30 Broadview Anthology of British Literature

Language and Prosody

Old English poetry differs in important ways from laterEnglish poetry. Whereas a modern poem can be writtenin any of a number of forms—sonnets, blank verse,ballad meter, free verse, and so on—all surviving OldEnglish poetry is written in essentially the same meterand form. Lines in modern English metrical poetry arebuilt out of a fixed number of feet, each of which has (inprinciple) the same sequence of stressed and unstressedsyllables; in Old English poetry, apart from a smallnumber of extended or hypermetric lines appearingirregularly throughout the corpus of surviving verse anda handful of isolated “half-lines” that may or may not beerrors, every line consists of two half-lines, eachcontaining (usually) two stressed syllables and a varyingnumber of unstressed syllables. The two half-lines arelinked by alliteration between one or both stressedsyllables in the first half-line and the first stressedsyllable of the second half-line. Alliteration and stressheld together the lines of an Old English poem, as meterand rhyme hold together the lines of a Shakespeareansonnet; they were not decorative, as they are in modernpoetry, but necessary structural elements.

The opening lines of the poem Beowulf illustratethis poetic structure:

Hwæt: We gardena in geardagum þeodcyninga þrym gefrunon,hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon!Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatummonegum mægþum meodosetla ofteah,egsode eorl, syððan ærest wearðfeasceaft funden. He þæs frofre gebad,weox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þah,oð þæt him æghwylc þara ymbsittendraofer hronrade hyran scolde,gomban gyldan. Þæt wæs god cyning.Ðæm eafera wæs æfter cennedgeong in geardum, þone God sendefolce to frofre. Fyrenðearfe ongeat bæt hie ær drugon aldorleaselange hwile. Him þæs Liffrea,wuldres wealdend, woroldare forgeaf.Beowulf wæs breme, blæd wide sprang,Scyldes eafera Scedelandum in.Swa sceal geong guma gode gewyrcean,

fromum feohgiftum on fæder bearme,þæt hine on ylde eft gewunigenwilgesiþas, þonne wig cume,leode gelæsten. Lofdædum scealin mægþa gehwære man geþeon.

Most of this passage (to fæder, line 21) is on fol. 129r ofthe Beowulf manuscript. Old English script is relativelyeasy to read, though some letter forms are different fromthose of modern printed English (especially the roundd, the open g, the long f, r, and s, the short t, the p-shaped w called wynn, and the ae ligature called aesc or“ash”) and some letters have not survived (the crossed dcalled eth (ð) and the long p-shaped letter called thorn(þ), both of which represent the sound spelled th inModern English). As with other surviving Old Englishpoems, the scribe does not put each line of verse on itsown line but writes straight across the page.Abbreviations in this text are rare, consisting mostly ofa line over a final vowel to indicate that it is followed bythe consonant m or n (e.g., moneguG for the adjectivemonegum, “many,” in line 5). Punctuation is muchlighter than in Modern English, and the divisionsbetween what modern linguists recognize as words is notalways clear, so that the scribe combines a prepositionwith the word that follows it, and divides the two partsof a compound word to write in geardagum in line 1, orcombines two short words to write hu ða in line 3.

Though many thousands of words have changedtheir shape, disappeared, or been added to the lexiconover the past millennium, Old English is stillrecognizably the ancestor of Modern English. The mostcommon words have changed hardly at all: pronounssuch as we, he, him, and that (though it is spelled þæt inOld English); prepositions such as in, under, and over(spelled ofer, but pronounced just like Modern Englishover); and adverbs such as hu (how) and oft. Many otherwords are either the same as Modern English wordsthough spelled differently (god “good,” wæs “was”) orrelated to surviving words: gearda-gum is recognizable as“yore-days” (i.e., “days of yore”); wolcnum, an inflectedplural form of the noun wolcn, survives as the archaicword “welkin” and still means “the heavens”; funden isthe past participle of findan, which is the modern word“find”; hyran is the ancestor of modern “hear,” though

Review Copy

The Medieval Period 31

it means “obey” as well as “hear” in Old English. Someother words, however, especially those in the aristocraticor poetic register, vanished from the language soon afterthe arrival of the Normans—examples here includeæþelingas “noblemen,” ellen “brave (deeds),” þrym“glory,” and frofre “consolation.”

Other important differences between Old andModern English are found in word order and inflection.A literal translation of these lines into Modern Englishclearly reveals this (words in parentheses are grammaticalparticles required in Modern English but expressed byinflectional endings in Old English):

What! We (of the) spear-Danes in yore-daysof people’s-kings glory heardhow those noblemen brave-deeds did!Often Scyld Son-of-Sheaf (of ) enemies (from) troops(from) many tribes mead-benches took awayterrified (the) noblemen, after first (he) waspenniless found. He (for) that comfort awaited,grew under (the) skies, (in) honors prospered,until (to) him each (of those) surrounding-sittersover (the) whale’s-riding-place to obey had to,tribute pay. That was (a) good king.(To) that (one) (a) son was afterwards bornyoung in (the) yards, whom God sent(the) people to comfort. Severe-need (he) perceivedthat they before endured lord-less(a) long while. (To) him (for) that (the) Life-lord,(of ) glory (the) wielder, world-honor gave.Beowulf was famous, fame widely sprang,(of ) Scyld (the) son Scandinavian-lands in.So shall (a) young man good make-happen(with) pious gifts from (his) father’s coffers,so that him in old-age afterwards might supportwilling-companions, when war (should) come,the people (might) support. (With) praise-deeds shallin tribes each one (a) man prosper.

If we compare this literal rendering to the translationbelow, we can see that Old English tended to placeverbs after direct objects and at the ends of clauses,while Modern English requires a fairly strict subject-verb-object order:

Listen!We have heard of the glory in bygone daysof the folk-kings of the spear-Danes,how those noble lords did lofty deeds.Often Scyld Scefing seized the mead-benchesfrom many tribes, troops of enemies,struck fear into earls. Though he first wasfound a waif, he awaited solace for that—he grew under heaven and prospered in honoruntil every one of the encircling nationsover the whale’s-riding had to obey him,grant him tribute. That was a good king!A boy was later born to him,young in the courts, whom God sentas a solace to the people—He saw their need,the dire distress they had endured, lordless,for such a long time. The Lord of Life,Wielder of Glory, gave him worldly honor;Beowulf, the son of Scyld, was renowned,his fame spread far and wide in Scandinavian lands.Thus should a young man bring about goodwith pious gifts from his father’s possessions,so that later in life loyal comradeswill stand beside him when war comes,the people will support him—with praiseworthy deedsa man will prosper among any people.

Old English, then, expresses most grammatical relation-ships by inflection, while Modern English requiresgrammatical particles such as prepositions and definitearticles. Sentence elements could be multiplied withoutexplicit connections such as “and” or “or”: gardena andþeodcyninga in lines 1–2 are both plural possessivesmodifying þrym, and the whole phrase means somethinglike “the glory of the spear-Danes (who were) the kingsof the people”; sceaþena þreatum and monegum mægþumin lines 4–5 are both plural datives modifying the verbofteah, so the phrase means “took away from troops ofenemies (who were) from many tribes.” The sentencebeginning He þæs frofre on line 7 has three verbs, gebad,weox, and þah; it can be translated “He awaitedconsolation for that (as he) grew under the heavens(and) prospered in honors”—even though the three

Review Copy

32 Broadview Anthology of British Literature

verbs are in one sense a temporal series (first he waited,then he grew, and finally he prospered), they are (moreimportantly) three variations of one idea (theconsolation, the growing, and the prospering are all thesame thing). As this example suggests, Old Englishpoetry can be considerably more compressed than amodern translation, and its unlinked chains of multiplestatements often require the reader’s time and consider-ation to unfold their full meaning.

The borrowings of French words into the Englishvocabulary are many, and generally seem to have beenculturally motivated; thus, English borrows words forgovernment (peace, justice, court, judge, sentence—though gallows is an English word) and culture (noble,dame, gentle, honor, courtesy, polite, manners). One effectof all this borrowing is that English has a great flexibilityin its synonyms; we can express things in severaldifferent ways using words from different origins: wecan ask or question someone, and get an answer or aresponse, which may make us glad or pleased, or it maymake us mad or angry, and lead to a fight or dispute (oreven an altercation). Often the English and Frenchwords for the same thing have come to differ inmeaning: it has long been observed, for example, thatanimals used for meat are called by their English nameswhen they are in the field—cow, calf, pig, sheep, deer—and by their French names on the table—beef, veal,pork, mutton, venison. This linguistic developmentreflects the social situation of post-Conquest England,in which the lower-class English raised the animals andthe upper-class French ate them; it may also havesomething to do with the superiority of French overEnglish cooking, which was recognized even a thousandyears ago.

Alongside this generous borrowing of vocabularyand literary forms, one of the most important changesin Middle English was the wearing-away of the complexinflectional system of Old English, which had alreadybegun to disappear by the end of the tenth century insome dialects, and the concomitant fixing of word orderinto something more like its modern form. Another wasthe representation of many different regional dialects inwritten Middle English; Old English had regionalvarieties, but by far the majority of surviving manu-scripts are written in some approximation of the

standard West Saxon of the late tenth century. In theabsence of a strong educational system teaching astandard for English spelling, regional dialects weremuch more fully represented in written Middle English.The differences between Old and Middle English can beseen in the following three passages, each translating theopening verses of Psalm 23. The first is from the OldEnglish “Paris Psalter” of the ninth century. The secondis from the Wycliffite translation of the Bible in the laterfourteenth century. The third shows the same versesfrom the modern Douay-Rheims Bible, also translatedfrom the Latin Vulgate:

Drihten me ræt, ne byð me nanes godes wan, and heme geset on swyðe good feohland. And fedde me bewætera staðum, and min mod gehwyrfde ofunrotnesse on gefean. He me gelædde ofer þa wegasrihtwisnesse, for his naman.

The Lord gouerneth me, and no thing schal faile tome; in the place of pasture there he hath set me. Henurschide me on the watir of refreischyng; heconuertide my soule. He ledde me forth on thepathis of rigtfulnesse; for his name.

The LORD ruleth me; and I shall want nothing. Hehath set me in a place of pasture: he hath broughtme up, on the water of refreshment. He hathconverted my soul. He hath led me on the paths ofjustice, for his own name’s sake.

Even in these few lines the differences between Old andMiddle English are notable: considerable developmentsin vocabulary (Drihten > Lord, ræt > gouerneth, feohland> the place of pasture, mod > soule, gehwyrfde > conuertide,wegas > pathis), changes in word order (Drihten me ræt> The Lord gouerneth me, he me geset > he hath set me,min mod gehwyrfde > he conuertide my soule), and theerosion of inflectional endings (be wætera staðum > onthe watir of refreischyng, for his naman > for his name) allindicate the movement of English toward its presentstate. The Middle English passage is nearly identical tothe early Modern English of the Douay-Rheims version.To understand something of the dialect diversity inwritten Middle English, however, one should comparethe Wycliffite version to the same passage in two other

Review Copy

The Medieval Period 33

Middle English texts, the West Midlands Psalter and theYorkshire version of Richard Rolle, both written aroundthe middle of the fourteenth century:

(West Midlands Psalter) Our Lord gouerneþ me, andnoþyng shal defailen to me; in þe stede of pasture hesett me þer. He norissed me vp water of fyllyng; heturned my soule fram þe fende. He lad me vp þebistiges of rigtfulnes for his name.

(Richard Rolle Psalter) Lord gouerns me and naþyngsall me want; in sted of pasture þare he me sett. Onþe watere of rehetynge forþ he me broght; my saulehe turnyd. He led me on þe stretis of rightwisnes;for his name.

