee-Obersee. Internationale Ge-wässerschutzkommission für den Bodensee Bericht 48.

Kemira, 1996. State of the Environment report. http://www.kemira.com/environment.html

Llamas, M.R., M. Casado, A. de la Hera, J. Cruces andL. Martinez, 1996. El desarrollo sostenible de lacuenca alta del río Guadiana: aspectos socio-económicos y ecológicos. Medio Ambiente. Páginas66-74. Sept.-Oct. 1996.

OECD, 1993. Environmental Action Programme (EAP)for the Central and Eastern European Countries.Document endorsed by the Ministerial Conference‘Environment for Europe’, 28-30 April 1993 inLucerne, Switzerland http://www.oecd.org/env/eap/docs/eap-cont.htm

OECD, 1997. OECD Environmental Data –Compendium 1997. Paris.

OECD, 1998. Towards sustainable development –Environmental indicators. Paris.

OFWAT, 1997. 1996-97 Report on leakage and waterefficiency. Office of Water Services. Birmingham.

PLANISTAT, 1998. A study on water economics –Integrated Report. A study for the EuropeanCommission – DG XI.B.1. September 1998.

RIVM/NTUA/IIASA, 1998. Integrated environmentalassessment of the baseline scenario for the EU stateof the environment 1998 report. Report prepared forEEA.

RIVM, 1995. Milieubalans 95. Http://www.Milieubalans.rivm.nl/body.htm.

Shiklomanov, I., 1998. World water resources – A newappraisal and assessment for the 21st century.UNESCO.

Siegrist, H. and M. Boller, 1999. Auswirkungen desPhosphatverbots in den Waschmitteln auf dieAbwasserreinigung in der Schweiz. KorrespondenzAbwasser 46: 57-65.

Spanish Ministry for the Environment, 1998. SpanishWhite Paper on Water. Madrid.

Statistics Sweden, 1990. Naturmiljön I siffror – tredieudgave 1990. Report from Statistics Sweden (inSwedish).

Statistics Sweden, 1996. Naturmiljön i siffror – femteudgave 1996. Report from Statistics Sweden (inSwedish).

Umweltbundesamt, 1997. Daten zur Umwelt, DerZustand der Umwelt in Deutschland. Erich SchmidtVerlag.

van Driel, 1998. Costs for upgrading waste-watertreatment to EU standards in ten Accession Countries.Draft, RIZA, the Netherlands.

Verbruggen, A., 1997. Report on the Environment andNature in Flanders 1996. Report from the FlemishEnvironment Agency, Ostende.

Wahlström E., E.-l. Hallanaro, & S. Manninen, 1996.Miljöns framtid i Finland. Report from Edita &Finlands Miljöcentral.

WMO, 1997. General evaluation of world freshwaterresources. Stockholm Environment Institute (ed.).World Meteorological Organisation. 1997.

3.5. Water Stress - European Environment Agency

Documents

Transcript of 3.5. Water Stress - European Environment Agency