3. 7 article june edition vol 9 no 1 2016 register journal iain salatiga

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Speaker-Dependent Based Speech Recognition

Lilik Untari1 SF. Luthfie Arguby Purnomo2 Nur Asiyah3 Muhammad Zainal

Muttaqien4

IAIN Surakarta

[email protected]

Abstract

This is the first part of the two parts of a qualitative focused R&D research aimed at

designing an application to assist students with visual impairment (VI) in learning English

writing and reading skills. The designed application was a speaker-dependent based speech

recognition. Conducting alpha and beta testings, it was revealed that MAKTUM, the name of

the application, exposed weaknesses on the selection of Ogden‘s Basic English as the

linguistic resources for the application and on the recording complexities. On the other hand,

MAKTUM displayed strengths in individualized pronunciation and simple interfaces to

operate.

Key Words: MAKTUM, Speech Recognition, Visual Impairment

Abstrak

Penelitian pengembangan dengan fokus pada aspek kualitatif ini adalah penelitian tahap

pertama dari dua tahap penelitian yang bertujuan untuk menghasilkan sebuah aplikasi

berbasis speech recognition untuk membantu mahasiswa tunanetra dalam mempelajari

bahasa Inggris khususnya keahlian menulis dan membaca. Setelah melakukan alpha dan beta

testing, terungkap bahwa MAKTUM memiliki kelemahan pada pemilihan Basic English oleh

1 Teaching staff in English Letters Department IAIN Surakarta




They can be reached at [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

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Ogden dan kompleksitas perekaman individual. Sementara itu kelebihan MAKTUM terlihat

pada sistem pelafalan personal yang dimilikinya dan menu antar muka yang mudah

dioperasikan.

Kata kunci: MAKTUM, Speech Recognition, Mahasiswa Tunanetra.

Introduction

The absence of linguistics based learning aid for visually impaired (VI) students is

one of the basic problems universities face and the same problem occurs in the Faculty of

Islamic Studies and Teacher Training at State Islamic Institute of Surakarta (IAIN Surakarta).

In its fourth year of inclusive education, the faculty static in developing any electronic or

digital aid to sustain its visually impaired students in enhancing their learning experiences

and achievements. In the scope of English Department student, one student with visual

impairment suffers visual acuteness of 20/70 or classified as partial visual impairment

(Berger and Constance, 1970). In WHO scale, 20/70 is classified into severe visual

impairment (SVI) or low vision (Freeman, 2007).

The PVI category the student suffers from, in the context of linguistics, triggers a high

susceptibility toward the declination of linguistic proficiency (Galiano and Portelie, 2011).

The linguistic profiencies the student suffers from are dominantly in reading and writing

skills. This condition is perceptible from the necessity for the student to require a reading

assistant when a test is in progress. In English language, abridging this condition, simplified

English (SE) is designed (Kashdan and Barnes, 2002). This consideration to adopt simplified

English is not yet taken into account when deciding to accept students with VI and thereby it

triggers the feeling of social isolation (Webb, 2006), in the case of the student of English

Department, the feeling emerges in reading and writing class. The social isolation is

perceivable from the fact that the student is required to alter her reading and writing

experiences into listening and speaking experiences exercised for reading and writing

purposes. Therefore, an assistive technology to bridge these experiences is of necessity to

assist the student in her reading and writing class. Text-to-speech technologies, like stylus

pen (Zworykin and Flory, 1947), talking book pen, Kurzweil Reading Machine (KRM)

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(Dorman, 1995), The Reading Edge (Dorman, 1995) and Kindle. Meanwhile writing skills,

the focus of this research, are abridgedable by speech-to-text technology. Microsoft Word,

Dragon Nuance, Speakonia and other speech-to-text technologies are few to name.

The aforementioned speech recognition software and applications, due to its global

nature, are operated based on speech following to the English pronunciation standards. This

fact evokes a problem in the context of English as Foreign Language (EFL), a problem linked

to the standardization of English pronunciation. The presence of English pronunciation

standard on the speech recognition technologies indicates that the technologies are

dominantly intended for English native speakers. This is problematic if connected to the

problem faced by the VI student as aforementioned before. Students with VI possesses a

misunderstanding and an incomplete comprehension of a sound (Wild, Wilson, and Hobson,

2013) from which language expressions of the students are limited especially in reading and

writing skills. Therefore, speech-to-text technologies with standardized pronuciation are

assumed to hinder non-native students, especially students with VI, when they attempt to

learn reading and writing skills. Departing from this assumption and the fact for the need of

speech-to-text technology abridgable for the VI student to use, this research and development

inquiry with qualitative focus attempts to design speech-to-text technology friendly to VI

users.

To design the technology, the first step taken was to adopt a concept of mother tongue

related foreign language inspired from MT-Based MLE (Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual

Education), a language instruction involving the use of mother tongue along with other

languages used in a classroom (Malone, 2007). The incorporation of MT-Based MLE is

expected to open a possibility to record voices and writings adjusted to the pronunciation

standardization of the users. Thereby, it is expected the problems evoked from English

pronunciation standardization in designing a speech recognition application are solved.

Departing from aforementioned logical sequence, this research focused on

constructing a reciprocal design between student and lecturer. The following illustration

might help explain the intended reciprocal design:

Exercise making

by lecturers using

the text-to-speech

technology

Assessing the

answers, and

discussing them

with the student

Answering the

exercises by the

student using

speech-to-text

technology

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MT-Based MLE

The reciprocality of the application is perceptible from the interactions between the lecturer

and the student with the designed applicaition abridging them. The initiation of this

reciprocality starts by the inputs executed by the lecturers to the student in writing skill

exercises through text-to-speech technology. Utilizing this feature, the text composed by the

lecturers is converted into a speech. Through the technology, the student performs an exercise

by responding to the exercises given by the lecturer. The response is in the form of pseech by

the student which is converted into a text by the application.

Completing the exercises, the exercise will be downloaded as a text to which the

lecturers examine the answers and discuss the answers with the student. This cycle is

expected to generate a meta experience, an experience resulting from thought and feelings

toward the mood (Mayer and Gaschke, 1988), for the VI student. Regarding to writing skills

for VI students, meta experience is visible from the writing engagement process executed

through speech recognition technology. The following illustration depicts the relationship

between the designed speech recognition application with the expected meta experience:

FUNCTIONALITY

META-EXPERIENCE

INTERACTIVITY

OPERATION

ACCESSIBILITY

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Opertion, functionality, interactivity, and accessibility are a union defining a program or

an application. Operation refers to the mechanical capabilities a program or an application

has. Functionality denotes the usabilities or benefits the program or the application has

toward the users. Interactivity signifies the level and form of communication appearing

between the users and the program or the application (HCI/Human Computer Interaction).

Accessibility refers to the capabilities a program or an application has for an access by

various types of users. Those four elements establish a meta-experience generated from the

four elements the program or application has. For instance, the application this research

attempts to design. The application aimed at assisting students with VI in learning English

especially writing skill and thereby this application is expected to endow a real learning

experience as that of non VI students. This application is expected to endow the users a

situated and simulated learning, digital and virtual paedagogical presentation aligned to the

real world (Shaffer, Squire, Halverson, Gee, 2004). Therefore, it is an expectation that the

students with VI possess meta-experience presented through situated and simulated learning

generated from this English linguistics aid.

This research resulting in an application called MAKTUM focused, first, on writing skill

as the primary focus of the skill and reading as the secondary focus. The primary focus of the

object was the VI student and the secondary was the lecturer. Secondary focus emerged due

to reciprocality owned by MAKTUM. Second, MAKTUM was a fusion of text-to-speech and

speech-to-text with the former still under development. Third, MAKTUM was targeted for

students with VI with categorization and clarification by Berger and Kautz of which the

relationship between language acquisition and visual impairment is perceptible. Fourth,

MAKTUM design related to speech recognition was limited to identification technology, sub

technology linked to word recognition uttered by verification technology, sub technology

designed to verify the uttered word accuracy. Fifth, MAKTUM did not incorporate NLG

(Natural Language Generator), natural language verifier since MAKTUM utilized MT-Based

MLE.

Research Objective

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The purposes of this research were first, to reveal the weakness MAKTUM has in

assisting writing skill learning by the VI student of English Department at IAIN Surakarta.

Second was to unveil the strength MAKTUM has in assisting the writing skill learning, and

third was to obtain responses from the VI student toward MAKTUM.

Research Methodology

This research was a research and development focusing not on product comparison but on

response intakes toward the designed product in alpha and beta testing scope. The primary

objective of this research was to design an application implemented to assist students with VI

of English Department at State Islamic Institute of Surakarta in learning writing and reading

skills.

This research was executed through three steps or triple helix (Mahdjoubi, 2009) namely

preliminary research, design, and application. The preliminary research was aimed at

revealing the negative impacts students with VI in the English Department without the

presence of an assistive technology helping the students qualitatively. The result obtained

from this preliminary research was utilized as an input to guide the researchers in designing

MAKTUM. After the design was completed, the next phase was to acquire the responses

toward MAKTUM from the student and the lecturers purposively.

The data validation utilized in this research was content-scale validation from Garcia-

Valderrama and Mulero-Mendigorri. Content-scale validation specifically designed to

validate research and development was executed through three phases namely selection,

consultation, and scalation (2005). Selection revolves around qualitative and quantitative

aspect selection assumed to possess the most crucial roles in developing a product. This

selection was undergone by performing extensive reviews on related literature.

Consultation concerns on consultation to the experts regarding with the qualitative and

quantitave aspects of the products. Scalation operates around employing scale design to

imply the conjunction of qualitative and quantitative aspects. In the context of MAKTUM,

qualitative aspects include interface and interactivity discussed through literary reviews

discussing both aspects. The consultation of MAKTUM was executed by cooperating with I

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After Smile studio and the scalation was undergone by combining table structurization by

Spradley intended to reveal the connection between interface and interactivity.

The research procedures were (1) observing the student with VI in English

Department regarding with the level of VI and English writing and reading competences (2)

interviewing the student regarding with the difficulties faced in English writing and reading

skills (3) designing the alpha version of MAKTUM based on the obsevation and the

interview (4) performing an alpha testing on MAKTUM involving the experts from I After

Smile Studio (5) redesigning MAKTUM based on the result of alpha testing (6) performing a

beta testing involving the student and the lecturers of reading and writing (7) uploading to

velis.xyz and Google Play.

The Description of MAKTUM

MAKTUM yang bisa diunduh untuk android melalui

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.iaftersmile.maktum atau bisa diakses

online melalui https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/110823528/Maktum%20x2/index.html

ini didesain dengan menggunakan pendekatan koneksionis dan karakterisasi ASR (Automatic

Speech Recognition) (Boulard and Morgan, 2012) untuk fitur speech recognition-nya dan

pendekatan pola (pattern) untuk menu antar mukanya. Pendekatan koneksionis yang

digabungkan dengan ASR menghasilkan aplikasi speech recognition yang bersifat speaker-

dependent, berkosa kata khusus, dalam kasus ini adalah Basic English, dan tuturannya

bersifat isolatif.

MAKTUM is downloadable for Android application via

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.iaftersmile.maktum or accessible via

online from https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/110823528/Maktum%20x2/index.html was

designed using a connectionist approach and characterization of ASR (Automatic Speech

Recognition) for its speech recognition feature, and pattern approach for the inter-face menu.

Connectionist approach combined with ASR produced speaker-dependent speech recognition

application having special vocabularies, in this case Basic English, and isolative speech.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.iaftersmile.maktum

https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/110823528/Maktum%20x2/index.html

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.iaftersmile.maktum

https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/110823528/Maktum%20x2/index.html

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The resulting design from the aforementioned approach and characterization is a

reflection of the special linguistic needs for students with visual impairment. The underlying

assumption is that those who have disabilities, although inclusive in domain, require special

assistance also both in terms of operationalization and content of a linguistic aid application.

This assumption is in line with the concept of HCI (Human Computer Interaction) in the

perspective of the pattern approach, which stresses the specificity of the needs of the

technology users (Borchers, 2001). In the context of an application intended for users with

special needs, the interface of MAKTUM was designed with a minimalistic number of menu

and simple functionality. The visually impaired student from whom MAKTUM was designed

has low vision so that the menu design applies bright colors in order to be easy to read. The

example of menu presented in MAKTUM is as follows:

Chart 1 The Display of MAKTUM

The combination of connectionist approach, ASR characteristics, and pattern approach

in the context of linguistic need for those with special needs produces in the application that

is in linearity with the user, or in simple words, user-friendly.

MAKTUM consists of three main menus, namely Start, Clear, and Save. The Start

Menu is to start the recognition, CLEAR is to delete the text resulted from the recognition,

and Save is to save and download the text. In addition to the operational menu, there are also

descriptive menus which describe the status of the spoken utterances; Interim Result and

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Final Result menus. Interim Result Menu displays the text version of the utterances that can

still be corrected while Final result Menu displays the final result of the utterances.

Alpha and Beta Testing Result

The Alpha and Beta Testing implemented in this research covers the alpha testing for

content and operationalization as suggested in the concept of usability by Craig and Jaskiel

(2002). Through the Alpha Testing from the language application design expert in I After

Smile studio, MAKTUM is claimed to have two strengths and two weaknesses. The first

strength is that MAKTUM incorporates individual-based pronunciation which minimizes the

basic problem in pronunciation, International standard pronunciation. This strength, however,

comes with a weakness, the complexity of the recording.

The complexity comes to appear as the user has to record around 1500 words covered

in Charles Kay Ogaden‘s theory of Basic English. From linguistic perspective, the decision to

use this Basic English is considered less appropriate as this theory, in addition to the fact that

it is too classic to use, does not have the linguistic and philosophical accuracy in defining the

meaning of Basic and English as disclosed by Flesch (1944), and the trend of free to speech

in syntactical context which in turn lead to grammatical confusion for Basic English has

different grammar from the English language in general (1994).

The linguistic weakness of Basic English, as mentioned previously, is based more on

the structural perspective. From the functional perspective in the context of disabilities, as

discussed by oleh Pena (1967), Becker (1977), Templer (2006), dan Templer (2009), it is

revealed that English simplification is needed for those with special needs. The problems that

arise in the context of language simplification lies in the question whether or not the

simplification of the language includes all language units or only one of them such as

phonetic (Santa Ana, 1991) or lexica; (Spacia, Jauhar, Mihalcea, 2012) simplification.

The decision to choose Ogden‘s Basic English is in relation to the holistification of

English simplification which covers not only word-based lexical simplification with high

frequency of use but also the restructuring of English grammar though the implementation in

MAKTUM becomes redundant. The redundancy comes to appear as the grammatical

structure does not become the main focus in its design. MAKTUM which function as a

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speech recognition based linguistic aid application has the purpose of transferring the user‘s

voice into a physical lexical form so that third parties such as lecturers or teachers can, in the

context of writing or grammar lectures, read the work of MAKTUM user, in this case the

student.

The basic function, as described previously, does not require grammatical

construction as formulated by Ogden. The separation of frequent vocabularies from the

grammar in MAKTUM is because the design of MAKTUM was based on the connectionist

approach, ASR characteristics, and pattern approach which emphasize on specific design for

specific user.