By the end of the thirteenth century English beganto appear once again as a language of official documentsand public occasions. In 1337 a lawyer addressed theParliament in English for the first time, as a chroniclesays, “so that he might be better understood by all”; in1362 Parliament ordered all lawsuits to be conducted inEnglish. There is some indication that at the beginningof the fourteenth century the nobility had to be taughtFrench—the language still held prestige, but it was byno means the native tongue of those born on Englishsoil. Not surprisingly, it is in the same period, thefourteenth century, that English literary output becomessignificant again. But the language that emerged hadbeen strongly altered by two centuries of “under-ground” existence and the shaping pressure from thedominant French language and literary culture. It isthought that the use of alliterative verse in the OldEnglish style may have persisted through the twelfth andthirteenth centuries, though evidence of this is scarceand ambiguous. In the fourteenth century alliterativeverse reappears in written form throughout much ofEngland, and is used for subjects as varied as Arthurianlegendary history (the Alliterative Morte Arthure),Christian dream vision (Pearl), and satiric commentary(Langland’s Piers Plowman), among others. Rhymed,metrical, non-alliterative poetry such as that of Chaucerand Gower was largely inspired by French traditions.

The literary flowering of the second half of thefourteenth century was by no means restricted to oneregion. Chaucer wrote in the dialect of London and the

east Midlands which, more than any other, is theancestor of Modern English; the author of Sir Gawainand the Green Knight, on the other hand, wrote in adialect of the northwest Midlands. As Chaucer himselfput it, there was great “diversitee in English and inwriting of our tonge.” With the coming of the printingpress in the fifteenth century, the printed languagebegan to take on more and more common character-istics, though it would be not until the late eighteenthand early nineteenth centuries that grammar, spelling,and punctuation were standardized.

In reading Old and Middle English (in whateverdialect) it is important to be aware of the major ways inwhich the language differs from our own. For anyhistorical period of English the reconstruction ofpronunciation is only approximate, but a careful studyof sound changes, spelling, cognate languages, and wordhistories allows scholars to make highly educated guessesabout the way Old and Middle English sounded. OldEnglish used some letters not found in the Latinalphabet, including thorn (þ), eth (ð), and yogh (•); thefirst two survived into Middle English, where þgradually came to be written much like the letter y(giving rise to the common misreading of “ye” for “the”in faux-antique signs like “ye olde shoppe”). Some OldEnglish consonant clusters were pronounced in unusualways; sc was pronounced like sh and cg like dg, so thatOld English scip and ecg sounded much like theirmodern descendants ship and edge. The consonants cand g were pronounced differently depending on theirposition in a word; the Old English words gold andcamb were pronounced much as in Modern English goldand comb, but geat was pronounced with a y as if it wereroughly yat, and ciric was pronounced with ch sounds asin its modern descendant church.

One way in which Old and Middle English aredramatically different from Modern English is insounding all consonants, including those in combina-tions such as kn, gn, lk, and wr that have become largelyor entirely silent in Modern English. The word“knight,” for example, is pronounced something like “k-nicht” (with the i short). Final unstressed e in words isalways sounded in Old English, and sounded far morefrequently in Middle English than is the case in ModernEnglish—though during the late-medieval period the

Review Copy

34 Broadview Anthology of British Literature

sounding of the final e was beginning to die out, andscholars continue to dispute how frequently the final eshould be sounded in Chaucerian English. Vowels arepronounced roughly as in French or Spanish—theModern English values are the result of a “Great VowelShift” that began in the fifteenth century. The long a inwords such as “made,” for example, was pronouncedlike the a in “father”; the long e in words such as“sweete” was sounded like the a in “mate”; the long i (ory) in words such as “lif” and “myn” was pronounced inthe same way we sound the i in “machine”; the long o inwords such as “do” and “spoon” was sounded as wepronounce the o in “note”; and the long u (or ou or ow)in words such as “flowr” was sounded as we wouldpronounce the oo in “boot.”

While Middle English is far less inflected than OldEnglish, meaning that fewer grammatical differences aresignaled in the form of words, matters are, as notedabove, complicated by dialect. Third person singularformations of verbs, for example, tend to end in -s or -ysin northern dialects, and in -th or -ith (later -eth) insouthern dialects. “She has” is thus a form deriving fromnorthern Middle English dialects, and “she hath” fromsouthern English forms (cf. Richard Rolle’s “Lordgouerns me” where the Wycliffite version has “The Lordgouerneth me”). When the sheep thief Mak in The

Second Shepherds’ Play pretends to be from southernEngland he says “ich be” instead of “I am” as northern-ers then (and all English speakers nowadays) would say.Word order in Middle English is often substantiallydifferent from modern practice, with the verb oftencoming later in the sentence than is our custom instatements, but coming at the beginning of the sentencein questions, as is the practice in many Romancelanguages. Many Middle English words are of courseunfamiliar to the modern reader, but there are alsomany “false friends”—words that look identical or verysimilar to Modern English words but carry significantlydifferent denotations. Lewd, which in Old Englishmeans “secular, not relating to the clergy,” evolved inMiddle English to mean “unlearned,” but without anysuggestion of a sexual character. Sely, though theancestor of the modern “silly,” can mean “poor,”“miserable,” or “innocent” as well as “strange” or“foolish.” Even at the level of a single word, one mightsay, we can see the peculiar and provocative mixture ofstrangeness and familiarity, the haunting family resem-blances and the disconcerting dissonances, that makethe study of medieval literary culture so compelling andrewarding. We hope that in this collection of works youwill come to know its powerful appeal.

Review Copy

Beowulf 85

under the wide ground, the Geatish champion,had not his armored shirt offered him help,the hard battle-net, and holy Godbrought about war-victory—the wise Lord,Ruler of the heavens, decided it rightly,1555

easily, once he stood up again.

23

He saw among the armor a victorious blade,ancient giant-sword strong in its edges,an honor in battle; it was the best of weapons,except that it was greater than any other man1560

might even bear into the play of battle,good, adorned, the work of giants.1

The Scyldings’ champion seized its linked hilt,fierce and ferocious, drew the ring-marked sworddespairing of his life, struck in fury1565

so that it caught her hard in the neck,broke her bone-rings; the blade cut throughthe doomed flesh—she fell to the floor,the sword was bloody, the soldier rejoiced.

The flames gleamed, a light glowed within1570

even as from heaven clearly shinesthe firmament’s candle. He looked around the chamber,passed by the wall, hefted the weaponhard by its hilt, that thane of Hygelac,angry and resolute—nor was the edge useless1575

to that warrior, but he quickly wishedto pay back Grendel for the many battle-stormswhich he had wrought on the West-Danesmuch more often than on one occasion,when Hrothgar’s hall-companions1580

he slew in their beds, devoured sleepingfifteen men of the Danish folk,and made off with as many more,a loathsome booty. He paid him back for that,the fierce champion, for on a couch he saw1585

Grendel lying lifeless,battle-weary from the wound he receivedin the combat at Heorot. His corpse burst openwhen he was dealt a blow after death,a hard sword-stroke, and his head chopped off.1590

Soon the wise men saw it,those who kept watch on the water with Hrothgar—all turbid were the waves, and troubled,the sea stained with blood. The graybeardedelders spoke together about the good one,1595

said they did not expect that noblemanwould return, triumphant, to seekthe mighty prince; to many it seemedthat the sea-wolf had destroyed him.The ninth hour came; the noble Scyldings1600

abandoned the headland, and home wentthe gold-friend of men. The guests2 satsick at heart, and stared into the mere;they wished, but did not hope, that they wouldsee their lord himself.1605

Then the sword began,that blade, to waste away into battle-iciclesfrom the war-blood; it was a great wonderthat it melted entirely, just like icewhen the Father loosens the frost’s fetters,unwraps the water’s bonds—He wields power1610

over times and seasons; that is the true Maker.The man of the Geats took no more precious treasuresfrom that place—though he saw many there—than the head, and the hilt as well,bright with gems; the blade had melted,1615

the ornamented sword burned up; so hot was the bloodof the poisonous alien spirit who died in there.Soon he was swimming who had survived in battlethe downfall of his enemies, dove up through the water;the sea-currents were entirely cleansed,1620

the spacious regions, when that alien spiritgave up life-days and this loaned world.

The defender of seafarers came to land,swam stout-hearted; he rejoiced in his sea-booty,the great burden which he brought with him.1625

That splendid troop of thanes went towards him,thanked God, rejoiced in their prince,that they might see him safe and sound.Then from that bold man helmet and byrniewere quickly unstrapped. Under the clouds1630

the mere stewed, stained with gore.They went forth, followed the trail,rejoicing in their hearts; they marched along the road,

1 the work of giants Old, highly-praised weapons are often called“the work of giants”—whether this reference is meant to connect thesword to the giants “who fought against God” is not clear. 2 guests I.e., the Geats who had come to Heorot with Beowulf.

Review Copy

86 Beowulf

the familiar path; proud as kingsthey carried the head from the sea-cliff1635

with great trouble, even for two pairsof stout-hearted men; four of them had tobear, with some strain, on a battle-poleGrendel’s head to the gold-hall,until presently fourteen proud1640

and battle-hardy Geats came to the hall,warriors marching; the lord of those men,mighty in the throng, trod the meadhall-plain.Then the ruler of thanes entered there,daring in actions, honored in fame,1645

battle-brave hero, to greet Hrothgar.Then, where men were drinking, they dragged by its hairGrendel’s head across the hall-floor,a grisly spectacle for the men and the queen.Everyone stared at that amazing sight.1650

24

Beowulf spoke, son of Ecgtheow:“Look! son of Healfdene, prince of the Scyldings,we have brought you gladly these gifts from the seawhich you gaze on here, a token of glory.Not easily did I escape with my life1655

that undersea battle, did my brave deedwith difficulty—indeed, the battle would have beenover at once, if God had not guarded me.Nor could I achieve anything at that battlewith Hrunting, though that weapon is good;1660

but the Ruler of Men granted to methat I might see on the wall a gigantic old sword,hanging glittering—He has always guidedthe friendless one—so I drew that weapon.In that conflict, when I had the chance, I slew1665

the shepherds of that house. Then that battle-swordburned up with its ornaments, as the blood shot out,hottest battle-sweat. I have brought the hiltback from the enemy; I avenged the old deeds,the slaughter of Danes, as seemed only right.1670

Now you have my word that you may in Heorotsleep without care with your company of men,and every thane, young and old,in your nation; you need fear nothing,prince of the Scyldings, from that side,1675

no deadly manslaughters, as you did before.”

Then the golden hilt was placed in the handof the gray-haired war-chief, wise old leader,that old work of giants; it came to the keepingof the Danish lord after the fall of demons,1680

a work of wonder-smiths; and when that evil-hearted man,God’s adversary, gave up the world,guilty of murders—and his mother too—it passed to the possession of the bestof world-kings between the two seas,1685

of all those that dealt out treasures in Danish lands.Hrothgar spoke—he studied the hilt

of the old heirloom, where was written1 the originof ancient strife, when the flood slew,rushing seas, the race of giants—1690

they suffered awfully. That was a people aliento the eternal Lord; a last rewardthe Ruler gave them through the raging waters.Also, on the sword-guard of bright goldwas rightly marked in rune-letters,1695

set down and said for whom that sword,best of irons, had first been made,with scrollery and serpentine patterns. Then spokethe wise son of Healfdene—all fell silent:

“One may, indeed, say, if he acts in truth1700

and right for the people, remembers all,old guardian of his homeland, that this earl wasborn a better man! My friend Beowulf,your glory is exalted throughout the world,over every people; you hold it all with patient care,1705

and temper strength with wisdom. To you I shall fulfillour friendship, as we have said. You shall become a comforteverlasting to your own people,and a help to heroes.

