INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

AND

INCLUSIVE EMPLOYMENT

What is inclusion? Does inclusion mean

full inclusion?

A. The united Nations (1994) through its document. The Salamanca

statement, defines inclusion as school accommodating:

all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic, or other conditions. This

should include disabled and gifted children, street and

working children, children from remote o nomadic

populations, children from linguistic ethnic or cultural

minorities, and children from other disadvantaged or

marginalized areas or groups.

What is inclusion? Does inclusion

mean full inclusion?

B. Roach (1995, P.295) and Mastropieri and

Scruggs (2000) define the term inclusion as

the practice of serving students with a full

range of abilities and disabilities in the

general education classroom with

appropriate in-class support.

2. What are the common elements in the

definition of inclusion?

Wolfe and Hall (2004, p.150) cite the common elements in the

definition of inclusion. These are:

A. Students with disabilities are served in the general

education classroom under the instruction of the

general education teacher.

B. Inclusion involves providing support services to

the student in the general education setting versus

excluding the student from the setting and from their

peers.

C. Inclusion requires the provision of adaptation

and accommodations to classroom curriculum to

ensure that the student will be benefit from the

placement.

D. Inclusion does not require that the student with

special needs perform at a level comparable to

peers without disabilities.

3. Do include students stay full-time in

the general education classroom?

Advocates of inclusion expect that

some students will need to be removed from

an inclusive environment for separate

instruction, from time to time. However, the

goal for all student should remain general

classroom placement with support (Roach,

1995, p.299)

4. Is inclusive education mandated by law?

What court decision led to the repudiation of the

traditional special education placement?

A. Legal mandate (Soukop, Wehmeyer, Bashinski, & Bouvaird,

2007, p.101):

1. The 1997 amendments to IDEA required the IEP of any

student receiving special education services to indicate

how the student would be involved and would progress in

the general education curriculum.

2. The 2004 IDEA amendments (Individuals with

Disabilities Education Improvement Act) extended

these access to the general education curriculum

mandated and required that the IEPs of all

students receiving special education services-

including students with severe disabilities-identify

specific accommodations and curriculum

modifications to ensure student involvement and

progress in the general education curriculum.

B. Important court cases in the U.S that repudiated the traditional

special education program (Mastropieri & Scuggs, 2000 p.12f):

1. Brown v. Board of Education (Kansas, 1954): The court

determined that separate but equal education is illegal

2. Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children (PARC) vs.

Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and Mills vs. Board of Education

(District of Columbia, 1972) established the right to education for

students with disabilities and found that denial of education violates the

14th Amendment.

3. In Larry P. v. Riles (California 1977), the court determined that the

use of standardized IQ test for placement into special education

classes for students with educable mental retardation was

discriminatory (p.12)

4. In Oberti vs. Board of Education of the Borough of Clementon

School Districts (New Jersey, 1992), the court ruled that that a self-

contained special education class was not the least restrictive for a

student with Down Syndrome. The court ruled that school districts were

obligated to first consider regular class placement with supplementary

aids and services, before considering alternative placement (p.13)

C. DepEd Order 72, s. 2009 in the Philippines.

Jesli A. Lapus, Secretary of the Department of Education,

through DepEd Order 72, s. 2009,instructed the field to hasten the

implementation of inclusive education. District and school-based

special and regular teachers, administrations, and parents are

mandated to collaboratively develop and facilitate the most effective

program for children with disabilities and to include this plan in their

School Improvement Plan (SIP). In this DepEd Order, the secretary of

Education likewise enumerated the duties and responsibilities of

DepEd officials.

5. How is inclusion different from

mainstreaming and integration?

A. Mainstreaming

Mainstreaming describes the process of integrating students

with disabilities into general education classroom in order to address the

requirement of least restrictive environment (Scruggs & Mastropieri,

1996 p.59). Mastropieri and Scruggs qualified this placement as part

time. The term often suggests an attitude that students with disabilities

really belong to special education and are the responsibility of the special

education teacher (Mastropieri & Scruggs 2000 pp.7f). The placement in

the regular classes is usually intended for part of the school day and is

usually decided on the basis of the students readiness for academic

work.

B. Inclusion/Mainstreaming/Integration

Inclusion implies that all students should be included in

general education schools and In the social life of their neighborhood

schools and community, not merely placed in the mainstream. The term

integration is no longer tenable since its goal is to integrate a student

back into the mainstream.