The second strength, as revealed from the Alpha and Beta Testing, in the context of

the user interface of the speech recognition designed based on pattern approach is that

MAKTUM has simple user interface resulting in the easy operation by the user. In the

perspective of speech recognition with speaker-dependent characteristic, the simple user

interface menu designed based on the specificity of the user has fulfilled the criteria of being

user-friendly. However, in the perspective of speaker-dependent speech-recognition and the

perspective of users with special needs in overall context, the user interface displayed in

MAKTUM does not meet the criteria of being user-friendly.

This claim is based on the perspective of correlation of the menus at the user interface

categorized as collection, a relationship among objects (menus) directly related to the

operationalization of a menu without affecting other objects in the interface (Gallitz, 2007).

In this perspective of collection, the expert team in I After Smile consider, MAKTUM should

maximize the user interface menu for all levels of the visually impaired people by

implementing voice-recognition or motion sensors to the interface menu operationalization

which basically emphasizes on the ergonomics of menu.

Conclusion

By means of applying the Alpha Testing from the language application design expert

in I After Smile studio, MAKTUM is claimed to have two strengths and two weaknesses. The

first strength is that MAKTUM incorporates individual-based pronunciation which minimizes

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the basic problem in pronunciation, International standard pronunciation. This strength,

however, comes with a weakness, the complexity of the recording.

References

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literacy in social practice: A reader, 1-10.

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Indonesian and English Lexical Metaphoric Expressions

Used In Online Competition News Text

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Siti Tarwiyah

FITK UIN Walisongo Semarang

[email protected]

Abstract

The subject of this article deals with discourse semantics. The focus of its description is

metaphoric expressions used to express competition news in online media. Based on some

theories about metaphor, the writer tries to search for kinds of metaphoric expressions used

and the reasons behind the use of the expressions. The result shows that English and

Indonesian language use lexical metaphors with three specifications, i.e. anthropomorphic,

animal, and synesthetic. The choice of specific lexical metaphoric expressions is related to

situational and cultural aspects.

Key words: Metaphor, Online Media News, Cultural Aspects

Abstrak

Subyek artikel ini berhubungan dengan semantik wacana. Fokus deskripsinya ialah ekspresi

metaforis yang digunakan untuk mengungkapkan berita kompetisi di media online.

Didasarkan pada beberapa teori tentang metafora, penulis mencoba untuk mencari jenis

ekspresi metaforis yang digunakan dan alasan di balik penggunaan ekspresi tersebut. Hasil

penelitian menunjukkan bahwa Bahasa Inggris dan Bahasa Indonesia menggunakan metafora

leksikal dengan tiga spesifikasi, yaitu metafora antropomorfik, metafora binatang dan

metafora sinestetik. Pilihan ekspresi metaforis leksikal tertentu berkaitan dengan aspek situasi

dan budaya.

Kata Kunci: Metafora, Berita Media Online, Aspek Budaya

Introduction

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Every nation or community has its own ways to express information, thought, idea,

attitude, and stand point. This is in line with Saussure opinion (in Crystal, 1993:407) that the

relationship between signifier (form) and signified (meaning) is arbitrary. This arbitrariness

mainly depends on culture of the society and how they see phenomena around them. Javanese

people consider their interlocutors in choosing which speech level to use, Ngoko, Kromo, or

Basa. English people see the importance of time through the use of tenses. Eskimo

differentiate five kinds of snow represented by five terms. Indonesian people see the

difference among padi, beras, and nasi which are called rice in English.

On the other hand, language also influences choices of interpretation to things around

the language users. Sapir (in Hodge and Gunther, 1993:210) said, ―... language habits of our

community predisposes certain choices of interpretation. In Indonesian language padi is

different from beras and nasi. All of which are called rice in English. This results in an

interpretation that all those three things are different that must be treated differently in

accordance with their functions.

Metaphor, as one of figurative languages may be seen as another example of the

difference in language use. Every speech community often has distinctive symbols to refer to

certain referents. English people may say dr. Yusuf is a butcher, pass with flying colors, feel

blue, which cannot be found in Indonesian language.

The definitions of metaphor from some experts seem varied. Metaphor or figure of

speech is ―a word or phrase which is used for special effect, and which does not have its

usual or literal meaning‖ (Richards, 1990: 105). The Greek translation of metaphor simply

means ‗transfer‘. It is a transfer because it replaces a certain word which cannot fully express

the writer‘s mind. Johnson (1972:26) defines metaphor as ―carry beyond‖. It is an expression

that literally denotes one thing but at the same time it is used to refer to something else. The

changing of the referent is influenced by its context. Metaphor is based on perception of

similarities between two references, i.e., thing which is being talked and which is being

compared (Ullmann, 1972:213). It is a normal thing that we see some same metaphoric

expressions in many languages as far as they have clear analogies (1972:238)

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Metaphor is a variation of language which can be found in any language. Lakoff and

Johnson in Metaphors We Live By admits this phenomenon. They say that metaphors is used

both in literature and in daily language in any language and dialect (in Hatch and Cheryl,

1995:87). Some examples of universal metaphors are analogizing darkness with sadness or

bad luck (Cirlot in Abdul Wahab, 1991:15), catch or grab means understand (Ullmann,

1972:238), assuming heat as anger (Lakoff and Johnson in Hatch and Cheryl, 1995:96).

Meanwhile, Harimurti says that is the use of a certain word or expression for another

object or concept based on analogy or similarities (1983:106). Metaphor is an analogy that

compares two things directly (Gorys Keraf, 1987:139 and Anton M. Moeliono, 1988:580).

Abdul Wahab, an Indonesian linguist who has observed metaphoric problems, defines

metaphor as an expression whose meaning cannot be grasped directly from its form because

the meaning is predicated on the expression. The meaning is formulated based on

understanding and experience of the thing meant to refer something else (1995:72).

Metaphor is a creative power of language. It may give the freshness in language, avoid

boredom, revive dead things (language), and actualize things (language) which are paralyzed.

That is why metaphoric expressions are mainly used in literature with the creativity of men of

letters in processing language (Edi Soebroto, 1986:46).

Metaphoric concept is actually based on relativism paradigm that is figured by Edward

Sapir (1921) and Whorf (1956). According to this school, meaning is the result of mental

processes. This is due to unseparated relationship between human and their society, which

influences human‘s thought about their life (Sapir in Sampson, 1980:82-83).

Metaphor is an important in our conceptual system. It may also reinforce social values

of its user. ―Metaphors are fundamental parts of our conceptual system. We could not

eliminate them from our vocabulary or our press.‖ (Nelson in Pangestuti, 1997:183) ―… By

framing an issue in a particular way, metaphors reinforce certain social values….‖

(1997:182) some rude or taboo expressions tend to be metaphorized in order to be more

polite or cultured. Indonesian people prefer using pekerja seks komersial to cabul, keluarga

pra-sejahtera to keluarga miskin that are more euphemistic.

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Every nation or language community has different ways of expressing information,

idea, attitude and stand. Saussure said that the relationship between form (signifier) and

meaning (signified) is arbitrary (Crystal, 1993:407). This difference depends on the culture of

the community and the way they view phenomena around them. Javanese people often take

the status of their interlocutor into account, which is then used as consideration whether to

use krama or ngoko. The use of tense in English asserts the importance of time within

English people. People in Eskimo have more than five words to refer to different snow.

Indonesian people have padi, gabah, and beras, while English people only have rice. All

these expressions and norms of speech are tightly related to the view of each people on the

realities around them.

The principle of arbitrary can also be seen in the use of metaphor. Besides its universal

every language community often has different symbol to refer to a certain referent. English

people has no cry over the spilt milk, which is expressed as nasi sudah menjadi bubur in

Indonesian language. Chagga speakers see a sexy woman as lilya ‗oven‘ but Indonesian

people see this woman as a guitar.

As a kind of creativity of language use, metaphors are interesting to be observed. In

which domain it should be looked? Searle claimed that metaphor is an utterance meaning

rather than sentence meaning and should be investigated pragmatically (Morgan, 1980:139).

Abdul Wahab asserted that social and cultural context, human perception, comprehension,

and sometimes myth and symbolism should be taken into account when we discuss metaphor

(1995:93). This is to say that enough knowledge about this world is highly recommended in

the discussion.

Metaphor has something to do with human perception system of this universe and

feeling (Hatch and Cheryl, 1995:95). Suggesting the similar argument, George Lakoff and

Mark Johnson (1980) say,

―… Metaphor is not just a matter of language, that is, of mere words. We shall argue

that …. Human thought processes are largely metaphoric. This is what we mean when

we say that human conceptual system is metaphorically structured and defined.‖ (In

Abdul Wahab, 1995:76)

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Lexical metaphor is identified from the use of a certain word that denotes a certain

thing or reality to refer to another thing or reality. The word flooded in in the protest flooded

in is an example of lexical metaphor. Flooded usually refers to a large quantity of water

covering an area that is usually dry. The congruent expressions to describe a big protest are

Protest were received in large quantities and even very many people protested.


a. Object of the study

The object of this study is online competition news text uploaded from October to

December 2014.

b. Unit of Analysis

This research is focused on metaphoric expressions used to express competition news.

The analysis involves lexemes in its context or grammar. It is realized at the lexico-grammar

strata. According to Eggins (1994: 82), if the stratum of language to be analyzed is lexico-

grammar, the unit of analysis is clause.

c. Technique of Data Collection

The data of this study was collected by downloading online competition news text uploaded

from October to December 2014.

d. Technique of Data Analysis

The data was analyzed by using the following steps:

a. Reading the news

b. Segmenting the news into clauses

c. Identifying the metaphoric expressions

d. Identifying semantic relations between symbol (metaphoric expressions) and referents.

e. Interpreting the influence of cultural aspects toward the use of symbols.

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Discussion

1. Anthropomorphic Metaphors

The tables below shows Indonesian and English lexical metaphors used in

Indonesian online competition news.

Table 1

Indonesian Anthropomorphic Metaphors

No. Expression The Change from

Referent Symbol

Meaning

1. singkirkan unggulan

pertama (Ib1) opponent/people

unused thing

defeat

2. menyingkirkan unggulan

pertama (Ib3) opponent/people

unused thing

defeating

3. mengukuhkan provinsi

ibu kota negara (Id2) winning title decide as the winnerl

4. menggeser dominasi

Jateng (Id3) opponent/people thing outdo

5. membabat semua

kategori (Ia4) cathegory grass win

6. menyabet 29 emas (Ia5) medal people/things win

7. kejutan besar ditorehkan

(Ib2) winning latex, sap got

Table 2

English Anthropomorphic Metaphors


Referent Symbol

Meaning

1. societal shift (Ea6) people thing slight change

2. a push toward gender

quality (Ea7) quality concrete thing motivation

3. give himself a shot (Eb1) game battle play

4. shot up the ranking (Eb3) game battle get higher rank

5. It was neck and neck nerveous human body nervous

6. maiden World Sperseries

(Eb13) event people First event

7. edged past Denmark‘

Mads Pieler (Eb15) people thing outdo

8. a stunning performance game fight good

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(Ec2)

9. by sweeping their ...

(Ec3) opponent/people

unused thing

outdo

10. the other wins came

(Ec5) winning

human/animal

win the game

11. they moved to second

place winning place become the second

winner

12. on the provisional

standing winning position winning

Non-metaphoric expressions (in meaning column) describe the semantic relationship

between referent and symbol clearer. The meanings are drawn based on the context of each

expression and the shared semantic features between metaphoric and non-metaphoric

expressions or symbol and referent as shown in the following examples:

(1) menyingkirkan unggulan pertama (Ib3) (2) defeating the seed no 1

―Getting rid of the seed no 1‖

- Throwing something away - giving no chance to play in the next round

- Done with effort - done with effort

- The thing moves from the previous place - the team leave the next round

Menyingkirkan ―getting rid of‖ is said to symbolize defeating because of those similar

semantic features.

Opponent/people thing dominates symbolization of metaphors of this kind. The

symbol used are singkirkan (Ib1), menyingkirkan (Ib3), menggeser (Id3). The meaning

conveyed is to defeat/to outdo/to win. Again, the defeated team is seen as the victim. The

same symbolization is also often used in English. The used symbols are societal (Ea6), edged

past (Eb15), and sweeping (Ec3).

The symbols which may be typical are membabat (Ia4), menyabet (Ia5), ditorehkan

(Ib2). This is due to the relationship between all those expressions with agricultural setting of

community life, which is still dominant in Indonesia. Meanwhile, some English metaphoric

expressions are closed to their modern tradition. It can be seen from the use of shot (Eb1) and

shot up (Eb3) which employ such modern tool as gun. The same symbols are not found in

Indonesian online compettition news.

2. Animal Metaphors

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Metaphors of this kind can be seen from the examples in table 3 and 4 below:

Table 3: Indonesian Animal Metaphors


Referent Symbol

Meaning

1. menunjukkan taringnya

(Ia1) team animal good play

2. taring itu ditunjukkan (Ia2) team animal good play

3. mengincar kemenangan

(Ia6) winning prey pursue

4. jadi incaran (Ia7) winning prey pursue

5. memburu nomor individual

(Ic6) winning prey pursue

Table 4

English Animal Metaphors


Referent Symbol

Meaning

1. flying regionally (Ed2) team animal play

2. a hawk in flight (Ed3) team animal team

From the data in the two tables, it may also be concluded that Indonesian animal

metaphors are dominantly pertaining to hunting. Such symbols as taring (Ia2)/taringnya

(Ia1), mengincar (Ia6)/incaran (Ia7), memburu (Ic6) are closed to the natural way of live.

Meanwhile, English has fly (Ed2) and hawk (Ed3), cooccured with flight (Ed3) which are

may be seen as having correlation with technology or modern way of life.

3. Synesthetic Metaphors

Table 5 and 6 below summarize synaesthetic metaphors that express game processes

and results in online competition news.

Table 5

Indonesian Synaesthetic Metaphors

No Expression The Change from

Referent Symbol

Meaning

1. pertandingan digelar (Ia3,

Ib8) competition mat held

2. menundukkan pasangan no. to defeat to nod defeat

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1 (Ib4)

3. lolos dari pasangan

Tiongkok (Ib5) to win to save from

siege

win

4. diserang/menyerang (Ib6,

Ib7) competition battle play

5. ajang Word Military

Parachuting Championship

(Ic1)

event place event

6. merebut medali emas (Ic3) to compete to fight

over

win

7. medali dipersembahkan

(Ic4) medal offering given

8. Ni Putu mencatat ketepatan

0,57 cm (Ic5) to parachute to note to parachute to 0,57

cm

9. mengumpulkan medali (Ic7) medal common

collection

win

10. merebut gelar juara (Id4) to compete to fight

over

win

11. kegembiraan terpancar (Id5) happiness light happy for the

winning

12. mendulang 8 medali (Id6) winning gold win

Table 6

English Synesthetic Metaphors

No Expression The Change from

Referent Symbol

Meaning

1. earned a medal (Ea1,3,4,5) winning earning got

2. takes second place (Ea2) winning position becomes the second

winner

3. entering the men‘s single

final (Eb2) game room/place Playing

4. stunned no 4 seed (Eb4) to compete to fight

over

played

5. trailled for much of (Eb5) event place/road played

6. he stepped it up (Eb6) winning ladder won

7. to take the next six points

(Eb7) winning concrete

thing

to win

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8. shot past his opponent (Eb9) competition battle outdo

9. quelled Kento Moonota

(Eb10) competition battle outdo

10. lost his way (Eb11) play track played badly

11. earned a shot (Eb12) competition battle play

12. a title clash with (Eb14) to compete to fight

over

play

13. Indonesia beats Armenia

(Ec1) to compete to fight

over

outdoes

14. their latest victim (Ec4) to compete to fight

over

opponent

15. Indonesia pounded 4-0


over

won

16. true test came in the third

round (Ec9) play test good play

17. beating Romania (Ec10) opponent victim outdoing

18. the lead up to the third

round (Ec11) competition track play

19. given the opponent‘s line up

(Ec12) competition track chance

20. Medina was outstanding

over Foisor (Ec13) winning reputation win over

21. taking three wins (Ec14) winning concrete

thing

getting

22. the team challenged China


over

played

23. first place honour (Ed1) winning place becomes the first

winner

24. a top place to be for ....