Not so was Heremodto the sons of Ecgwala,2 the Honor-Scyldings;31710

he grew not for their delight, but for their destructionand the murder of Danish men.Enraged, he cut down his table-companions,comrades-in-arms, until he turned away alonefrom the pleasures of men, that famous prince;1715

though mighty God exalted him in the joys

1 written Or “carved.” It is not clear whether the scene is visual ortextual, depicted or written in (presumably runic) characters.2 Ecgwala A king of Danes.3 Honor-Scyldings I.e., Danes.

Review Copy

Beowulf 87

of strength and force, advanced him farover all men, yet in his heart he nurseda blood-ravenous breast-hoard. No rings did he giveto the Danes for their honor; he endured, joyless,1720

to suffer the pains of that strife,a long-lasting harm to his people. Learn from him,understand virtue! For your sake I have told this,in the wisdom of my winters.

It is a wonder to sayhow mighty God in His great spirit1725

allots wisdom, land and lordshipto mankind; He has control of everything.At times He permits the thoughts of a manin a mighty race to move in delights,gives him to hold in his homeland1730

the sweet joys of earth, a stronghold of men,grants him such power over his portion of the world,a great kingdom, that he himself cannotimagine an end to it, in his folly.He dwells in plenty; in no way plague him1735

illness or old age, nor do evil thoughtsdarken his spirit, nor any strifeor sword-hate shows itself, but all the worldturns to his will; he knows nothing worse.

25

“At last his portion of pride within him1740

grows and flourishes, while the guardian sleeps,the soul’s shepherd—that sleep is too sound,bound with cares, the slayer too closewho, sinful and wicked, shoots from his bow.1

Then he is struck in his heart, under his helmet1745

with a bitter dart—he knows no defense—the strange, dark demands of evil spirits.What he has long held seems too little;angry and greedy, he gives no golden ringsfor vaunting boasts, and his final destiny1750

he neglects and forgets, since God, Ruler of glories,has given him a portion of honors.In the end it finally comes aboutthat the loaned life-dwelling starts to decayand falls, fated to die; another follows him1755

who doles out his riches without regret,the earl’s ancient treasure; he heeds no terror.Defend yourself from wickedness, dear Beowulf,best of men, and choose the better,eternal counsel; care not for pride,1760

great champion! The glory of your mightis but a little while; soon it will bethat sickness or the sword will shatter your strength,or the grip of fire, or the surging flood,or the cut of a sword, or the flight of a spear,1765

or terrible old age—or the light of your eyeswill fail and flicker out; in one fell swoopdeath, o warrior, will overwhelm you.

“Thus, a hundred half-years I held the Ring-Danesunder the skies, and kept them safe from war1770

from many tribes throughout this middle-earth,from spears and swords, so that I considered noneunder the expanse of heaven my enemy.Look! Turnabout came in my own homeland,grief after gladness, when Grendel became1775

my invader, ancient adversary;for that persecution I bore perpetuallythe greatest heart-cares. Thanks be to the Creator,eternal Lord, that I have lived long enoughto see that head, stained with blood,1780

with my own eyes, after all this strife!Go to your seat, enjoy the feast,honored in battle; between us shall be shareda great many treasures, when morning comes.”

Glad-hearted, the Geat went at once1785

to take his seat, as the wise one told him.Then again as before, a feast was preparedfor the brave ones who occupied the hallon this new occasion. The dark helm of nightovershadowed the troop. The soldiers arose;1790

the gray-haired ruler was ready for bed,the aged Scylding. Immeasurably welldid rest please the Geat, proud shield-warrior;at once a chamberlain led him forth,weary from his adventure, come from afar,1795

he who attended to all the needsof that thane, for courtesy, as in those daysall battle-voyagers used to have.

The great-hearted one rested; the hall toweredvaulted and gold-adorned; the guest slept within18001 At last … bow The slayer is sin or vice; the soul’s guardian is

reason, conscience or prudence.

Review Copy

88 Beowulf

until the black1 raven, blithe-hearted, announcedthe joy of heaven. Then light came hurrying[bright over shadows;] the soldiers hastened,the noblemen were eager to travelback to their people; the bold-spirited visitor1805

wished to seek his far-off ship.The hardy one ordered Hrunting to be borne

to the son of Ecglaf,2 bid him take his sword,lordly iron; he thanked him for the loan,and said that he regarded it as a good war-friend,1810

skillful in battle, and the sword’s edgeshe did not disparage; he was a noble man.And when the warriors were eager for their way,equipped in their war-gear, the nobleman went,the Danes’ honor, to the high seat where the other was:1815

the hero, brave in battle, saluted Hrothgar.

26

Beowulf spoke, son of Ecgtheow:“Now we seafarers, come from afar,wish to say that we desireto seek Hygelac. Here we were honorably1820

entertained with delights; you have treated us well.If ever on earth I can do any thingto earn more of your affection,than the battle-deeds I have done already,ruler of men, I will be ready at once.1825

If ever I hear over the sea’s expansethat your neighbors threaten you with terroras your enemies used to do,I will bring you a thousand thanes,heroes to help you. I have faith in Hygelac—1830

the lord of the Geats, though he be young,shepherd of his people, will support mewith words and deeds, that I might honor you welland bring to your side a forest of spears,the support of my might, whenever you need men.1835

If ever Hrethric decides, son of a prince,to come to the Geatish court, he will findmany friends there; far-off lands

are better sought by one who is himself good.”Hrothgar spoke in answer to him:1840

“The wise Lord has sent those wordsinto your heart; I have never hearda shrewder speech from such a young man.You are strong in might and sound in mind,prudent in speech! I expect it is likely1845

that if it should ever happen that the spearor the horrors of war take Hrethel’s son,3

or sickness or sword strike the shepherd of his people,your lord, and you still live,that the sea-Geats could not select1850

a better choice anywhere for king,hoard-guard of heroes, if you will holdthe realm of your kinsmen. Your character pleases mebetter and better, beloved Beowulf.You have brought it about that between our peoples,1855

the Geatish nation and the spear-Danes,there shall be peace, and strife shall rest,the malicious deeds that they endured before,as long as I shall rule this wide realm,and treasures together; many shall greet1860

another with gifts across the gannet’s bath;4

the ring-necked ship shall bring over the seatribute and tokens of love. I know these nationswill be made fast against friend and foe,blameless in everything, in the old way.”1865

The protector of heroes, kinsman of Healfdene,gave him twelve great treasures in the hall;bid him seek his own dear people in safetywith those gifts, and quickly come again.Then the good king, of noble kin, kissed1870

that best of thanes and embraced his neck,the Scylding prince; tears were shedby that gray-haired man. He was of two minds—but in his old wisdom knew it was more likelythat never again would they see one another,1875

brave in their meeting-place. The man was so dear to himthat he could not hold back the flood in his breast,but in his heart, fast in the bonds of his thought,a deep-felt longing for the dear manburned in his blood. Beowulf from thence,1880

gold-proud warrior, trod the grassy lawn,1 black Either OE blac “shining” or blæc “black”; the translationprefers the irony of the image of the black raven, not otherwiseknown as a harbinger of joy, announcing the surprising good newsof a dawn without slaughter.2 Son of Ecglaf I.e., Unferth.

3 Hrethel’s son I.e., Hygelac.4 gannet’s bath I.e., the sea.

Review Copy

Beowulf 89

exulting in treasure; the sea-goer awaitedits lord and owner, where it rode at anchor.As they were going, the gift of Hrothgarwas often praised; that king was peerless,1885

blameless in everything, until old age took from him—it has injured so many—the joy of his strength.

27

Those men of high courage then came to the sea,that troop of young retainers, bore their ring-mail,locked shirts of armor. The coast-guard observed1890

the return of those earls, as he had once before;he did not greet those guests with insultson the clifftop, but he rode towards them,said that the warriors in their shining armorwould be welcome in their ships to the people of the 1895

Weders.The sea-curved prow, the ring-necked ship,as it lay on the sand was laden with war-gear,with horses and treasures; the mast towered highover Hrothgar’s hoard-gifts.To the ship’s guardian he1 gave a sword,1900

bound with gold, so that on the mead-bencheshe was afterwards more honored by that heirloom,that old treasure. Onward they went, the shipsliced through deep water, gave up the Danish coast.The sail by the mast was rigged fast with ropes,1905

a great sea-cloth; the timbers creaked,the wind over the sea did not hinder at allthe wave-floater on its way; the sea-goer sped on,floated foamy-necked, forth upon the waves,the bound prow over the briny streams,1910

until they could make out the cliffs of Geatland,familiar capes; the keel drove forwardthrust by the wind, and came to rest on land.Right away the harbor-guard was ready at the shore,who for a long time had gazed far1915

over the currents, eager for the beloved men;he moored the broad-beamed ship on the beachfast with anchor-ropes, lest the force of the wavesshould drive away the handsome wooden vessel.He bade that the nobleman’s wealth be borne ashore,1920

armor and plated gold; they had not far to go

to seek their dispenser of treasure,Hygelac son of Hrethel, where he dwelt at homewith his companions, near the sea-wall.

The building was splendid, the king quite bold,1925

high in his hall, Hygd2 very young,wise, well-mannered, though few wintershad the daughter of Hæreth passed withinthe palace walls—yet not poor for that,nor stingy of gifts to the Geatish people,1930

of great treasures. She considered Thryth’s pride,3

famous folk-queen, and her terrible crimes;no man so bold among her own retainersdared to approach her, except as her prince,4

or dared to look into her eyes by day;1935

for he knew that deadly bonds, braided by hand,were waiting for him—first the hand-grip,and quickly after a blade appointed,so that a patterned sword had to settle things,proclaim the execution. That is no queenly custom1940

for a lady to perform—no matter how lovely—that a peace-weaver5 should deprive of lifea friendly man after a pretended affront.The kinsman of Hemming6 put a halt to that:then ale-drinkers told another tale,1945

said she caused less calamity to the people,less malicious evil, after she wasgiven gold-adorned to the young champion,fair to that nobleman, when to Offa’s floorshe sought a journey over the fallow sea1950

at her father’s wish, where she afterwards

1 he I.e., Beowulf.

2 Hygd Hygelac’s queen.3 Thryth’s pride These lines are difficult. Some editions andtranslations read the name as “Modthryth”; the reading adopted heresmoothes out a transition that is otherwise abrupt even by thestandards of this poem. This “digression” on the character of aqueen, with some elements of a folktale, is the counterpoint to thestory of Heremod in earlier sections.4 her prince I.e., as her husband or her father.5 peace-weaver This epithet reflects the common practice, whosesometimes-tragic consequences are explored at length elsewhere inthe poem, of settling intertribal feuds with a marriage between thedaughter of one lord and the son of another.6 kinsman of Hemming Offa I, fourth-century king of the continen-tal Angles, not Offa II, the eighth-century king of Mercia. Theelaborate praise offered to Offa I has been taken to suggest that thepoem may have been written or circulated in the court of Offa II,but there is otherwise no evidence for this.

Review Copy

90 Beowulf

on the throne, famous for good things,used well her life while she had it,held high love with that chief of heroes,of all mankind, as men have told me,1955

the best between the two seasof all the races of men; therefore Offa,in gifts and battle, spear-bold man,was widely honored, and held in wisdomhis own homeland. From him arose Eomer1960

as a help to heroes, kinsman of Hemming,grandson of Garmund, skilled in violence.

