3 Managing People

OrganisationalManagement

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Who are the people ?

It has become a clich to say that an organisa-tions most valuable resource is its people but it is still true. And our people need to bemanaged in a way which enables them to befulfilled in their work and to reach their poten-tial for themselves and for their organisations.

The purpose of many European youth organ-isations is the development of people and soit is perhaps wise that we start with those onthe inside be they paid or unpaid, volunteers,staff or Board members. Each person whetherwe see them as groups or individuals needsto be managed and led in order to reach theirpotential and to ensure that their efforts servethe organisation in the most effective and effi-cient way.

Each person brings talents and skills and knowl-edge and experience into their work. For thepurpose of this T-kit we will call this collec-tion competence. Each person has a uniqueset of competencies which can be applied indifferent ways and in different situations. Forexample, an unpaid Board member may bringyears of financial management experience, theskill to read and interpret balance sheets anda real talent for explaining figures to otherswith less experience. The down side might bethat this experience comes from a differentsector the commercial world where the dri-ving force is profit and the Board membermight have difficulty balancing that with thesocial objectives of the organisation. In con-trast the youth worker with the ability torelate well with young people on the streetand a natural talent in counselling, may havedifficulty keeping records of expenditure. Bothhave a unique set of competencies and bothhave a significant contribution to make tothe organisation. Managing people is aboutmaking the most of those competencies, foras much of the time as possible and ensuringthat they continue to develop.

This section of the T-kit is dedicated to theissues of managing people. A significant pro-portion is given over to the concepts of teamworking and leadership, as this forms the foun-dation on which much of the other material isbased. Having answered the question who arethe people?, the following chapters attempt toanswer the question How do we manage them?

Throughout the section suggestions are madefor discussions or brainstorming titles. In somecases a list of possible answers is also included.

3.2 Teams and leaders

3.2.1 Teamworkingand leadership

Most if not all European youth organisationsare made of people who work in teams. Thesynergy created by people working towards acommon goal enables much more to be accom-plished than would be done by individuals whodid not share the same vision. Often however,our teams are geographically disparate and aremade of a mixture of paid and unpaid staff, fulltime and part time, young and old and darewe say it? competent and incompetent. Thisvariety brings both benefits and challenges.

3. Managing people

3.1 Introduction

Suggestions for training

What is a team?A group assembled for a specific com-mon purpose?Prepared to put the goals of the groupbefore their personal ones?

What makes an effective team?Communication and feedback skills ?Ability in group maintenance?Support for the leadership?The balance of relevant competencies?A climate of trust, openness and shar-ing?Full and willing participation?Commitment to team objectives?

What are the disadvantages of teamworking?Time consuming?Loss of individual identity?


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The purpose of this section is to provide sometools to enable us to get the most out of ourteams. You might start by asking the follow-ing questions, which can be turned into anexercise.

An important piece of work has been carriedout by Meredith Belbin in relation to the indi-vidual roles members of a team take on. Asindividual members and especially as leaders,we do well to understand the roles to whichwe are best suited. Belbin categorised usefulpeople to have in teams into 8 types asdescribed in the table below.

As can be seen, there are both strengths andweaknesses to each of these roles, as indeedthere are in any individual in a team. The cru-cial issue is that we understand and appreciatethese and that we can see where the gaps arein the composition of our teams.The roles people take in teams are frequentlyfluid and dynamic, and often change as theteam develops or the situation changes. In onesense, it is helpful to think of leadership as justone role that can be taken by an individual andthe same is true for management. The latter inparticular can be broken down into a number offunctions which might be shared between anumber of different people at different times.

The terms leadership and management areoften used to mean the same thing, when inreality they are two distinct roles. Leaders areoften expected to be good managers and man-agers are often required to provide leadershipfor those they manage.One way to express the distinction is thatManagers do things right, whilst leaders dothe right thing, alternatively, it is sometimessaid that leaders are responsible for effective-ness and managers are responsible for effi-ciency. The significant issues being those of

direction and focus for the leader and methodand application for the manager. For exam-ple, the leader would be the person who tookthe initiative for the development of a strate-gic plan, would introduce new concepts andencourage discussion and criticism of the per-formance and policies of the organisation.The manager would be keen to ensure thatthe agreed policies were adhered to, that indi-cators and measures of performance wereappropriate and were used. S/he would beconcerned with application whilst the leaderwould perhaps be more concerned with design.It is clear that the two elements leadershipand management cannot easily be separated.The reality is that some people in positions ofresponsibility have stronger leadership com-petencies than management competencies andvice versa. Another good reason for the teamapproach to running organisations.

Organisations come together to achieve a par-ticular purpose or task. Much of leadership isabout clarifying that purpose and uniting peo-ple in their commitment to it. John Adair hassuggested that the achievement of the taskdepends on the attention given by the leaderto both the needs of individuals, and to theneeds of the group (or team) as a whole.