(Ed4) winning place becomes the first

winner

25. KU team placed first in ....

(Ed5) winning place won

26. a first place award (Ed6) winning place winning

Most of metaphoric expressions found both in Indonesian and English online

competition news are antropomorphic. The symbolization of competition as fighting or

battle is dominant in those two languages. It is shown by 42% of Indonesian and 42.3% of

English metaphors. The symbols used are lolos (Ib5), diserang/menyerang (Ib6, Ib7),

merebut (Ic3, Id4), stunned (Eb4), shot (Eb9, Eb12), quelled (Eb10), clash (Eb 14), beats

(Ec1), victim (Ec4), pounded (Ec8), challenged (Ec15).

Conclusion

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The conclusions may be made based on the data analysis in the previous part are: (1)

metaphoric expressions are used to intensify meaning, to represent the writer‘s sense of

things being described, (2) metaphoric expressions used in the online competition news

falls into three cathegories, i.e. Anthropomorphic, animal, and synesthetic metaphor, (3)

metaphoric expressions used in the online competition news are tightly related to the way

the writer sees the phenomenon, which is influenced by cultural aspects of the writer.

References

Crystal, David. 1993. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Deddy Mulyana dan Rakhmat Jalaluddin. 1996. Komunikasi Antarbudaya. Bandung: Penerbit

PT Remaja Rosdakarya.

Edi Subroto, D. 1986. Semantik Leksikal I. Surakarta: Universitas Sebelas Maret.

Eggins, Suzanne.1994. An Introduction to Systematic Functional Linguistics. London: Pinter

Publisher.

Fairclough, Norman. 1989. Language and Power. New York: Longman Group Ltd.

Hatch, Evelyn dan Cheryl Brown. 1995. Vocabulary, Semantics and Language Education.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hodge, Robert dan Gunther Kress. Language as Ideologi. London: Routledge.

Johnson, Wendell Stacy. 1972. Words, Things and Celebrations. Harcourt Brace Javanovich

Inc.

Mansoer Pateda. 1998. Semantik Leksikal (ed. kedua). Jakarta: Penerbit Rineka Cipta.

Morgan, Jeffy L. 1980. ―Observations on the Pragmatics of Metaphor‖, dalam Metaphor and

Thought (ed. Andrew Ortony). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Pangestuti Wiedarti. 1997. ―Ragam Bahasa Jurnalistik dalam Rubrik Konsultasi Seksualitas‖,

dalam Ragam Jurnalistik dan Pengajaran Bahasa Indonesia (ed. Sudaryanto dan

Sulistiyo). Semarang: Citra Almamater.

Richards, Jack, John Platt and Heidi Weber. 1990. Longman Dictionary of Applied

Linguistics. Harlow: Longman Group Limited.

Sampson, Geoffrey. 1980. School of Linguistics. London: Hutchinson & Co. Ltd.

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Code-Mixing and Code Switching in The Process of Learning

Diyah Atiek Mustikawati

Universitas Muhammadiyah Ponorogo

[email protected]


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Abstract

This study aimed to describe a form of code switching and code mixing specific form

found in the teaching and learning activities in the classroom as well as determining factors

influencing events stand out that form of code switching and code mixing in question.

Form of this research is descriptive qualitative case study which took place in Al

Mawaddah Boarding School Ponorogo. Based on the analysis and discussion that has been

stated in the previous chapter that the form of code mixing and code switching learning

activities in Al Mawaddah Boarding School is in between the use of either language Java

language, Arabic, English and Indonesian, on the use of insertion of words, phrases, idioms,

use of nouns, adjectives, clauses, and sentences. Code mixing deciding factor in the learning

process include: Identification of the role, the desire to explain and interpret, sourced from

the original language and its variations, is sourced from a foreign language. While deciding

factor in the learning process of code, includes: speakers (O1), partners speakers (O2), the

presence of a third person (O3), the topic of conversation, evoke a sense of humour, and just

prestige. The significance of this study is to allow readers to see the use of language in a

multilingual society, especially in AL Mawaddah boarding school about the rules and

characteristics variation in the language of teaching and learning activities in the classroom.

Furthermore, the results of this research will provide input to the ustadz / ustadzah and

students in developing oral communication skills and the effectiveness of teaching and

learning strategies in boarding schools.

Keywords: Multilingualism, Bilingualism, Mixing Code and Switching Code.

Abstrak

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan wujud alih kode dan wujud campur kode

tertentu yang ditemukan dalam kegiatan belajar-mengajar di kelas serta faktor penentu menonjol yang

mempengaruhi peristiwa wujud alih kode dan campur kode dimaksud.

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Bentuk penelitian ini adalah deskriptif kualitatif, dengan studi kasus yang mengambil lokasi

di pesantren Al Mawaddah Kabupaten Ponorogo. Berdasarkan analisis dan pembahasan yang telah

dikemukakan di bab sebelumnya bahwa wujud campur kode dan alih kode kegiatan pembelajaran di

PP Al Mawaddah adalah peralihan penggunaaan bahasa baik bahasa Jawa, bahasa Arab, bahasa

inggris, dan bahasa Indonesia, pada penggunaan penyisipan kata, frasa, idiom, penggunaan kata

benda, kata sifat, klausa, dan kalimat. Faktor penentu campur kode dalam proses pembelajaran

meliputi: Identifikasi peranan, keinginan untuk menjelaskan dan menafsirkan, bersumber dari bahasa

asli beserta variasinya, bersumber dari bahasa asing. Sedangkan faktor penentu alih kode dalam

proses pembelajaran, meliputi: penutur(O1), mitra tutur (O2), hadirnya orang ketiga (O3), topik

pembicaraan, membangkitkan rasa humor, dan sekedar gengsi. Signifikansi dari penelitian ini adalah

memungkinkan pembaca mengetahui pemakaian bahasa dalam masyarakat multilingual, khususnya di

pesantren Al Mawaddah tentang kaidah dan karakteristik variasi bahasa dalam kegiatan belajar-

mengajar di kelas. Lebih jauh, hasil penelitian ini akan menjadi bahan masukan bagi ustadz/ustadzah

dan santri dalam mengembangkan keterampilan komunikasi lisan dan efektivitas strategi belajar-

mengajar di lingkungan pesantren.

Kata Kunci: Multilingualisme, Bilingualisme, Campur Kode dan Alih Kode

Introduction

Language is not something rare to hear. However, not all people understand about the

understanding of the language. Most people know that language is one of the communication

tools used by humans to perform activities of daily living. In communicating, sometimes

people do not just use one language. An interesting phenomenon is now often the case that

many people make the transition (alternation) code, both of code (code switching) and code

mixing (mixing code) in communicating with others. The phenomenon of code switching and

code mixing can be seen either through electronic media and print media. In fact, if we

examined closely, often occurrence of code switching and code mixes between speaker and

partner speaker in an environment of our daily lives, either in writing or orally.

The role of code switching and code mixing in the community is very important, in

conjunction with the use of language variation by a person or group of people, especially in

the use of language in bilingual or multilingual communities, for example in boarding school.

Boarding can be said is unique in relation to the use of code switching and code-mixing.

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Boarding school is unique, because institutionally can be incorporated in the form of non-

formal institutions but can also be referred to as formal education, because it has its own

education program organized. In the boarding school there is no clear separation between the

school and the environment. Boarding schools are generally unified and organized in a

systematic way so as to double as a formal school environment in the form of classes and

trying to grow a certain lifestyle that make up a subculture in a general population.

Boarding school as a subculture of society tent to have a certain culture and norms

were used as pattern and the agreement rules in their social interactions. In terms of language

contact members of the boarding school community ( students and the teacher ) many of

which have the capability / control of more than one language ( Indonesian, English, Arabic,

and local) that allows the so-called bilingualism and multilingualism with a wide variety of

events, including over code and code-mixing.

In the event of oral communication, community schools perform a variety of

communication in different events and for the purpose as well as different interests. Based on

the tendency of language use at such events, researchers have tried to focus on events of

teaching and learning activities in the classroom, the learning process or learning activities in

select based on the consideration that variations may appear and the languages , including in

this case are the events over code and code-mixing. Teacher and students will try to

understand the science they learned, by utilizing variations in language that is easily

understood by both the Ustadz and Ustadzah.

Communication activities in the process of teaching and learning activities in

modern pesantren Al Mawaddah always involve two or three languages. Consequently, a

speaker (students and teacher) sociologically cannot escape from the communication strategy,

both for acceptance from the perspective of anthropology and sociology religious education.

Strategies that used by the speakers at the Al Mawaddah boarding school harness the

potential variation of the language as a medium for knowledge transfer (transfer of

knowlegde) covering religious science and general science. Religious Studies involving

transcendental consciousness, while general science involves the rational consciousness in

communication. That is, the Arabic language on one side feels more acceptable in religious

contexts for students or teacher at the boarding school to cultivate the field knowledge of

Islam is dominated by the use of the Arabic language.

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While on the other hand, the appreciation of the English language that relate to modern

science and technology was stressed. As a further consequence of contact between languages

language that has been dominated by the language that dominated later, both because of the

encouragement of academic environment and non-academic chance of the emergence of

language variations, including code switching and code-mixing (code switching and code

mixing).

The use of code switching and code-mixing in boarding schools Al Mawaddah is

interesting to study. The tendency of language use, especially in the use of oral

communication, both formal and informal show consistency and form a kind of specific

patterns and norms. Since Al Mawaddah boarding school was founded by KH. Ahmad Sahal,

two foreign languages, namely English and Arabic to learn and use together, either in the

hostel and outside the hostel, both in formal situations (teaching and learning activities) and

non-formal (care system), in addition to the local language (Java) and Indonesian. Even the

tendency of foreign language use is increasingly apparent consistency of the user after

modern pesantren Al Mawaddah proclaimed as modern boarding international program. The

core curriculum and language of instruction, namely Arabic and English applied actively as

the language of instruction lessons (in the process of teaching and learning activities),

everyday conversation, discussion, writing, and so forth. This study reviews the form of

code-mixing and code switching found in the learning process in modern Al Mawaddah

Boarding School and what factors caused it.

Bilingual, Contacts Culture, and Contacts Languages

The study of code switching and code-mixing is inseparable from the study of

bilingual, bilingualitas, and bilingualism. Someone who is bilingual is a person who has the

ability to use two or more languages with others (Nababan, 1984: 27). One's ability to use

two or more languages may include the ability receptive (reading, listening) or productive

capabilities (speaking, writing) or both.

Bilingualitas is the willingness or ability to bilingual (bilingual), while bilingualism is

used to the habit of a person or a society in two languages (Harimurti Kridalaksana, 2001).

Bilingual can occur in a person or a group of people. A group of bilingual people are in the

community when there are individuals who are bilingual.

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The first occurred bilingualism for their cultural contacts (in the broad sense) between

the two groups of speakers of different languages. Cultural contacts between the two different

groups of speakers that can occur in the field of religion, trade, science and politics, the arts,

economics and social activities. In such interactions will be mutual influence in the cultural

field so that in one speaker will result cultural contacts.

Bilingualism occurs because of the cultural contact (in the broad sense) between the

two groups of speakers of different languages. Cultural contacts between the two different

groups of speakers that can occur in the field of religion, trade, science and politics, the arts,

economics and social activities. In its interactions will be mutual influence in the cultural

field so in the speaker will occur cultural contacts.

As a result of these contacts will influence either language within a bilingual or within

a group of people. Language contact between two different languages either in person or

bilingual speakers between two different groups of speakers that will result in the interplay

between the two languages, or a code switching and code-mixing, including the mutual use

and interference occurs.

Mackey, as cited by Fishman (1968: 23) gives an idea of bilingualism as a symptom

of substitutions. Bilingualism, according to him, cannot be considered as a system.

Bilingualism is not a characteristic feature of the code but the disclosure; not a social nature

but as individual. Therefore bilingualism regarded as characteristic of language use, namely

the practice of language usage alternately conducted by speakers. Substitution in the use of it

is motivated and determined by the situation and the conditions faced by speakers in action

speak (Kunjana Rahardi, 2001: 14).

Suwito (1985: 39) has shown that where there are two or more languages are used

interchangeably by the same speaker will pass the language contact. Contact event that

language could lead to a change in the language (language change). Effect of changes in

language directly it can be clearly seen the used of the lexicon of a language from the

language that contact each other. These conditions can result in the existence of the symbiotic

relationship between one languages to another language at such a speech community. That is,

never be possible for a speaker in the speech community that such would only use one

language in a pure, unaffected by another language that already exists within the speaker. It

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can cause symptoms of interest in the study sociolinguistics are referred to as symptoms of

code switching and code-mixing.

Code Mixing and Code Switching

Code switching is the event of the transition from one code to another code. If a

speaker originally used the code A (e.g. Indonesian), then move onto the B code (e.g. Java

language), the use of language switching events like this are called code switching (Suwito,

1985: 68). Rather the code can be code switching styles, types, and variations of other

languages.

As disclosed Myers & Scotton (1993: 1-2)

―Code switching is the term used to identify alternations of linguistic varieties within the

same conversation. The linguistic varieties participating in code switching maybe different

languages, or dialects or styles of the same language‖.

Code switching is a term alternation lingual variation in the same conversations.

Variations lingual which is taking part in code switching can be different languages, dialects,

or a wide - variety of the same language.

Code switching based on Appel (in Abdul Chaer and Leonie Augustine, 1995: 141-

142) is a "transitional phenomenon of language usage because of the changing situation". In

contrast to Appel that said code switching that occurred between languages, then Hymes

states over the code was not only occur between languages, but can also occur between a

wide - variety or styles contained in one language:" Code switching has Become a common

term for alternates of two or more language varieties of language, or even speech styles".

Code switching can also be defined by switching or transfer of a form of speech from

one language into another language, or from one variation to another variation, or from one

dialect to another dialect (Edi Subroto et al, 2002: 11). Code switching is conscious or

deliberate generally occurs due to a certain reason and motivation.

Suwito (1985: 68) mentions that the event of switching code is the transition from one

code to another code. So when someone speakers initially using a code and then switch to

using code B, the intermediate code as it is referred to as code switching.