Ferguson (1995) points out the flaw in logic when one

compares integration and inclusion and say that both are the same. In

order to be integrated, one must first be segregated. On the contrary.

All students should simply be included (p.282).

6. What is the basic goal of inclusion?

The basic goal of inclusion is not to leave anyone out of the mainstreaming of school life in the first place, wither educationally,

physically, or socially (Stainback & Stainback, 1992 pp.3f). Mainstreaming refers to a student who was not in the general education

or regular class before, but is now transferred to another setting with

students without disabilities, either on a part-time or full-time basis.

Integration and mainstreaming imply the same movement of students

from a segregated environment to the mainstream. Which is the

general education classroom, usually when these students have shown

academic readiness. The illustrations below show the movement from a

segregated special class to the general education classroom as

compared to an inclusive setting.

To summarize, inclusion is a departure from

the old structure and process of educating

students with and without disabilities. Ferguson

(pp. 285-287) describes the challenges that

inclusion presents. These challenges are simplified

below in a table format. Entries on curriculum and

assessment were added to respond to the more

recent requirements for teacher accountability and

the need for curricular flexibility.

7. What are the key considerations in

implementing inclusive schools? What must be

prepared for inclusion?

The following conditions play a central role in the development of inclusive schools and classroom

practices (Skipper, 2006):

A. Teachers positive attitudes towards students with special needs: (1) capacity to

enhance social relations. (2) views about student diversity and their willingness to deal

with those differences

B. Teachers knowledge, skills, expertise to address diversity of students learning and

behaviour needs: (1) pedagogical approaches, and (2) teaching methods and materials.

C. Teachers critical need for support from inside and outside of the school: school

leaders, community, parents and government

D. Governments clear view on inclusion and provision of adequate support

8. How can a school system

sustain inclusive education?

A. Yap (2008) noted the challenge of sustainability of inclusive education in

Philippines schools.

B. Thousand and Villa (1995) noted five ingredients critical to the successful

transition and maintenance of students in Vermont public schools (U.S)

inclusive settings. These are (1) administrative support, (2) the development

of commitment on the part of instructional staff, (3) a means for getting

specialized expertise into the classroom, (4) a process for collaboratively

planning and teaming and (5) a systematic transition-planning process

(p.289)

C. Villa, Thousand, Meyres and Nervin (1996)

point to three areas as critical to the maintenance

of high quality inclusive education. These are (1)

administrative knowledge and action, (2)

collaboration among general and special

education teachers, and (3) teacher education

(p.42).

9. What are the historical and/or policy

challenges for Philippine schools in

implementing inclusive education?

A. Special education and general education have been operating as separate

and parallel systems. School leadership has to work toward converging the two

systems (or subsystems) and inspire teachers to commit themselves to

educating diverse groups of students.

B. School leadership has to commit its resources and power to model shared

decision making in order to create a climate of collaboration in the schools.

High quality inclusive education cannot be mandated without thorough training

of both general education and special education teachers.

C. School leadership has to be open to new ways of

instruction, assessment, and evaluation of teaching.

D. The challenge of class size is nagging issue. It demands

solutions when schools decided to implement inclusion.

Other challenges are teaching assignments, class

scheduling, and supports needed by teachers and their

availability.

E. Teacher education institutions must be open to non-categorical pre-

service programs wherein they can learn collaborative problem-solving,

something that is new and different as when they were teachers of self-

contained classrooms.

F. Teacher education institutions can likewise advance knowledge as

they continue to do research studies aimed at identifying the process,

pedagogical approaches and evaluation and assessment critical to

well-functioning inclusive classrooms/school.

10. What are the benefits of inclusive

schools?

Skipper (2006) cited the synthesis of McGregor and Vogelsberg (1998) regarding the factors

that facilitate inclusion and the benefits derived from inclusive delivery service. The lists are

categorized into four as aspects. These are:

A. Development of social and communication skills

1. While placement alone does not guarantee positive social outcomes, students with

disabilities demonstrate high levels of social integration in inclusive settings.

2. Social competence and communication skills improve when students with disabilities are

educated in inclusive settings.

3. Interactive, small group contexts facilitate skill acquisition and social acceptance for

students with disabilities in general education classrooms.

4. Friendships do develop between students with disabilities and their typical peers in

inclusive settings.

B. Advantages for students without disabilities

1. The performance of typically developing students is not compromised by the presence

of students with disabilities in their classroom.