As we lead indeed as we manage groups ofpeople, we need to consider the relative amountsof time and effort we put into these three areas(see OM 12). If we work hard on maintainingthe identity and the morale of the group butfail to attend to the individual needs of itsmembers then achievement of the task willsuffer. Likewise, if we give all our attention to

Suggestionsfor training

Compare the Belbinteam roles (Fig. OM 11)with those of your team


What are the different functions ofa manager?

Co-ordination

Encouragement

Motivation

Setting an Example

Recruitment

Target setting

Ensuring the job is done

Maintaining an overview


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Fig. OM-11 : Useful people to have in teams

Type

Company worker

Chairman

Shaper

Plant

Resource investigator

Monitor evaluator

Team worker

Completer finisher

Typical features

Conservative,dutiful and predictable

Calm, self controlledand self-confident

Highly strung,outgoing and dynamic

Individualistic,serious-mindedand unorthodox

Extroverted,enthusiastic, curiousand communicative

Sober, unemotionaland prudent

Socially orientated,rather mild, and sensitive

Painstaking, orderly,anxious and conscien-tious

Positive qualities

Organising ability, practicalcommon sense, hardworking self-discipline

A capacity for treatingand welcoming all poten-tial contributors on theirmerits and withoutprejudice. A strong senseof objectives.

Drive and a readinessto challenge inertia,complacency,ineffectivenessor self-deception

Genius, imagination,intellect and knowledge

A capacity for contactingpeople and exploringanything new. An abilityto respond to challenge.

Judgement, discretionand hard-headedness

An ability to respond topeople and to situations,and to promote teamspirit

A capacity for followthrough, perfectionism

Allowable weakness

Lack of flexibility andunresponsiveness tounproven ideas

No more than ordinaryin terms of intellector creative ability

Proneness to impatience,irritation and provocation

Up in the clouds, incliningto disregard practicaldetails or protocol

Liable to lose interest oncethe initial fascination haspassed.

Lacks inspiration or theability to motivate others

Indecisiveness atmoments of crisis

A tendency to worryabout nothing.A reluctance to let go.

Source : Belbin, R.M. (1981) Management Teams, Heinemann; reprinted by permission of Butterworth HeinemannPublishers, a division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd.


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3the needs (or demands!) of one or two mem-bers of the group at the expense of groupcohesion and common understanding, the samewill happen. Furthermore, if we constantly focuson the task to be achieved, without attendingto building up the group of people as a team,or to the development needs of each individ-ual, then we can expect achievement to bedifficult to sustain and potentially off target.

As teams are fluid and dynamic, so leadershipneeds to be both flexible and dynamic. Theso-called ruthlessness of famous world leadersthrough history can perhaps often be interpret-ed as single minded commitment to a cause;a commitment which followers share and whichoverrides all other considerations. But in Euro-pean youth organisations at the beginning ofthe new millennium, democracy, shared deci-sion making and a team approach are crucialto the achievement of goals. While the phenom-enon of leadership by personality still achievesmuch; sustainable, empowering and inclusiveleadership is able to respond to a wider rangeof needs with a wider range of solutions.

Responding to need is the raison dtre formany, if not all our organisations. Needs areoften diverse and changeable and so leader-ship of our organisations needs to be bothresponsive and pro-active. The notion of lead-ership style can help our understanding here.If our leadership is to be dynamic and flexiblethen the leader needs to be able to read situa-tions tasks, teams and individuals and makedecisions about how they should be respondedto. A leaders decisions will also create situations new tasks, closer teams, better developedindividuals (or their opposites). How those deci-sions are made is a reflection of style.


In small groups discuss a leader fromhistory and what it was which madethem successful or effective

Task functions

Defining the task Making a plan Allocating work and resourcesControlling quality and temps of work Checking performance against the plan Adjusting the plan

An effective leader

A) Is aware of task needs, team maintenance needs and individual needs of his groupB) Has the skill and training to meet those needs, in accordance with the priorities of the situation

Team maintenance functions

Setting standards exampleMaintaining disciplineBuilding team spiritPraising, motivating,giving a sense of purposeAppointing sub-leadersEnsuring communicationwithin the groupTraining the group

Individual functions

Attending to personalproblems

Praising individualsGiving status

Recognising and usingindividual abilities

Training the individual

Taskneeds

Individualneeds

Teammaintenance

needs

Fig. OM-12 : Action centred leadership model

Source: Adair, John (1983) Effective Leardership : a Self Development Manual, Aldershot : Gower ISBN 0-330-28100-3


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An alternative presentation of this is :

