315 Chapter 10 - Wikispacestamrich.wikispaces.com/file/view/ch10.pdfChapter 10 10 – Factors...

315 10 – Factors affecting access to sport and physical activity – the individual level

Chapter 10 faCtORS affeCting aCCeSS tO SpORt anD phySiCaL aCtivity – the inDiviDuaL LeveL

ObjectivesBy the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

• understand that equity and opportunity at the individual level is primarily involved with factors that influence choice

• identify the role temperament plays in the selection of physical activity for the individual

• evaluate personal needs and how participation in physical activity contributes to meeting those needs

• analyse personal beliefs and values towards physical activity and evaluate the impact these have on access and participation

• analyse their self-concept in relation to physical activity and highlight the impact this may have on access and participation.

Key terms beliefschoice theoryindividual levelneedneeds satisfying behaviourpersonality typesself-conceptself-esteemsocialisationstereotypetemperamentvalues FigueROA’s FRAmeWORk –

the inDiviDuAl levelIn the previous chapter, the individual level was presented as one of five levels of a framework designed by Professor Peter Figueroa to help evaluate and explore equity and access issues within society. Within the context of Figueroa’s Framework, the individual level explores the links between the personal values, beliefs and behaviours of an individual and the opportunities, access and equity experienced by that individual.

As individuals, we possess beliefs and values that affect our own participation in sport and physical activity. These beliefs and values will govern our behaviour and are a product of our upbringing and experience with sport. Subsequent chapters will demonstrate how each of the other four levels of Figueroa’s Framework (the interpersonal, institutional, structural and cultural levels) work to influence and shape the beliefs and values of the individual. These chapters will also outline how these levels operate to influence equity by presenting or limiting opportunities and access to sport.

Individual level Explores the links between the personal values, beliefs and behaviours of an individual and the opportunities, access and equity experienced by that individual.

The importance of the individual levelIt could be argued that when it comes to equity and access issues, the individual level is the most important. This is because, while all levels of Figueroa’s Framework can identify how equity and sporting opportunities are presented to an individual,

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316 step FORWARD Senior Physical Education for Queensland

Figure 10.1 Regardless of the amount of opportunities created for you to participate and succeed in physical activity throughout your life, your level of participation is still an individual choice.

in the end it is the individual’s choice that will determine his or her access and level of participation in physical activity. For example, when looking across the levels experienced by one individual it may be found that relatively few opportunities exist for a particular female to take up a physical activity like badminton. Yet, despite these limited opportunities, she is able to successfully develop skills to a level where she is competing for Australia and making a career on the lucrative Asian badminton circuit. Essentially, she makes the most of the few opportunities that come her way. Conversely, a male may have a vast range of opportunities created for him across the levels to take up a career in rugby union. He may be a suitable size and shape, possess the relevant skill level, have been brought up in a ‘rugby family’ where his father and uncle played for Australia, attended a prestigious grammar school where he is coached by a fitness trainer with the Queensland Reds and where his ability could be seen by talent scouts regularly; yet, despite the many opportunities created for him he decides not to play rugby union.

It must be remembered that equity as a concept has to do with ‘fairness’ and the provision of equal opportunities. In the previous example there is quite obviously an inequitable situation in the opportunities to participate and succeed when comparing the female badminton player and the male rugby union player. It must also be noted that individuals are more likely to engage in physical activities when numerous opportunities are presented across a broad range of the levels in Figueroa’s Framework. Therefore, society must still work to establish equity to ensure all community members are presented with similar opportunities to participate and succeed across the spectrum of physical activities and to ensure, as best as we can, that individuals and groups are not disadvantaged. However, in the end, despite the opportunities created at each of the five levels of Figueroa’s Framework, our final decision to participate, or not participate, will generally come down to a personal decision based on our own beliefs, values, temperament and preferences.




activity 10.1

Think of two physical activities: one that you would ‘go out of your way’ to participate in and one that you would never participate in, even if there was no cost and the opportunity was ‘right in front of you’. Think about the activities – can you draw links between your personality and the two activities? For example, ‘I would never play golf as I am not patient and I hate doing the same thing over and over again. I prefer things where I can be creative. I get bored when I have to think too hard to analyse things’.

inFluenCes On ACCess AnD peRsOnAl ChOiCe tO engAge in phYsiCAl ACtivitYAs our beliefs and values are shaped and formed, particularly over the initial years of life, individuals begin to display personality characteristics, thinking patterns and temperament types based on how they prefer to operate. Some people are quiet and reserved, preferring to take their time and think about decisions and carefully plan their activities; others are outspoken, ambitious or spontaneous and may prefer to live in the present. These traits in personality are one of the biggest factors influencing sporting participation and access at the individual level. It is these traits that may drive an individual to seek out and take up opportunities, no matter how limited, or disregard other opportunities, no matter how often they are presented. It is these traits that may see them enjoy some physical activities and avoid others.