2. Typical students derive benefits from their involvement and relationships with students

with disabilities.

3. The presence of students with disabilities in the general education classroom provides

a catalyst for learning opportunities and experiences that might not otherwise be part of

the curriculum.

C. Teacher roles and competence

1. Teacher play a critical role in facilitating friendship between students with

disabilities and their typical peers.

2. Friendship and membership is facilitated by longitudinal involvement in the

classroom and routine activities of the school.

3. Although many teachers initially show reluctance about inclusion, they

become confident in their abilities with support and experience.

4. Support from other teachers is a powerful and necessary resource to

empower teachers to problem-solve new instructional challenges.

5. Sensitivity to make on-the-spot judgements about the type and amount of

support needed can facilitate the inclusion of students with disabilities.

D. Economics

While start-up costs may initially increase the cost of inclusive services, the

costs over time decrease, and are likely to be less than having segregated forms of

service delivery.

Mastropieri and Scruggs (2000) define full inclusion as the practice of serving

students with disabilities and other special needs entirely within the general

classroom (p.8).

There are proponents who use the term full inclusion as a guiding theme or goal in

establishing inclusion programs. McLeskey and Waldon (1996, p.152) caution that the

term full inclusion implies that the purpose of inclusion is to include all students for all

the school day in every school setting, preschool through high school. The concept of full

inclusion has been the target of criticism (Hallahan & Kaufman, 1995). Its goal connotes

the place where students with disabilities go for their education. Thus, the term full

inclusion is not an appropriate theme or goal for inclusive education.

12. What is the appropriate theme or goal for

schools to embrace when they want to go

inclusive?

McLeskey and Waldron (1996) argue that the

better theme for inclusion is the concept of

normalization. Simply stated, normalization means

that students with disabilities be given the

opportunity to live their live in manner that is typical

or normal as possible. With normalization, the

rhythm of the school day for students with disabilities should be similar as possible to what is

experienced by students without disabilities (p.152).

13. Who among the students with disabilities

should be included in the genera education

classroom?

Research has shown that students with disabilities, including those with

moderate disabilities are included in the regular classroom. Mcleskey and Waldron

(1996), however, provide the following question as guide in determining who should be

included in the general education class:

A. What setting will provide experiences that best prepare the student to live a life that is

as typical and independent as possible?

B. Can the needs of the student be successfully met in a general education classroom?

C. Can intensive, short-term services in a separate setting be provided that will give the

student skills to function better in a real-world setting such as the general classroom?

(p.153)

14. How can a curriculum be made responsive

to the type and nature of inclusion options?

Below is cascade of options, associating

inclusive program arrangements with the type of

curriculum and activities needed. Questions

related to the match between program options

and curricular modifications needed are included

(Wolfe & Hall, 2004-2005, p.151)

15. Will individuals with disabilities be able to find work? Are there

laws which prohibit private employers from discriminating against

qualified individuals with disabilities? Who is a qualified employee

with a disability?

In the U.S. The Americans with Disability Act (ADA) of 1990(P.L 101-336)

prohibits private employers, employment agencies, and labor unions from discriminating

against qualified individuals with disabilities in job application procedures:

A. Hiring and Firing

B. Advancement

C. Compensation

D. Job training

E. Other terms, conditions, and privileges of employment (Schloss et al., 2007,

p.12)

16. How is a qualified employee defined?

A qualified employee is defined as any individual who, with or without a

reasonable accommodation, could perform the essential functions of the job in question

(Schloss et al., p.12)

17. Are employers required to make accommodations for employees with

disability? When are employers exempted from providing such

accommodations?

A. ADA requires employers to make accommodations to the known disability of a

qualified applicant or employee if it would not impose undue hardship on the operation of

the employers business.

B. Reasonable accommodations include:

1. Making existing facilities used by employees readily accessible to and usable by persons with

disabilities;

2. Restructuring jobs, modifying work schedules, and reassigning to a vacant position;

3. Acquiring or modifying equipment or devices; and

4. Adjusting or modifying examinations, training materials, or policies; and providing qualified readers or

interpreters

C. Undue hardship is defined as an action requiring significant difficulty or expense when considered

such as employers size, financial resources, and the nature and structure of its operation.

D. An employer is not required to lower the quality or production standards to make an accommodation,

nor is an employer obligated to provide personal use items such as glasses or hearing aids (Schloss et

al., 2007, p.12)

Curriculum and Instruction

for Special Education

1. Are labels important for planning instruction? Should a curricular model or

orientation be chosen based on a label?

