8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

1/30

Token EconomiesDevelopment and Generalization of

adaptive behaviors through contrivedreinforcement programs

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

2/30

Advantages of Token Economies

Immediate, unobtrusive delivery of reinforcers

Allows for delay of reinforcement

More and more frequent reinforcement can bedelivered and for a longer time

Ease of generalization

Greater individuality of reinforcement

Structures administrators attention andreduces subjectivity

Allows for differential valuing of performance

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

3/30

Disadvantages of Token Economies

Requires that goals be concrete and specificCan lead to dependency if weaning not done

Requires a great deal of structure and

organization by the administratorCan be costly if tangible reinforcers used

May prevent or distract administrator from

learning more appropriate strategies forcontrolling behavior

May be easily abused

Requires much time and attention

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

4/30

When to Use Token Economies

WHEN ALL ELSE FAILS: Other, lessintrusive, strategies have been tried and

found not to workWhen behavior problems are severeand require a highly structured,

consistent, predictable environmentWhen clients cannot wait an extendedtime for rewards

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

5/30

Setting Up a Token Economy 1:Selecting Backup Reinforcers

Select the least intrusive reinforcers you canget away with

Select reinforcers that are interesting to theclients

Have a variety of reinforcers available

Include occasional bonus or surprisereinforcers

Periodically change the backup reinforcers toprevent satiation

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

6/30

Setting Up a Token Economy 2:Selecting Tokens: Characteristics

They should be available in large amounts

They should be durable

They should be interesting and attractiveThey should be dispensible without intrudinginto or distracting from ongoing activities

They should not be reproducible or availableother than through the program

They should be difficult to steal or extort

from each other

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

7/30

Setting Up a Token Economy 3:

Types of Tokens to ConsiderTangibles (e.g., buttons, poker chips,counters, washers, stars, paper clips, play

money, marbles)1. Preferably, use soft tokens if noise may bea problem

2. Use a receptacle to hold tokensSymbolic tokens (e.g., checkmarks, points,happy faces, stamps, stickers, etc.

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

8/30

Example of Token Economy System

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

9/30

Example of Token Economy System

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

10/30

Example of Token Economy System

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

11/30

Setting Up a Token Economy 4:Setting Prices for Backup Reinforcers

Use law of supply and demandConsider therapeutic value of the behavior

Have a variety of prices

Set prices before dispensing tokensInitially, set prices so that everyone has theopportunity to purchase backup reinforcers

Let clients know in advance what the prices of the

backup reinforcers will be

After the first exchange or two, do not announceprices until exchange time

Change prices after each exchange

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

12/30

Setting Up a Token Economy 5:Identifying Target Behaviors

Target behaviors should be specific andprecise

Target behaviors should be observableand measurable

Target behaviors should readily transfer

to the real world

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

13/30

Setting Up token Economies 6:Establishing Rules

Rules should be stated positively andemphasize productivity and achievement

Rules should be understood and

remembered by all clients in the programKeep the list of rules relatively short

Allow clients to help in establishing the

rulesIncorporate procedures for changing rulesand for arbitration of rule disputes

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

14/30

Setting Up a Token Economy 7:

Keeping Records

Program effectiveness is greatly enhancedby accurate and complete record keeping

Continuous records should be keptconcerning1. The occurrence or nonoccurrence oftarget behaviors

2. The time and number of tokens deliveredto each student3. The time and frequency of tokenexchanges

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

15/30

Running the Token Economy 1:Getting Started

Sampling the backup reinforcers1. Demonstrate the reinforcers, allowingclients to sample them

2. Make the reinforcers appealing to theclients (sell them)

Establishing the value of the tokens

The 1st day, give each client a token fordoing something appropriate immediately,explaining how to earn them and what they

can be exchanged for

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

16/30

Running the Token Economy 2:Beginning the Program and

Dispensing the Tokens

Initially, dispense tokens often, graduallydecreasing the no. after a few days

Dispense tokens immediately and quickly

Always mention the clients name and the

behavior that is being reinforcedDispense tokens quietly and unobtrusivelyso as not to focus attention on them

Dont mention tokens when dispensing

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

17/30

Running the Token Economy 3:Token Exchange Times

Initially, have frequent exchanges

Exchange times should become less and less

frequentThe next exchange time should beannounced in advance

Set a limit on how many tokens a client mayaccumulate or carry over from one exchangetime to another, perhaps by losing all

unspent tokens

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

18/30

Phasing Out the Token Economy 1:Naturalizing the Program (Weaning)