Figure 10.2 Factors affecting equity and access to physical activity at the individual level.

personal temperament

genetic predisposition

self-conceptand

self-esteem

equitY AnD ACCess tO phYsiCAl ACtivitY At

the inDiviDuAl level

individual needs

personal beliefs, values,

attitudes and stereotypes




extraversion

People who prefer Extroversion tend to focus on the outer world of people and things

introversion

People who prefer Introversion tend to focus on the inner world of ideas and impressions

sensing

People who prefer Sensing tend to focus on concrete information gained through their senses

intuition

People who prefer Intuition tend to focus on the future, with a view towards patterns and possibilities

thinking

People who prefer Thinking tend to base their decisions on logic and on objective analysis

Feeling

People who prefer Feeling tend to base their decisions primarily values and on subjective evaluation of person-centred concerns

Judging

People who prefer Judging tend to like a planned and organised approach to life and prefer to have things settled

perceiving

People who prefer Perceiving tend to like a flexible and spontaneous approach to life and prefer to keep their options open

tAble 10.1 – Myers-Briggs personality types

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is designed to measure personality type.

Personality typesA way of categorising an individual’s personality based on where the individual prefers to place their attention and draw their energy from. The approach is based on a set of four psychological preference pairings.

Personal temperamentIn trying to understand how personality traits influence behaviour and decisions, Isabel Myers-Briggs – based on the work of her mother, Katherine Briggs, and the earlier work of Carl Jung – identified four distinct pairings of psychological preferences that will determine an individual’s personality type and may shape behaviours, as illustrated in Table 10.1.

Myers-Briggs presents four distinct areas within a person’s personality. While at each end of these areas there are two extremes, generality people lie somewhere on the continuum between the two extremes. Depending on where your preferences lie, your personality will fall into one of 16 different personality types.

When viewing these personality types it is important to understand that these are not set rules for how people behave or act. As these personality types and associated preferences are two ends of a continuum it is also understandable that a person may lay in the middle of the two extremes, displaying characteristics of both personality types. With this in mind it is more accurate to think of these personality types as preferences or ‘natural tendencies’. An individual will prefer to work in or make decisions based on their personality types. However, individuals will frequently and successfully operate outside of their normal personality type preferences when required. A person with ‘introverted’ preferences may successfully play in front of a large crowd or conduct a television interview. An individual with a ‘judging’ preference can be spontaneous when the game plan goes out the window or a person with ‘thinking’ preferences can successfully make decisions by instinct when more objective means are not available.




Temperament A way through which individuals see the world as their perceptions of their world influences how they will react in a given situation.

These personality types can be used to determine an individual’s personal temperament. Individual temperament determines the way individuals see the world, approach tasks and make decisions. People with different psychological preferences will naturally have different interests and views, behave differently and are motivated by different things. Temperament can be used to explain the preferences people may display towards participation in physical activity in general, specific types of physical activity or indeed the roles they take up in their sporting involvement. As individuals will draw energy and be motivated when working within their preferred temperament, the result may be individuals gaining greater enjoyment when engaging in physical activities that match their temperament.

Consider an individual that prefers ‘extraversion’, this person may also show a preference towards team activities, and the social atmosphere that surrounds the team may be important. They may be capable of successfully engaging in

Figure 10.3 Individuals that prefer extraversion may enjoy team activities.

Figure 10.4 Individuals that prefer introversion may enjoy the solitude in individual activities.




individual activities, but given the opportunity they may be drawn towards and obtain more enjoyment and satisfaction from team events. These people may struggle to maintain motivation when engaging in the hours of isolated training required to become an elite swimmer, for example, and they may cease participation, despite having the ability and opportunity to be successful.

The individual that shows a natural tendency towards ‘introversion’ may have no interest in team sports and might reject opportunities that present themselves in this area. They may be better equipped to handle the solitude of an elite swimming training program or prefer the solitude of a recreational activity, such as fishing. Should this person also prefer the logic and objective analysis of ‘thinking’ and the planned and organised approach to life of ‘judging’, then he may obtain more enjoyment from the carefully considered and organised thinking required to complete a difficult rock climb.

An individual that strongly prefers sensing may choose to engage in physical activity as a referee where they can utilise their preference for using the senses to notice facts and remember details. While those that prefer intuition may become good administrators as they tend to focus on the future, with a view towards patterns and possibilities.

tAble 10.2 – how personality preferences affect preferred activities

possible preferred activities and roles

personality preference

personality preference

possible preferred activities

and roles

• Team activities

• Leader/team captain

extraversion

People who prefer Extroversion tend to focus on the outer world of people and things

introversion

People who prefer Introversion tend to focus on the inner world of ideas and impressions

• Individual activities

• Shy away from leadership rolls

• Refereeing

• Hands-on activities: rugby league, wrestling

Sensing

People who prefer Sensing tend to focus on concrete information gained through their senses

intuition

People who prefer Intuition tend to focus on the future, with a view towards patterns and possibilities

• Sporting administrator

• Team managers

• Tactical types activities: chess

• Coach/team tactician

• Individual athletic field events

thinking

People who prefer Thinking tend to base their decisions on logic and on objective analysis

feeling

People who prefer Feeling tend to base their decisions primarily on values and on subjective evaluation of person-centred concerns

• Social, less competitive environments and activities

• Activities performed in predicable and closed environments: archery, lawn bowls

Judging

People who prefer Judging tend to like a planned and organised approach to life and prefer to have things settled

perceiving

People who prefer Perceiving tend to like a flexible and spontaneous approach to life and prefer to keep their options open

• Activities performed in dynamic and open environments, touch, white-water rafting

As individuals will draw energy and be motivated when working within their preferred temperament, they will be more likely to take up opportunities that match their temperament and obtain more enjoyment from their involvement, whatever that role may be.




activity 10.2

activity 10.3

Make a list of physical activities you have undertaken throughout your life. Include those that you no longer participate in. Use your knowledge about your own personality type as a guide to make links between the characteristics of activities you enjoy and your temperament type. Can you find links between the physical activities you no longer participate in and your preferred temperament?

