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The Writing on the (Facebook) Wall: The Use of SocialNetworking Sites in Hiring Decisions
Victoria R. Brown E. Daly Vaughn
Published online: 4 May 2011
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011
Abstract The popular media has reported an increase in
the use of social networking sites (SNSs) such as Facebookby hiring managers and human resource professionals
attempting to find more detailed information about job
applicants. Within the peer-reviewed literature, cursory
empirical evidence exists indicating that others judgments
of characteristics or attributes of an individual based on
information obtained from SNSs may be accurate.
Although this predictor method provides a potentially
promising source of applicant information on predictor
constructs of interest, it is also fraught with potential lim-
itations and legal challenges. The level of publicly avail-
able data obtainable by employers is highly unstandardized
across applicants, as some applicants will choose not to use
SNSs at all while those choosing to use SNSs customize
the degree to which information they share is made public
to those outside of their network. It is also unclear how
decision makers are currently utilizing the available
information. Potential discrimination may result through
employers access to publicly available pictures, videos,
biographical information, or other shared information that
often allows easy identification of applicant membership to
a protected class. For the practice to progress in a positive
direction, evidence for the validity and job-relevance of
information obtained from SNSs needs to be established.
Organizational researchers and practitioners also need to
promote awareness and attempt to create safeguards
against the potential negative outcomes related to misuse of
SNSs by employers.
Keywords Personnel selection Legal issues Social
networking sites Social media Discrimination
Prescreening
According to recent reports in the popular media, an
increasing number of hiring managers are utilizing social
networking sites (SNSs) such as Facebook (http://www.
facebook.com), MySpace (http://www.myspace.com), and
Twitter (http://www.twitter.com) to aide in screening and
selecting applicants (e.g., Clark2006; Grasz2009). A 2009
survey conducted by CareerBuilder.com found that 45% of
over 2600 hiring managers reported searching SNSs to
learn about job candidates, an increase from the 22%
reported in 2008 (Grasz2009). Despite the growing use of
this screening method, a search of relevant databases
(PsycINFO, Business Source Primer) indicates that no
research currently exists in peer-reviewed outlets investi-
gating the practical and legal consequences for employers
utilizing this practice or assessing the validity of thismethod.
Instead, research has examined the social implications of site
membership (e.g., identity formation; Goodings et al.2007)
andthe factorsinfluencing thetype of contentshared by users
(e.g., Peluchette and Karl2010).
Given the expanding percentage of employers using
SNSs to gather data on applicants (cf., Grasz2009and Du
2007), it is reasonable to expect this practice to affect
various human resource decisions, including hiring, train-
ing, promotion, and termination. The focus of the current
article was to address the use of SNSs within the hiring
process. The objectives are: (a) to create awareness of the
potential negative outcomes related to misuse of SNSs by
V. R. Brown E. D. Vaughn
Department of Psychology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL,
USA
V. R. Brown (&)
Department of Psychology, Roosevelt University, 1400 N.
Roosevelt Blvd, Schaumburg, IL 60173, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
1 3
J Bus Psychol (2011) 26:219225
DOI 10.1007/s10869-011-9221-x
http://www.facebook.com/http://www.facebook.com/http://www.myspace.com/http://www.twitter.com/http://www.twitter.com/http://www.myspace.com/http://www.facebook.com/http://www.facebook.com/ -
8/13/2019 30 - The Writing on the (Facebook) Wall the Use of Social
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employers, (b) to discuss validation and legal issues related
to using this predictor method, and (c) to discuss the
practical implications for organizations and directions for
future research associated with using SNSs for hiring/
screening decisions.
Defining and Describing Social Networking Sites
Social networking sites allow users to create web-based
profiles where individuals can interact. SNSs allow indi-
viduals to (1) construct a public or semi-public profile
within a bounded system, (2) articulate a list of other users
with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and
traverse their list of connections and those made by others
within the system (Boyd and Ellison2007, p. 3). A typical
profile may contain images, videos, and biographical
information about the individual. There may be a forum
where other users can write public or private messages.
Many sites allow users to post real-time updates of theirthoughts or actions. The profile owner has control over
most of the information presented, and can adjust the pri-
vacy settings to manage how much of that information is
made public. Generally, the friends, family, and colleagues
within a users network are given more access to profile
information than the general public.