Tells Sells Tests Consults Joins

TellsManager Thinks Plans DecidesGroup Submits Conforms Gives Assent

SellsManager Decides then puts decision to the

team to get agreementGroup Listens to ideas and gives assent

TestsManager Plans and puts various solutions

to the group and then decidesGroup Gives views on solutions then gives

assent to chosen solution

ConsultsManager Presents problems to group and asks

for possible solutions then decidesGroup Participates in the thinking and solv-

ing of problems but not in the deci-sion or control

JoinsManager Shares all decisions and controlGroup Shares control and becomes

a democratic body

Retained Authority Area

Shared Authority Area

Positive direction Creativity Initiative Flexibility Open, honest relationships Commitment, pride in the

team, team spirit Maturity

New goals Atmosphere of Honesty,

Tolerance and Listening Deeper relationships,

understanding each othersvalues and contributions

Do task according toindividual and team abilities

Establish ownteam disciplines

Develop assertiveness

Express feelings abouteach other

Emotional Lack of direction Insecurity People going

against expectations

Who follows who Poor listening Feelings kept hidden Shallow relationships Inflexible Status conscious Do as others expect you to Thinking of your own

needs and problems

PERFORM

NORM

STORM

FORM

Source : Tuckman, B. W. (1965) Developmental sequencesin small groups in Psychological Bulletin vol. 63, p.384-399. Copyright 1965 by the AmericanPsychological Association. Reprinted with permission.

Source : Tannenbaum, R and Schmidt, W.H., How to choosea leadership pattern in Harvard Business Review,May-June 1973. Copyright 1973 by Presidentand Fellows of Harvard College ; all rights reserved.

A number of writers have blended their descrip-tion of leadership style with their understand-ing of how teams develop. Their models canhelp in assessing the appropriateness of aparticular style at a particular stage in thedevelopment of a team.

Fig. OM-13 : How to choose aleadership pattern

In this model, distinct stages of developmentof a team can be seen. In reality, the stagesare never so distinct and the team may slidedown the pole some or all of the way in thecourse of its development and its achievementof performance.

Fig. OM-14 : Greasy PoleModel


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The model above indicates that authority ordecision making power, is transferred gradu-ally to a group as it develops the competen-cies both in individuals and collectively itneeds to carry out a task. The group which isperfectly capable and experienced in carryingout a task will not respond well to a telling(or authoritarian) style of leadership. Likewisethe team which has only just come together even if it is made up of highly competentindividuals needs to be given information anddirection early on so that it can progress towardsshared authority for decision making.

As with any other role or function in a team,leadership of whatever style requires thedevelopment of competencies; not least inchoosing which style to use and when. Theterm delegation needs some attention hereas it is used both as a style of leadership in itsown right, and as one of the skills applicableto many styles. Delegation, when used todescribe a style of leadership, implies thatauthority for decision making is handed overto team members. It requires a level of trust inboth leader and team, and a full understandingof the task and the competencies of the team.As a generic skill, delegation still requires trustand understanding; furthermore it requires theability to decide what tasks or responsibilitiesshould or should not be delegated.

Autocratic Style Democratic

Leader

Led

Task

Context


Some questions to ask trainees (indi-vidually, and collectively)

Make two lists one to describe thethings which happen in ideal teamse.g. communication, decision mak-ing, trust, support etc etc ; and oneto describe the types of people youneed in an ideal team e.g. leader,resource finder, time keeper, co-ordi-nator, worker. Compare these listswith the team you are currently apart of ; where are the gaps andthe repetition?

What do you consider to be the keyskills and attributes of the idealleader in your organisation?

In response to the slippery pole model(figure 3) choose a team which youlead and discuss what stage of devel-opment you feel it is at. What styleof leadership is most appropriate toensure development and achieve-ment of the task?

Fig. OM-15 : The best fit option

Reproduced by permission from B600 The Capable Manager The Open University, 1994.


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In conclusion then, we have considered teamsas dynamic developing groups and leaders asdynamic, flexible people within them. We haveseen the need for a balance of attention to begiven to the task, the needs of the individualsand the needs of the group as a team.

Elsewhere in this document we have consid-ered the context of our organisation; internally,in terms of organisational culture and externallyin terms of the Social, Technical, Economic,Political and Environmental context (STEPE)in which we work.

Leadership is crucial in all of this, and the mosteffective leadership will have found a best fitfor the demands of the following four elements:The leaders preferred style, the teams preferredstyle, the style most appropriate to the task andthe style most appropriate to the context.

As we move into the next section we will con-sider issues and competencies which help tomake teams work.

In doing this we will build up a kit of manage-ment tools and discuss the choices managersmake in their use.

3.2.2 Motivating people

In chapter 2 we considered the concept of selfmotivation. In the following section we con-sider how we motivate others, particularly inthe light of some theoretical models.

If we select one thing from these lists e.g.Money, we can then consider how that itemcan be both a motivator and a demotivator.Herzberg presented the idea that some thingssatisfy us, but the absence of them does notnecessarily produce dissatisfaction. Likewise,some things dissatisfy but the absence of themis not necessarily satisfaction, rather no dissat-isfaction.