Temperaments are preferences or natural tendencies that may influence how we work or what we choose to do. In a short paragraph, outline the detrimental impacts of always operating within your preferred temperament, use a sporting example to assist in your explanation.

Choice theoryA second theory that may explain why some people choose to engage in physical activity when equity is established and opportunities to participate are presented is choice theory. Choice theory is the work of behaviourist Doctor William Glasser. He asserts that all behaviours, including the action of participating or not participating in physical activity, are need satisfying. That is, any action or decision made about how to behave will be made in an attempt to meet a fundamental physical or psychological need. When needs are met, the individual will feel happier, more satisfied and content.

Choice theory suggests that all choices that are made by an individual (and the behaviour that results from that choice) will reflect the need type that is most predominate at the time the decision is made. Let us assume for a moment that a rather overweight middle-aged man receives the advice from his doctor to lose weight or he may suffer from a heart attack. In this situation the man faces two choices – lose weight or don’t lose weight. In this situation the man may have a very strong survival need and so in an attempt to live longer he begins eating healthy and starts to exercise. Conversely, another man in the same situation may have a much stronger fun and enjoyment need and so the pleasure gained from eating out, socialising, smoking and drinking may see the man not make an attempt to lose weight or change his lifestyle at all.

Choice theoryA theory that explains how all behaviours displayed by individuals are an attempt to satisfy a need for that individual.

Need A requirement for a healthy, happy and contented life. Needs can be both physical and psychological.

At the individual level, temperament may be one factor that governs the opportunities a person chooses to undertake when it comes to physical activity participation. This is because certain temperaments will suit certain activities and levels of competition, while a mismatch between a person’s temperament and physical activity may severely reduce enjoyment. Take, for example, the temperament that may suit an Olympic archer versus the temperament that might suit a social ‘Saturday afternoon’ local netball player. In this way a person’s temperament may help to guide the performer’s general area of interest and may lead them to take up certain opportunities while rejecting others.




tAble 10.3 – choice theory categorises the basic human needs into one and four psychological needs

explanation example

physiCal neeD the survival need

This need is satisfied by behaviours that allow us to go on living and continue the species.

Eating, drinking, seeking shelter, wearing clothing and reproducing.

psyChologiCal neeDs

the love and belonging need

This need is satisfied by behaviours that help us to connect with other people.

Behaving in ways to connect with peers is often referred to as peer pressure (when associated with negative behaviours). We often behave in ways to help us connect with parents, siblings, teachers, and coaches. When the behaviour (sport in this case) helps us to connect it meets this need.

Teenage girls may become more social and less competitive and so withdraw from organised competitive sport to assist in satisfying this need.

Note: sometimes we meet our needs with inappropriate behaviours. For example, alleged rugby league culture of group sex ‘bonding’ sessions or booze ‘bonding’ sessions. They help people connect but in socially unacceptable ways.

the freedom and choice need

This need is satisfied by behaviours that are free from restrictions.

People with strong freedom needs may enjoy trekking, exploring, hiking, cross country skiing. Sports that offer choices rather than limit them are appealing to people who have strong needs for choice. Activities that offer less choice might include orienteering, golf and snooker.

Many teenagers may give up sport as this may be one of the first things they have control over as they assert their independence in the transition to adulthood.

As children get older, the freedoms and choices in sport become fewer as it becomes more institutionalised and serious. When this need is no longer being met by the sport they may cease participation and find another way to meet their need for freedom and choice.

the personal power need

This need is satisfied by behaviours that make us feel competent and good about ourselves.

Behaviour (sports activity) that enhances our self-esteem will satisfy power needs. Winning in itself meets the need for power for people. Losing does not meet this need and this causes frustration.

Success at sport meets a power need. Learning a new skill meets a power need. Implementing a plan or strategy successfully meets a power need. Getting the richest contract meets this need.

the fun and enjoyment need

This need is satisfied by engaging in behaviour that is fun and pleasurable.

Probably the easiest to understand. We all meet our need for fun when we do sports that we enjoy. When Physical Education classes involve activities that students don’t enjoy, it is hard for them to meet this need and they misbehave with negative behaviours to meet the need for fun.

In its earliest form, sport is playful and fun, and then as we age it becomes more institutionalised; it can be seen by many as less fun. When the threshold for fun becomes higher and higher, more extreme forms of sport are required to meet the need for fun – hence, extreme sports.