A. Initially, labels tell the disability of the student but they do not tell how a student learns.

Labels are not instructionally helpful, nor are they used for planning instruction. Learning

and behavioural strengths and weaknesses are determined more effectively though

assessment.

B. Labels carry also the presumption that the children will have to be taught in

segregated setting (Booth & Ainscow, 1998, p.166).

C. Matching a curricular models to traditional labels may be problematic but disregarding

the label may also be misleading.

D. Cross-categorical programming may be more useful. Curricula needs may be

sufficiently similar for students labelled LD, BD, and EMR. Thus, having a curricular

program for children with mild mental retardation and another one for behaviour disorders

may be counterproductive and expensive .

E. For most students with disabilities, the general education classroom may be

appropriate, particularly with consultation support.

F. Regardless of curricular option, Polloway, Patton, Epstein and Smith (1989)

recommend that two elements must be introduced to students with special learning

needs. These are: (1) introduction to career education with emphasis on career

awareness and (2) transition program (p. 7)

2. What are the learning characteristics of students with intellectual deficits such

as those with mental retardation?

Research on learning serves as the basis for developing educational

procedures. Studies in the 60s have postulated on the intelligence of children with mental

retardation. Inhelder, in 1968, offered the following tentative comparisons of Piagetian

stages to levels of retardation (Polloway et al., 1985, pp. 36-37)

A. Severe retardation-sensorimotor intelligence

There is a close relationship between intelligence and physical activity. The

child learns by placing objects in the mouth, or by shaking, dropping, or banging them.

Object permanence is established.

B. Moderate retardation-preoperational thought

At this stage, children are rich in imagination. There is increasing use of language.

C. Mild retardation-concrete operations

Children are generally able to solve problems place before them. Conservation

of volume and weight is established.

D. Borderline intelligence-formal thought

Symbolic thought becomes most important. Making hypothesis and doing

abstractions become possible

Polloway et al. (1985) remind that Inhelders

comparison are rough estimates. The individual with

retardation may be described as functioning below the stage

of formal operations (p.37).

In Britain, all children who arent formal thinkers.fall

into the category of special needs (Clark, Dyson, Milward, &

Robson, 1999, p.160).

3. Can children with mental retardation learn? Are the difficulties

to learn inherent in their condition?

Polloway et al. (1985) reviewed research evidence that trace

the nature of the learning problems of children with mental retardation

to their inability to develop effective strategies for monitoring

performance. The central difficulty concerns awareness of how to learn,

recall, or solve problems rather than inherent structural limitations. The

critical aspects of learning deficits are therefore often under the control

of an effective teacher. The following guidelines provide a blueprint for

teaching students with intellectual deficits.

A. Emphasize concrete, meaningful content in initial instructional

presentations.

B. Ensure mastery of new material though overlearning and repetition.

C. Provide the learner with methods of verbal mediation.

D. Increase attentions initially by highlighting relevant dimensions and by

minimizing extraneous stimuli. As attending skills develop, gradually

increase the extraneous stimuli to facilitate additional complex attending

skills.

E. Promote an atmosphere of success on which to base future learning

tasks.

F. Incorporate incentives (reinforcement) into learning arrangements.

G. Use variety of methods to present material and reinforce its

acquisition (p.55).

4. How are the processes of teaching and learning related

? Do students go through stages of learning? How

does teaching match these stages?

Teaching and learning must be clearly associated.

Polloway et al. (1985) clearly stated the connection between

the two: learning is the outcome of effective teaching (p.15).

The following premises about learning are the special

education teachers mantra.

A. Complex forms of human functioning are learned.

B. Learning is reflected in a charge in behavior.

C. Because behavior is learned, it can be changed. (We can apply this to a

negative sentence and the premise is likewise valid: A maladaptive behavior is

learned therefore it can be unlearned.)

D. Acquisition of certain skills depends upon acquisition of other prerequisite

ones.

E. Interactions within the learning environment significantly influence learning

(p.16).

The following table, adapted from Polloway et al. (1985, pp.17-24)

shows the relationship between the stages of learning and the instructional

process.

5. Do the stages of learning and teaching overlap? Can

a teacher proceed from acquisition stage directly to

maintenance? Can the teacher continue the use of

acquisition type methods for maintenance stage

learning?