Motivating Factors = satisfiers = jobcontent = Maslows higher order needs

Hygiene Factors = dissatisfiers = jobconditions = Maslows lower order needs

Maslow presented his hierarchy of needs asin the diagram below, suggesting that onceone level of need is satisfied then a personmoves on to the next level of need.

Without the satisfaction of the lower order ofneeds (1, 2 and 3) then the higher ones willnot be relevant.

As we consider the people we manage it, wouldseem that effort first needs to be put into meet-ing the lower order needs the dissatisfiers Herzbergs hygiene factors. Often, but notexclusively, our organisations can say thatthose lower order needs have been met andthat the role of the manager is to focus onmeeting higher needs such as achievement,recognition, self esteem, personal developmentand self realisation.


How, as a manager do I ensure thatthose who work for me are havingtheir higher order needs met? Howdo I ensure that they are sustained?


By way of introduction to the subjectof motivation we need to ask the fol-lowing questions.

In working (paid or unpaid) for yourorganisation, what is it that gives youpleasure and/or satisfaction, andwhat is it that gives you displeasureand/or dissatisfaction ?

Think of other jobs you might do inthis or other organisations what, ifanything, would change on your list ?


Returning to your lists, which itemswould you classify as Hygiene factorsand which ones would be Motivatingfactors?


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Motivating Factors (higher order, growth needs)control quality of working life and the qualityof experiences at work. Some are inherent inthe job e.g. achievement of tasks; and otherscome from good management e.g. respect forand from other people, opportunities for devel-opment and challenging work.

Alderfer (in Handy, 1990) grouped Maslowshierarchy into three sections Existence needs(Maslow 1&2), Relationship needs (Maslow 3& part of 4) and Growth needs (part of 4, & 5).He stated that these needs are Chronic alwaysthere, or Episodic sometimes there. There aresome clear links here with the Action CentredLeadership model of John Adair, as outlinedin the previous section (Figure 12); Existenceneeds might be paralleled with Task needs,Relationship needs with Team needs, andGrowth needs with Individual needs.

McGregors theory X and theory Y suggestedthat managers styles fell into two categoriesdue to theories about peoples motivation towork. Theory X states that most people are lazy,are unable to discipline and control their work,prize security and avoid responsibility. Thuspeople need external incentives and to be toldwhat to do.

Theory Y states that all people find work nat-ural, accept self discipline, seek responsibilityand like commitments. Thus people can onlyrealise their potential if they are allowed touse their imagination and creativity.


Consider your experience of manag-ing people and of being managed.How do you respond to the two the-ories? What evidence can you seeto support each one?


Consider what effect style of leader-ship might have on the motivation ofyour team members. Do some stylesof leadership focus on Hygiene Factorsand some on Motivating Factors ?

Fig. OM-16 : Individual needs

Self-realisation

GrowthPersonal Development

Accomplishment

Self Esteem

Self Respect Status Recognition

Social

Belonging to group(s)Social Activities Love Friendship

Safety

Security Protection from danger

Physiological

Hunger Thirst Sleep Etc.

Source : Maslow, A.H. Motivation and Personality, 1954.Reprinted and electronically reproduced by per-mission of Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NewJersey


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3.2.3 EmpowermentThe concept of empowerment is intertwinedwith all of this. Referring to the Tannenbaumand Schmidt model in the previous section(Figure 13), we can see that leaders (and/ormanagers) can retain or devolve power to othersthrough their style of leading (or managing).Empowerment need not necessarily imply thatthe power is handed over from one in authorityto a subordinate. Some thinkers would arguethat everyone has the power already and all theempowerer does is enable the realisation of it.In working with young people in particular, weneed to consider where we are withholding orover burdening them with power and where weare disempowering by not enabling their knowl-edge or abilities or creativity to come forward.

We return again to the idea that the purpose ofmany of our organisations is to enable young peo-ple to reach their full potential. An empoweringattitude to the management of those who workwith us is primarily about realising the full poten-tial of the human resource of the organisation.

Finally, we need to consider again the dynamismfactor. People and organisations change, as dotheir environments and contexts. This has toaffect motivation: Through past experience(upbringing, education, experience in and outof work); through their present situations (theindividuals own perspective and ones ownview of the perspectives of colleagues); andthrough our perceptions of the future (prospectsin this organisation and outside, personal aspi-rations, paid or unpaid). The young volunteerwho has a stable family background, good edu-cation and the encouragement of peers andleaders will have a very different kind of moti-vation to the person without such encouragementand whose previous experience is of failureor rejection. Both may be well motivated, butthe combination and origin of the hygieneand motivating factors outlined above, may bevery different. Maslows highest needs centre onpersonal growth and the realisation of potential.An empowering approach, built on an awarenessof and commitment to meet the progressiveneeds of those we work with, is the route tomotivation in all parts of our organisations.

3.2.4 ResponsibilityIn a world where legislation is increasinglyused to highlight and define responsibilities,managers need to consider their responsibili-ties at several levels.