From the example provided, it can be demonstrated that every individual places an emphasis on different needs. Some people may place a large emphasis on the ‘love and belonging need’ and, hence, much of their behaviour is about making and retaining good relationships. Others place a high importance on the ‘freedom and choice need’ and, therefore, it is important that they always have options and the ability to choose the paths they wish to take. Those with a high ‘personal power need’ may display behaviours that see them retain the ability to control their surroundings. Meanwhile, those with a high ‘fun and enjoyment need’ will constantly be displaying behaviours that promote a friendlier and less-competitive atmosphere.

It is important to recognise that need satisfaction is not set for an individual, in the same way our basic underlying temperament isn’t. Individuals will constantly make decisions based on the need (or combination of needs) they deem as being most important at the time.

Consider a young rugby league player at eight or nine years of age. This boy may be less skilled than those around him and is regularly relegated to the wing position or bench. At this age, however, the decision to play rugby league may be governed by a strong ‘love and belonging need’. That is, many of the boy’s friends are playing in the team or other teams in the competition and his two older brothers are also playing, so he just wants to fit in by engaging in similar activities. He may also be playing out of a strong ‘fun and enjoyment need’. That is, for this eight-year-old, the pleasure gained through running around and tackling people as well as the whole atmosphere of going to training and game day is pleasurable, amusing and exciting, and this is important to the player. These two needs (love and belonging and fun and enjoyment) may be strong enough to keep this player engaged in rugby league for four or five seasons, despite his comparative lack of skill and his time spent on the bench.

As our young player grows and develops, his needs change, as do the circumstances from which his decisions are made. By the time this boy reaches 13 he is finding that, although he is still playing with friends, the competition is becoming more competitive. His lack of skill is being highlighted by occasional jibes and taunts from those around him, and his playing time seems to be getting less. In this way rugby league is no longer satisfying his ‘fun and enjoyment need’ in the way it used to. In fact, our boy has taken up hockey, which he is quite good at, and so his need for ‘fun and enjoyment’ is adequately met through another avenue. As the boy is now a young adolescent, he may also be placing more importance on the ‘freedom and choice need’ and the ‘personal power need’. As he has been consigned to being a ‘bench player’, both of these needs are now poorly met through his engagement in rugby league. As this player’s needs are now no longer being met through participating in rugby league, the choice is made to quit.

Another example of the way needs satisfying behaviour can affect the opportunities undertaken at the individual level of Figueroa’s Framework may be demonstrated through a young representative netball player. This talented player may be captain of her local team, frequently travel with representative teams and enjoy the lifestyle and admiration brought about by being a talented sportsperson.

Needs satisfying behaviourActions that when undertaken meet a physical or psychological requirement for the individual.




For this girl, playing netball may satisfy all of the needs identified by Glasser in his choice theory. However, this girl places a large importance on her ‘love and belonging need’ and her ‘fun and enjoyment need’. When new team members join her club, the atmosphere around the team changes, there is in-fighting, backstabbing, rumours are flying around the team at each training session and cliques begin to form within the team. Over time, netball for the girl no longer meets her ‘fun and enjoyment need’, in fact, going to training causes her frustration and dissatisfaction due to the importance she places on this need. Despite her talent and potential for success the girl ceases to participate in netball the next season, in a decision

Figure 10.5 While physical activity meets the needs of the individual, participation will continue.

which is confusing to many of her close family and friends. Had this girl been more driven to fulfil her ‘personal power need’ then she may have chosen to continue in the sport.

In this sense, the choice to engage in physical activity comes down to the needs that are satisfied though that participation. It may be important to realise that needs satisfying behaviour is a very raw response to what satisfies the individual. The netball girl from the example above cannot just ignore her ‘fun and enjoyment need’ or switch it off in favour of her ‘personal power need’ in order to continue participation. Our needs do not only govern our choices, but will also determine our motivation. If we have a strong need in a particular area then our choices and motivation to satisfy that need will be more highly driven and if our behaviours (like playing netball) do not satisfy that need then motivation will severely decline. Equity and opportunities can be created through each of the other four levels of Figueroa’s Framework, but at the individual level a person may take away their own opportunities through the choices they make to meet their basic needs.




activity 10.4

Figure 10.6 When a physical activity no longer satisfies the needs of the participant, the choice to quit may be made.

1 Rank the four psychological needs in order of importance to your life in general. Which one is most important for you to satisfy? Discuss with the class how easy it was for you the rank these needs – some people will be able to do this easily as they show strong needs in particular areas; for others, it may have been more difficult as their needs may vary depending on the situation. For further consideration: the body has many mechanisms in place that help us survive when placed in dangerous situations.

2 Select a physical activity that you are currently playing and in a short statement identify which needs your participation in that activity is satisfying and how your participation satisfies that need.