Meeting students diverse needs in the classroom

require some instructional organization (Polloway et al.,

1985, p.21). The teachers goal is to maximize learning

without unnecessary loss of academic learning time.

Acquisition and maintenance stages are distinct, measurable stages. It

is best for the teacher to know when to proceed from acquisition to the

next stage of learning.

6. What teaching arrangement can be utilized to optimize learning

during the teaching cycle (acquisition, guided practice,

proficiency, independent practice, maintenance, and

generalization)?

The table is an adaptation of Stenhoff and Lignugaris/Krafts

(2007, p.9) comparison of the three basic instructional arrangements

and their application to the teaching cycle.

7. Is individual possible in inclusive classroom?

Yes. Individualization of instruction is said to be the sine qua

non of special education. One way of individualizing instruction in

inclusive setting is through differentiation of instruction.

8. What is a curriculum?

A curriculum is defined as an overall plan for instruction

adopted by a school, a school division, or school district that guides

teachers in what teacher quarterly, by semester, or yearly (Schloss et

al., 2007, p.75)

9. How can a curriculum reflect a universal design to meet the

needs of all learners in the general classroom?

A. Borrowed from architecture, universal design ensures the

construction of buildings that feature ramps and wider doors, making

these building accessible to all persons, including those who use

wheelchairs. People can use the stairs, ramps, or elevators to go up to

the next higher floor of the building. Meanwhile, in watching foreign

features on television, the audience can choose close captioning or the

audio track. All these features are built-in in the design of the building

or program, not added on later as adaptation. (Nolet & McLaughlin,

2000, p.90)

B. A curriculum reflects the concept of universal

design by recognizing the diversity of students and

providing options to support their learning. The

design features would include (1) goals that

challenge all students learning; (3) flexible instructional methods that challenge but support all

learners; and (4) assessment that enables

teachers to make instructional adjustments

(Schloss et al., 2007, p.76)

10. What is the underlying principle of universal design

for learning? How does this principle apply to teaching

students with cognitive disabilities?

The underlying principle of universal design is

redundancy, i.e., parallel systems that serve the same

purpose. Universal design for learning means employing (1)

flexible curricular materials and activities, and (2) a wide

range of challenging learning outcomes (Nolet & McLaughlin

2007, p.90). Remember the principle: Flexibility through

redundancy.

11. How is the principle of redundancy applied to the

process of teaching and learning?

Nolet and McLaughlin (2007, pp.90-95) cited three

principles of universal design for learning that permit

students of differing abilities to accomplish challenging

outcomes. The idea of flexibility through redundancy is

central to these principles. The principles are:

A. Provide multiple means of representation. (Information is

presented to students in more than one format.)

B. Provide multiple means of expression. (Students select

the form of expression that best meets their needs.)

C. Provide multiple means of engagement. (Students have

multiple ways to be engaged in the curriculum.)

The following grid adopted from Nolet and McLaughlin

(2009, p.92) shows the different ways teachers can present

information following the universal design fo learning:

12. What are the curricular orientations that can serve

as bases for programming for students with learning

disorders?

Polloway et al. (1989) identified three orientations.

These are:

A. Remediation academic and social skills remediation

B. Maintenance models: tutoring and acquisition and

utilization of learning strategies

C. Functionality; vocational and transition

These three curricular orientations are open to program

options that are:

A. Responsive to the needs of an individual student

B. Consistent with the objective of balancing maximum

interaction with students without disabilities and

C. Integrally related to service delivery options (i.e.,

resources room programs, self-contained classes, and

modified models) (p.1).

13. What are the types of curriculum? How do students

learn in each type?

The three types of curriculum are the intended curriculum,

the taught curriculum, and the learned curriculum.

A. The intended curriculum- This is the official or adopted

curriculum. It is prescribed by the Department of Education.

This is the body of subject matter content that students are

expected to learn as a result of their school experiences

(Nolet & McLaughlin, 2001, p.15).

B. The taught curriculum

This is the operationalization of the intended curriculum. This

involves the lessons and activities that actually occur in the classroom

or other instructional settings. This includes informal aspects of

teaching, such as incidental or conversational comments made by the

teacher. The taught curriculum also involves instructional materials,

such as textbooks, worksheets, and electronic media with which the

students interact. These materials, however, do not constitute the

curriculum, no matter how organized or detailed they are (Nolet &

McLaughlin, 2000, p.16).