The Form of Code Switching

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In line which expressed by Suwito is a restriction posed by Dell Hymes (1975 : 103 )

(in Rahardi Kunjana, 2001: 20), that the code switching is a general term used to mention the

alternation use of two or more languages, some variation from one language, or even some

styles of a variety. He also referred to what he called intern code switching (internal code

switching), which happened between regional languages in a national language areas, inter-

regional dialects in one language, or between several styles and styles that are present in a

dialect. As is the external switching code (external code switching) is a language transition

that occurs between the base language (base language) with a foreign language.

Supomo Poedjosoedarmo (1978: 46) explains that someone is often replaced the code

language when conversing. Its substitution can be realized or even possibly not realized by

the speakers. Symptoms of this kind of code arises because of the language component are

manifold. Furthermore, he also mentioned the term code switching transient (temporary code

switching), namely the change of code language used by a speaker whose for a moment or

temporary. In addition, he also mentions the permanent code switching (permanent switching

code). Said that because the language switching that occurs takes place permanently,

although in fact it is not easy to do. Rather latter code switching is usually associated also

with an attitude shift the relationship between speaker and opponents said in a society.

The Cause of Code Switching

Declared by Appel, Hubers, and Meijer that there is a close relationship between the

form of the language used and the situations in which the language is used (1976: 99) (in Edi

Subroto et al, 2002: 14). On the one hand the situation affect the form of the language used,

in terms of other language users choose a form of language that fits the situation. When the

situation changed language use, the form of the language used is also changing. Thus, the

situation of language usage greatly affected the transfer of the code.

Suwito (1985: 72-73) states that the language of code is an event caused by factors

outside of language, especially the factors that are socio - situational. Several factors are

usually the cause of the code switching as follows.

1) Speakers (O1)

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The speaker sometimes consciously trying to switch to code against an opponent he

said because there was intent. For example, if an employee is facing his boss in the

office (in a formal situation), they should speak Indonesian. But in reality it is not.

2) Partner Speakers (O2)

Each speaker in general is looking to the language used by the partner he said. In a

multilingual society a speaker may have switched the code to customize the hearer

faces. In this case the hearer can be divided into two groups, namely: (a) O2 the same

linguistic background with speakers, and (b) O2 the different linguistic backgrounds

with speakers. Thus the hearer role is important in the event of code.

3) The third speaker presence

Two people from the same ethnic group are generally interacted with the language of

their ethnic group. But when a third person is present in the discussions, and have a

different language background, usually two people who first turning the code into a

language that is controlled by a third person. This was done to neutralize the situation

and at the same time respecting the presence of a third person.

4) The subject of conversation (topic)

The subject is a dominant factor in determining the switching code. The subject is

divided into two, the subject of formal and informal. The talking points also play an

important role occurrence of switching code, because usually the speaker tends to

express desires, ideas, and his opinions are based principal ongoing talks (formal or

informal)

5) To generate a sense of humour

Switching code often used by teachers, leaders meeting, jokers to evoke a sense of

humor. This switching code is switching variant, switching style, or switching

speaking style.

6) For prestige

Most speakers there are switching codes just for prestige. This occurs when both

factors of the situation, the speaker, topic, and factors other socio-situational actually

not required to switching codes. Speakers tend to switching code to be wilderness by

the hearer is more commanding and honorable.

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Thus, the six factors that cause over the switching code are essential in

assessing the control of the code, because it focuses on the six factors that will shape

the language used by the speaker and the situation faced by the speaker and hearer.

A study of code switching is empirical, is necessary to identify changes in a

language or a language or code to other code based on the specific causative factors.

The switching code can be seen from the element word, phrase or group of words,

greeting words used, sentence intonation, and even certain forms of speech. (Edi

Subroto et al, 2002: 14).

Code Mixing

Mixing code is the use of language units from one language to another to expand the

style or variety of languages, including the use of words, clauses, idioms, greetings and so

forth (Harimurti Kridalaksana, 2001). An example, when referring to the mixing in

communication developed by a bilingual or multilingual speakers, it involves the use of

language elements in an utterance language X Y, there will be a code-mixing events. If

speakers choose between language X and language Y in the same speech it will caused the

mixing code. These elements can be lexical, syntactic or semantic. Talking about the concept

of code-mixing, will close relation to the concept of interference, they are deviations from the

norm in any language due to the closeness between the two languages. However, mixing

(mixing) it was not an interference event, however, the expression of a specific strategy for

bilingual speakers (Hammers Hablanc F.H. & M, 1986: 36)

According to Grosjean, (in Hamers 1986: 35) bilingual speakers use the model of a

bilingual with bilingual speech of others who share the language and with whom they can

mix the language (code switching, code-mixing and borrowing). So, code-mixing is produced

by a bilingual speaker or in a bilingual society.

According to Swain & Wesche et, al., Cited by Hamers (1986: 36) a majority of

mixing code is lexical, with nouns as words that are most often replaced. Many mixing a

lexical reduplication or spontaneous translation when the translation is equivalent to that

associated with synonyms. Translation spontaneous it could indicate that the speaker is aware

of the mixing is done carelessly as a communication strategy, and when the situation allows,

acting as translator.

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Suwito (1985: 75) describes this aspect of interdependence (language dependency) in

a multilingual society is the occurrence of code-mixing. If the code switching function within

the context and relevance of the situation are the traits of dependency, then in code-mixing

traits characterized by dependence of the reciprocal relationship between the roles and

functions of language. Mixed code is happen without a clear motivation and clear causal

factors as well. Mixed codes generally occur in a relaxed atmosphere or occur because of

habit.

Causes of the Occurrence of Mixed Code

According Suwito (1985: 77), behind the two types of code-mixing are (1)

background on attitudes, (2) linguistic background. Both are interdependent and often

overlap. On that basis, can be identified reasons for the mixed code, namely: (1)

identification of the role, (2) identification of the variance, and (3) the desire to explain and

interpret.

Mixed into the code will appear for instance when a speaker to insert elements of

regional languages in the national language (in this case Indonesian), elements of dialects into

regional languages. The language event may also indicate the identification of a particular

role in the identification of specific registers or desire and certain interpretation. In other

words, code-mixing that occurs because of the interrelationship between the role of speaker,

language form and language function. The speaker who tend to prefer forms of interference

specific code to support specific functions have a certain social background.

Mixed code in maximum condition is the convergence of language (linguistic

convergence) whose elements from several languages, each of which has let its functions and

support functions of language inserted. These elements can be divided into two, namely: (1)

derived from the native language along with its variations, and (2) sourced from a foreign

language. The first can be called mixed code into the (inner code mixing), the second one can

be called a code-mixing to the outside (outer code mixing) (Suwito, 1985: 76).

The Form of Code-Mixing

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Judging from the lingual form, part of a language derived from other languages can

be a word, but it can also be a phrase or units of language larger. Form of code-mixing can be

distinguished based on linguistic elements involved (Suwito, 1985: 79), namely:

1) The word element inserted.

Antum boleh percaya boleh tidak, you boleh percaya boleh tidak, sampeyan boleh

percaya boleh tidak:

(‗anda boleh percaya atau tidak‘)

2) The phrase inserted.

Nah karena saya kadung apik sama dia, ya takteken:

(‗Nah karena saya sudah terlanjur baik dengan dia, ya saya tanda tangani)

3) The Bastar form inserted.

Banyak klap malam yang harus ditutup.

4) The repetition of words inserted

Saya sih bolah-boleh saja, asal dia tidak tonya-tanya lagi.

5) The expression or idiom that is inserted

Yah apa boleh buat, better late than never.

(‗Yah apa boleh buat, lebih baik terlambat daripada tidak sama sekali‘)

6) The clauses that is inserted

Pemimpin yang bijaksana akan selalu bertindak ing ngarsa sung tuladha, ing madya

mangun karsa, tut wuri handayani. ‗ (di depan memberi teladan, di tengah memberi

semangat, di belakang mengawasi).

In understanding code-mixing, researchers must identify the speaker basically speak

the native language (base language), then the language possessed elements of other

languages. Mixed code can be regarded as part of the variation of a particular language

speaker consciously and fundamentally by using elements of other languages that do as well

as the communication strategy in order to explain or translate. Thus the choice of words in

the form of code-mixing was received by the audience. Part languages derived from other

languages that can be words, but can also be a phrase or units of language larger.


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This research is a qualitative descriptive study, while the research strategy using a case

study approach rooted, because the problems and the focus of research has been determined

in the proposal before the researchers conducting the study.

The location of this research is "Al Mawaddah Modern Boarding School". The

boarding school has a tendency to open towards positive values progress of the times and has

participated in shaping the values of life in society, particularly with respect to the use of

foreign languages (Arabic and English). The location was chosen because of the community

is in a social and educational institution that has a characteristics and motivation of the public

image of Indonesia in the rural areas. In particular, the location of this study was MTs and

MA in class IV and V in the process of teaching and learning activities carried out by

students and teachers, in the event of oral communication. The type of learning activities

focused on the initial activities, the core and the end of formal learning in certain subjects.

This study will be conducted from February through December 2014.

The target in this research is focused on the students and the teacher. Taking into

account the effectiveness of data mining, in this study were used as informants about 30

people. This restriction is because the focus of the research is in the class. So, the researchers

tried to find the informant who adequately represent and reliable in limited quantities. Object

of study is the main focus of this research are: first, a form of code switching in teaching and

learning activities focused on a form of code switching language (base language) Indonesian.

Rather code from Indonesian to English, Arabic, and region (Java) that occurs in the event of

an oral communication. Second, a form of mixing code in teaching and learning activities in

the classroom. Third, the determinant factors that will affect the use of code switching and

code-mixing in the teaching and learning activities in the classroom which is focused on non

- lingual factors.

The data in the study were classified into two kinds, namely (1) the primary data and

(2) secondary data. Primary data was intended as data obtained from various events or scenes

that are said in boarding schools " AL Mawaddah", related to the teaching and learning

activities in the classroom which performed by students and the teacher. As is as secondary

data is data obtained from interviews and a statement informant about everything related to

the problem form of code switching and code-mixing in the teaching and learning activities in

the classroom.

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Data collection method used is a cakap method and simak methods. In a conversation

method, widely used fishing techniques as basic technique and recording technique that

ensue. Refer to the method used in many of tapping techniques as basic technique, and

technical notes and recording technique as the technique continuation (Sudaryanto: 2001:

133-140). To obtain data on a form of code switching and code-mixing, simak method was

used, which access data by listening to the use of language in the teaching-learning process in

the classroom used by a religious teacher and students in the learning process. This technique

was applied in the technical notes, see, and recording technique.

Participation of researchers in obtaining oral communication data, in this case can be

active, that is by start the conversations, and be passive, that is by listening to the discussions.

In-depth interviews (in -depth interviews) are used by researchers to find data on the

determinants that affect prominent event code switching and code-mixing in the process of

teaching and learning in the classroom in "Al Mawaddah" Boarding school. Interviews

conducted after the researchers obtained data on a form of code switching and code-mixing

uttered by the informant in question. So, the interview material adapted to code uttered by the

informant.

Over the researchers conducted interviews with informants, in addition to recording

that need, the researchers also noted the matters raised by the informant, because this way

help- if the recording equipment as well as accelerate the process disturbed transcripts made

after the interview is completed . Once the data is deemed sufficient, the researchers quickly

move into the computer and classified (categorization) by type and group in the data card.

Observations are not conducted by researchers because of the data that it is difficult

for researchers to get it, because consideration of local norms and regulations, researchers

using research assistants, namely ustadzah who previously had been trained and given

sufficient insight about the main focus of research and methods of obtaining the necessary

data.

In this study, we will use two triangulation, namely triangulation methodology and

data sources. First, triangulation method is done by collecting similar data but using the

techniques or different methods of data collection. Here the emphasis is on the use of

different data collection methods, and even more clearly the effort leads to the same data

source to test the stability of his informant. In this case the researchers used data collection

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methods questioner then conducted in-depth interviews on the same informant, and the

results were tested with similar data collection using observation techniques. Second, the

triangulation of data sources used to clarify the questionable data, researchers conducted a

triangulation with different sources.

In this study, the data analysis is done by using an interactive model (Miles &

Huberman, 1984). The three components of the analysis in the analysis models are data

reduction, data presentation and conclusion or verification during the data collection process

takes place.

Methods of data analysis conducted on the determinants of prominent influence the

events of code switching and code-mixing is by using padan method (Sudaryanto, 2001: 13),

as a tool determinants are beyond language form sociological context surrounding the events

code switching and code mixing the teaching-learning process in Al Mawaddah boarding

school. In the process of data reduction is accompanied by the identification, coding and

categorization, researchers try to compare or classify the data that appears based on the shape,

type, circumstances and determinants that affect the use of code switching and code-mixing is

relevant.

Furthermore, the activity data presentation, information that is composed will give the

possibility of drawing conclusions and taking action. In drawing conclusions, the final

conclusions are not considered as data collection ends, but is part of the activities of the

configuration intact. The conclusions also verified during the study.

The data in this study also uses contextual approach, in particular by using the

concept of speech as a base component design. Said component concept in question is

presented by Dell Hymes (S P E A K I N G). It was intended to find answers to the

determinants that influence the events of code switching and code-mixing which is more

focused on non- linguistic factors.

Discussion & Research Finding

The findings of the subject in this study stated that there are eight types of the use of

language variation which is a form of code-mixing when communicating in the learning

process in Al Mawaddah boarding school are mixed code that is not only involves the use of

one or two languages only, but the use of foreign languages such as Arabic and English in the

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learning process. As for the form of Mixed Code boarding school in the learning process is

described as follows:

Mixed code between Indonesian with English

The form of code-mixing encountered in the use of Indonesian into English as the end

of learning in class. At the time this data was taken by ustadzah by announcing their

muhadharah activities to be held. In this first speech, ustadzah initially use the Indonesian

language but leave switch to using English words are concerned, joke. It can be listened to in

the following speech:

Ustadzah : Dalam mukadharah kamu seharusnya concern, walaupun anak-anak sekarang

ini lebih banyak melakukan joke-nya.

The quotation of speech above showed that a ustadzah want to emphasize to all female

students who followed muhadharah must be seriously and reduce joking when

following muhadharah activities. Furthermore, the speech below showed the

code mixing that also occurs marked by the use of phrase in conversation

between ustadzah and female students in teaching learning process.

Ustadzah : Pak Amin Rais itu adalah the first man di Indonesia yang

melakukan the brave of reform sebelum orang-orang lain

melakukannya.

Female Student : Saya setuju, ustadzah. Pada beliau itu (Amin Rais) Saya mau

positive thinking saja.

The speech above showed the occurrence of the use of phrase infixation in the word

‗the first man‟, „the brave of reform‘, and ‗positive thinking‘. It meant that the figure of Amin

Rais was the first man who was brave to encourage, to do reformation for deposing New

Order government from its leadership. A female student then expressed her opinion about her

agreement with ustadzah statement by saying that she agree and want to be ‗positive

thingking‘ or assume good faith on what has been done by Mr. Amin Rais. Then in this

following speech, code mixing also occurs in the use of idioms, this happens at the end of

lessons.