3 Select a physical activity that you no longer participate in and identify which needs were not being met through your participation.

for further consideration: the body has many mechanisms in place that help us survive when placed in dangerous situations. Take a marathon runner who is at the point of meltdown when reaching the 38 kilometre mark. In this situation, one runner may choose to listen to the signals from his body and choose to retire from the race. In this sense they may have satisfied their ‘survival need’ by stopping before long-term damage is done to the health of the runner. Another runner in the same situation might choose to battle on, despite the chance that her health will suffer. As a class, discuss what psychological needs might be met through the decision to continue the race for this athlete and how these may override the ‘survival need’. How might this needs satisfying behaviour change if she is leading the race or coming in the middle of the pack? Can you think of other similar sporting examples (consider a Queensland State of Origin player that breaks a rib in the opening 15 minutes)?




Genetic predispositionAt the individual level of Figueroa’s Framework the opportunities and access to physical activity can also be governed by an individual’s genetic makeup. Genetic makeup will determine a person’s body type, muscle type and bulk, as well as their height and length of limbs. These body features will allow some individuals to develop natural abilities that are helpful in particular physical activities. For example, your body may allow you to be naturally fast and, therefore, you wish to pursue an interest in athletics sprinting or in a ‘wing’ position in a team sport. In this way, genetic makeup and our subsequent body type can predispose an individual to successful performance in particular types of physical activity. This concept takes a very naturalist view of the body. However, with a ‘natural aptitude’ towards a physical activity it is likely that enjoyment can be gained in the activity and the motivation to be engaged will be high. These individuals are fortunate to have such natural ability and this may create many opportunities for them to pursue. This is demonstrated by ‘talent identification’ programs in place within Australian and international sport and which even exist at the school level. Consider a tall high jumper arriving at a new school – amongst the first people this new student might meet may be the basketball or volleyball coach, who may be looking to strengthen their squad. The coach can teach her to play volleyball but he can’t teach her to be tall.

activity 10.5 Select the physical activity you believe you are most suited to based solely on your genetic

makeup: that is, elements such as body size, shape, height, amount of muscle. It does not need to be a physical activity you have tried before. Justify your response in a 30-second spoken presentation to the class.

BeliefsCognitive ideas that are held as truths.

Values A person’s principles and standards of behaviour, which determine what is important to them.

SocialisationThe process by which people acquire the values, beliefs, attitudes and behavioural norms of their culture.

Personal beliefs, values, attitudes and stereotypesA fourth influence on the access and the personal choice to engage in physical activity at Figueroa’s individual level are the beliefs and values of the individual. As a person grows and develops they are engaged in a process called socialisation. Through this process the individual establishes personal beliefs and values towards all facets of life, including physical activity.

Socialisation occurs through the interaction with people within a cultural context. That is, individuals gain beliefs and values and learn how to behave through the experiences they have with those around them. As the vast majority of personal experiences throughout the formative years occur with those closest to the individual, it is likely that the majority of an individual’s values and beliefs will initially reflect those of their parents, siblings and close relatives or family friends. As the individual gets older, other groups and institutions such as teachers, coaches, schools and sporting clubs will begin to influence the beliefs and values of the individual. In recent times, the media has also become one of the largest influencing factors in socialisation as children are frequently engaged with this medium from such a young age.




Figure 10.7 Positive experiences with physical activity are important for an individual if they are to develop positive beliefs and values about sporting participation and engage in an active lifestyle.

eXpeRienCes FOR THE INDIVIDUALInteractions within the other four levels of Figueroa’s Framework

The AttituDes AnD behAviOuRs of the individual towards physical activity

ANd ArE ExhibitEd through

At the individual level of Figueroa’s Framework, it is the way these beliefs and values manifest themselves as attitudes, stereotypes and behaviours that can affect the access to and engagement in physical activity. An individual that, through the socialisation process, has learnt to value sport and sporting participation and believes that an active lifestyle is not only fun and enjoyable, but essential for a long and healthy life, is much more likely to seek out and undertake opportunities to participate in physical activity of any level. Conversely, an individual that does not value the role of physical activity in Australian society or believes physical activity is for ‘gym junkies’, ‘sweaty, rough boys’ or ‘fit people’ may avoid physical activity – essentially, limiting their own opportunities and creating their own inequities.

peRsOnAl steReOtYpes about who participates in physical activity

ArE uSEd to CrEAtE

Personal belieFs & vAlues that affect participation in

physical activity for the individual

Personal belieFs & vAlues that affect the types of physical activity

undertaken by the individual

through thE ProCESS of SoCialiSaTioN dEtErmiNE




tAble 10.4 – how attitudes, stereotypes and behaviours affect the access to and engagement in physical activity

example beliefs and values about physical activity

resulting attitudes or stereotypes effect on participation

influence on the type of physical

activity undertaken

Physical activity is at the heart of Australian culture

I must be involved in physical activity, in fact, everybody should

Will be involved wherever possible

Any type of physical activity

Physical activity is fun I must ensure myself and others are enjoying our physical activity

Will be involved in anything that is perceived to be enjoyable

Will be involved in recreation and social activities, may avoid a highly competitive atmosphere

Physical activity is healthy

I must get up and be active to be healthy; fit people are happy and healthy people

Will seek opportunities in structured organisations or informal activities

May be more inclined to be involved in ‘active’ sports which raise the heart rate

Physical activity is competitive

If we are going to play, let’s follow the rules, keep score and see who wins

Will be involved more in clubs and organised sport and will try to play at their best all the time

More organised sport, but every activity undertaken will be about winning

Physical activity is relaxing

I don’t mind who wins, in fact, is there a need to keep score?