In recent years, the popularity of SNSs has increased rap-
idly. Founded in February 2004, Facebook is now the largest
SNS in theworld (Holahan 2008). Usage statistics reported on
the website at the time of this writing indicate that Facebook
supports over 500 million active users (defined as users
viewing the website within the past 30 days; Facebook, Inc.,
2011, February). As the line between public and private life
becomes more blurred, employers are beginning to examine
available information on the internet from SNSs such as
Facebookthat maynot be accessiblefrom reviewing a resume
or conducting an interview.
This screening procedure affords several benefits to
organizations. Social networking sites provide a readily
available public forum to research candidates while
incurring minimal cost, allowing even small businesses to
engage in such practices. The information on SNSs may
provide further evidence related to the veracity of infor-
mation presented on an applicants resume(e.g., education
and work experience). In addition, potential employers
may have access to detailed information that would allow
them to draw conclusions or make inferences about the
applicants character or personality that might not be as
easily or economically obtained through traditional means.
Such information may increase or decrease the likelihood
that a candidate is considered for further review.
In the 2009 CareerBuilder survey, 35% of employers
reported not hiring an applicant due to detrimental
information found on a SNS (Grasz 2009). Reasons for
screening out ranged from applicants posting provocative
or inappropriate photographs or information, displaying
poor communication skills, conveying information associ-
ated with alcohol or illegal drug use, revealing information
that falsifies qualifications listed in a resume, and posting
content disparaging previous work associates. The survey
also revealed that applicants profiles may enhance theirchances of being hired or selected for consideration by
providing supportive evidence of their listed qualifications,
portraying a profile indicative of being a good fit with the
employer, and displaying creativity and positive commu-
nication skills. In fact, professional SNSs such as LinkedIn
(http://www.LinkedIn.com) are tailored to provide users
opportunities to market themselves for career opportunities
(e.g., a user can receive recommendations from previous
employers and colleagues which will then be displayed on
the users profile). Despite the promising potential that
reviewing SNSs may have for employers, unfettered use of
this screening method presents several legal and ethicalconsiderations that must be addressed.
Risks Associated with Misuse of SNSs by Employers
Several opportunities for employer misuse must be con-
sidered by organizations when creating policies regarding
searching SNSs in the screening/hiring process. Employers
who choose to use SNSs as an informal method of pre-
dicting applicant employability have many issues to con-
sider. Current risks with informal SNS searches include
perceptions of invasion of applicant privacy, lack of clearly
identifiable theoretical constructs used in the screening
process, and the absence of data to support that the infor-
mation used in screening is job relevant. Another contro-
versial issue surrounding the use of SNSs is the variability
in type and amount of information publicly available across
an applicant pool. This inevitable reality prevents a com-
pletely standardized collection of predictor information
across all applicants. In addition to these concerns, appli-
cants shared information might be distorted by social
desirability or high levels of self-monitoring. Finally,
employers must consider the role of context in considering
employability of applicants.
Information on the internet is publicly searchable, and in
itself does not constitute an invasion of applicant privacy.
It is each applicants responsibility to maintain their own
privacy settings and monitor information that is publicly
viewable. However, employers must ensure that the poli-
cies enacted by human resource professionals do not
invoke a breach in applicant privacy. In June of 2009, the
city of Bozeman, Montana required all applicants to pro-
vide user names and passwords for any and all, current
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personal or business Web sites, Web pages or memberships
on any Internet-based chat rooms, social clubs or forums,
to include, but not limited to: Facebook, Google, Yahoo,
YouTube.com, MySpace, etc. (Ricker2009). The city of
Bozeman initially defended this practice by stating that it
was similar to other methods of background investigation.
However, in light of nationwide headlines decrying the
practice it was immediately discontinued. The Bozemancase illustrates the importance of considering privacy
issues when implementing practices for using SNSs as a
method of investigating applicants.
In addition to invasion of applicant privacy, employers
must give conceptual consideration to the constructs they
are assessing when conducting employment screens. Other
than preliminary survey results, it is uncertain what infor-
mation employers are using in their decision making pro-
cess. This is problematic because the job-relevance of the
constructs indicated by this information cannot be ascer-
tained. According to popular media reports on the use of
SNSs in making selection decisions (c.f. Grasz2009), someof the information utilized may not be directly job related.
Without arguments for job-relevance, there is no legal basis
to make screening decisions of applicants based on data
garnered from a SNS profile. In addition, the lack of
standardization from profile to profile will make estab-
lishing job-relevant criteria across candidates incredibly
difficult.