28

The hardy man1 with his hand-picked troopwent across the sand, trod the sea-plain,the wide shore. The world’s candle shone,1965

hastening from the south. They had survived their journey,went boldly to where they knewthe protector of earls, slayer of Ongentheow,2

good young battle-king, gave out ringsin his fortress. To Hygelac1970

the arrival of Beowulf was quickly reported,that to the enclosures his battle-companion,protector of warriors, came walking aliveback to his court, safe from his battle-play.Quickly, as the powerful one commanded,1975

the hall was cleared out inside for the foot-guests.He sat down with him, who had survived the fight,

kinsmen together, after he greetedhis friend and liege-lord with a formal speech,with courteous words and cups of mead.1980

The daughter of Hæreth3 passed through the hall,cared for the people, bore the cupto the hand of the hero.4 Hygelac beganto question his companion courteouslyin the high hall—curiosity pressed him1985

to know how the sea-Geats’ adventures were:“How did you fare, beloved Beowulf,

in your journey, when you suddenly resolvedto seek a far-off strife over the salt sea,a battle in Heorot? Did you better at all1990

the well-known woe of Hrothgar,the famous prince? For that I seethedwith heart-care and distress, mistrusted the adventureof my beloved man; long I imploredthat you not seek that slaughter-spirit at all,1995

let the south-Danes themselves makewar against Grendel. I say thanks to Godthat I might see you again safe and sound.”

Beowulf spoke, son of Ecgtheow:“It is no mystery to many men,2000

my lord Hygelac—the great meeting,what a time of great struggle Grendel and Ihad in that place where he made so manysorrows for the victory-Scyldings,life-long misery—I avenged them all,2005

so that none of Grendel’s tribe needs to boastanywhere on earth of that uproar at dawn,whoever lives longest of that loathsome kind,enveloped in foul evil. First I came thereto the ring-hall to greet Hrothgar;2010

quickly the famous kinsman of Healfdene,once he knew of my intentions,assigned me a seat with his own sons.That troop was in delight; never in my lifehave I seen among hall-sitters, under heaven’s vault,2015

a more joyous feast. At times the famous queen,bond of peace to nations, passed through the hall,urged on her young sons; often she gavetwisted rings before she took her seat.At times before the hall-thanes the daughter of Hrothgar2020

bore the ale-cup to the earls in the back—Freawaru, I heard the men in the hallcall her, when the studded treasure-cupwas passed among them. She is promised,young, gold-adorned, to the gracious son of Froda;5

2025

the ruler of the Scyldings has arranged this,the kingdom’s shepherd, and approves the counselthat he should settle his share of feud and slaughter

1 The hardy man I.e., Beowulf.2 slayer of Ongentheow Hygelac. The death of the Swedish kingOngentheow (at the hands of Wulf and Eofor, retainers of Hygelac)is told below, section 40.3 daughter of Hæreth I.e., Hygd.4 to the hand of the hero The manuscript reads “to the hands ofheathens,” which makes sense, but is usually emended.

5 the gracious son of Froda Ingeld, prince of the Heathobards. Hisattack on the Danes, alluded to earlier in the poem (80–5), wasapparently unsuccessful; another Old English poem, Widsith, reportsthat “Hrothulf and Hrothgar … humbled Ingeld’s battle-array.”

Review Copy

Beowulf 91

with this young woman. But seldom anywhereafter the death of a prince does the deadly spear rest2030

for even a brief while, though the bride be good!“It may, perhaps, displease the Heathobards’ prince,

and every retainer among his tribe,when across the floor, following that woman, goesa noble son of the Danes, received with honors;2035

on him glitters an ancestral heirloom,hard, ring-adorned, once a Heathobard treasureas long as they were able to wield their weapons.

29

“And then in that deadly shield-play they undidtheir beloved comrades and their own lives.2040

Then an old spear-bearer1 speaks over his beer,who sees that ring-hilt and remembers allthe spear-deaths of men—his spirit is grim—begins, sad-minded, to test the mettleof a young thane with his innermost thoughts,2045

to awaken war, and says these words:‘Can you, my friend, recognize that sword,

which your father bore into battlein his final adventure beneath the helmet,that dear iron, when the Danes struck him,2050

ruled the field of slaughter after the rout of heroes,when Withergyld2 fell—those valiant Scyldings?Now here some son or other of his slayerwalks across this floor, struts in his finery,brags of the murder and bears that treasure2055

which ought, by right, to belong to you.’He urges and reminds him on every occasion

with cruel words, until the time comesthat Freawaru’s thane, for his father’s deeds,sleeps, bloodstained from the bite of a sword,2060

forfeits his life; from there the otherescapes alive, for he knows the land well.Then on both sides the sworn oaths of earlswill be broken, once bitter violent hatewells up in Ingeld, and his wife-love2065

grows cooler after his surging cares.Thus I expect that the Heathobards’ partin the Danish alliance is not without deceit,nor their friendship fast.

I will speak furtherconcerning Grendel, so that you might certainly know,2070

giver of treasure, how it turned out,the heroic wrestling-match. When heaven’s gemslipped under the ground, the angry spirit came,horrible, evening-grim, sought us outwhere, unharmed, we guarded the hall.2075

The attack came first against Hondscio3 there,deadly to that doomed man—he fell first,a girded champion; Grendel wasthat famous young retainer’s devourer,gobbled up the body of that beloved man.2080

None the sooner did that slayer, blood in his teeth,mindful of misery, mean to leavethat gold-hall empty-handed,but in his mighty strength he tested me,grabbed with a ready hand. A glove4 hung2085

huge, grotesque, fast with cunning clasps;it was all embroidered with evil skill,with the devil’s craft and dragons’ skins.Inside there, though I was innocent,that proud evil-doer wanted to put me,2090

one of many; but it was not to be,once I angrily stood upright.

305

“It is too long to tell how I handed back paymentto the people’s enemy for all his evils—there, my prince, I did honor to your people2095

with my actions. He escaped away,enjoyed his life a little while longer;yet behind him, guarding his path, was his right

1 an old spear-bearer Of the Heathobards, outraged by the presenceof his former enemies, the Danes. In heroic poetry when a warriorfalls, his killer is often awarded his armor; the sword is a vividreminder of the fate of its former owner and the duty of revengewhich is passed on to the next generation.2 Withergyld Apparently a famous Heathobard warrior.

3 Hondscio We finally learn the name of the retainer killed insection 11. The name, as in modern German (Handschuh), means“glove.”4 glove It is not clear what this is; apparently a pouch of some kind.It is characteristic of a troll in Norse legend. In any case it does notfigure in the narrator’s own description of Grendel’s attack, and isbut one of several discrepancies between the two tellings of the story.5 30 The placement of this section is conjectural; the sectionaldivisions of the manuscript are confused at this point.

Review Copy

92 Beowulf

hand in Heorot, and wretched, he went hence,sad at heart, and sank to the sea-floor.2100

For that bloody onslaught the friend of the Scyldingsrepaid me greatly with plated gold,many treasures, when morning came,and we had gathered together to the feast again.There was song and joy; the aged Scylding,12105

widely learned, told of far-off times;at times the brave warrior touched the song-wood,delight of the harp, at times made laysboth true and sad, at times strange storieshe recounted rightly. That great-hearted king,2110

gray-bearded old warrior wrapped in his years,at times began to speak of his youth again,his battle-strength; his heart surged within himwhen, old in winters, he remembered so much.And so there inside we took our ease2115

all day long, until night descendedagain upon men. There, quickly readywith revenge for her griefs, Grendel’s motherjourneyed sorrowful; death took her son,the war-hate of the Weders. That monstrous woman2120

avenged her son, killed a soldierboldly at once—there the life of Æschere,wise old counselor, came to its end.And when morning came the men of the Daneswere not able to burn his body, death-weary, 2125

with flames, nor place him on a funeral pyre,beloved man; she bore away his corpsein her evil embrace under the upland streams.That, to Hrothgar, was the most wrenching distressof all those that had befallen that folk-leader.2130

Then the prince—by your life—implored me,his mind wracked, that in the roaring wavesI should do a noble deed, put my life in danger,perform glorious things—he promised me reward.In the waves I found, as is widely known,2135

a grim, horrible guardian of the abyss.There, for a while, we fought hand-to-hand;the sea foamed with blood, and I severed the headof Grendel’s mother with a mighty sword

in that [battle-]hall;2 I barely managed2140

to get away with my life—I wasn’t doomed yet—and the protector of earls once again gave memany treasures, that kinsman of Healfdene.

31

“So that nation’s king followed good customs;in no wise have I lost those rewards,2145

the prize for my strength, but the son of Healfdeneoffered me treasures at my own choice,which I wish to bring to you, o war-king,to show good will. Still all my joysare fixed on you alone; I have few2150

close kinsmen, my Hygelac, except for you.”He ordered to be borne in the boar standard,

the helmet towering in battle, the gray byrnie,the decorated sword, and told this story:“Hrothgar gave me this battle-gear,2155

wise prince, and commanded particularlythat first I should tell you the story of his gift—he said that Heorogar the king3 first had it,lord of the Scyldings, for a long while;none the sooner would he give to his own son,2160

the valiant Heoroward—loyal though he was—that breast-armor. Use all well!”Then, as I’ve heard, four swift horses,fallow as apples, well-matched, followedthat war-gear; he gave him as a gift2165

the horses and harness—as kinsman should behave,never knitting a net of malice for anotherwith secret plots, preparing deathfor his hand-picked comrades. Hygelac’s nephewwas loyal to him, hardy in the fight,2170

and each man to the other mindful of benefits.—I heard that he gave the necklace to Hygd,the wondrous ornamented treasure which Wealhtheow

had given him,to that lord’s daughter, along with three horsesgraceful and saddle-bright; her breast was adorned2175

the more graciously after that ring-giving.So the son of Ecgtheow showed himself brave,

1 the aged Scylding It is not clear whether this is Hrothgar or not,or how many storytellers and singers are at this banquet.

2 [battle-]hall A word is missing; other editors and translatorssupply different words, such as grund or “earth.”3 Heorogar the king Eldest brother of Hrothgar.

Review Copy

Beowulf 93

renowned for battles and noble deeds,pursued honor, by no means slew, drunken,his hearth-companions; he had no savage heart,2180

but the great gift which God had given him,the greatest might of all mankind, he held,brave in battle. He had been long despised,as the sons of the Geats considered him no good,nor did the lord of the Weders wish to bestow2185

many good things upon him on the meadbenches,for they assumed that he was slothful,a cowardly nobleman. Reversal cameto the glorious man for all his griefs.

The protector of earls, battle-proud king,2190

ordered the heirloom of Hrethel1 brought in,adorned with gold; among the Geats there wasno finer treasure in the form of a sword.He laid the sword in Beowulf’s lap,and gave him seven thousand hides2 of land,2195

a hall and a princely throne. Both of them heldinherited land in that nation, a homeand native rights, but the wider rulewas reserved to the one who was higher in rank.

Then it came to pass amid the crash of battle2200

in later days, after Hygelac lay dead,and for Heardred3 the swords of battle helddeadly slaughter under the shield-wall,when the Battle-Scylfings sought him out,those hardy soldiers, and savagely struck down2205

the nephew of Hereric4 in his victorious nation—then came the broad kingdominto Beowulf’s hands; he held it wellfor fifty winters—he was then a wise king,old guardian of his homeland—until2210

in the dark nights a dragon began his reign,who guarded his hoard in the high heathsand the steep stone barrows; the path belowlay unknown to men. Some sort of manwent inside there, found his way to2215

the heathen hoard—his hand …5

inlaid with jewels. He6 got no profit there,though he had been trapped in his sleepby a thief’s trickery: the whole nation knew,and all the people around them, that he was enraged.2220

32

Not for his own sake did he who sorely harmed himbreak into that worm-hoard,7 or by his own will,but in sad desperation some sort of [slave]8

of a warrior’s son fled the savage lash,the servitude of a house, and slipped in there,2225

a man beset by sins. Soon he gazed aroundand felt the terror from that evil spirit;yet …

…made… … when the terror seized him2230

he snatched a jeweled cup.9

There were many suchantique riches in that earth-hall,for in ancient days an unknown manhad thought to hide them carefully there,the rich legacy of a noble race,2235

precious treasures. In earlier timesdeath had seized them all, and he who still survivedalone from that nation’s army lingered there,a mournful sentry, expected the same,that he might enjoy those ancient treasures2240

for just a little while. A waiting barrowstood in an open field near the ocean waves,new on the cape, safe with crafty narrow entrances;he bore within the noble wealth,the plated gold, that guardian of rings,2245

a share worthy of a hoard, and spoke few words:“Hold now, o thou earth, for heroes cannot,

1 Hrethel Father of Hygelac.2 hides Units of land, originally the amount of land which couldsupport a peasant and his family; its actual size varied from oneregion to another. Seven thousand hides is by any measure a verygenerous area.3 Heardred Son of Hygelac.4 nephew of Hereric I.e., Heardred.