Will be involved in physical activity, but not always at their best, because it is not about winning

More recreational activities that are less active, where the heart rate remains low

Physical activity is important for personal development

I must be a good sportsperson, play nicely and interact with others

May participate more as a teenager, or look for new areas of interest to take up

Any type of activity will do, but normally team sports as it is about getting to know others and being a better person

Physical activity brings people together

Sporting people are social, interactive and outgoing

Will be engaged in physical activity or administration, may encourage others to also get involved

Team activities or involved within a sporting club

Physical activity is not as important as spending time with friends and family

I’d like to play, but I have things to do at home this weekend

May participate if enough friends are involved or it does not take away from family commitments

More casual activities with friends, nothing that involves a season-long commitment

Physical activity is not as important as work and career

My priority is with my career, if I can fit time in for physical activity as well, then that is great

Irregular participation when working long hours

More casual activities when possible as may not be able to commit to anything else

Physical activity is not important as other intellectual pursuits

Physical activity and sportspeople are not intellectual – I’ll have a go, but sport is not really my thing

May be engaged when there is little else to do

More tactical activities that require less stamina or strength

Physical activity is not an essential part of life

I’ll get up and be active when I have time

Will participate, but will not seek out the opportunity to do so normally

Less formal activities when the opportunity arises

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tAble 10.4 – how attitudes, stereotypes and behaviours affect the access to and engagement in physical activity (continued)

example beliefs and values about physical activity

resulting attitudes or stereotypes

effect on participation

influence on the type of physical

activity undertaken

Physical activity is not enjoyable

I don’t want to play Will not participate and may even try to avoid activities such as PE lessons

Physical activity is not important

Why would I want to do that?

May play a limited amount, but generally does not show an interest

Non-competitive, extremely social activities, where it is more about interacting than playing

Physical activity does not serve a real purpose in society

Why would I, or anyone else, want to do that?

Will not participate

Physical activity draws funds away from other areas where it could be better spent

Why do sportspeople get paid so much money?

May infrequently engage in physical activity

Non-competitive, extremely social activities, where it is more about interacting than playing

Physical activity is hard work

I am not fit enough to be active – sportspeople are fit, slim and healthy

Will not participate and may even try to avoid activities such as PE lessons

May be involved in ‘inactive’ recreational activities or be a spectator

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Positive beliefs and values towards physical activity will present as attitudes and stereotypes that encourage participation. Negative beliefs and values towards physical activity will result in a marked decline in the opportunities undertaken to access and participate in physical activity. An individual may develop positive, neutral and negative beliefs towards sport and physical activity as a result of different experiences and interactions through the socialisation process.

activity 10.6 Use Table 10.4 as a guide to help identify your own beliefs, values and attitudes towards

physical activity. Try to identify others that are not presented in the table, but that you hold as an individual. Prepare a two minute oral summary that outlines how your beliefs, values and attitudes about physical activity affect your participation and influence the types of activities you undertake.

personal stereotypes aBout actiVe people and the actiVities they participate in As suggested previously, the socialisation process that shapes the values and beliefs of an individual also initiates the development of personal stereotypes about the people who engage in physical activity and the types of activities they play. These stereotypes are important when explored in conjunction with an individual’s self-concept and this link will be discussed shortly.

StereotypesLogical oversimplifications of a group of people whereby all members are considered to share a set of easily distinguishable characteristics.




tAble 10.5 – Stereotypes that may exist for an individual about physical activity

stereotypes related to sportspeople in general

Sportspeople are:

• Fit

• Competitive

• Outgoing

• Strong-minded

• Disciplined

• Strong-willed

• Tough

• Resilient

• Social

• Strong

• Slim

• Determined

• Focused

• Passionate

• Spirited

• Athletic

stereotypes related to specific physical activities

• Males play rugby league or Aussie Rules (rough, tough aggressive sports)

• Females play netball or softball (less competitive, less physical sports)

• Males play sports where there is a higher risk of injury

• Basketball and volleyball players are tall

• Surf lifesavers are tanned and muscular

• Dancers are petite girls

• Rock climbers are extreme

• Rugby league forwards are intellectually inferior

• Rugby union players are upper-class

• Netball is for fit, agile girls

• Extreme sports are for the under-30s

• Skateboarders are young teenage ‘dropouts’

• Surfers are laidback and relaxed

• Boxers are overly aggressive

• Older people play lawn bowls

activity 10.7

activity 10.8

From the table above, identify the stereotypes you hold personally and write them down. Add at least two more stereotypes to each section that you hold that are not listed.

For the physical activity you are currently studying, outline the characteristics you believe are stereotypical for a participant of your sex. Your stereotype should include aspects of body type and build, as well as personality traits. Once you have done this individually, group together with other members of your sex in the class and compare your stereotypes. Discuss any differences there might be between your stereotypes and why these differences may have developed. Finally, discuss your findings as a whole class.