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Ustadzah : Perlu saya umumkan, bahwa kelas ini menurut catatan language centre

banyak santri yang came late dalam setiap acara mukhadhoroh. Untuk itu

mohon diperhatikan dan tidak diulang lagi. Kelas ini harus ada ketua yang bisa

the right man and the right place dalam mukhadloroh, jadi tidak asal tunjuk.

The use of idioms above were the idioms that have been become the words that are

familiar for the female students, e.g. ‗language centre‘, ‗came late‘, ‗the right man in the right

place‘. Therefore, when a ustadzah expressed these idioms the listeners or female students

can follow and understand about ustadzah said. Furthermore, code mixing also happened in

the end of lessons when ustadzah would end and close the meeting at that time.

Code Mixing of the use of English into Indonesian

Code mixing of the use of English into Indonesian encountered when ustadzah would

close or end the teaching and learning process in class. In that speech, ustadzah used English

clauses, and then switched to Indonesian clause. It was intended for all female students in

class one could understand what ustadzah said.

Ustadzah : Ok. Any question? In order to be clear my explanation, anda bisa

membacanya lagi dan merumuskan tentang definisi yang ada dalam buku

tersebut. I think time is up. See You.

In the speech above, there were clauses of ‗ok‘, ‗any question‘, ‗in order to be clear

my explanation, ‗I think time is up‘, ‗see you‘. Basically, the use of these clauses aimed to

provide information for female students, when that clauses were spoken, then the learning

process would end soon and just waited for some questions about the topic at that time, if

there were any questions from the female students. In addition, it was beneficial for the

female students as the habbit of using English as the communication tool from the beginning

to the end of teaching and learning process.

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Code Mixing between Arabic and English

A form of code mixing in this following speech is the transition from Arabic into the

usage of English words. It can be seen in the following data :

Female Student : Ya, fi al-haqiqoh lahu handphone, lakin HP li la yastathi‟, qod

intahay al-waqt hatt a tarih sab‟a „asyar, walam asytarii voucher

(Ya, sebenarnya ia punya telpon genggam, tapi HP punyaku tidak

bisa dipakai, masa pakainya sudah habis sampai tanggal tujuh belas,

dan saya belum membeli voucher)

The word ‗handphone‘, ‗voucher‘ in the above speech are basically the words from

English. But, these words have been popular and familiar as uptake language in Indonesian

speech, then when the words used or the speaker suddenly switched to using those words, the

listener will have no difficulties for understanding the meaning of speech. In addition, the

form of code mixing from Arabic into English also occurs in this following speech:

Female Student : ―........Ustadzah repeat......‖

The quotation of speech above was encountered in the collaboration activity of

teaching and learning process when a female student asked to ustadzah for repeating what has

been said. This is done because at that moment, the listener not so understanding towards the

material that has been delivered.

Code Mixing from English into Arabic

These speech is taken around the end of teaching learning process, when a ustadzah

before closing the learning activities at that day giving reflection and conclusion for what has

been learned before. It can be seen in the following data :

Ustadzah : The last, WA amma al-lughotu al-injilinziyyah as an international

language, muhimmatun…wa idza ja‟a adh-dhuyuf matsalan, la budd an

tatakallamu biha.

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(Terakhir, adapun bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa internasional. Sangat

penting, jika ada tamu misalnya anda harus berbicara dengan bahasa

itu).

The use of the word ‗the last‘ that has meaning ‗end‘, then followed by a sentence that

is a conclusion from the main language that has been delivered. In those speech, the

beginning of teaching and learning process, ustadzah taught using English then switched

using Arabic, both languages were often used by ustadzah in teaching and learning process.

Code Mixing from Arabic into Indonesian

The events of code mixing in the use of Arabic into Indonesian were also found in

some of the following speech :

Ustadzah : … mutanawwi‟ah, macem-macem

Ahya : Ba‟din nasytariy idaam fiy kantin mubasyaroh

Anna : Limaadza kok qolil ya attho‟am?

Layla : kan ba‟da maghrib?

Ahya : al waqt nahnu tadarusan…

Layla : dzalik tu ilaa basalia faqot

In the above speech, it was found the use of the word macem, kantin, kok, suffix -an,

which those words are derived from Indonesian vocabulary. Furthermore, code mixing also

found in the below speech. It can be seen in the word delapan dua, delapan tiga, when the

learning process took place with the subject of arithmetic. Code mixing was also happened

when ustadzah who asked in Arabic, while the female students answered using Indonesian.

Ustadzah : Tamrin kam?

Female Student 1 : Tamrin delapan dua Tadz,…

Female Student 2 : Delapan tiga…

Female Student 3 : Delapan dua,

Hereinafter, the use of idiom was also found in the data below. In this speech,

ustadzah asked question using Arabic while the female student answered by using idiom, it

was kapal selam.

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Ustadzah : Alghowaashu, assafiinatu fiy daakhili l maa’, maadza?

Female Student : Kapal selam…

Furthermore, code mixing in the learning process also encountered in the use of verbs

such as mencincang, bersuci, and so on. In that speech, ustadzah asked questions using

Arabic but female student who did not know what was meant, then she answered by using

Indonesian but ustadzah previously gave a clue about what was being asked.

Ustadzah : Maa ma‟naa ufarrimu? Mencin…

Female Student : Mencincang

Ustadzah : Wa laakin tajdiid…?

Female Student : Memperbaharui,

Ustadzah : Maa ma’naa thoharoh?

Female Student : Bersuci…

The next findings were the use of adjective and noun. The speech below indicates the

code mixing but it was in adjective such as the word : alyadu (hand), yumna (right), yusro

(left), al ashoobi‟a (fingers), al wustho (middle finger), jadidun (new), and, and shoghirotun

(small). Here are the snippets of the speech :

Ustadzah : Kalau ustadzah bilang Alyadu…

Ustadzah : Alyadu..

Female Student : Tangan…

Ustadzah : Yumnaa

Female Student : Kanan…

Ustadzah : Yusroo...

Female Student : Kiri…

Ustadzah : Al ashoobi’a,

Female Student : Jari-jari

Ustadzah : Jari tengah… jari tengah bahasa arabnya

Female Student : Alwusthoo…

The next....

Ustadzah : Jadiidun ma’nahu

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Female Student : Baruu

The next....

Ustadzah : Maa ma’naa shogiirotan?

Female Student : Kecil…

Data of speech above was taken in the learning process at Grade 1 Madrasah

Tsanawiyah or as well as junior high school level. The female students at this level are not

fully understood when ustadzah using intermediate language both Arabic and English.

Code Mixing from Indonesia into Javanese and Arabic

The main findings regarding code mixing in this research is the use of three languages

at once in a speech such as Javanese, Indonesian and Arabic. The speech of code mixing can

be seen as follows :

Ustadzah 1 : Kalo tidak ada bisa dipangku, maa ma’na dipangku? Santriwati

Di taruh diatas ini…

Ustadzah 1 : Di taruh di paha.

Ustadzah 1 : Fatimah di kucir jadi 3 rambutnya, yang dua ditaruh kiri kanan

yang satunya adalah naashiyatuhaa, kalau sempat, rambutnya sudah

lurus enak di klabang juga boleh.

The next data :

Ustadzah 2 : Misalkan lo, kita tasyakuran punya anak, terus orang Jawa

membikin itu iwel – iwel ya ndak? Iwel-iwel ini sebenernya dari kata

wali waalidayniy, ya ndak?

Female Student : Oalaah, hahaha iwel-iwel.

Ustadzah 2 : Tapi orang Jawa tidak bisa bilang syahadatayn, akhirnya bilang

apa?

Female Student : Sekaten…

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Besides Arabic words and phrases using Indonesian there were some words using

Javanese such as iwel-iwel, sekaten, which they have not switched word in Indonesia, so

ustadzah still used the original words to avoid misunderstandings.

Code Mixing from Indonesian into Javanese

The next findings is code mixing from Indonesian into Javanese such as the word

mbah-mbah (grandmother), dibuntel (wrapped). The data of speech can be seen below :

Ustadzah 1 : … kalo jaman mbah – mbah saya nggak ada sarung tangan

seperti itu…

Ustadzah 1 : Kalau di rumah sakit, kalau sudah tidak bisa ya dibuntel plastic.

Code Mixing from Indonesian into Arabic

The last findings regarding the code mixing is on the use of Indonesian and then

switched into Arabic. This happens in the exploration activity in teaching and learning

process when ustadzah reviewing the previous lesson, with the aim that the female students

always remember and understand about the material that has been received. The speech can

be seen as follows:

Ustadzah 2 : Seperti kemaren sudah diajarkan to, fiy ghoslil imamah dan

mashul imamah iya kan?

In the above speech, there were the word fi ghoslil imamah and mashul imamah, both

sentences are the title of materials that have been taught in the previous meeting.

Code Switching in the Teaching and Learning Process

A form of code switching that is found in this research is the use of four variations of

code switching at the exploration activity, elaboration activity and the confirmation activity

in the teaching and learning process. The description of code switching can be stated as

follows:

Code Switching from English into Indonesia

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The first form of code switching was occurred in the exploration activity in teaching

and learning process. At the beginning, ustadzah opened the learning activity using English,

but when she started delivering the material then switching to use Indonesian. For more

details, it can be seen in this data of speech:

Ustadzah : Good morning, and how are you today?

Female Student : Good morning, sir. I am fine

Ustadzah : So, so. Ok. I would like to explain about tenses.

Please open your book page number 23.

Silahkan diperhatikan tentang definisi tenses, kemudian tulis

kembali rumus yang ada dalam buku tersebut. Buatlah contoh

dalam bentuk simple present tense (1)

Code Switching from Indonesian into English

The second form of code switching was in the elaboration activity of learning

process. On that occasion, the female student asked about the functions of ‗to be‘ by using

Indonesian, but ustadzah giving explanations by using English. It was done in order to make

a habit for the female students using English during learning process, when at that time the

subject are being delivered was English. For more details can be seen in the following data:

Female Student : Ustadzah, tolong dijelaskan kembali mengenai fungsi to be

Ustadzah : Ok. Thanks. Actually you can open your book page 25. to be it

means function as, ‗help‘… to help sentence in order to stand and

have meaning. So, to be is very important in sentence…… for

example …..(2)

Code Switching from English into Arabic

The third was a form of code switching from English into Arabic. It was found in the

confirmation activity of learning process. At that time, previously ustadzah also gave the

conclusion about the material. Her speech can be seen in the following data :

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Ustadzah : Ok. Student, I think time is up, antum, should be study English

everytime… Wa amma al-lughotu al-injilinziyah as an international

language, muhimmatun… Wa idza ja‟a adh-dhunyuf matsalan, la

budd an tatakallamu biha. (Baiklah anak-anak, saya kira waktunya

sudah habis. Kamu semua, harus belajar bahasa Inggris setiap

waktu. Adapun bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa internasional, sangat

penting, jika ada tamu misalnya anda harus berbicara dengan

bahasa itu).

Code Switching from Arabic into Indonesia

The last form of code switching was occurred in the exploration activity of learning

process. Ustadzah used Indonesian to provide confirmation of what was delivered. Her

speech as follows :

Ustadzah : Anniyatu juz-un minal wuduu’, fa idzan laabud fiyl wuduu’

binniyat. Jadi kalau wudluu‟ harus niat

Ustadzah : Ijtihad haadza mashdar min ijtahada, yajtahidu, ijtihaad.

Ijtihaad itu perbuatannya,

Determinants of Code Mixing and Code Switching in Teaching and Learning Process

The teaching and learning process in classroom whether ustadzah or female students

often used Arabic as intermediate language. However, English was also frequently used in

the learning process. In other words, the process of learning used two languages or

bilingualism and even multilingualism.

Determinants of Code Mixing in Teaching and Learning Process

Identification of the role

A speaker will use language as a communication tool based on his/her role. Similarly,

an ustadzah in the learning process especially in Al Mawaddah Boarding School an

ustadzah will tend to use Arabic as a communication tool when teaching. This is

already as a rule in boarding school when the learning process must use Arabic and

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English. Furthermore, ustadzah uses her role in explaining the material, giving

assignments, giving motivation, and guiding her female students, so ustadzah must

use both foreign languages as a communication tool. As well as the female students,

based on their role that mostly still on beginner level who are not fully accustomed

using Arabic and English during learning process. This was proved when the learning

process took place, they were also asked using Indonesian.

The Desire to explain and interpret

When starting from the purpose of speech in every process of communication, it will

have a purpose why the speech happened. Language switching in the form of code

mixing and code switching has the purpose to explain about what was discussed so

that the communication in the learning process can run fluently and acceptable.

Sourced from the Native Language and it variations

The event of code mixing and code switching was also affected by the acquisition

and the use of native language or mother tongue. The female students who were

studying at Al Mawaddah Boarding School came from different areas around

Indonesia and foreign countries such as Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and other

countries. Thus, it will carry over during the learning process in the boarding school.

Sourced from Foreign Languages

The differences of concept, structure, variation, and meaning in a foreign language is

automatically different from the local language, the national language will affect the

use of foreign language. The use of foreign and local vocabulary that is mixed in the

process of comunication will lead the event of code mixing and code switching. More

mixed langsuages between foreign language, national language and local language

that are used by speaker, it will increase the opportunity for the use of language

variation.

Determinants of Code Switching in Teaching and Learning Process

a. Speaker (O1) and Listener (O2)

The referred speakers in this research were ustadzah, administrators, academicians‘

boarding school, and female students. In interact both formally in the classroom and

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internal conditions outside the classroom will automatically affect how to speak and

communication patterns that done by speakers.

b. The Presence of Third Person (O3)

The presence of third person in the conversation will affect the ongoing conversation.

An ustadzah who speak using local language and national language, but suddenly

there are female students who came from different country, directly the process of

conversation switched to another language even used Arabic or English.

c. The Topic of Conversation

In the learning process, as the focus in this research, every speech in the

communication process must have a purpose. Learning in the classroom has a goal to

transfer of education and knowledge to female students that has been brokendown

into various types of teaching materials that was delivered on a daily basis.

d. Stimulating the Sense of Humor

The use of two languages or code mixing and code switching simultaneously does not

necessarily aim to reveal the seriousness and scientifics of the speakers and the

listener. It also intends to show a sense of humor as the ice breaker when learning

process took place. It can be known through video that has been recorded in the

learning process, when ustadzah switched to use the vocabulary of another language,

at once the female students laugh because it was funny for them and as a refresher in

the classroom.

e. Just for Prestige

The event of code mixing and code switching was often influenced by the factor of

prestige. This happened when an informal atmosphere outside the classroom, the

researcher encountered female students who intentionally used two languages

simultaneously only for the prestige. Even the use of sentence structure mixed with

other language structures ensued. They considered this as a common thing without

any effort to fix it.

The form of code mixing that was analyzed in this research is both in and out code

mixing that involved Indonesian, Arabic, English and local language (Javanese) in the form

of insertion elements of Indonesian to elements of foreign languages (Arabic and English)

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and the elements of local language (Javanese). This insertion is element of words, phrases,

repetition words, adjectives, nouns, and the repetition of words, idioms (expression), and

clauses.