5 The manuscript is damaged here and some text is unreadable.Among many conjectural restorations one thing is clear—a cup istaken from the dragon’s hoard.6 He The thief; “he” in the following line refers to the dragon.These lines are nearly illegible and other readings have beenproposed.7 worm-hoard Dragon’s treasure.8 [slave] The word is illegible in the manuscript; the translationfollows most editions.9 yet … cup The manuscript is unreadable at this point.

Review Copy

94 Beowulf

the wealth of men—lo, from you long agothose good ones first obtained it! Death in warand awful deadly harm have swept away2250

all of my people who have passed from life,and left the joyful hall. Now have I noneto bear the sword or burnish the bright cup,the precious vessel—all that host has fled.Now must the hardened helm of hammered gold2255

be stripped of all its trim; the stewards sleepwho should have tended to this battle-mask.So too this warrior’s coat, which waited oncethe bite of iron over the crack of boards,molders like its owner. The coat of mail2260

cannot travel widely with the war-chief,beside the heroes. Harp-joy have I none,no happy song; nor does the well-schooled hawksoar high throughout the hall, nor the swift horsestamp in the courtyards. Savage butchery2265

has sent forth many of the race of men!”So, grieving, he mourned his sorrow,

alone after all. Unhappy spedboth days and nights, until the flood of deathbroke upon his heart. An old beast of the dawn 2270

found that shining hoard standing open—he who, burning, seeks the barrows,a fierce and naked dragon, who flies by nightin a pillar of fire; people on earthfear him greatly. It is his nature to find2275

a hoard in the earth, where, ancient and proud,he guards heathen gold, though it does him no good.1

Three hundred winters that threat to the peopleheld in the ground his great treasury,wondrously powerful, until one man2280

made him boil with fury; he2 bore to his liege-lordthe plated cup, begged for peacefrom his lord. Then the hoard was looted,the hoard of rings fewer, a favor was grantedthe forlorn man; for the first time2285

his lord looked on that ancient work of men.When the dragon stirred, strife was renewed;

he slithered along the stones, stark-hearted he foundhis enemy’s footprint—he had stepped too far

in his stealthy skill, too close to the serpent’s head.2290

Thus can an undoomed man easily survivewrack and ruin, if he holds to the Ruler’sgrace and protection!3 The hoard-guardiansearched along the ground, greedy to findthe man who had sorely harmed him while he slept;2295

hot, half-mad, he kept circling his caveall around the outside, but no one was therein that wilderness to welcome his warfareand the business of battle. Soon he returned to his barrow,sought his treasure; he soon discovered2300

that some man had disturbed his gold,his great wealth. The hoard-guardian waitedimpatiently until evening came;the barrow’s shepherd was swollen with rage,the loathsome foe would repay with fire2305

his precious drinking-cup. Then day was departedto the delight of that worm; he did not lingeron the barrow wall, but took off burningin a burst of flames. The beginning was terrorto the people on land, and to their ring-giving lord2310

the ending soon would be sore indeed.

33

Then that strange visitor began to spew flamesand burn the bright courts; his burning gleamsstruck horror in men. That hostile flierwould leave nothing alive.2315

The worm’s warfare was widely seen,his ferocious hostility, near and far,how the destroyer hated and harmedthe Geatish people, then hastened to his hoard,his dark and hidden hall, before the break of day.2320

He had surrounded the people of that region with fire,flames and cinders; he took shelter in his barrow,his walls and warfare—but that trust failed him.

To Beowulf the news was quickly broughtof that horror—that his own home,2325

best of buildings, had burned in waves of fire,the gift-throne of the Geats. To the good man that waspainful in spirit, greatest of sorrows;the wise one believed he had bitterly offendedthe Ruler of all, the eternal Lord,2330

1 It is … good The association of dragons and hoarded treasure isancient and proverbial.2 he I.e., the thief.

3 Thus can … protection This is the narrator’s version of Beowulf’scomment at lines 572–73.

Review Copy

Beowulf 95

against the old law; his breast within groanedwith dark thoughts—that was not his custom.The fire-dragon had found the stronghold of that folk,that fortress, and had razed it with flamesentirely and from without; for that the war-king,2335

prince of the Weders, devised revenge.Then the lord of men bade them make,protector of warriors, a wondrous war-shield,all covered with iron; he understood wellthat wood from the forest would not help him,2340

linden against flames. The long-good noblemanhad to endure the end of his loaned days,this world’s life—and so did the worm,though he had held for so long his hoarded wealth.

Then that prince of rings scorned to seek out2345

the far-flung flier with his full force of men,a large army; he did not dread that attack,nor did he worry much about the dragon’s warfare,his strength or valor, because he had survivedmany battles, barely escaping alive2350

in the crash of war, after he had cleansed,triumphant hero, the hall of Hrothgar,and at battle crushed Grendel and his kin,that loathsome race.

It was not the leastof hand-to-hand combats when Hygelac was slain,2355

when the king of the Geats, in the chaos of battle,the lord of his people, in the land of the Frisians,the son of Hrethel, died sword-drunk,beaten by blades. Beowulf escaped from therethrough his own strength, took a long swim;2360

he had in his arms the battle-armorof thirty men, when he climbed to the cliffs.By no means did the Hetware1 need to exultin that fight, when they marched on foot to him,bore their linden shields; few came back2365

from that brave soldier to seek their homes.The son of Ecgtheow crossed the vast sea,wretched, solitary, returned to his people,where Hygd offered him the hoard and kingdom,rings and royal throne; she did not trust2370

that her son could hold the ancestral seatagainst foreign hosts, now that Hygelac was dead.But despite their misery, by no means

could they prevail upon that prince at allthat he should become lord over Heardred,2375

or choose to rule the kingdom.Yet he upheld him2 in the folk with friendly counsel,good will and honors, until he was older,and ruled the Weder-Geats.

Wretched exiles,the sons of Ohthere,3 sought him out across the seas;2380

they had rebelled against the Scylfings’ ruler,4

the best of all the sea-kingswho dispensed treasure in the Swedish lands,a famous king. That cost him5 his life:for his hospitality he took a mortal hurt2385

with the stroke of a sword, that son of Hygelac;and the son of Ongentheow afterwards wentto seek out his home, once Heardred lay dead,and let Beowulf hold the high throneand rule the Geats—that was a good king.2390

34

In later days he6 did not forgetthat prince’s fall, and befriended Eadgilsthe wretched exile; across the open seahe gave support to the son of Ohtherewith warriors and weapons. He7 wreaked his revenge2395

with cold sad journeys, and took the king’s life.And so the son of Ecgtheow had survived

every struggle, every terrible onslaught,with brave deeds, until that one daywhen he had to take his stand against the serpent.2400

1 Hetware A Frankish tribe apparently on the side of the Frisians.

2 upheld him Beowulf upheld Heardred, as champion and in effecta kind of regent.3 sons of Ohthere I.e., Eanmund and Eadgils.4 Scylfing’s ruler Onela, son of Ongentheow. Ohthere hadsucceeded his father Ongentheow, but after his death his brotherOnela apparently seized the throne and drove the two young menEanmund and Eadgils into exile. They take refuge at the Geatishcourt, for which Heardred is attacked and killed by Onela. LaterEanmund is killed by Weohstan (see section 36 below) but Eadgils,with the help of Beowulf, becomes king (section 34).5 him I.e., Heardred.6 he I.e., Beowulf, whose revenge for the death of his lord Heardr-ed takes a curiously indirect form—he supports Eadgils’ return toSweden, where Onela is killed.7 He I.e., Eadgils.

Review Copy

96 Beowulf

Grim and enraged, the lord of the Geatstook a dozen men1 to seek out the dragon;he had found out by then how the feud arose,the baleful violence; the precious vesselhad come to him through the thief’s hands. 2405

He was the thirteenth man among that troop,who had brought about the beginning of that strife,a sad-minded captive—wretched and despisedhe led the way to that plain. He went against his willto where he alone knew the earth-hall stood,2410

an underground cave near the crashing waves,the surging sea; inside it was fullof gems and metal bands. A monstrous guardian,eager for combat, kept his gold treasuresancient under the ground; getting them2415

was no easy bargain for any man.The battle-hardened king sat down on the cape,

then wished good health to his hearth-companions,the gold-friend of the Geats. His heart was grieving,restless and ripe for death—the doom was2420

immeasurably near that was coming to meet that old man,seek his soul’s treasure, split asunderhis life and his body; not for long wasthe spirit of that noble king enclosed in its flesh.

Beowulf spoke, the son of Ecgtheow:2425

“In my youth I survived many storms of battle,times of strife—I still remember them all.I was seven years old when the prince of treasures,friend to his people, took me from my father;2

Hrethel the king held me and kept me,2430

gave me gems and feasts, remembered our kinship.I was no more hated to him while he lived—a man in his stronghold—than any of his sons,Herebeald and Hæthcyn and my own Hygelac.For the eldest,3 undeservedly,2435

a death-bed was made by the deeds of a kinsman,after Hæthcyn with his horn bowstruck down his own dear lord with an arrow—he missed his mark and murdered his kinsman,

one brother to the other with a bloody shaft.2440

That was a fight beyond settling, a sinful crime,shattering the heart; yet it had to bethat a nobleman lost his life unavenged.

“So it is sad for an old manto live to see his young son2445

ride on the gallows4—then let him recount a story,a sorry song, when his son hangsof comfort only to the ravens, and he cannot,though old and wise, offer him any help.Each and every morning calls to mind2450

his son’s passing away; he will not careto wait for any other heir or offspringin his fortress, when the first one hastasted evil deeds and fell death.He looks sorrowfully on his son’s dwelling,2455

the deserted wine-hall, the windswept home,bereft of joy—the riders sleep,heroes in their graves; there is no harp-music,no laughter in the court, as there had been long before.

35

“He takes to his couch and keens a lament2460

all alone for his lost one; all too vast to himseem the fields and townships.

So the protector of the Weders5

bore surging in his breast heartfelt sorrowsfor Herebeald. He could not in any waymake amends for the feud with his murderer,2465

but neither could he hate that warriorfor his hostile deeds, though he was not dear to him.Then with the sorrow which befell him too sorely,he gave up man’s joys, chose God’s light;6

he left to his children his land and strongholds2470

—as a blessed man does—when he departed this life.

1 a dozen men Literally “one of twelve”—Beowulf, Wiglaf, and tenothers. The thief who leads the way is the thirteenth man.2 took me … father Beowulf was brought up as a noble foster-childin the royal court.3 eldest I.e., Herebeald.

4 So it is … gallows It is usually suggested that this is a kind of epicsimile, comparing Hrethel’s grief over his son’s death—a death beyondthe scope of vengeance—to the grief of a criminal’s father, who cannotclaim compensation for the execution of his son. Mitchell andRobinson suggest that this is rather a reference to a pagan practice, partof the cult of Odin (also known as “Woden”), in which the body of aman who did not die in battle was ritually hanged on a gallows. If thisinterpretation is correct, the “old man” is Hrethel himself.5 the protector of … Weders I.e., Hrethel.6 God’s light I.e., he died.