C. The learned curriculum

This refers to what the students actually learn as a result of being in

the classroom and interacting with the intended and taught curricula. This

includes:

The skills and knowledge that are associated with school learning;

Other information that may or may not be part of the intended curriculum;

Inaccuracies, misconceptions, incomplete information from an

incompetent teacher; or

Unintended consequences of teaching such as students developing a

sense of helplessness over math with a teacher who models a negative

attitude toward students with disability in his math class (Nolet &

McLaughlin, 2000, p.17).

How do teachers determine what students are learning? As Nolet

and McLaughlin (2000) stress:

.our inferences about what students learn are only as

accurate as our assessment procedures, and many classroom

testing procedures provide very poor information about the

learned curriculum. One of the aims of alternative assessment,

such as performance assessments and portfolios is to create

more contextually relevant situations in which students can fully

demonstrate what they have learned (p.17; underlining provided).

14. What are the core elements of a curriculum?

A. A curriculum has a purpose. It is planned and linked to

desired outcomes.

B. A curriculum involves a domain, an identifiable body of

information related to a particular knowledge or skill area.

C. A curriculum involves time. It is affected by (1) the time

allocated for various topics and activities, and (2) the

sequence in which information is taught and learned (Nolet

& McLaughlin, 2000, p.18)

15. What are the curricular approaches for students

with special learning needs?

Curricular approaches for students with special

learning needs have been reported in the literature. These

are:

A. General education or regular curriculum-students may

follow the curriculum for all students, with substantial or

with minimum changes

B. Parallel curriculum-reduces the complexity of the general

education curriculum

C. Watered-down curriculum-a curriculum that reflects a lower grade

D. Practical curriculum-substitutions in skills enable students to

progress through the general education curriculum

E. Functional curriculum-emphasis is on life skills

F. Other curricular: learning strategies curriculum, social skills

curriculum, basic-skills model, tutorial model, competency model,

vocational education, functional skills model, and learning strategies

model (Schloss et al., 2007 p.14)

16. What are the types of supports or supplementary

aids and services required for instruction in inclusive

settings?

Soukup, Wehmeyer, Bashinski, and Bovaird, (2007

pp.101-120) point to the following classroom variables as

indicators of access to the general education curriculum for

students with intellectual and developmental disabilities.

A. Curriculum Modifications

1. Curriculum adaptations-modification that change the way content

is represented or presented to students to promote student

engagement, either through pedagogical means (e.g., graphic or

advance organizers, verbatim notes, outlines, semantic maps,

mnemonics, chunking, questioning techniques, visualizing strategies)

or through the use of technology (e.g., digital talking books).

2. Curriculum Augmentations-refer to the addition of content to the

general education curriculum (e.g., teaching students learning

strategies, cognitive strategies, and student-directed learning

strategies)

B. Modification to the physical structure of the campus

or classroom-three possible types: entire group, divided

group, and individual group (p.104)

C. Modifications to classroom variables such as

instructional methods or approaches (use of explicit and

direct instruction, multiple means of presenting information,

allowing students to select the form of expression they are

best capable of doing), or use of varied materials.

D. Access to educational and assistive technology-types and

quantity of technology applications designed to help students

with disabilities learn, communicate, and otherwise function

more independently.

E. Assessment and task accommodations-use of feedback;

choosing distributive practice over massed practice, pacing of

lessons, provision for transition between subjects (reading, math,

etc.)

F. Availability of pair educator or peer supports (e.g.,

shadow teacher, peer tutoring)

17. When students needs so many supports,

would this mean that they need a more

segregated classroom setting?

No. The supports can be provided by the

regular education teacher. The types and quantity

of support to the student with disabilities do not

dictate placement decisions.

18. What are the instructional strategies and curricular approaches found

to be effective with students in inclusive classrooms?

Skippers (2006) review of research literature led to a list of curricular

and instructional strategies. The list is categorized into four areas:

A. Curricular approach

Integrated approach to curricular content

Adjustment to instructional content, evaluative criteria, materials,

environment, and instructional delivery

Emphasis on friendship, caring and respect

B. Instruction

Different ways of learning, differentiated instruction

(e.g., universal design for learning)

Linking instruction to real situations

Use graphic organizers

Use of computer assisted instruction

Direct and explicit instruction

Concrete, representational, abstract instruction for

math

Use of manipulatives and hands-on techniques

C. Grouping arrangements

Cooperative grouping structures

Peer tutoring

D. Assessment/evaluation of student performance

Assessment integrated to teaching and learning