Variability in available information due to the custom-
izability of users privacy settings also threatens the stan-
dardized use of SNSs in the hiring process. This lack of
standardization in turn likely hampers the reliability of the
predictor information that may be used when making
selection decisions. In a typical hiring context, managers
will be gaining access to different levels of information
among a pool of applicants. Some applicants might not use
SNSs or may select very stringent privacy settings for
individuals not in their network. Managers might then be at
risk of providing preferential consideration early in the
hiring process based in part on applicants personal pref-
erences for privacy settings or general use of SNSs.
Hiring managers electing to peruse information about
candidates are also at risk of committing the fundamental
attribution error (Harvey et al. 1981; Ross 1977), which
occurs when information is construed to be representative
of the person in question regardless of context. While
research indicates that SNS profiles may be an accurate
reflection of the owner (Back et al. 2010; Gosling et al.
2008), negative information or impressions conveyed
through the applicants personal profile may not be con-
sidered in the proper context, and could therefore result in a
hasty rejection decision. A recent conference panel dis-
cussion exemplified this potential misuse by providing
photographs of a female asleep on a bathroom floor
(Davison et al. 2009, April). Without context, it could be
assumed that she consumed too much alcohol. As the
panelists discussed, there are other plausible explanations
for the photograph (e.g., jokingly creating the photograph
with friends; being a victim of a practical joke after falling
asleep; asleep on the floor as a result of a medical
condition).
Even under the assumption that the photograph accu-rately portrays an excessively inebriated individual; the
employer may still be putting themselves at legal risk by
using this evidence as a basis for screening out an appli-
cant. Imagine that in addition to finding the photograph of
the applicant on the bathroom floor, a hiring manager
discovers several pictures uploaded by friends of the
applicant which indicate heavy or excessive use of alcohol.
The employer then determines that the applicant is no
longer suitable for consideration and indicates evidence of
excessive drinking as the reason for removing the applicant
from consideration. As discussed by Davison et al. (2009,
April) this may be considered a violation in accordancewith the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA 1990) as
subsequently augmented by the ADA Amendment Act of
2008(ADAAA). In accordance with the ADA, a qualified
person with a disability is one whom can perform the
essential functions of the job with or without reasonable
accommodation. Alcoholism (or alcohol dependence) is
currently covered under the ADAAA; however, an
employer may deny employment to an applicant whose use
of alcohol adversely affects job performance or conduct
(EEOC2008). Suppose this applicant is alcohol dependent
and, since being photographed consuming alcohol, has
undergone a substance abuse treatment program and has no
record of continued use. A hiring manager may unknow-
ingly discriminate by denying access of the applicant in the
hiring process on the basis of a covered disability (Davison
et al. 2009, April).
Establishing Validity
Currently, one of the most problematic issues surrounding
the use of SNSs in selection or screening is the dearth of
validity evidence supporting the appropriateness of using
this method to gather information. Despite the emphasized
critical importance of following selection system validation
procedures in professional guidelines (e.g., AERA 1999;
EEOC1978; SIOP2003), no research has investigated the
content or criterion-related validity of the information
gathered by employers. Without well-documented evi-
dence for validity, the conclusions drawn by managers on
the basis of profile searches may be tenuous at best and
might furthermore result in undocumented discriminatory
actions. Consistent with the weaknesses surrounding the
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use of unstructured interviews (see Guion1998), the use of
informal decision making methods not supported with
validity evidence in the hiring process may increase the
likelihood of legal repercussions.
Evidence for the content validity of information gath-
ered using SNSs as a method of screening applicants
should first be established. The authors make an important
distinction in explicitly recognizing that searching SNSsprovides what Arthur and Villado (2008) refer to as a
predictor methodby which employers indirectly ascertain
information related to predictor constructs. The implica-
tion of this distinction is that organizations must consider
what constructs are represented by the information
obtained through SNSs and whether that information is job-
relevant to establish validity. Subject matter experts within
an organization should candidly discuss the current use of
SNSs as a hiring method, including considerations of what
information is gathered and under what circumstances.
Examples of overtly job related information that could be
gathered by hiring personnel include posted images createdby a graphic design applicant or photographs posted by an
applicant looking to fill a photographer position. In such
cases, content validation might be relatively straightfor-
ward. Hiring managers could support the legal defensibility
by directly linking the information gathered to tasks or
competencies listed in a carefully documented job analysis.