Review Copy

Beowulf 97

Then there was strife between Swedes and Geats,1

a quarrel in common across the wide water,hard hostility after Hrethel died,until the sons of Ongentheow2

2475

were bold and warlike, wanted no peaceover the sea, but around the Hill of Sorrows3

they carried out a terrible and devious campaign.My friends and kinsmen got revenge for thosefeuds and evils4—as it is said—2480

although one of them paid for it with his own life,a hard bargain; that battle was fatalfor Hæthcyn, king of the Geats.Then, I’ve heard, the next morning, one kinsmanavenged the other with the sword’s edge,52485

when Ongentheow attacked Eofor;his battle-helm slipped, the old Scylfingstaggered, corpse-pale; Eofor’s hand recalledhis fill of feuds, and did not withhold the fatal blow.

“I have paid in battle for the precious treasures2490

he6 gave me, as was granted to me,with a gleaming sword; he gave me land,a joyous home. He had no needto have to go seeking among the Gifthasor the Spear-Danes or the Swedes2495

for a worse warrior, or buy one with his wealth;always on foot I would go before him,alone in the front line—and all my lifeI will wage war, while this sword endures,which before and since has served me well,2500

since I slew Dæghrefn, champion of the Hugas,7

with my bare hands in front of the whole army.He could not carry off to the Frisian king

that battle-armor and that breast-adornment,8

but there in the field the standard-bearer fell,2505

a nobleman in his strength; no blade was his slayer,but my warlike grip broke his beating heart,cracked his bone-house. Now the blade’s edge,hand and hard sword, shall fight for the hoard.”

Beowulf spoke, said boasting words2510

for the very last time: “I have survivedmany battles in my youth; I will yetseek out, an old folk-guardian, a feudand do a glorious deed, if only that evildoerwill come out to me from his earth-hall.”2515

Then for the last time he salutedeach of the soldiers, his own dear comrades,brave in their helmets: “I would not bear a swordor weapon to this serpent, if I knew any other wayI could grapple with this great beast9

2520

after my boast, as I once did with Grendel;but I expect the heat of battle-flames there,steam and venom; therefore shield and byrniewill I have on me. From the hoard’s wardenI will not flee a single foot, but for us2525

it shall be at the wall as wyrd decrees,the Ruler of every man. My mind is firm—I will forgo boasting against this flying foe.Wait on the barrow, protected in your byrnies,men in war-gear, to see which of the two of us2530

after the bloody onslaught can betterbear his wounds. It is not your way,nor proper for any man except me alone,that he should match his strength against this monster,do heroic deeds. With daring I shall2535

get that gold—or grim deathand fatal battle will bear away your lord!”

Then that brave challenger stood up by his shield,stern under his helmet, bore his battle-shirtunder the stone-cliffs, trusted the strength2540

of a single man—such is not the coward’s way.He saw then by the wall—he who had surviveda great many conflicts, good in manly virtues,the crash of battles when footsoldiers clashed—stone arches standing, and a stream2545

1 strife … Geats This refers to a time a generation before theconflicts of Heardred, Eanmund and Eadgils; the Swedish-Geatishfeud is longstanding.2 sons of Ongentheow I.e., Ohthere and Onela.3 Hill of Sorrows A hill in Geatland, in OE Hreosnabeorh.4 My friends … evils The scene of this revenge is apparentlySweden, in a place called “Ravenswood”; this battle is describedagain in sections 40 and 41.5 one kinsman … sword’s edge Hygelac avenged the death ofHæthcyn on his slayer Ongentheow—not directly but through hisman Eofor.6 he I.e., Hygelac.7 Hugas Frankish tribes allied to the Frisians; the battle in questionmay be the same as Hygelac’s fatal raid.

8 breast-adornment Possibly the same as the necklace described in1195–1214.9 great beast The OE word æglæcan is here used of the dragon.

Review Copy

98 Beowulf

shooting forth from the barrow; its surgewas hot with deadly flames, and near the hoardhe could not survive for very longunburnt, for the dragon’s flaming breath.Enraged, the ruler of the Weder-Geats2550

let a word burst forth from his breast,shouted starkly; the sound enteredand resounded battle-clear under the gray stone.Hate was stirred up—the hoard-warden recognizedthe voice of a man; there was no more time2555

to sue for peace. First there issuedthe steam of that great creature out of the stone,hot battle-sweat; the earth bellowed.The warrior in the barrow turned his shield-boardagainst the grisly stranger, lord of the Geats,2560

when the writhing beast’s heart was rousedto seek combat. The good war-kinghad drawn his sword, its edges undulled,an ancient heirloom; each of the twohostile ones was horrified by the other.2565

He stood stouthearted behind his steep shield,that friend and commander, when the worm coiled itselfswiftly together—he waited in his war-gear.Then coiled, burning, slithering he came,rushing to his fate. The shield defended well2570

the life and limb of the famous lordfor less time than he might have liked;there on that day for the first timehe faced the outcome,1 and wyrd did notgrant victory in battle. The lord of the Geats2575

raised his hand, struck that mottled horrorwith his ancient sword, so that that edge failedbright against the bony scales, bit less stronglythan the king of that nation needed it to do,hard-pressed in battle. Then the barrow-warden2580

was more savage after that battle-stroke,and spit out gruesome fire; wide sprangthe battle-flames. The gold-friend of the Geatsdid not boast of his glorious victories; his bare swordfailed at need, as it should never have done,2585

that ancient good iron. It was no easy journeyfor the famous son of Ecgtheow to agreeto give up his ground in that place;

he was forced, against his will, to finda place of rest elsewhere—just as every one of us2590

must give up these loaned days. It was not long

until those two great creatures2 came together again.The hoard-guard took heart, his breast swelled with breathonce again; he3 suffered anguish,trapped by flames, he who had once ruled his folk.2595

His comrades, hand-chosen, sons of noblemen,did not take their stand in a troop around him,with warlike valor—they fled to the woodsand saved their lives. The spirit rose up in sorrowin the heart of one of them; nothing can overrule2600

kinship at all, in one who thinks well.

36

He was called Wiglaf, Weohstan’s son,a worthy shield-warrior, a prince of the Scylfings,4

kinsman of Ælfhere. He saw his liege-lordsuffer heat under his war-helmet;2605

he recalled the honors he had received from him,the wealthy homestead of the Waegmundings,every folk-right that his father had possessed;he could not hold back—his hand seizedthe pale linden shield, and he drew his old sword.2610

It was known among men as the heirloom of Eanmund,son of Ohthere; that friendless exilewas slain in battle with the edge of a swordby Weohstan, who brought to his kinsmanthe burnished helmet, the ringed byrnie,2615

the old giant-work sword; Onela gave to himthe war-equipment of his young kinsman,the shining armor—he never spoke of a feud,though he had slain his brother’s son.5

1 for the first time … outcome Or “if he could have controlled theoutcome for the first time.”

2 creatures OE æglæcan again, here referring to Beowulf and thedragon together.3 he I.e., Beowulf.4 a prince of the Scylfings Wiglaf’s nationality is in question—he isboth a Swede and a Wægmunding (like Beowulf; see lines 2813–14).His father fought on the Swedish side in their feuds with the Geats.Tribal allegiance is more fluid than modern nationality.5 he never … brother’s son Onela never spoke of a feud, thoughWeohstan had killed Onela’s brother’s son, for he wished him dead.As elsewhere in the poem, a sword is the reminder of both victoryand vengeance.

Review Copy

Beowulf 99

He1 kept that war-gear for a great many years,2620

the blade and byrnie, until his boy couldperform brave deeds like his father before him;he gave him among the Geats that battle-gear,every piece of it, when, old, he departed this lifeand went forth. That was the first time2625

that the young warrior had to weatherthe storm of battle beside his noble lord.His courage did not melt, nor did his kinsman’s legacyweaken in war; the worm discovered that,when they began to meet together.2630

Wiglaf spoke, said to his companionsmany true words—he was mournful at heart—“I remember the time that we took mead together,when we made promises to our princein the beer-hall—he gave us these rings—2635

that we would pay him back for this battle-gear,these helmets and hard swords, if such a needas this ever befell him. For this he chose us from the armyfor this adventure by his own will,thought us worthy of glory, and gave me these treasures—2640

for this he considered us good spear-warriors,proud helmet-wearers, even though our prince,shepherd of his people, intended to performthis act of courage all alone,because he has gained the most glory among men,2645

reckless heroic deeds. Now the day has comethat our noble lord has need of the supportof good warriors; let us go to it,help our warlord, despite the heat,grim fire-terror. God knows for my part2650

that I would much prefer that the flames should enfoldmy body alongside my gold-giving lord.It seems wrong to me that we should bear shieldsback to our land, unless we first mightfinish off this foe, defend the life2655

of the prince of the Weders. I know full wellthat he does not deserve to sufferthis torment all alone among the Geatish troop,or fall in the struggle; now sword and helmet,byrnie and battle-dress, shall be ours together!”2660

He hurried through the deadly fumes, bore hishelmet

to the aid of his lord, spoke little:

“Dear Beowulf, do all well,as in your youth you said you would,that you would never let in your whole life2665

your fame decline; now firm in deeds,single-minded nobleman, with all your strengthyou must protect your life—I will support you.”After these words the worm came angrily,terrible vicious creature, a second time,2670

scorched with surging flames, seeking out his enemies,the hated men. The hot flames rolled in waves,burned the shield to its rim; the byrnie was notof any use to the young soldier,but he showed his courage under his kinsman’s shield,2675

the young warrior, when his own wascharred to cinders. Still the battle-kingremembered his glory, and with his mighty strengthswung his warblade with savage force,so that it stuck in the skull. Nægling shattered—2680

the sword of Beowulf weakened at battle,ancient and gray. It was not granted to himthat iron-edged weapons might everhelp him in battle; his hand was too strong,he who, I am told, overtaxed every blade 2685

with his mighty blows, when he bore to battlea wound-hardened2 weapon—it was no help to him at all.

Then that threat to the people for a third time,fierce fire-dragon, remembering his feud,rushed on the brave man, hot and bloodthirsty,2690

when he saw the chance, seized him by the neckin his bitter jaws; he was bloodiedby his mortal wounds—blood gushed in waves.

37

Then, I have heard, in his king’s hour of needthe earl3 beside him showed his bravery,2695

the noble skill which was his nature.He did not heed that head when he helped his kinsman;that brave man’s hand was burned, so thathe struck that savage foe a little lower down,the soldier in armor, so that his sword plunged in2700

bejeweled and bloody, so that the fire beganto subside afterwards. The king himself

1 He I.e., Weohstan.

2 wound-hardened Or “wondrously hard”; the OE text is unclear.3 earl I.e., Wiglaf.

Review Copy

100 Beowulf

still had his wits, drew the war-dagger,bitter and battle-sharp, that he wore in his byrnie;the protector of the Weders carved through the2705

worm’s midsection.They felled their foe—their force took his life—and they both together had brought him down,the two noble kinsmen; a thane at need,as a man should be! But that, for the prince, washis last work of victory, by his own will,2710

of worldly adventures.When the wound

which the earth-dragon had worked on himbegan to burn and swell, he soon realizedthat in his breast, with an evil force,a poison welled; then the nobleman went,2715

still wise in thought, so that he saton a seat by the wall. On that work of giants he gazed,saw how stone arches and sturdy pillarsheld up the inside of that ancient earth-hall.Then with his hands the thane, immeasurably good,2720

bathed with water his beloved lord,the great prince, spattered with gore,sated with battle, and unstrapped his helmet.Beowulf spoke—despite his wound,that deadly cut; he knew clearly2725

that his allotted life had run out,and his joys in the earth; all gonewas his portion of days, death immeasurably near:

“Now I should wish to give my war-gearto my son, if there had been such,2730

flesh of my flesh, if fate had granted meany heir. I held this peoplefifty winters; there was no folk-king,not any of the neighboring tribes,who dared to face me with hostile forces2735

or threaten fear. The decrees of fateI awaited on earth, held well what was mine;I sought no intrigues, nor swore manyfalse or wrongful oaths. For all that I mayhave joy, though sick with mortal wounds,2740

because the Ruler of men need not reproach mewith the murder of kinsmen, when my lifequits my body. Now go quicklyto look at the hoard under the hoary stone,dear Wiglaf, now that the worm lies dead,2745

sleeps with his wounds, stripped of his treasure.