The emergence of the form of code mixing and code switching is influenced by

internal and external factors of language. An analysis of dominant factor influenced the

events of code mixing in teaching and learning activities in the classroom based on Dell

Hymes‘s opinion (1974: 112) that in detail formulated by the acronym of ‗SPEAKING‘, it is

‗Setting‘ and ‗Scene‘, that has meaning place and atmosphere of the speech, ‗Participants‘;

they are Speaker and Listener, ‗End‘ or speech purposes, ‗Act‘ means the speech events,

‗Key‘ means that a variety of languages and the ways of speech, ‗Instrument‘ or tool used to

communicate, ‗Norm‘ means rules that must be adhered to, and ‗Genre‘ means the type of

activity in the event of speech.

At Al Mawaddah Boarding School there is the tendency to use four languages orally,

inside or outside the classroom. The use of foreign languages (Arabic and English) in the

event of oral communication is an important thing in the development of language in the

boarding shcool. This is because the mission of boarding school that tried to make Al

Mawaddah Boarding School as the international boarding school. With the international

program is expected to attract the students from abroad to study in Al Mawaddah Boarding

School. As a result of the use of foreign languages can creat variations in language usage,

which allows the code mixing event, and code switching as has been described and analyzed

above.

In code mixing, the characteristics of the depedency were marked by a mutual

relationship between the ‗role‘ (who is using the language) and ‗language function‘ (what is

to be achieved by speakers with their speech). In the event of code mixing, the elements of

language or variations that insert to another language no longer have its own function. These

elements have been fused with the inserted language, and overall it will only support one

function. In the maximum condition, code mixing is a convergence of linguistic that its

elements was derived from several languages, each of them had shed their functions and

supported the functions of inserted language (Suwito, 1985: 75).

Broadly speaking, code mixing is divided into two groups: (1) inside code mixing, is

code mixing that its elements are derived from the original language with all its variations;

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and (2) outside code mixing, is code mixing that its elements are derived from foreign

languages.

Related to this research, a group which included into inside code mixing is code

mixing that occurs between elements of cognates, for example, code mixing between

elements of Javanese with elements of Indonesian. Meanwhile, example of group that

included into outside code mixing is code mixing between Indonesian elements with the

elements of Arabic or English that is found in this reserach.

The elements of language that involved in code mixing events, if it was seen in terms

of the units of the language, variety of its forms is as follows; words, phrases, repeated words,

idioms, and clauses. This reserach followed Thelander‘s opinion, 1976 (in Suwito, 1985: 76)

in identifying phenomenon of code mixing, which is the largest element that possible to insert

in the event of code mixing is limited to the clause level. It means if the language elements

that inserts (mixing) in code mixing is a unit of languages that higher than clause level (for

example: a sentence, a series of sentences, or even a paragraph) then it will not be identified

as code mixing phenomenon, but has been a phenomenon of code switching.

Based on the key findings, the code switching involves the use of four languages,

namely: Indonesian, Arabic, English and local language (Javanese). Indonesian used as

standard intermediate language in education (in this case is in Al Mawaddah Boarding

School), then Indonesian as the base language that is used as the focus of the events of code

switching that was happened. Thus, code switching focus the switching events from

Indonesian into Arabic, English and local language (Javanese).

The form of code switching that is analyzed is code switching in the teaching and

learning activities in the classroom in the event of an oral communication between ustadzah

and female students when learning activities, which are focused on:, exploration activities,

elaboration activities and the confirmation activities. Exploration activities including:

opening and starting the lesson, greetings and giving motivation. Elaboration activities

including: delivering explanation, monitoring response and drawing conclusions.

Confirmation activities including: checking for students‘ understanding and closing the

meeting.

In the teaching and learning activities in the classroom at Al Mawaddah Boarding

School the main code that is used in important activities such as in the teaching and learning

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process in the classroom is Indonesian. The use of Indonesian in Al Mawaddah Boarding

School is still dominant in the event of oral communication between ustadzah and female

students in the classroom, especially for female students as the beginner or need more

adaptation, although the actual foreign language (Arabic and English) become the language

that must be used by every ustadzah and fmale students in the Boarding School.

Based on the data analysis, it should be delivered that code which regarding as

language in this research is divided into two, namely Javanese and non-Javanese. Code as

non-Javanese including two languages, they were Indonesian and foreign languages. Foreign

Languages referred to English and Arabic. Based on the events of speech was compiled and

transcribed in this research, it can be said that the code which regarding as language was

dominant for its usage, compared with a form in the level of speech, code of dialects and

code of diversity.

The fact that in Al Mawaddah Modern Boarding School consists of female students

and ustadz-ustadzah who came from different backgrounds and hometown caused towards

language used by female students and ustadz/ustadzah that make a mutual contact between

one languages to another language. The events of language contact caused variety of

language codes in Al Mawaddah Boarding School whcich occured in teaching and learning

activities in the classroom.

From this research, it can be said that language code that is often used in teaching and

learning activities is Indonesian. This is because Indonesian relatively mastered by female

students and ustadzah at Al Mawaddah Boarding School compared with English, Arabic, and

Javanese. In addition, Indonesian is commonly used in Al Mawaddah Boarding School

because Indonesian is the national language.

From the results of data triangulation conducted by the researcher, the form of code

switching and code mixing proved to have certain characteristics. For example, in the event

of speech done by ustadz/ustadzah in the exploration activity, that was salutation, often using

Arabic; "Assalamu'alaikum warohmatullahiwabarokatuh", then followed by English greeting:

"Good morning or Good afternoon, how are you today". Furthermore, in giving motivation,

ustadz/ustadzah adjusted to the subject matter that was being taught. For example,

ustadz/ustadzah who taught general subject would tend to use Indonesian and English,

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linguistic subject would tend to use English and Arabic, and religious subject would tent to

use Indonesian and Arabic.

Meanwhile, data from the speech event of students or ustadz/ustadzah in the

elaboration activity, namely delivering the explanation, monitoring response and drawing

conclusions, a form of code switching and code mixing that arose would adjust to the subject

matter that was being discussed. Then, in the confirmation activity, the tendency of female

students and ustadz conducted code switching and code mixing in order to adjust to the

subject matter.

In the meantime, sources of triangulation that have been done by the reseracher

towards the key informants showed similar results with the data from the event of speech

made by ustadz or female students who became the object in this research. Most informants

stated that the events of code switching and code mixing are a common thing in the teaching

and learning activities in the classroom. Ustadz or female students did code switching and

code mixing in order to adjust with the topic of speech, to facilitate communication in the

search for a certain understanding of explanations related to the subject matter, and as the

habit. The collected data showed the same characteristics, so the researcher conducted a

reduction of the data that have the same characteristics. The focus of researcher is on the

exploration activity, elaboration activity and the confirmation activity of teaching and

learning process in the classroom.

Furthermore, from the triangulation method conducted by the researchers with

interviews done by using method of questionnaire to the key informants, also showed the

same tendency towards the given answers related to the events of code switching and code

mixing. Most informants stated that the events of code switching and code mixing that

appeared caused by topic of speech and indication of prevalence or habits in boarding school.

Limitation of the data that presented in this research was also caused by the limitation

of the researcher to develop the methods of speaking and listening. In the methods of

speaking, for example, stimulating technique and recording technique used by the researcher

sometimes experiencing technical difficulties, such as the low quality of recorder and cassette

and the limited time owned by the informants in conducting interviews.

In addition, the process of data collection conducted by the researcher at every stage

has been carried out the validity of the data by doing some triangulation, either by

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triangulation of data, sources, or methods. The data findings and data analysis showed that

the relevant trendency of number of data that presented in this research were sufficient to

provide information and the overview of events of code switching and code mixing that

appeared on the teaching and learning activities in the classroom at Al Mawaddah Boarding

School.

Conclusion

Based on the analysis and discussion that has been stated in the previous chapter that

the form of code mixing and code switching, the learning activities in Al Mawaddah

Boarding School is the use of language switching either language Javanese, Arabic, English

or Indonesian, on the use of the insertion of words, phrases, idioms, the use of nouns,

adjectives, clauses, and sentences.

The determinants of code mixing in the learning process including: Identification of

the role, the desire to explain and interpret, sourced from the native language and it

variations, sourced from foreign languages. On the other hands, the determinants of code

switching in the learning process including: speaker and listener, the presence of third person,

the topic of conversation, stimulating the sense of humor and just for prestige.

References

Abdul Chaer dan Leonie Agustine, 1995. Sosiolinguistik, Perkenalan Awal .Jakarta:

Rineka Cipta

Alwasilah, A.Chaedar.1985. Sosiologi Bahasa. Bandung: Angkasa

Edi Soebroto, D, Maryono Dwirahardjo, dan Sumarlam. 2002. Alih Kode dan Campur

Kode Dalam Pernikahan Adat Surakarta. Proyek Pembinaan Bahasa dan Sastra

Indonesia dan Daerah Jawa tengah.

Hamers, Josane F. 1986. Bilinguality & Bilingualism. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Harimurti Kridalaksana, 2001. Kamus Linguistik. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama

Hymes, D.1964. Toward Ethnographies of Communication: The Analysis of

Communicative Events dalam Language and Social Context by Giglioli, P. Paolo (ed).

1972. Great Britain: C. Nicholis & Company Ltd.

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56

Kunjana Rahardi, R. 2001. Sosiolinguistik, Kode dan Alih Kode.Yogyakarta: Pustaka

Pelajar

Miles, M.B & Huberman, A.M. 1992. Analisis Data Kualitatif (edisi terjemahan oleh

Tjetjap R. Rohadi). Jakarta: UI Press

Myers, Carol & Scotton.1993. Social Motivations for Codeswitching: Evidence from

Africa. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Nababan, P.W.J.1984 Sosiolinguistik: Suatu Pengantar. Jakarta: Gramedia

Pride, J.B. and Holmes Janet, ed.1972. Sociolinguistics. England: Pinguin Book.

Suwito.1985. Pengantar Awal Sosiolinguistik: Teori dan Problem. Surakarta: Henary

Suwito, 1987. Berbahasa dalam Situasi Diglosik, disertasi FSUI.

Sudaryanto. 1996. Linguistik: Identitas, Cara Penanganan Objeknya, dan Hasil

Kajiannya. Yogyakarta. Duta Wacana University Press

--------------. 2001. Metode dan Aneka Teknik Analisis Bahasa.Yogyakarta. Duta Wacana

University Press

Sumarsono dan Paina Partana. 2002. Sosiolinguistik. Yogyakarta; Sabda.

Sutopo. 2002. Penelitian Kualitatif. Surakarta; Sebelas Maret University Press

Wardhaugh, R. 1990. An Introduction To Sociolinguitics. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd.

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Overview English as a Second Language for Young Learners

Setia Rini

Pasca Sarjana Universitas Negeri Semarang (UNNES)

[email protected]

Abstract

Young learners have special charactheristics hence the teachers of English as a Second

language needs special strategy too. It is indicated that the increas of abilities to learn second

language is started from the early age. We can imagine when the teachers do not use and

apply appropriate teaching methods and strategy in teaching English for young learners. As a

result, the students‘ achievement does not work well. Thus, except to be successful in

teaching English for young learners, it is very necessary for teachers to understand the

characteristics of young learners.‘ Learning method s will influence how a teacher makes a

lesson plan according to young learners‘ minds. This article tries to explain some methods

of young learners in teaching English as a second language for young learners

Key words: English, Second Language, and Young Learner.

Introduction

English as a second language (ESL) is used by speakers with different native

languages. Nowadays, English has great influence and this language has been taught all over


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the world especially in Indonesia. The academic curriculum focuses on all areas of language

acquisition: reading, writing, speaking, listening, grammar/structure, and culture.

In Indonesia, English is growing rapidly and it is found in primary school. We often

think of ESL students as the easiest to recognize among our special populations, picturing

students who characteristically enter our classrooms without a word of English. These 'pure

type' ESL students are, in fact, easily distinguishable: recent newcomers to the country and to

the international school community, for a while they may remain silent in class as they adjust

to a new school, environment and culture, unless there is a native language comrade to

interact with.

Nevertheles, the students begin their English Education in early age, it is not

important purpose to make good English speaker. For that reason, the teachers of English as

a second language (ESL) have to know the learning strategy for young minds. In addition, the

ESL teachers have to know the strategy to teach speaking skill for young tongues, as we

know that English words have different pronounciation with the written words. However, this

article will focus primarily on speaking and listening skills.

Factors Affecting Second Language Acquisition

Exactly how a second language is acquired is still uncertain, although individual

students show varying patterns, rates and styles of acquisition. For example, some students

seem to "take off" and become quickly conversant in English, while others continue to

struggle even after lengthy periods of exposure to the target language.

Factors that affect second language acquisition have been divided into three basic

categories. Their roles in second language acquisition are not fully understood at this time,

although it is certain that they do influence student learning outcomes and success in school.

These three categories are :

1. Learner characteristics or personal traits (Izzo, 1981; Kusuma-Powell, 1992; Ramirez,

1995; Sears, 1998);

2. Situational or environmental factors (Ramirez, 1995; Sears, 1998); and

3. Prior language development and competence (Cummins, 1979; Adamson, 1993).

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Defining the young language learner

In different socio-educational contexts, the term young learners refers to different age

ranges. The European Union member states working group has recently defined young

learners as primary school pupils between the ages of seven and 12, and has introduced the

term very young learners to refer to pre-scholars (age: three to six years). Still, in some

contexts even learners older than 12 are often included in the young learners‘ age group,

reflecting different national policies and practices in introducing children to foreign language

(FL) learning.

Young Learners

Young Learners (YLs) refer to children from the ages of four to twelve. Increasingly,

though, children as young as three are being formally introduced to English as a foreign

language. According to Sarah Phillips (1993), young learners are children from the first year

of formal schooling (five or six years old) to eleven or twelve years of age. They can be

divided into two groups, Younger Group (6-8 years old) and Older Group (9-12 years old).

The adult world and the child‘s world are not the same. Children do not always understand

what adults are talking about. Adults do not always understand what children are talking

about.

The Characteristics of YLs

There are many factors that influence children's maturity: for example, their culture

and environment (city or rural), sex, the expectations of their peers and parents. Young

children do not come to the language classroom with empty hand. They bring a well-

established set of instincts, skills and characteristics which will help them to learn another

language. We need to identify those and make the most of them. For example, children

characteristics are curious, outspoken, active, inquisitive nature, and like to move around.

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They are skilled in being very good at interpreting meaning without necessarily

understanding the individual words. Children have great ability in using limited language

creatively and frequently learning indirectly rather than directly. They also taking great

pleasure in finding and creating fun in which they do and a ready imagination.

How we think of the child as a language learner ( Lynne Cameron: 2001)

a. Piagets

The child is as active learner. A child‘s thinking develops as gradual growth of

knowledge and intellectual skills towards a final stage of formal, logical thinking.

Moreover, the implications for language learning: the child as sense-maker which is limited

by their experience.

b. Vigotsky

The child is social. Language provides the child with a new tool, opens up new

opportunities for doing things and for organizing information through the use of words as

symbols. The implications for language learning: the words are a recognizable linguistic

unit, so they will notice words in the new language.

c. Bruner

Children are scaffolding and routines. Language is the most important tool for cognitive

growth. In US, parents read bedtime stories to children as the routines, as the child gets older

the type of book changes, but the basic format remains.