Introduce and gradually increase delays inthe delivery of reinforcement

Make dispensing of tokens increasinglyrandom and intermittent

Gradually switch from token reinforcement

to more natural reinforcersMake the tokens increasingly less valuable tothe clients

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

19/30

Phasing Out the Token Economy 2:Earning Off the System

Clients maintaining a specified standard ofappropriate behavior should be allowed to getoff the token system

Clients earning a predetermined minimum no.of daily tokens should be given special bonusearn off points

Clients need to be motivated to earn off1. Give bonus prizes to graduates2. Give graduates noncontingent access tobackup reinforcers

3. Give graduates special privileges

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

20/30

Phasing Out the Token Economy 3:Transferring Control to Clients

Control of the program can gradually betransferred to the clients

Clients should be given increasingly greater

responsibility for:1. deciding which behaviors need changing2. how many tokens it should earn

3. determining when the behavior occurs4. dispensing the tokens upon completion ofthe target behaviors

5. exchanging tokens for the backup

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

21/30

Using Punishment in a TokenEconomy 1: Response Cost

Remove a previously determined numberof tokens or points for previously identifiedunacceptable behavior

If a client resists, penalize additional pointsInclude rule violations as part of thebackup menu (must pay for misbehavior)

Do not overpenalize or tokens may losetheir value and clients motivation toperform may be reduced

Reserve penalties for the worst offenses

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

22/30

Using Punishment in Token Economy2: Timeout

Response cost is the preferred form ofpunishment

Use timeout from token spending ifresponse cost does not work in which aspecific time period is designated when a

student may not exchange earned tokensUse timeout from the opportunity to earntokens

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

23/30

Problems in Token Economies I:Client-Related Problems

Hassles, arguments, and complaints: clientsmay attempt to get unearned tokens orbackup reinforcers for which they have

insufficient tokens

Hoarding (failure to exchange tokens)

Counterfeiting, theft, and extortion whichmay result from insufficient monitoring oftoken administration

Unresponsive clients

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

24/30

Fixing Problems in Token Economies1: Hassles, Arguments, Complaints &

Hoarding

Avoid hassles, arguments, complaints,attempts at bargaining by ignoring them

Ignore any mention of tokens except atexchange times

If the problem persists, impose a penaltyFor hoarding, following token exchange,clients should lose all unspent tokens

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

25/30

Fixing Problems in Token Economies2: Unresponsive Clients

Do not require unresponsive clients toparticipate for about a week

After about a week, prime them by givingthem a free day in which noncontingenttokens are given which can be exchangedfor backup reinforcers

The next day, make it easy for them to earntokens, gradually increasing requirements

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

26/30

Fixing Problems in Token Economies

3: Counterfeiting, Theft, and Extortion

Individualize and customize the tokens sothat they are identifiable as belonging to a

particular client and cannot be reproduced

Keep duplicate records of number of tokensearned by each client

Punish these offenses with response cost ortimeout

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

27/30

Problems in Token Economies II:Administrator-Related Problems

Using tokens as bribes or threats whichfocus undue attention on the tokens andcauses clients to become overly dependenton the tokens and develops a mercenaryattitude on the part of clients

Feeling sorry for clients who are short of

tokens

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

28/30

Fixing Problems in Token Economies4: Presenting Noncontingent Tokens

Do not extend charity or loans as thesedestroy the contingent relationship between

behavior and reinforcerIf a client is continually short of tokenssomething is wrong with the program

Too much may be expected of the clientThe client may be excessively ignored

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

29/30

Problems in Token Economies III:System-Related Problems

Token inflation (gradual increase in pricesof backup reinforcers) due to clients

earning too many tokens (too lenient?)Token depression (gradual decrease inprices of back reinforcers) due to clients

earning too few tokens (too strict?)Confusion possibly due to the programbeing too complex

8/2/2019 333PP Tokens

30/30

Adjust contingencies so students are notearning too many or too few tokens by

making contingencies stricter or morelenient, as appropriate

Make sure that a reasonable number of

tokens is being earnedConfusion is to be expected initially but ifthe problem does not work itself out in a

few days institute a simpler program

Fixing Problems in Token Economies4: Token Inflation, Deflation,Confusion