The role of self-concept and self-esteem in access and equityA final aspect that affects opportunity and access to physical activity at the individual level of Figueroa’s Framework is a person’s self-concept and self-esteem. Self-concept is the mental image you have of yourself as a whole person; it includes physical attributes and abilities as well as your personality and intellectual ability. Self-esteem is the way you feel about yourself; the way you feel about your self-concept. For example, a person may see themselves as being unfit, slightly overweight and not very coordinated – this is their self-concept. This person may be totally fine with this picture of themselves and it doesn’t hinder their daily life or personality in any way, in fact, there are many other areas of their life in which they are excelling. This person may have high self-esteem as she has positive feelings about this version of herself. Another person with the same self-concept may feel negatively about herself, she may see herself as unattractive and useless. This person would be displaying low self-esteem. The combination of self-concept and self-esteem will influence the behaviours an individual displays, including her participation in physical activity.

An individual’s self-concept not only governs how they see themselves, but also how they want to be seen by others. For teenagers in particular, it is important to be seen to ‘fit in’, as many develop a strong ‘love and belonging need’ (see choice theory) as they then attempt to establish themselves within friendship groups, while at the same time develop their own identity. This need to project their self-concept in the desirable way is vital, as a person’s image is what establishes himself within friendship groups. In this way, self-concept will influence the physical activities undertaken by an individual.

Consider a young male trying to establish his masculinity and demonstrate his manly self-concept. This male may involve himself in ‘masculine physical activities’, such a rugby league or tackling games and be overly aggressive when with other males in order to project his masculinity. This male is much less likely to involve himself in activities that reflect feminine characteristics or physical activities that he believes stereotype as female, such as dance or netball. As these activities would conflict with his masculine self-concept he may not consider any opportunities that are presented to undertake these activities, despite being physically talented enough to be successful. In this sense, this individual’s self-concept and associated stereotypes will create opportunities to participate in masculine physical activities, while limiting opportunities to access other ‘less’ masculine activities by his own perception and definition.

Self-concept and associated stereotypes will also affect access and participation for females in the same way. A female that sees herself as being feminine and wishes to portray her femininity to those around her is much more likely to be engaged in traditionally ‘female’ activities that express feminine characteristics. The further she ventures away from the traditional female activities, the less feminine she will be considered by those around her (or perhaps by herself ). She will be less likely to undertake these more masculine activities or she may be considered ‘butch’. This can be seen on the continuum in Figure 10.8.

Self-conceptThe mental image you have of yourself as a whole person; it includes physical attributes and abilities as well as your personality and intellectual ability.

Self-esteemA person’s feeling of self-worth.




Physical activities that display feminine characteristics or are

traditionally female

Physical activities that display masculine characteristics or are

traditionally male

Dance Competitive Netball Tennis Volleyball Football Surfing Australian Rugby Rugby aerobics (Soccer) Rules Union League

Touch Motor Hockey sport

Figure 10.8 Individuals are generally less likely to participate in activities that are further away from those that may be considered stereotypical as these activities may not fit their self-concept. However, self-esteem will also play a large role in this type self-regulating behaviour as those with higher self-esteem and greater confidence are more likely to venture outside of what they might consider ‘normal’. Individuals with less self-esteem and confidence are more likely to limit themselves to what could be considered ‘traditional’.

Opportunities to participate are more likely to be undertaken

Opportunities to participate are much more likely to be rejected and dismissed

Opportunities to participate are more likely to be undertaken

Opportunities to participate are much more likely to be rejected and dismissed

Figure 10.9 Self-concept will limit opportunities for an individual when there is a mismatch between how they want to be seen and their stereotypes about gender and physical activities.

“I see myself as being male”

“I see myself as being male”

“I see myself as being female”

“I see myself as being female”

“I do masculine things”

“I do masculine things?”

“I do feminine things”

“I do feminine things?”




activity 10.10

activity 10.9

activity 10.11

Identify a physical activity that is not traditionally associated with your gender, but that you would be prepared to undertake should the opportunity arise. In a short statement outline what it is about that physical activity that appeals to you.

Consider your own involvement in physical activity throughout your life. Have you ever been involved in physical activities that might not be considered stereotypically traditional for your gender? This might include formal involvement through a club or simply participation in a Physical Education lesson. As a class, discuss how these opportunities presented themselves and whether there was an impact on your self-concept or self-esteem. That is, did you feel less masculine or feminine, less coordinated or skilled, less agile, flexible or intelligent?

The same links between self-concept and stereotypes made previously with regards to gender could be applied to a variety of sporting stereotypes. Discuss the implications of a person that sees themselves as being lower-class to access physical activities like equestrian, golf, rugby union, motor sport or archery, which they stereotype as being upper-class activities. Consider also how this idea might manifest itself for a young person wishing to undertake an activity like lawn bowls.

Figure 10.10 Many individuals would believe lawn bowls is for the elderly but recently many young people are re-defining this stereotype.

DiD YOu knOW?At 17, Kelsey Cottrell became the youngest female athlete to represent Australia as an open senior athlete in lawn bowls. In 2007, Kelsey was part of the Australian team who won eight medals from eight events at the Asia Pacific Championships. The team also won the World Team Cup. Her form saw her finish as Australia’s number-one ranked singles player in 2007. Kelsey was also selected to represent Australia at the 2008 World championships.