However, Grasz (2009) survey results indicate that much of
the information that hiring managers report using may not
be explicitly job related. In these instances, it may be
indicative of a higher-order construct that is job relevant,
such as cognitive ability, personality, professionalism,
written communication skills, or person-organization fit, to
name a few. A current and detailed job analysis providing
construct-task linkages could be used to support that the
information gathered from a SNS reflects a knowledge,
skill, ability, or other characteristic needed to perform job
tasks.
It is reasonable to question the accuracy of information
provided from examining SNSs as a reflection of higher
order constructs, but initial research is promising. Back
et al. (2010) indicated that associations can be found
between actual personality and ratings of personality pro-
vided by viewers of users SNS profiles. Back et al. found
that ratings of all of the Big 5 dimensions of personality
except Neuroticism correlated with aggregated indepen-
dent ratings of personality by viewers of user profiles (rs
ranged from .27 to .41 with Extraversion and Openness
being most strongly related). Furthermore, ratings provided
by independent viewers of SNS users were not incremen-
tally influenced by the users idealized personality self-
image, indicating that SNS profiles can reveal accurate
representations of applicants personality. Moreover, Gos-
ling et al. (2008) found that close acquaintances of SNS
users report that the users have presented themselves
accurately on their profiles. This high rate of agreement
may be due to the inability of users to tailor their impres-
sions to suit a specific audience, forcing them to compro-
mise by presenting the most stable aspects of their
personality (Kramer and Winter 2008). This finding is
consistent with previous research asserting that people
present themselves more truthfully to larger audiences(Schlenker1980). However, as is true of resumes, biodata
inventories, self-report measures, and other information
provided during the hiring process, profile owners may
choose to present information in a socially desirable
manner. While studies provide encouraging evidence that
online profiles can contain accurate reflections of their
users, managers should keep in mind the potential to
manage impressions by users.
Once information on a SNS is tied to job-relevant con-
structs, a rubric for assessing profiles could facilitate
unbiased collection of information across individuals, as
well as documenting the information collected in case offuture litigation. While lack of standardization may make
the creation of such a rubric difficult, a critical incident
approach may be useful in developing exemplars for
managers to refer to as indicators of positive and negative
profile information related to the constructs of interest.
Once a formalized rubric for gathering information has
been created, organizations could benefit from evaluating
the systematic use of SNSs as a screening method through
concurrent and predictive validity studies. Provided that
organizations could demonstrate incremental validity, it
would still be prudent for practitioners and researchers to
excogitate the legal risks associated with conducting
searches.
Legal Implications
The information available through SNSs introduces a series
of unique legal issues and challenges. Social networking
sites easily allow the potential for individual biases to
affect hiring and screening decisions. Previous field
research has demonstrated that the rate of applicant call-
back differs when submitted resumes provide prototypical
Caucasian names versus prototypical African American
names, with resumes listed under Caucasian names being
50% more likely to receive a callback for an interview
(Bertrand and Mullainathan 2004). In efforts to predict
organizational behavior, behavioral scientists have long
recognized the significance of situational strength in
varying the capacity of expression of individual differences
(Mischel 1968). Much like the hiring manager that may
shuffle through a stack of resumes in a private location,
conducting online searches of applicants provides the
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hiring manager a weak situation in contrast to more for-
mal selection practices such as administration of a work
sample test. In these weak situations, the manager may
more easily express biases based on any number of pro-
tected group status information that can be amassed from
SNSs. This is particularly true in organizations that still do
not have a formalized policy in place or a rubric by which
to document the information gathered.Employers are not currently required to disclose what
information on a SNS was used in making screening
decisions, which may allow managers to discriminate
against candidates. In fact, through an online search it is
often possible for employers to discreetly identify (unin-
tentionally or otherwise) information related to protected
group status as covered by all major federal employment
discrimination laws. This information includes applicants
race, color, religion, sex, national origin (covered under
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964); age (covered by
the Age Discrimination in Employment Act [ADEA] of
1967); and disability status (covered by the Americans withDisabilities Act [ADA] of 1990). In support of the avail-
ability of protected group information accessible through
SNSs, a content analysis of 83 Facebook profiles found that
ethno-racial identities were salient and elaborated within
minority users profiles (Grasmuck et al. 2009). Further-
more, this information may be indicated from a profile
picture alone, which is typically available to the public as
part of most SNS default privacy settings. Other informa-
tion that is not currently protected under federal law, such
as the applicants sexual orientation, physical attractive-
ness, and smoking habits, may also be accessible by means
of a SNS profile search and has the potential to introduce
bias into the selection procedure.