On a personal level we have the responsibilityto manage workloads: it is an irony that inmany values-driven organisations the assump-tion is often made that staff of any kind willautomatically take on greater and greater work-loads for the love of it! We need to makeourselves accountable to friends and familyfor the amount of time we give to our jobs andfor the ways in which we allow work to affectour health and general wellbeing. This of courseis a consideration for the managers who eithercondone, by doing nothing to stop such work-ing practice, or positively encourage by simplyasking more and more of their workers.

At another level, managers need to considerthe issue of professionalism both for them-selves and their staff. Lack of payment is noexcuse for unprofessional conduct and so thisapplies as much to volunteers and Board mem-bers as it does to paid staff. We need to con-sider the limits of personal relationships in thework place, issues of prejudice and discrimi-nation, health and safety and honesty andintegrity. At an organisational level, we needto consider the systems we have in place tosafeguard workers against accusations of mis-conduct in any of these areas. This will nodoubt have implications on financial and otherresources. There is much legislation aroundthese issues but the values of our organisa-tions should also have an influence on thecommitment we show to them.

At a higher level still, the nature of Europeanyouth organisations is such that we haveresponsibilities outside of our organisations too.We have to be accountable to funders and per-haps above all, to the people we exist to serve.The quality of services and information wedeliver will be a reflection of the seriousnesswith which we take all our responsibilities.

3.3 Training, developmentand assessment

3.3.1 The learning organisation

Many European youth organisations focus onthe development of young people in an holis-tic way. How this is done is a feature of eachindividual organisation. The emphasis givento the development of staff and workers willalso be unique to each organisation. The fact


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that many of our organisations are values dri-ven is sometimes at odds with the hard reali-ties of running programmes with very limitedresources. This can lead to compromise whenit comes to the amount of time and moneydevoted to learning. We can however, identifysome key features of organisations which wouldbe classed as learning organisations.

At the heart of this concept is the idea thatorganisations develop through the individ-ual, personal development of those who workin them. Some key principles are outlined inthe bullet points below.

The benefit and value of continuing devel-opment is recognised by staff and volunteers

All workers paid and unpaid are encour-aged to take responsibility for their ownlearning and development

Organisational structures are both sufficient-ly well designed and flexible enough to allowfor personal growth and development

A learning climate is encouraged in whichlearning from experience and feedback isfacilitated and in which mistakes are allowed

Strategies and policies are developed thoughconsultation and as consciously structuredlearning processes

Financial commitment is made througheffective budgeting, to support the learningprocess

There is a temptation, when encouraging learn-ing especially in young people to forgetthat the personal development is intended toresult in organisational development. Withoutclear organisational goals and mission, it isimpossible to assess whether or not personallearning will assist in meeting them; or indeedwhether it is justified to expend both time andmoney. Spending time and money for example,on language training course in Spanish will bedifficult to justify for people in organisationswhose primary area of work is in Belarus!

A further temptation is that we insist on train-ing courses as the only way in which we learn.The term training and development is recog-nised to include more than simply going oncourses and the word learning is becomingwidely used as a catch all for any experiencewhich, when appropriately facilitated, leadsto personal growth. As managers of learningorganisations we need to be open to seeingopportunities for our staff which will helpthem grow and consequently be more effec-tive in their jobs. This might relate to compe-tence including knowledge and skills or itmight relate to motivation or self confidenceor team working. It might also relate to theperspective from which an individual lookson a problem or on the organisation itself, forexample, a visit to another branch of yourorganisation or even to an other organisationall together, may result in the member of staffseeing a problem differently and consequent-ly finding a previously overlooked solution.Examples of non-training-course learningopportunities include job shadowing, (wherea staff member or volunteer spends a periodof time along side another worker literallybeing their shadow, either in the organisa-tion or in a different organisation, to see whatthat job entails and how that person does it),on the job training, conference attendance,learning sets.

Assessment of work performance is mentionedlater in this section but it is worth noting herethe value of both planning learning in the con-text of a regular work review and of record-ing and accrediting any learning which doestake place. Personal development logs are anideal tool for this.


Ask your group to consider the lastthree occasions when they felt theylearned something. Ask them toexplain the value of that learning totheir organisations and to describethe process by which they learned.

Who were the key players in the mostsignificant instances of personalgrowth or development in the lastthree years? What made them keyplayers ?


Ask participants to consider theirorganisations in the light of theseprinciples. Where are the strengths,and where are the weaknesses ?What are the blocks and what arethe opportunities ?


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The reality of many European youth organisa-tions is that they are not learning organisations.There is too frequently a lack of induction intothe organisation itself and it is often the casethat paid staff work very much in isolation sometimes at odds with their Boards of Man-agement. The ability to network either withinyour own organisation or with others in sim-ilar ones is a crucial part of the LearningOrganisation in practice.