Learning a second language

Children learn a second language better than adults. The Critical Period Hypothesis:

children can learn a second language before puberty because their brain is still able to use

the mechanisms t hat assisted first language acquisition.

Presenting the grammatical structure in a child’s context

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Sometimes it‘s difficult to see how a grammatical topic can be made humorous.

Visual stimuli can be very effective in teaching young children. Characters are extremely

helpful when presenting points of grammar for the first time. You can create your own

characters to suit the English you‘re teaching. Use a soft toy or a puppet as a character.

Cameron (2001) give example of conversation with a young learner which took place

between a 7 year old boy and herself in Malta. There the students start learning English as a

foreign language at year 5. She was visiting his English class, where the children mostly

had been working on a dinosaur project, by showing her his drawing of a Tyrannosaurus

Rex. The conversation was the following:

A : what is that?

P : it‘s T Rex

A :is it big or small?

P : big

A :how big?

((silence))

A :this big? ((demonstrating small size with hand a few inches off the floor))

((child shakes his head to indicate ‗no‘))

A :this big? ((demonstrating a waist-high size with hand))


A : this big? ((demonstrating a human size with hand))


A : THIS big? ((demonstrating as high as ceiling with hand stretched up))

((child nods his head to indicate ‗yes‘))

A :yes, it was VERY big!

By the end of the conversation between Cameron and the child, then the size of T-Rex

is agreed, by introducing simple phrase –it was very big- which may seem more like

vocabulary than grammar. But it creates meaning through its use.

Traditional exercises in the form of mechanical drills, gap-fills, and sentence

transformations all have a part to play in practicing grammar. They are useful at times when

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you need to calm your students down, and in the early stages of practice when you need to

familiarize the children with the structure taught.

Cameron (2001) proposes dialogues between a student and a teacher about T-Rex, has

illustrated several starting points for thinking about grammar and young learners; (1)

grammar is necessary to express precise meanings in discourse, (2) grammar ties closely into

vocabulary in learning and using foreign language, (3) grammar learning can evolve from

the learning of chunks of language, (4) talking about something meaningful with the child

can be a useful way to introduce new grammar, (5) grammar can be taught without technical

labels.

Several techniques for teaching English to young learner

Drawing and writing on the board

The board is a wonderful resource, then we can use it for all sorts of things. Try playing

hangman to practice specific points – ing forms. Crosswords can be used for practicing

countable and uncountable nouns, plurals, irregular verbs.

Learning through Stories

Story telling is much under-used in grammar practice. We all know that children love

stories. They‘ll even listen to the same story over and over again. One of the best ways to

introduce the past simple is through a story – you can use well-known traditional tales.

Cameron (2001) proposes the language use when planning the use of a story, she

makes three groupings: (1) language that children have met, (2) new language that will be

useful for all children to learn from the story, (3) new language that may or may not be learnt,

depending on individual children‘s interest.

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According to White, teaching children trough stories is important because stories rely

so much on words, offer a major and constant source of language experiences. Children will

also listen and read to find the meaning in stories. Stories help children become aware of the

general feel and sound of the foreign language. He added that stories introduce children to

language items and sentence constructions without their necessarily having to use their

productivity. The experiences of the story encourage responses through speaking and writing.

It is natural to express our likes or dislikes and to exchange ideas and associations related to

stories we hear or read. By listening, reading, writing the stories is also learning to

communicate.

Learning Language through Theme-Based Teaching

Cameron (2001) stated that children‘s language learning can be learning discourse

skills. She focuses on using information texts, on paper and on computer. In this study she

classifies texts that can be used in theme-based teaching will include relevant songs, rhymes,

videos, stories, and non-fiction informational texts, including sources accessed through the

internet or on CD-Rom, catalogues, leaflets and magazines and educational materials written

for native speaker children.

a. Songs and chants

Every playground the world over rings out with the sound of children singing or

chanting rhymes. What better way to practice grammar than allow the children to do what

they do for pleasure? There are so many songs that you can use to practice grammatical

structures, such as Old MacDonald had a farm.

b. Games

A game is an activity with rules, a goal and an element of fun. There two kinds of

games: competitive games, in which player or teams race to be the first to reach the goal, and

co-operative games, in which players or teams work together towards a common goal. Games

help and encourage many learners to sustain their interest and work. Games can be found to

give practice in all the skill (reading, writing, listening and speaking), in all the stages of the

teaching / learning.

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Some suggested games which may be used to make the learning activities get more fun are:

1. Story games: silly stories, fantasy stories, bits and pieces, domino story.

2. Word games: bingo, the odd man out, missing words, dash it and hang it.

3. Question and answer games: half the class nose, twenty questions, who are you,

guessing and speculating games, hiding and finding, feel and think, box, picture out of

focus.

c. Rhymes & Poems

Rhymes and poems can both entertain and inform. Here‘s a traditional rhyme you could use

to introduce children to the past simple:

Incy wincy spider climbed up the spout.

Down came the rain and washed poor Incy out.

Out came the sun and dried up all the rain.

Incy wincy spider climbed up the spout again.

Here is a poem for prepositional practice:

Mice!

Mice, mice – they‟re everywhere!

They‟re on the table and under my chair.

Mice, mice – at half past two

I saw one sitting in my shoe.

Mice, mice – running along

My garden wall, singing a song.

Mice, mice – just last week

I found them playing hide and seek.

Mice, mice – on Tuesday morning,

I saw one in my cupboard, yawning.

Mice, mice – beside my bed

I felt one jump over my head!

Mice, mice – oh, why don‟t you

Go and live in North Peru?

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Conclusion

Based on the explanation above, Lynne Cameron (2003) argues that the continuing

growth of teaching English to young learners brings a number of challenges. Starting to learn

English at an earlier age may not bring automatic improvements to proficiency levels, unless

teacher education and secondary language teaching both adapt to meet the challenges of the

new situation. According to Cameron, amongst other knowledge and skills, teachers of young

learners need an awareness of how children think and learn skills and knowledge in spoken

English to conduct whole lessons orally, an ability to identify children‘s interests and use

them for language teaching, and to be equipped to teach initial literacy in English.

References

Cameron, Lynne, Penny McKay. Bringing Creative Teaching into the Young Learner

Classroom. Oxford. Oxford University Press.

Cameron, Lynne. 2001. Teaching Languages to Young Learners. New York. Oxford

University Press.

Ehrman, E. Madeline, Betty Lou Leaver, Rebecca L. Oxford. 2003. A brief overview of

individual differences in second language learning. System 31 (2003) 313-330.

www.elsevier.comlocate/system.

Jelena, Mihaljevic Djigunovic. 2012. Attitudes and Motivation in Early Foreign Language

Learning. CEPS Journal 2(2012) 3, 5.55-74 URN:um:nbn:de:0111-opus-67873.

The Analysis of Grammatical and Textual Equivalence Used in The Translation of

Paolini„s Novel of “Inheritance” into Indonesian

Badi‟atul Azmina

SDIT Nidaul Hikmah Salatiga

http://www.elsevier.comlocate/system

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66

[email protected]

Abstract

This study examines kinds of grammatical and textual equivalence which are used by Poppy

D. Chusfani in translating English into Indonesia language of Christopher Paolini‗s Novel of

―Inheritance‖ as well as the most dominant equivalence used by Poppy D. Chusfani in

translating English into Indonesia language of Christopher Paolini‗s Novel of ―Inheritance‖.

This is descriptive qualitative research and the method of collecting data of this study are

documentation and library research. The data in the novel which have been collected are

classified into two kinds of equivalence; grammatical equivalence (number, gender, person,

tense/aspect and voice) and textual equivalence (reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction

and lexical cohesion). After analyzing and classifying the data, researcher discovered that

there are 25 data of number, 27 data of gender, 38 data of person, 12 data of tense/aspect and

12 data of voice. Furthermore, researcher discovered that there are 33 data of reference, 9

data of substitution and ellipsis, 35 data of conjunction and 17 data of lexical cohesion.Those

data presented are representative from all of the data in the novel, because the writer takes the

data by its part among the translated sentences contained grammatical and textual (cohesion)

equivalence. To sum up, the result shows that Poppy D. Chusfani uses all kinds of

grammatical and textual (cohesion) equivalence, after all, grammatical equivalence of person

is the most dominant data (38) used by Poppy D. Chusfani in translating English into

Indonesia language of Christopher Paolini‗s Novel of ―Inheritance‖

Keywords: Concept of Equivalence, Grammatical Equivalence, Textual Equivalence,

Inheritance Novel

Abstrak

Penelitian ini menelaah macam-macam padanan kata grammatikal dan tekstual yang

digunakan oleh Poppy D. Chusfani dalam menerjemahkan Bahasa Inggris ke Indonesia dari

Novel ―Inheritance‖ karya Christopher Paolini begitu juga menelah padanan kata yang paling


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67

dominan digunakan. Penelitian ini merupakan deskriptif kualiatif dan metode pengumpulan

datanya adalah dokumentasi dan studi pustaka. Data yang telah dikumpulkan dalam novel ini

telah dikelompokkan berdasarkan dua macam padanan kata; grammatikal (nomor, jenis

kelamin, orang, bentuk kata kerja dan kalimat pasif) dan tekstual (rujukan, penggantian,

peniadaan, kata hubung dan kohesi leksikal). Setelah menganalisis dan menggolongkan data,

peneliti menemukan bahwa ada 25 data nomor, 27 data jender, 38 data orang, 12 data bentuk

kata kerja, dan 12 bentuk kalimat pasif. Di samping itu, peneliti juga menemukan 33 data

rujukan, 9 data penggantian dan peniadaan, 35 data kata hubung, dan 17 data kohesi leksikal.

Data yang disajikan tersebut mewakili semua data yang ada dalam novel karena peneliti

mengambil data menurut bagian kalimat terjemahan yang mengandung padanan kata

grammatikal dan tekstual. Kesimpulannya, hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa Poppy D.

Chusfani menggunakan semua macam padanan kata grammatikal dan tekstual, namun

padanan kata orang merupakan data yang paling dominan (38) yang digunakan dalam

menerjemahkan Bahasa Inggris ke Indonesia dari Novel ―Inheritance‖ karya Christopher

Paolini.

Keywords: Konsep Padanan Kata, Padanan Gramatikal, Padanan Tekstual.

Introduction

This study examines how the concept of Grammatical and Textual Equivalence Used by

Poppy D. Chusfani in Translating English into Indonesia Language of Christopher Paolini ‗s

Novel of ―Inheritance‖. The previous study are ―An Analysis of Students‘ Ability in

Translating Grammatical Equivalence‖ (e.g. Ruhansah, 2013), ―The Question of

Grammatical Equivalence in Translation‖ (e.g. Sudartini, n.d.) and ―An Analysis of Technical

Devices in Translation Procedures Applied by Listiana Srisanti in Translating A J.K.

Rowling‘s Novel‖ (e.g. Lina, 2013). Few published studies focus on grammatical and textual

equivalence in relation with novel translation.

This study aims to find and analyze the kinds of grammatical and textual equivalence

which are used by Poppy D. Chusfani in translating English into Indonesia language of

Christopher Paolini‗s Novel of ―Inheritance‖ as well as to find the most dominant

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68

equivalence used by Poppy D. Chusfani in translating English into Indonesia language of

Christopher Paolini‗s Novel of ―Inheritance‖. This discussion gives additional information to

the readers about analysis of grammatical and textual equivalence in translation of written

language. Theoretically, the result of the research expected to inspire others to hold further

research. Meanwhile, the result of the study will be useful for additional information in

teaching translation concerning grammatical and textual equivalence practically.

Understanding the world of Translation

Translation is an activity of transferring meaning from the source language into the

target language. Many experts give their definitions about translation. A deeper opinion was

revealed by Brislin (1976:1, in Widiyantari 2012: 58) that ―Translation is the general term

referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language (source) to another (target)

whether the languages are in written or oral form”. According to Brislin, translation is a

general term that refers tothe transfer of idea or thought from the source language to the

targetlanguage either written or spoken. Therefore the core of translation isthe transforming

of message, meaning or idea from the source languageto the target one. Whereas, in the term

of language style, both languagesused must be appropriate each other so that it will give the

same effect between the reader of the source text and the reader of the translation version.

That is because the resulted translation is accurate, understandable and acceptable.

Meanwhile, Catford (1974:20) stated that ―Translation may be defined as the

replacement of textual in one language (SL), by textual material in another language‖. In this

definition, translator will only changethe text material or the passage in source language into

the target language.Besides, in the real activity translator will not only transfer the substance

material but he/she also has to consider the language style and the culture. Nida and Taber

(1974:14) mentioned that ―Translation consists ofreproducing in the receptor language and

secondly in terms of style‖. It means that translation is the re-expression into target language

from the source language, with first focus on the meaning expression and then the style of the

expression as the second.

The mastery of the culture and both languages used is not a guarantee that someone can

be a qualified translator. Many requirements have to be possessed. Bell (1991:36) said ―The

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translator must, as acommunicator, possess the knowledge and skill.‖ It means that a

translator should have a wide deep insight and also skill. Furthermore, he has to master the

translation theory and also has an understanding about the types of translation. Bell also

revealed that ―…the professional (technical)translator has access to five distinct kinds of

knowledge: target language(TL) knowledge; text-type knowledge; source language (SL)

knowledge;subject area (“Real-world”) knowledge and contrastive knowledge.” In doing the

process of translation, a translator does not only transfer the meaning (Widiyantari, 2012: 57-

59).

There are several aspects that should be taken into consideration such as the problems of

non-equivalence. Baker (1992: 18) states that the choice of a suitable equivalent will always

depend not only on the linguistic system or systems being handled by the translator, but also

on the way both the writer of the source text and the procedure of the target text, i.e. the

translator, choose to manipulate the linguistic systems in question.

The comparison of texts in different languages inevitably involves a theory of

equivalence. Equivalence can be said to be the central issue in translation although its

definition, relevance, and applicability within the field of translation theory have caused

heated controversy, and many different theories of the concept of equivalence have been

elaborated within this field in the past fifty years proposed by Leonardi (2000). Furthermore,

Mona Baker in the book of In Other Words (1992) defines six types of equivalence: (1)

equivalence at word level, (2) equivalence above the word level, (3) grammatical

equivalence, (4) textual equivalence; thematic and word order, (5) textual equivalence;

cohesion, and (6) pragmatic equivalence.

However, Newmark states that knowledge of text-linguistics, in no way dispenses with

the lexical, grammatical and referential problems that have to be solved at the particular and

specific points of the text. The problems of coherence and cohesion coincide when the

meanings of sentence joins are to be determined (1993: 4). For this reason, grammatical and

textual (cohesion) equivalence are obviously important for translator to account for in the

text. Consequently, the writer limits this study only on grammatical and textual (cohesion)

equivalence.

Grammatical equivalence refers to the diversity of grammatical categories across

languages. Baker (1992) notes that grammatical rules may vary across languages and this

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may pose some problems in the terms of finding a direct correspondence in the target

language which later may induce the translator either to add or to omit information in the

target language because of the lack of particular grammatical devices in the target language

itself (p. 82). It includes:

1. Number

The idea of countability is probably universal in the sense that it is readily accessible

to all human beings and is expressed in the lexical structure of all languages. However,

not all languages have a grammatical category of number, and those that do not

necessarily view countability in the same terms (Baker, 1992: 87).