Recommendations for Research and Practice
As the use of SNSs does not appear to be a passing fad,
research should begin examining how employers and
applicants might harness SNSs to their advantage, as well
as addressing legal and ethical considerations surrounding
this employment practice. The constructs assessed by the
use of SNSs information must be specified, and research
should consider whether the constructs being assessed by
hiring managers result in adverse impact or disparate
treatment (i.e., intentional discrimination) against protected
classes. In addition, employers should assess the job
relatedness of these constructs and ensure consistency with
business necessity as defined within the Civil Rights Act of
1991. Although the authors encourage the continued social
and personality research investigating how various psy-
chological constructs are associated with SNS use, research
embedded within an organizational context is also crucial
for specifically testing the validity of the SNS screening
method as uniquely relevant to a job, geographic location,
organization, or industry. While Back et al. (2010) have
provided a first step toward mapping personality constructs
to SNS profiles, future studies should explore whether
other well-established predictors of job performance, such
as cognitive ability and self-efficacy, can be accurately
predicted by managers after viewing SNS profiles.Researchers should also address personal aspects beyond
personality that may be inferred from an evaluation of an
individuals SNS profile. For example, hiring managers
could presume to know other information about an appli-
cant, such as an applicants values or how the individual
might fit with an organization. Future studies could use a
similar approach to Back et al. (2010) in areas like person-
organization fit and value congruence.
Concurrent and predictive validation studies using the
techniques currently employed in the traditional selection
and screening literature should be conducted to see if
information related to pertinent constructs gleaned fromapplicants SNSs could provide incremental value to the
employer. It is important to carry out this research in
a systematic fashion, with clearly defined and logically
operationalized variables to aide in replication and com-
parison across contexts to test for validity generalization.
Validation associated with the method will undoubtedly
vary by the particular constructs assessed using the method
and the level of standardization established through
company policies addressing proper use of SNSs for
employment screening purposes (Arthur and Villado
2008). Continued research in this area will assist future
employment litigation as the courts seek to determine the
merit and job-relatedness of this screening practice.
Although there are currently no decided court cases to
offer definitive legal guidance to employers in the private
sector, there are certain steps that companies may take to
better safeguard against potential liability in a discrimina-
tion suit. Given the large number of hiring managers
already augmenting employee screening with SNS sear-
ches, it is recommended that organizations establish
explicit policies and procedures concerning the use of
SNSs as screening devices (Davison et al.2009, April). As
with any procedure used in the hiring process, policies
should be developed by the organizations human resource
(HR) department to ensure fair and uniform procedures in
evaluating SNSs. If HR professionals choose to utilize
SNSs as a method of researching applicants, it is advisable
to search all applicants for that position. Limiting searches
to a case-by-case basis, as Brown University admissions
officers have done when given anonymous tips (Arndt
2007), may introduce bias into the search process.
Human resource departments should provide up-to-date
training on protected class information and what kinds of
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information would not be legally defendable for screening
out applicants. In addition, HR departments should
encourage employees making hiring decisions to document
all information gathered and used in the screening process
as well as to identify reasons for follow-up or screen out
decisions. The rubrics developed by subject matter experts
should be included in each applicants personnel file, as
well as any printed screen shots of profile aspects that mayhave affected the screening decision. Another important
consideration for HR professionals electing to allow poli-
cies for searching publicly available information from
SNSs is whether to disclose this practice to applicants.
Doing so may cause applicants to preemptively alter their
profiles in a socially desirable way, thus reducing access to
potentially helpful information. However, failure to do so
may be perceived by applicants learning of this practice at
a later time as an unfair hiring procedure or an invasion of
privacy.
The authors encourage organizations to be proactive in
considering these issues carefully and creating policies inaccordance with these recommendations before formal
legal action is required. Although it may prove difficult to
enforce, it may be necessary for organizations to create a
written policy banning the use of SNSs in the selection
process until evidence of validity can be inferred from a
careful analysis of the standardized use of such practices.
To examine interrater reliability of construct assessment as
well as avoid the potential for discrimination associated
with individual bias (whether unconscious or otherwise),
initial research and practice might benefit by having mul-
tiple raters code profile information where feasible. Thor-
ough records of all SNS information used within the
guidelines of carefully documented policies and procedures
will help practitioners avoid unpleasant legal ramifications
in the future. In addition, organizational research address-
ing the current gaps discussed herein may unleash timely
information on the uses (and abuses) of SNSs in the hiring
process.
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