Hurry, so I might witness that ancient wealth,those golden goods, might eagerly gaze onthe bright precious gems, and I might more gently,for that great wealth, give up my2750

life and lordship, which I have held so long.”

38

Then swiftly, I have heard, the son of Weohstanafter these words obeyed his lord,sick with wounds, wore his ring-net,the woven battle-shirt, under the barrow’s roof.2755

As he went by the seat he saw there, triumphant,the brave young warrior, many bright jewels,glittering gold scattered on the ground,wonders on the walls, and the lair of that worm,the old dawn-flier—flagons standing,2760

ancient serving-vessels without a steward,their trappings all moldered; there was many a helmetold and rusty, a number of arm-bandswith twisted ornaments.—Treasure may easily,gold in the ground, give the slip2765

to any one of us: let him hide it who will!1—Likewise he saw an ensign, all golden,hanging high over the hoard, greatest hand-work,linked together with skill; light gleamed from itso that he could see the cave’s floor,2770

survey those strange artifacts. There was no signof the serpent there—a sword had finished him off.Then the hoard in that barrow, as I’ve heard, was looted,ancient work of giants, by one man alone;he piled in his arms cups and plates,2775

whatever he wanted; he took the ensign too,brightest of beacons. His aged lord’s blade—its edge was iron— had earlier harmedthe one who was protector of those treasuresfor such a long time, who bore his fiery terror2780

flaming before the hoard, seething fiercelyin the darkest night, until he died a bloody death.

The messenger rushed out, eager to return,burdened with treasures; he was burning to knowwhether, stout-hearted, he would find still alive2785

1 give the slip … who will Or “can get the better of any man—heed[these words] who will!” The OE is uncertain; the translation followsMitchell and Robinson.

Review Copy

Beowulf 101

the prince of the Weders, weakened by wounds, in the place where he had left him on that plain.Then with the treasures he found the famous prince,his own lord, his life at an end,all bloody; he began once more2790

to sprinkle water on him, until the point of a wordescaped from his breast.Old, full of grief, he looked on the gold:

“For all these treasures, I offer thankswith these words to the eternal Lord,2795

King of Glory, for what I gaze upon here,that I was able to acquire such wealthfor my people before my death-day.Now that I have sold my old lifespanfor this hoard of treasures, they will attend1

2800

to the needs of the people; I can stay no longer.The brave in battle will bid a tomb be builtshining over my pyre on the cliffs by the sea;it will be as a monument to my peopleand tower high on Whale’s Head,2805

so that seafarers afterwards shall call it‘Beowulf’s Barrow,’ when their broad shipsdrive from afar over the darkness of the flood.”

The boldminded nobleman took from his necka golden circlet, and gave it to the thane,2810

the young spear-carrier, and the gold-covered helmet,ring and byrnie, bid him use them well:“You are the last survivor of our lineage,the Wægmundings; fate has swept awayall of my kinsmen, earls in their courage,2815

to their final destiny; I must follow them.”That was the last word of the old warrior,his final thought before he chose the fire,the hot surging flames—from his breast flewhis soul to seek the judgment of the righteous.2

2820

39

Then it came to pass with piercing sorrowthat the young warrior had to watchhis most precious lord fare so pitifully,his life at an end. Likewise his slayer lay dead,the awesome earth-dragon deprived of his life,2825

overcome by force. The coiled serpentcould no longer rule his hoard of rings—edges of iron did away with him,the hard, battle-scarred shards of the smithy,so that the wide-flier, stilled by his wounds,2830

toppled to the ground near his treasure-house.No more soaring about in the skiesat midnight, preening in his precious treasures,showing his face—he fell to earththrough that war-commander’s handiwork.2835

Indeed, few men on earth, no matter how strong,could succeed at that, as I have heard tell,though he were daring in every deed,could rush against the reek of that venomous foe,or rifle through that ring-hall with his hands,2840

if he should find a waking wardenwaiting in that barrow. Beowulf’s shareof that royal treasure was repaid by his death—each of them had journeyed to the endof this loaned life.2845

It was not long beforethe men late for battle left the woods,ten of those weak traitors all togetherwho had not dared to hoist their spearswhen their lord of men needed them most;now shamefaced, they carried their shields2850

and battledress to where the old man lay dead,to stare at Wiglaf. He sat exhausted,a foot-soldier at his lord’s shoulder,tried to rouse him with water—but it was no use.He could not, no matter how much he wanted,2855

keep the life in the body of his captain,nor change any bit of the Ruler’s decree;the judgment of God would guide the deedsof every man, as it still does today.Then it was easy to get a grim answer2860

from that youth to those who gave up courage.Wiglaf spoke, son of Weohstan,looked, sad-hearted, on those unloved:

1 they will attend Usually translated “you [Wiglaf] will attend …”;the OE verb may be indicative or imperative, but it is unambigu-ously plural, and the imperative plural is not used elsewhere in thepoem to address a single person.2 the judgment of the righteous Literally “the dom (fame) of thetruth-fast,” an ambiguous pronouncement. It is not clear whetherthis means that Beowulf’s soul will receive the sort of judgment thata righteous soul ought to receive (and so go to Heaven), or that itwill be judged by those “fast in truth” (and so go to Hell as anunbaptized pagan).

Review Copy

102 Beowulf

“He can say—o yes—who would speak the truththat the liege-lord who gave you those gifts of treasures,2865

the military gear that you stand in there,when on the ale-benches he often handed outhelmets and byrnies to the hall-sitters,a lord to his followers, whatever he could findfinest anywhere, far or near—2870

that all that battle-dress he absolutelyand entirely threw away, when war beset him.Our nation’s king had no need to boastof his comrades-in-arms! But the Ruler of victoriesallowed that he, alone with his blade,2875

might avenge himself when he needed your valor.Only a little life-protection could I offerhim in battle, but began neverthelessto support my kinsman beyond my own strength;ever the worse was the deadly enemy2880

when I struck with my sword, a fire less severesurging from his head. Too few supportersthronged around our prince in his great peril.Now the getting of treasure, the giving of swords,and all the happy joys of your homeland2885

shall end for your race; empty-handedwill go every man among your tribe,deprived of his land-rights, when noblemen learnfar and wide of your flight,your inglorious deed. Death is better2890

for any earl than a life of dishonor!”

40

He bade that the battle-work be announced tothe camp

up by the cliff’s edge, where that troop of earls,shield-bearers, sat sad-mindedall the long morning, expecting either2895

the final day of their dear lordor his homecoming. He who rode up to the capewas not at all silent with his new tidings,but he spoke truly in the hearing of all:

“Now is the joy-giver of the Geatish people,2900

the lord of the Weders, laid on his deathbed,holding a place of slaughter by the serpent’s deeds;beside him lies his life-enemy,sick with knife-slashes; he could not with his sword

make in the monstrous beast2905

any kind of wound. Wiglaf sits,Weohstan’s offspring, over Beowulf,one earl over the other, now dead;he holds with desperate heart the watchover friend and foe.2910

Now this folk may expecta time of trouble, when this is manifestto the Franks and Frisians, and the fall of our kingbecomes widespread news. The strife was begunhard with the Hugas, after Hygelac cametravelling with his ships to the shores of Frisia,2915

where the Hetware attacked him in war,advanced with valor and a vaster force,so that the warrior in his byrnie had to bow down,and fell amid the infantry; not at all did that lordgive treasure to his troops. Ever after that2920

the Merovingians have not shown mercy to us.“Nor do I expect any peace or truce

from the Swedish nation, but it has been well-knownthat Ongentheow ended the lifeof Hæthcyn, son of Hrethel, in Ravenswood,2925

when in their arrogant pride the Geatish peoplefirst sought out the Battle-Scylfings.Immediately the ancient father of Ohthere,old and terrifying, returned the attack—the old warrior cut down the sea-captain,12930

rescued his wife, bereft of her gold,Onela’s mother and Ohthere’s;and then hunted down his deadly enemiesuntil they escaped, with some difficulty,bereft of their lord, into Ravenswood.2935

With his standing army he besieged those sword-leavings,weary, wounded; he kept threatening woeto that wretched troop the whole night through—in the morning, he said, with the edge of his swordhe would gut them, and leave some on the gallows-tree2940

as sport for birds. But for those sad-hearted mensolace came along with the sunrise,after they heard Hygelac’s horn and trumpetsounding the charge, when the good man camefollowing the trail of that people’s troop.2945

1 old warrior … sea-captain Ongentheow killed Hæthcyn. Hygelacis not present at this battle, but arrives later.

Review Copy

Beowulf 103

41

“The bloody swath of the Swedes and Geats,the slaughter of men, was easily seen,how the folk had stirred up feud between them.That good man1 then departed, old, desperate, with a small band of kinsmen, sought his stronghold,2950

the earl Ongentheow turned farther away;he had heard of proud Hygelac’s prowess in battle,his war-skill; he did not trust the resistancehe might muster against the seafarers’ mightto defend from the wave-borne warriors his treasure,2955

his women and children; he ran away from there,old, into his fortress. Then the pursuit was offeredto the Swedish people, the standard of Hygelacoverran the place of refuge,after the Hrethlings thronged the enclosure.2960

There with the edge of a sword was Ongentheow,old graybeard, brought to bay,so that the king of that nation had to yieldto Eofor’s will. Angrily he struck;Wulf the son of Wonred lashed at him with his weapon,2965

so that with his blow the blood sprang in streamsfrom under his hair. Yet the ancient Scylfingwas undaunted, and dealt back quicklya worse exchange for that savage stroke,once the ruler of that people turned around.2970

The ready son of Wonred could notgive a stroke in return to the old soldier,for he had cut through the helmet right on his headso that he collapsed, covered in blood,fell to the ground—he was not yet fated to die,2975

but he recovered, though the cut hurt him.The hardy thane of Hygelac2 then lethis broad blade, as his brother lay there,his ancient giant-made sword, shatter that gigantic helmetover the shield-wall; then the king stumbled,2980

shepherd of his people, mortally stricken.There were many there who bandaged his3

kinsman,quickly raised him up, when a way was clear for them,so that they had control of that killing field.

Then one warrior plundered another,42985

took from Ongentheow the iron byrnie,his hard hilted sword and his helmet too,and carried the old man’s armor to Hygelac.He5 took that war-gear and promised him giftsamong his people—and he kept that promise;2990

the king of the Geats repaid that carnage,the offspring of Hrethel, when he made it home,gave to Eofor and Wulf extravagant treasures,gave them each lands and locked rings,worth a hundred thousand. Not a man in this world2995

couldreproach those rewards, since they had won them

with their deeds;and to Eofor he gave his only daughter,the pride of his home, as a pledge of his friendship.

“That is the feud and the fierce enmity,savage hatred among men, that I expect now,3000

when the Swedish people seek us outafter they have learned that our lordhas perished, who had once protectedhis hoard and kingdom against all hostility,after the fall of heroes, the valiant Scyldings,6

3005

worked for the people’s good, and what is more,performed noble deeds. Now we must hurryand look upon our people’s king,and go with him who gave us ringson the way to the pyre. No small part3010

of the hoard shall burn with that brave man,but countless gold treasures, grimly purchased,and rings, here at last with his own lifepaid for; then the flames shall devour,the fire enfold—let no warrior wear3015

treasures for remembrance, nor no fair maidenhave a ring-ornament around her neck,but sad in mind, stripped of gold, she mustwalk a foreign path, not once but often,now that leader of our troop has laid aside laughter,3020

1 good man I.e., Ongentheow.2 thane of Hygelac I.e., Eofor, Wulf’s brother.3 his I.e., Eofor’s.