3.3.2 Learning Styles

As we promote the idea of personal learning,we need to acknowledge that each individualwill have a preferred way, or style, of learning.Some people prefer to get at a subject by solvinga real problem. Others prefer to hear some the-ory and make generalisations before applyingit to their situation.

In the previous section on management of self,we introduced the concept of learning styles.In this section we need not reiterate the detailsbut we do need to consider the way in whichlearning styles of those we manage affect theway in which we manage them.

As managers do we get the most from activistsby letting them jump in the deep end?, or dowe ensure that the reflectors in our teams havesufficient time to absorb and consider infor-mation before they are pressed for decisions.Do we allow theorists to question things and dowe make the most of the pragmatists ability totransfer learning from one situation to another?

Likewise when we consider the type of learn-ing experience we encourage our people toengage in: Does the learning style match thelearning delivery? One advantage of the expe-riential learning cycle as described by Kolb, isthat it contains elements which are of relevanceto each of the four learning styles described byHoney and Mumford. Activists enjoy the doingphase, Reflectors find it easier to engage in thereviewing phase, theorists participate mosteffectively when allowed to draw out the keylearning points and Pragmatists are most ableto apply their preferred style in the applicationof the learning to a new situation.

3.3.3 Assessment of performanceand work review

If our organisations are to continually grow anddevelop through the growth and development

of our people, then we need a mechanism forreviewing this on a regular basis. Many com-mercial organisations use the concept of theannual appraisal as a tool within their per-formance related pay schemes. It is also usedthis way in some NGOs. The difficulty ariseswhen the focus of such an assessment is onthe past performance rather than on the futurepotential. The term work review is perhaps lessthreatening and provides a balance betweenthe two. The regularity and frequency of workreviews needs careful consideration: A fullreview annually, with a six month interimreview of progress towards agreed goals, is awell tried norm.

It is a sad reflection that Boards often let downtheir staff and their fellow volunteers bynot carrying out work reviews. Where the rel-evant competencies are not present in a Boardthen training should be sought, or outside helpfound to provide the service. Regular workreviews are a useful tool to check the relevanceand accuracy of job descriptions of staff andvolunteers. Job descriptions can also used toprovide an agenda for a work review. Workreviews are also useful as a tool for overcom-ing resistance to change as they provide anideal opportunity to consider the individualscontribution to the development of the organ-isation at a strategic level.In assessing past performance, for whateverreason, a number of criteria may be useful toensure equality and agreement.

1. The assessment needs to be planned. Theprocess needs to be clearly explained andtime given for planning and preparation.The plan also needs to include advice onthe kind of evidence which might be usedto demonstrate performance.

2. Performance needs to be measured againstsomething. Targets set at the beginningof an assessment period need to have beenagreed from the outset and any changesnoted. The measures or standards againstwhich assessment takes place need to beclear and relevant to the job. Again thiswhere reference to the job description andperson specification can be useful. J.W.Humble was particularly associated withManagement by Objectives (MBO) and theimportance of Key Results Analysis (KRA).Criticism of his ideas were that the processof using a job description which listed themain responsibilities, lines of communica-tion, objectives and budgets as the basis for


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the setting of Key Results was too mechan-ical. The mechanism normally associatedwith the process meant that there was astrong preference for quantitative targetsand that these targets may not have led tothe business performance which was sought.Given that the whole process was linkedwith financial reward then it is easy tounderstand resistance to being processedin this way. The temptation for large organ-isations to adopt this or variations of thissystem, is obvious. Uniformity and objec-tivity as well as precision are all proposedas advantages.

3. Feedback must be clear and constructive. Only the set and agreed criteria can beused to make judgements and all availableevidence should be used. Where further evi-dence is available but has not been collect-ed, opportunity to do so should be given.Where inconsistencies arise then theseshould be clarified and resolved. Giving andreceiving feedback can be very divisiveand it is essential that both are done withsensitivity and honesty. The idea of thehamburger top and bottom made up ofpositive comment, praise and recognition,and the middle made up of points forimprovement is a common approach tothis. Feedback needs to be well timed, accu-rate, specific, relevant and must point tothe future.

The exercise given at the end of the sectionon coaching is an ideal way to practice andreceive feedback on your feedback!

In identifying further learning needs, the fol-lowing criteria may be useful.

1. Individuals should be able to identify theircurrent competence and their own longterm goals. The competencies required toachieve the latter should be established.

2. Learning opportunities should clearly matchthe learning need. The preferred style of thelearner should be taken into account andchoices made from as wide a range of oppor-tunities as possible.

3. Managers need to commit to continuedsupport. The assessment meeting shouldbe seen as part of an ongoing process inwhich the manager has a vital interest.Assistance in choosing learning experiences,preparing for them and reviewing theiroutcomes should be agreed and built intothe plan for the coming period.

4. A record of the performance assessment andthe plans and commitments for the futureshould be written and agreed by both man-ager and staff members.