Motivation to access, participate

and improve in physical activity

The expectation of success within physical activities

Self-concept about sports participation and performance

Genetic makeupPast experiences

relevant to physical activity

Figure 10.11 One’s self-concept about physical activity participation and potential performance will be based on the activities their body is suited for and their past sporting experiences.

self-concept, motiVation and the perception of successSelf-concept will directly affect opportunities to access and participation in physical activity when the mental image the individual has of themselves as a sportsperson is explored. That is, does the individual see themselves as being ‘sporty’? Essentially, two areas will impact largely on this aspect of self-concept:

• genetic makeup

• relevant experiences associated with physical activity.

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, natural ability or body type may predispose a person to a particular physical activity. In this way, a person’s genetic makeup may assist them in gaining opportunities to participate in some physical activities, while precluding them from others. Obviously, this will impact on the way the individual sees themself, their self-concept. A taller individual may see themselves as a netball goal shooter, a volleyball player or a basketball guard. An African American or Indigenous Australian may view themselves as being a sprinter. A shorter female may see themselves as being suited to platform diving. This view of self may channel a person towards particular activities and away from others. For example, the taller individual might not have considered engaging in artistic gymnastics or dancesport.

Real issues with participation in physical activity begin to develop when an individual does not see themselves as ‘being sporty’. This negative self-concept is compounded when the individual also has low self-esteem. Under these circumstances, physical activity is rarely engaged in regularly or attempts are less than productive. These experiences continue to feed the individual’s poor self-concept regarding sporting ability and low-esteem will continue developing.

Experiences in physical activity will also help regulate a person’s self-concept with regard to physical ability. When sporting experiences are successful and enjoyable for the individual then a positive sporting self-concept develops. This positive self-concept grows confidence in physical abilities; the individual is more motivated to be engaged in physical activity and enters the sporting arena with an expectation of success. New activities are more likely to be undertaken and are attempted with more vigour. Conversely, negative experiences will reinforce the belief that the individual is ‘not good’ at physical activity. This pessimistic self-concept will continue to develop and will hinder future involvement and effort in physical activities.

activity 10.12

Think of a physical activity that you have been less than successful at. Outline some of your experiences and how these have influenced your self-concept towards this physical activity. For example, ‘I don’t think I am a swimmer as I ...’ (refer to your personal experiences).



335 10 – Factors affecting access to sport and physical activity: the individual level

Chapter summary • The individual level may be the most important of Figueroa’s levels as it is inevitably

the choice of the individual that will determine their access and level of participation in physical activity.

• There is a range of factors that can influence the choice to participate in physical activity – these include temperament type, personal needs, the genetic makeup of the individual, the beliefs and values of the individual about physical activity and the individual’s self-concept with regards to sporting ability.

• Preferences in personal temperament may mean individuals are more content and draw more energy from particular physical activities.

• Myers-Briggs identifies eight preferences that will determine personality type.• The needs that are satisfied through engagement in physical activity may govern the

choice to participate or not participate.• Glasser identifies five needs that humans inherently try to satisfy through their behaviour.• Genetic predisposition governs the structure of the body and this may make us

naturally suited to particular activities. • Personal beliefs and values are formed through the process of socialisation.• Personal beliefs and values enable the construction of personal stereotypes.• Stereotypes may advance or limit our engagement in physical activity, depending on

how these stereotypes align with our self-concept.

CheCking fOR unDeRStanDing1 Explain why the individual level of Figueroa’s Framework could be considered the most important

level when it comes to opportunity and access to physical activity.

2 Select one of Myers-Briggs personality types and explain the features of this preference.

3 Using a sporting example, demonstrate in your own words how a particular personality type may guide an individual when choosing a physical activity to participate in.

4 In your own words, describe how Glasser’s choice theory may govern a person’s decision to participate, or not participate, in physical activity.

5 What is a ‘needs satisfying behaviour’? Outline a personal example of a needs satisfying behaviour and identify which of Glasser’s needs are being satisfied by this behaviour.

6 Select the ‘need’, as identified by Glasser, which you consider to be most influential in your decision to participation in physical activity. Select two physical activities and outline how one sport is meeting that need, while the other is not.

7 How can genetic predisposition influence the physical activity that an individual may choose to engage in?

8 Identify one positive belief or value that you hold about physical activity and highlight how this belief increases your access and opportunities towards physical activity.



step FORWARD Senior Physical Education for Queensland336

9 Identify one negative personal stereotype you hold about a specific physical activity and explain how this stereotype discourages, or may even prevent, your participation in that activity.

10 Describe how the relationship between self-concept and personal stereotypes may limit the physical activities you choose to engage in.

extenDeD-ReSpOnSe QueStiOnS1 In a 250-word statement, outline your self-concept with regards to the physical activity you

are currently undertaking. In identifying features of your self-concept you should refer both to your genetic predisposition towards this activity and some of the past experiences that have assisted in constructing your self-concept in this area.

2 In a 300-word response outline the most predominant factors of the individual level that contribute to your participation in the physical activity you are currently studying.



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