4 one … another Eofor plundered Ongentheow.5 He I.e., Hygelac.6 Scyldings The manuscript reading (“Scyldings” is a further objectof “protected”) is often emended to Scylfingas, i.e., Swedes, orscildwigan, “shield-warriors”; the present reading is that of Mitchelland Robinson. As it stands in the manuscript the Geatish herald isreferring to Beowulf’s earlier adventures against Grendel and hismother.

Review Copy

104 Beowulf

his mirth and joy. Thus many a cold morningshall the spear be grasped in frozen fingers,hefted by hands, nor shall the sound of the harprouse the warriors, but the dark raven,greedy for carrion, shall speak a great deal,3025

ask the eagle how he fared at his feastwhen he plundered corpses with the wolf.”1

Thus that brave speaker was speakinga most unlovely truth; he did not lie muchin words or facts. The troop of warriors arose;3030

they went, unhappy, to the Cape of Eagles,with welling tears to look at that wonder.There on the sand they found the soulless bodyof the one who gave them rings in earlier timeslaid out to rest; the last day3035

had come for the good man, when the war-king,prince of the Weders, died a wondrous death.But first they saw an even stranger creature,a loathsome serpent lying on the plaindirectly across from him; grim with his colors3040

the fire-dragon was, and scorched with his flames.He was fifty feet long, lying therestretched out; once he had joy in the airin the dark night, and then down he would goto seek his den, but now he was fast in death;3045

he had come to the end of his cave-dwelling.Cups and vessels stood beside him,plates lay there and precious swords,eaten through with rust, as if in the bosom of the earththey had lain for a thousand winters;3050

all that inheritance was deeply enchanted,the gold of the ancients was gripped in a spellso that no man in the world would be able to touchthat ring-hall, unless God himself,the true King of Victories, Protector of men,3055

granted to whomever He wished to open the hoard,to whatever person seemed proper to Him.2

42

Then it was plain that the journey did not profitthe one3 who had wrongfully hidden under a wallthat great treasure. The guardian had slain3060

that one and few others;4 then that feud wasswiftly avenged. It is a wonder to saywhere a valiant earl should meet the endof his span of life, when he may no longerdwell in the meadhall, a man with his kinsmen.3065

So it was with Beowulf, when he sought the barrow’sguardian

and a hostile fight; even he did not knowhow his parting from life should come to pass,since until doomsday mighty princes had deeplypronounced, when they placed it there,3070

that the man who plundered that place would beharried by hostile demons, fast in hellish bonds,grievously tortured, guilty of sins,unless the Owner’s grace had earliermore readily favored the one eager for gold.53075

Wiglaf spoke, son of Weohstan:“Often many earls must suffer miserythrough the will of one man, as we have now seen.We could not persuade our dear prince,shepherd of a kingdom, with any counsel,3080

that he should not greet that gold-guardian,let him lie there where he long had been,inhabit the dwellings until the end of the world:he held to his high destiny. The hoard is opened,grimly gotten; that fate was too great3085

which impelled the king of our people thither.I was in there, and looked over it all,the hall’s ornaments, when a way was open to me;by no means gently was a journey allowedin under that earth-wall. In eager haste I seized3090

in my hands a great mighty burden

1 the dark raven … the wolf The eagle, wolf, and raven, the “beastsof battle,” are a recurring motif in Old English poetry.2 unless God himself … proper to Him The power of the pagan spellcan be overruled by the will of the true God.

3 the one I.e., the dragon.4 that one and few others Or “that one of a few,” i.e., “a uniqueman” or “a man of rare greatness.”5 favored the one eager for gold The OE text is corrupt and theprecise meaning of this passage is not certain; the present translationtries to incorporate several suggested interpretations. The generalsense seems to be clear enough—the gold was cursed, and onlyGod’s special grace would enable anyone to remove it. What thisimplies about Beowulf’s failure, and his moral status, is less clear.

Review Copy

Beowulf 105

of hoard-treasure, and bore it out hitherto my king. He was still conscious then,thoughtful and alert; he spoke of many things,an old man in his sorrow, and ordered that I greet you;3095

he asked that you build a great high barrowfor your prince’s deeds, in the place of his pyre,mighty and glorious, since he was of menthe most worthy warrior throughout the wide world,while he could enjoy the wealth of a hall.3100

Let us now make haste for one more timeto see and seek out that store of cunning gems,the wonder under the wall; I will direct youso that you can inspect them up close,abundant rings and broad gold. Let the bier be ready,3105

quickly prepared, when we come out,then let us bear our beloved lord,that dear man, to where he must longrest in the keeping of the Ruler.”

Then the son of Weohstan, brave battle-warrior,3110

let it be made known to many heroesand householders that they should bring from afarthe wood for the pyre to that good one,1

the leader of his folk: “Now the flames must devour,the black blaze rise over the ruler of warriors,3115

who often awaited the showers of ironwhen the storm of arrows hurled from bow-stringsshot over the wall, the shafts did their dutyswift on feather-wings, sent on the arrow-heads.”

Lo, then the wise son of Weohstan3120

summoned from that host some of the bestof the king’s thanes, seven altogether;he went, one of eight, under that evil roof;one of the brave warriors bore in his handsa flaming torch, and went before them.3125

It was not chosen by lots who should loot that hoard,2

once the men saw it sitting in the hall,every part of it unprotected,lying there wasting; there was little lamentthat they should have to hurry out with3130

the precious treasures. They also pushed the dragon,the worm, over the cliff-wall, let the waves take him,the flood embrace the guard of that finery;

then the twisted gold, an uncountable treasure,was loaded in a wagon, and the noble one was carried,3135

the gray-haired warrior, to the Cape of Whales.

43

The people of the Geats then prepared for hima splendid pyre upon the earth,hung with battle-shields and helmetsand bright byrnies, as he had bidden;3140

there in the middle they laid the mighty prince,the heroes lamenting their dear lord.Then the warriors kindled there on the cliffthe greatest of funeral pyres; dark over the flamesthe woodsmoke rose, the roaring fire3145

mingled with weeping—the wind lay still—until it had broken that bone-househot at the heart. With heavy spiritsthey mourned their despair, the death of their lord;and a sorrowful song sang the Geatish woman,33150

with hair bound up, for Beowulf the king,with sad cares, earnestly saidthat she dreaded the hard days ahead,the times of slaughter, the host’s terror,harm and captivity. Heaven swallowed the smoke.3155

Then the Weder people wrought for hima barrow on the headland; it was high and broad,visible from afar to sea-voyagers,and in ten days they built the beaconof that battle-brave one; the ashes of the flames3160

they enclosed with a wall, as worthilyas the most clever of men could devise it.In the barrow they placed rings and bright jewels,all the trappings that those reckless menhad seized from the hoard before,3165

let the earth hold the treasures of earls,gold in the ground, where it yet remains,just as useless to men as it was before.Then round the mound rode the battle-brave men,offspring of noblemen, twelve in all;3170

they wished to voice their cares and mourn their king,

1 that good one I.e., the dead Beowulf.2 It was not chosen … hoard I.e., everybody had a share; there wasenough for all.

3 Geatish woman The manuscript is damaged throughout thissection and the readings in this passage are conjectural; it is not clearwho the “Geatish woman” is, though her advanced age is indicatedby her bound-up hair. Typically, in Germanic poetry, it is women(and poets) who mourn.

Review Copy

106 Beowulf

utter sad songs and speak of that man;they praised his lordship and his proud deeds,judged well his prowess. As it is properthat one should praise his lord with words,3175

should love him in his heart when the fatal hour comes,when he must from his body be led forth,

so the men of the Geats lamentedthe fall of their prince, those hearth-companions;they said that he was of all the kings of the world3180

the mildest of men and the most gentle,the kindest to his folk and the most eager for fame.

In Context

Background Material

Glossary of Proper Names

Abel slain by his brother Cain; the story is told in Genesis 4.1–16Ælfhere kinsman of WiglafÆschere a prominent Dane, advisor to Hrothgar; slain by Grendel’s motherBattle-Scyldings see ScyldingsBattle-Scylfings see ScylfingsBeanstan father of BrecaBeowulf (prologue) Danish king, son of ScyldBreca engaged in a youthful swimming contest with BeowulfBright-Danes see DanesBrondings the people of BrecaBrosinga makers of the magical necklace of Freya in Norse myth, to which a necklace in

the story is comparedCain slayer of Abel in Genesis 4.1–16; father of the race of monstersDæghrefn a warrior of the Hugas slain by Beowulf in hand-to-hand combat during

Hygelac’s ill-fated raid on FrisiaDanes Hrothgar’s people; the Scyldings; also called Bright-, Half-, Ring-, Spear-, East-,

West-, North-, and South-DanesEadgils son of Ohthere, brother of EanmundEanmund son of Ohthere, brother of Eadgils; slain by WeohstanEast-Danes see DanesEcglaf father of UnferthEcgtheow father of BeowulfEcgwala a Danish king; the “sons of Ecgwala” are the DanesEofor a warrior of the Geats; brother of Wulf; slayer of OngentheowEomer son of OffaEormanric king of the OstrogothsEotens unclear: perhaps the Jutes, perhaps the Frisians, perhaps “giants” (the literal

meaning of the word) as a nickname for one group or the otherFinn king of the Frisians, husband of Hildeburh; killed by HengestFinns the people of Finland; the LappsFitela legendary companion, nephew (and son) of SigemundFolcwalda father of FinnFranks a Germanic tribe; see Hetware, Hugas, Merovingians

Review Copy

110 Beowulf

The Geatish-Swedish Wars

When the story of Beowulf’s fight with the dragon begins, the narrator leaps over fifty years in onebrief passage. It is a tumultuous condensation of a complex chain of events (2200–08):

Then it came to pass amid the crash of battlein later days, after Hygelac lay dead,and for Heardred the swords of battle helddeadly slaughter under the shield-wall,when the Battle-Scylfings sought him out,those hardy soldiers, and savagely struck downthe nephew of Hereric in his victorious nation—then came the broad kingdominto Beowulf’s hands …

These events are referred to throughout the last thousand lines of the poem, but they are not toldin a straightforward way or in chronological order. The fortunes of the Geatish royal house may bereconstructed as follows:

1. Hæthcyn accidentally kills his brother Herebeald; their father Hrethel dies of grief (2432–71).Hæthcyn becomes king.

2. After the death of Hrethel, Ohthere and Onela, the sons of the Swedish king Ongentheow, attackthe Geats (2472–78).

3. In retaliation, Hæthcyn attacks Ongentheow in Sweden (2479–84); at first he is successful, butlater is killed at Ravenswood (2922–41). Hygelac’s men Wulf and Eofor kill Ongentheow, andHygelac (Hæthcyn’s brother) is victorious (2484–89, 2942–99). Ohthere becomes king of theSwedes.

4. Hygelac is killed in Frisia; his son Heardred becomes king (2354–78).

5. Ohthere’s brother Onela seizes the Swedish throne and drives out the sons of Ohthere, Eanmundand Eadgils (2379–84). Heardred takes in these exiles, and Onela attacks Heardred for thishospitality and kills him. Onela allows Beowulf to rule the Geats (2385–90).

6. Around this time Weohstan, father of Wiglaf, kills Eanmund on behalf of Onela (2611–19).

7. Eadgils escapes later to kill Onela in Sweden, with help sent by Beowulf (2391–96); hepresumably becomes king of the Swedes.

8. During Beowulf’s fifty-year reign, the death of Eanmund is unavenged. After Beowulf’s death,Eanmund’s brother Eadgils will probably seek vengeance against Wiglaf, son of Weohstan(2999–3005).

Review Copy