The points above are intentionally written inthe formal style often used when introducingprocedures for work reviews or performanceassessments. The reality perhaps more so inEuropean youth organisations is that thebenefits of such a procedure are more or lesscontrolled by the quality of the relationshipsbetween staff and managers be they paid orunpaid. Open and honest relationships and theability to give and receive feedback as a dailynorm will ensure that regular work reviews areprofitable and even enjoyable experiences.

3.4 Coaching, mentoringand counselling

3.4.1 Coaching

Coaching is a process which aids improvementin performance traditionally we understand itbest in the context of sport. Here, performanceis about winning races or competitions, orexceeding previous records.

The coach is a person who enables improve-ment by using a selection of approaches,styles and techniques appropriate to thesport, the competition and the individualconcerned.

It is a feature of coaching that it normallyinvolves a one to one relationship, and this isalso true when applied to the world of work.


Ask course participants to design aplan for a regular work review. Whatwould be the time scales? What ques-tions would be asked before andduring the review.

Consider the outcomes of a regularwork review. How do we make themSMART (Specific, Measurable, Achiev-able, Realistic, Timed)?


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Directive Facilitative

Characteristics Characteristics

Coach identifies problem Coachee identifies problem

Coach decides on solution No telling

Tells Asks open questions

No Questioning Listens

Little Listening Coachee identifies solutions

Intrusive on coachs time in long term Coachee owns the solution

Coachee may not buy in Coachee gains new skills

Becomes less intrusive,

saves long term cost and time

Useful Useful

to solve an immediate, urgent or to develop coachees confidence

Stressful problem open up their potential

when learner has no background knowledge improve coachees perfor-mance

Effective Coaches :Operate flexibly along the spectrum to meet circumstances

Ineffective Coaches :Tend to operate directively but without sensitivity

Fig. OM-17 : Coaching spectrum

Reprinted by permission of Paul J.P. Hazell


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Coaching may result from the work reviewprocess or may be provided as a result ofother situations such as the start of a new jobor project. In the Action Centred Leadershipmodel mentioned earlier (figure 12), coachingapplies primarily to the circle marking theneeds of the individual. Indeed relationship isonce again a key word in the use of coaching.

As with leadership, coaching which can per-haps best be described as one of the many toolsof a leader or manager can be applied usinga spectrum of behavioural style; from directiveto facilitative.

The model below shows the importance ofrelationship within the coaching process. Trustenables a relationship which can then approacha number of objectives in a cyclical manner.

Feedback is an essential part of coaching. IfCoaching is about helping people fill the gaps intheir performance, then feedback is the lettingpeople know how well they have filled the gaps.

Giving feedback requires skill and is both theresult of and the reason for the trusting relation-ships mentioned earlier. As a practical checklist, consider the following:

1. Start and finish on a positive note think offeedback like a hamburger, with positivecomments being the bun and items forimprovement being the meat in the middle.

2. Concentrate on facts and be prepared togive specific examples.

3. Think about your body language. Whatsignals are you giving through your pos-ture and eye contact (or lack of it)!

4. Make sure that feedback is given as soonas possible after the observations are made.

5. Using a facilitative approach will leave thecoachee the time to work on his or herown solutions. Open questioning will helpin this process.

Receiving feedback also requires skill, and per-haps most importantly, the desire to learn. Somepractical tips include:

1. Remember that the person giving feedbackis on your side. They may be taking a riskin talking this way.

2. Consider your body language. What signalsare you sending through your eye contactand body posture?

3. Listen carefully, seek clarification when nec-essary, dont seek to justify or defend unlessasked to.

3.4.2 Mentoring

While coaching is generally seen as a tool usedby a manager, mentoring in common modernusage is often, but not exclusively, a relation-ship which happens outside of the manag-er/subordinate situation. The word comes fromGreek mythology where Ulysses entrustedhis son to the care of his old friend Mentor.Coaching and counselling are often used tomean mentoring, but it is hoped that this sec-tion will provide a sufficiently clear distinctionbetween the three.

In the introduction to David Clutterbucks bookEveryone Needs a Mentor 1991 a great rangeof definitions are given. In brief, phrases likemixture of parent of peer, a role model, aguide, a coach and a confidant, a protectedrelationship in which learning and experi-mentation can occur, potential skills can be


Consider the issues, problems or taskswhich may benefit from coachingamongst staff, paid or unpaid in yourorganisation.

Consider how important it is for thecoach to understand the technicaldetail of the job of the coachee. Howdoes this differ from other elementsof leadership?


Choose an activity where a coachcan observe another member of thecourse carrying out a task (eg givinga presentation). Provide time to pre-pare and then set up a coachinginterview where a third member ofthe group can observe and give feed-back on the feedback !


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Coaching : The TROOPER Process

TRUST

RELATIONSHIP

OBJECTIVE

OPTIONS REVIEW

PLAN EVALUATE

Fig. OM-18 : Trooper diagram

Reprinted by permission of Paul J.P. Hazell


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developed and in which results can be mea-sured in terms of competencies rather thancurricular territory covered.

Mentoring then is about personal growth whichdoes not have to relate to the job of the protgdirectly. It has the character of a long termrelationship in which an individual is encour-aged to explore, discuss, experience, discusssome more, and maybe draw some conclusionsalong the way. The trust and integrity are cru-cial once again, as is long term commitmentfrom both mentor and protg.

Some people choose mentors from outsideof their organisations whilst others preferthe closer understanding of the organisa-tion brought by a colleague. Peer mentoringin young organisations, or those which areonly staffed by young people can be equallybeneficial. It can also be a mutually beneficialprocess particularly if a staff member is men-tored by a volunteer or Board member.

Using this model, it is hard to argue againstpeer mentoring.

If the role of mentor is as described then thiswill help us in finding mentors and converselyassessing our own suitability to become one.Clutterbuck provides a checklist. He suggestswe look for a mentor who:

1. Already has a good record for developingothers

2. Has a genuine interest in seeing peopleadvance and can relate to their problems

3. Has a wide range of current skills to passon

4. Has a good understanding of the organisa-tion; how it works and where it is going

5. Combines patience with interpersonal skillsand an ability to work in an unstructuredprogramme

6. Has sufficient time to devote to the rela-tionship

7. Can gain a protgs respect8. Has his or her own network of contacts

and influence

It is regarded as healthy practice that mentorrelationships have clear beginnings and end-ings. It is not uncommon for these relationsto develop into friendships which last for years.The original relationship is one of consider-able responsibility frequently set up at therequest of the organisation and with the ulti-mate goal of benefiting the organisation.

Mentoring relationships in large commercialorganisations are frequently based aroundspecific pieces of work or clearly defined pro-jects. This perhaps gives a focus to profession-al growth. Where the mentoring relationshipuses the day to day experiences as dictatedby day to day pressures of work in a non profitNGO then the focus might be rather different.Once again we come across the concept ofpersonal growth for the sake of it a part per-haps of the value base of our organisations.The mentoring relationship can aid personalgrowth across as wide a spectrum of life asboth mentor and protg decide.

3.4.3 Counselling

Counselling is another word which we findbeing interchanged with others and beingused in a range of different contexts. For the

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One commentators summary of therole of a mentor is given below.Consider first how competent youwould be to carry out each part ofthe role ; and secondly who youcurrently know who might be ableto fulfil the role for you.

MENTORS

Manage the relationshipEncourage the protgNurture the protgTeach the protgOffer mutual respectRespond to the protgs needs


Ask participants to consider how theymight use a mentor relationship.What issues would they consider itbeneficial to discuss with a mentor.How deep would they be preparedto go?


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purposes of this section, we will take it tomean a process or interaction, used within arange of relationships, which assists a personin thinking through an issue or problem. Wewill not discuss here the professional coun-selling which brings a range of specialistskills albeit based on the principles of activelistening described below. In this section, theterm client is used as this is the one used, inEnglish, by professionals in the field

As such counselling techniques are used byleaders, managers, coaches, mentors and awhole spectrum of peer relationships.

Counselling is basically about solving prob-lems. It frequently follows the progression:

Contract Exploration Understanding Action Review

A contract is an agreement between the coun-sellor and client. It needs to cover time con-straints, limits of confidentiality and expecta-tions about the process.

Exploration is the phase where active listeningis the key. The mnemonic EARS may be of helphere:

EncourageAskReflectSummarise

During the understanding phase, the aim isto make sure that both counsellor and clientunderstand the issues clearly and fully. Para-phrasing, encouraging specificity, challengingcontradictions and clarifying implications areall part of the process.

Action: This is the main problem solving phaseand it may involve drawing the problem usinga mind map or flow chart. It might involve arange of problem solving questions (eg SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, andThreats), a then-and-now-analysis or startingwith the objective (the solution) and workingbackwards.

Review: If you agree to follow up the coun-selling session after an agreed period of time,you will introduce an element of supportedaccountability for the decisions made. You willalso ensure that the ongoing support is mon-itored.

Warning. Counselling can result in a range ofoutcomes. The client may feel good and moti-vated to follow through the agreed actions.The s/he may however only have come as faras having a fuller understanding of the prob-lem but needs further specialist help in resolv-ing it. But in some cases the client may feeleven more unsettled then previously. A majorproblem may have been exposed and a wayforward may not be obvious.

From the counsellors point of view, there maybe great satisfaction in having helped a teammember or colleague, but the counsellor mayalso feel burdened with the clients problem.There may be personal growth throughempathising with the client but there mayalso be shock and distress.

In professional counselling, supervision andsupport for counsellors is crucial. As a man-ager in a counselling role, it is essential thatyou consider your own support structure. Ifyou are unsure about your ability to dealwith problem then seek external help.

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3 Managing People

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