2. Gender

Gender is a grammatical distinction according to which a noun or pronoun is

classified as either masculine or feminine in some languages. The distinction applies to

nouns which refer to animate beings as well as those which refer to inanimate objects

(Baker, 1992: 90).

3. Person

The category of person relates to the notion of participant roles. In most languages,

participant roles are systematically defined through a closed system of pronouns which

may be organized along a variety of dimensions (Baker, 1992: 95).

4. Tense/Aspect

Tense and aspect are grammatical categories in a large number of languages. The

form of the verb in languages which have these categories usually indicates two main

types of information: time relations and aspectual differences (Baker, 1992: 98).

5. Voice

Voice is a grammatical category which defines the relationship between a verb and

its subject (Baker, 1992: 102).

While textual equivalence refers to the equivalence in the terms of information and

cohesion. It is up to the translator to decide whether or not to maintain the cohesive ties as

well as the coherence of the source language (p. 132). It consists:

1. Reference

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The term reference is traditionally used in semantics for the relationship which

holds between a word and what it points to in the real world. The reference of chair

would therefore be a particular chair that is being identified on a particular occasion

(Baker 1992: 181). There are three types of reference: personal, demonstrative and

comparative reference (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 38-39).

2. Substitution and ellipsis

Unlike reference, substitution and ellipsis are grammatical rather than semantic

relationships. In substitution, an item (or items) is replaced by another item (or items),

while ellipsis involves the omission of an item. In other words, in ellipsis, an item is

replaced by nothing (Baker, 1992: 186-187).

3. Conjunction

Conjunction involves the use of formal markers to relate sentences, clauses and

paragraphs to each other (Baker 1992: 190).

4. Lexical cohesion

Lexical cohesion refers to the role played by the selection of vocabulary in

organizing relations within a text (Baker, 1992: 202). Halliday and Hasan (1976) divide

lexical cohesion into two main categories: reiteration and collocation. Reiteration, as

the name suggests, involves repetition of lexical items. A reiterated item may be a

repetition of an earlier item, a synonym or near synonym, a super ordinate, or a general

word (Baker, 1992: 203). Collocation, as a sub-class of lexical cohesion in Halliday and

Hasan‘s model, covers any instance which involves a pair of lexical items that are

associated with each other in the language in some way (Baker, 1992: 203).

In addition, text is the object of translation. The strategies of translation and how the

translator translates language are seen in the target text. The writer chooses Inheritance,

English novel written by Christopher Paolini for the reason that it is translated by Poppy D.

Chusfani. She is a great editor, translator and writer (Hanifah, 2013: 1). She has certain

strategies how to find the adequate equivalence from English into Indonesia language. The

strategies includes how to translate conversion, ‗he‘ or ‘she‘, generic ‗you‘, tenses, active-

passive form and conjunction. For example, Poppy (2013: 14) says that some active

sentences in English are easier to read if it is translated into passive in Indonesia. This type of

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translator‘s strategies and preference will cause problems of equivalence based on Mona

Baker‘s theory of equivalence, including problems in grammatical and textual (cohesion)

equivalence.


Research Method

In this research, a qualitative descriptive method is used. Bogdan and Taylor

(1972:5) define ―qualitative method‖ as a kind of research that produces descriptive data

as the result include theoretical review, people‘s common perspective and unique

human‘s behavior. Deal with this concept, Kirk and Miller (1986:9) states that qualitative

descriptive is a part of sociology whish depends on observation to human‘s language and

human‘s attitudes fundamentally.

Data source

Sumanto states that data sources are divided into primary and secondary sources

(Sumanto, 1995:11). Primary source is the research data obtained directly from the

original source (no intermediaries) that are specifically collected by the researchers to

address issues in research (Ruslan, 2004:31).It has relation with the object of the

research. The primary resource is taking from English and Indonesia Novel of Inheritane

by Christopher Paolini.

The writer conducted the research within one month namely in July 20th

until

August 20th

, 2015. Besides, she only takes the data from the novel until chapter 21 in

both English and Indonesian novel because the novel consists of 80 chapters and more

that 900 pages. For instance, she takes it started from page 1 until page 122 in English

epub book version and it started from page 1 until page 209 in Indonesian book version.

Those data presented are representative from all of the data in the novel, because the

writer takes the data by its part among the translated sentences contained grammatical

and textual (cohesion) equivalence.

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Technique of Data Collection

In this research, the technique of data collection is documentation.

Documentation may refer to the process of providing evidence (to document something

or to the communicable material used to provide such documentation). In addition, the

writer also uses library research or study of the library (Hadi, 1981:4).

Method of Data Analysis

The writer defines analysis as consisting of three current flows activity: data

reduction, data display and drawing conclusion/verifications (Miles and Hubberman,

1994: 10-12).

a. Data Reduction

Data reductionrefers to the process of selecting, focusing, simplifying,

abstracting, and transforming the data that appear in written-up field or

transcriptions. Data reduction is a form of analysis that sharpens sorts, focuses,

discards, and organizes data in such a way that ―final‖ conclusions can be drawn and

verified. Qualitative data can be reduced and transformed in many ways: through

selection, through summary or paraphrase, through being subsumed in a larger

pattern, and so on.

b. Data Display

A display is an organized, compressed assembly of information that permits

conclusion drawing and action. Designing a display-deciding on the rows and

columns of a matrix for qualitative data and deciding which data, in which form,

should be entered in the cells-are analytic activities.

c. Drawing Conclusion and Verifications

From the start of data collection, the qualitative analysis is beginning to

decide what things mean-is noting regularities, patterns, explanations, possible

configuration, casual flows and prepositions. Verification may be as brief as a

fleeting second thought crossing the analyst‘s mind during writing, with a short

excursion back to the field notes, or it may be thorough and elaborate, with lengthy

argumentation and review among colleagues to develop ―inter-subjective consensus‖

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or with extensive efforts to replicate a finding in another data set. The meanings

emerging from the data have to be tested for the plausibility, their sturdiness, their

―confirmatibility‖-that is, their validity.

d. Data coding

The writer marks the data by codes to make the analysis of each utterance easier.

The data coding in this research is as follows:

Table 3.1 List of codes

Abbreviation Meaning

SL Source Language

TL Target Language

ST Source Text

TT Target Text

Ch. Chapter

p. Page

Hal. Halaman

Discussion & Research Finding

After obtaining the data, the researcher found that Poppy uses all of the kinds of

grammatical and textual (cohesion). For the grammatical equivalence, they are number,

gender, person, tense/ aspect and voice. Likewise, for the textual equivalence (cohesion), they

are reference, substitution and ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion.

Here is the discussion based on the data collection:

Table 7. 1 Result of Grammatical Equivalence Analysis

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Grammatical Equivalence

Number Gender Person Tense/aspect Voice

The most

dominant

number of

grammatical

category is

translating

plural into plural

form. It is called

grammatically

equivalence.

The most

dominant

gender of

grammatical

category is

translating

masculine into

neutral. It is

called

grammatically

non-

equivalence

The most

dominant

person of

grammatical

category is

translating the

data

grammatically

non-

equivalence

The most

dominant

tense/aspect of

grammatical

category is

translating the

data

grammatically

non-

equivalence

The most

dominant

voice of

grammatical

category is

translating

passive into

passive form.

It is called

grammatically

equivalence.

Total: 13 out of

25 data findings

Total: 8 out of

27 data

findings

Total: 13 out

of 38 data

findings

Total: 9 out of

13 data

findings

Total: 4 out of

12 data

findings

As the data above, researcher discovers that there are 25 data of number and 13 of them

are plural into plural form. For gender, there are 27 data and 8 of them are masculine into

masculine form. Then, the researcher found 38 data of person and 13 of them are

grammatically non-equivalence. Later, there are 12 data of tense/aspect and 9 of them are

grammatically non-equivalence. The last, it is found 12 data of voice and 6 of them are

passive into passive form.

Table 7. 2 Result of Textual Equivalence Analysis

Textual equivalence

Reference Substituion and Conjunction Lexical cohesion

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ellipsis

The most dominant

reference of textual

(cohesion) category

is personal

reference.

The most dominant

substitution and

ellipsis of textual

(cohesion) category

is substitution.

The most dominant

conjunction of

textual (cohesion)

category is

translating the data

textually

equivalence.

The most

dominant lexical

cohesion of

textual (cohesion)

category is

reiteration.

Total: 16 out of 33

data findings

Total: 6 out of 9 data

findings

Total: 25 out of 35

data findings

Total: 10 out of

17 data findings

Considering the data above, researcher discovers that there are 33 data of reference and

16 of them are personal reference. For substitution and ellipsis, there are 9 data and 6 of them

are substitution. Next, there are 35 data of conjunction and 25 of them are textually

equivalence. The last, there are 17 data of lexical cohesion and 10 of them are reiteration.

Then, the researcher found that the most dominant equivalence used by Poppy D.

Chusfani is grammatical equivalence person. It shows 38 data. Those data presented are

representative from grammatical and textual equivalence‘s data in the novel. The researcher

does not involve all of it, because it will be more excessive. So, she only takes the

representative part of the translated sentence to be presented.

Conclusions

The study shows that in translating the novel, Poppy D. Chusfani uses all the kinds of

grammatical and textual equivalence. For grammatical equivalence, they are number, gender,

person, tense/aspect and voice. For textual equivalence, they are reference, substitution and

ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion. Then, the researcher concludes that the most

dominant equivalence used by Poppy D. Chusfani is grammatical equivalence i.e. person.

Most of the data are grammatically equivalence. All of those data presented are representative

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for all of the data in the novel, hence the researcher only took the sample of the

sentences‗part contain the grammatical and textual equivalence.

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Deixis Analysis of the Good Dinosaur the Movie

Nur Kholis

Sekolah Indonesia in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

[email protected]

Abstract

This essay is a descriptive qualitative research which will attempt to answer the following

objectives: (1) what are types of deixis found in the movie of ―The Good Dinosaur‖? And (2)

what is the most dominant deixis found in the movie ―The Good Dinosaur‖ and the analysis?

From the analysis of the movie entitled ―The Good Dinosaur‖, found some data finding about

the types of deixis which used in the movie. Five types of deixis they are: personal deixis,

time deixis, place deixis, social deixis, and discourse deixis found in the film in the different

data percentage. Personal deixis found in the highest percentage which directly answers the

second objective with the data collection 80%, time deixis 5%, place deixis 3%, social deixis

9% and discourse deixis 3%.


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Personal deixis has a correlation to the point of view of narrating the film ―The Good

Dinosaur‖. This caused by the finding of personal deixis involving thr first, second and third

pronoun in determining the story. Further, this contribute to make the personal deixis

dominate the deixis used in the film.

Key Words: Deixis, Types of deixis, Personal deixis.

Abstrak

Karangan ini merupakan sebuah penelitian deskriptif qualitatif yang akan mencoba menjawab

rumusan masalah: (1) Jenis-jenis deiksis apakah yang ditemukan dalam film yang berjudul

―The Good Dinosaur‖? dan (2) Apakah jenis deiksis yang dominan ditemukan dalam film

―The God Dinosaur‖ serta analisisnya?.

Dari analisis film yang berjudul ―The Good Dinosaur‖, ditemukan beberapa penemuan data

tentang jenis-jenis deiksis yang digunakan dalam film. Lima jenis deiksis yakni deiksis

persona, deiksis waktu, deiksis tempat, deiksis social dan deiksis wacana ditemukan dalam

film dengan persentase data yang berbeda-beda. Deiksis persona ditemukan dalam persentase

tertinggi yang sekaligus menjawab pertanyaan kedua dengan perolehan data sebesaar 80%,

deiksis waktu sebesar 5%, deiksis tempat sebesar 3%, diksis social sebesar 9 % dan deiksis

wacana sebesar 3%.

Deiksis persona memiliki keterkaitan dengan sudut pandang penceritaan dalam film ‗The

Good Dinosaur‖. Hal ini dikarenakan hasil penemuan deiksis persona yang melibatkan kata

ganti pertama, kata ganti kedua dan kata ganti ketiga memiliki dalam menentukan jalan

cerita. Hal ini kemudian mendasari kenapa deiksis persona mendominasi deiksis yang

digunakan dalam film.

Kata Kunci: Deiksis, Macam-macam deiksis, Persona deiksis

Introduction

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Language is a tool to communicate between the speaker and the partner of speaking in the

daily activity which has its own meaning and purpose. In the communication, language plays

the most important thing to transfer and deliver the meaning to the hearer. To transfer it, well

we know the name of verbal communication and written communication. Both of the kind of

communication has their basic function of language tend to the need of the people to use the

language in communication. Some of the functions of language are to express the feeling, to

communicate, as a tool to make an integration and social adaptation in a particular

environment and situation and also as the tool for social control (Keraf, 1997:3).

Deals to pragmatic in a language, Leech (1983:14) explain in his opinion that ―pragmatic

deals with verbal acts and performances which take place in particular situation, in time‖. As

a part of language, pragmatic, which since 1938 had been acknowledged to be the new room

of linguistics study, plays a fundamental role in studying the verbal acts in a particular

performance and situation. Thus, pragmatic is a study of the ability of the language user in

combining and adapting sentence correctly (Yuliana, 2011:1). As the part of language which

also means as a study of language that involves the aspects in the outside of language,

pragmatic has its own scope. Based on Gazdar (1979:2), pragmatics is the study of deixis (at

least in a part), implicature, presupposition, speech acts and aspect of discourse structure.

Based on the explanation of Gazdar, the brief explanation of those studies in pragmatics,

when the language focuses on how the hearer could response and answers explicitly the

questions of the questioner with some non literal word of answer, the study of pragmatic is

divined as implicature. However, if the hearer can give a response with some additional

meaning such as some assumptions, the study named as presupposition. Further, Levinson in

Suyono (1990:5) a linguist define other part of pragmatic namely speech acts that according

to him, communication is not only a symbol, word or sentence but it is more appropriate to be

called as a the result of those which forms a behavior of speech act, which this is also studied

in the pragmatic. Another part of pragmatic is deixis that could be meant as a condition in

semantic which exist in a sentence or utterance in which only could be interpreted the

reference with considering the context of speaking or sentence.

In this occasion, during the fulfilling of the paper, the writer interested to raise the study

of pragmatic which deals to the reference that considering the context of speaking to be

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interpreted: Deixis. Deixis in a communication plays some important matters to refer who or

what the object is being talked about. Deixis is a part of language which always present both

in daily communication and in the text or discourse. As what Yule (1996:1) stated, ―the

technical term for one of the most basic things we do with utterances which means pointing is

called deictic expression.

To analyze those explanations of deixis, the writer tries to analyze it from the very good

movie namely ―The Good Dinosaurs‖ movie directed by Peter Sohn. The Good Dinosaur is a

2015 American 3 D computer animated comedy drama adventure buddy film produced

by Pixar Animation Studios and distributed worldwide by Walt Disney Pictures, directed

by Peter Sohn from a screenplay by Meg LeFauve. Set on a fictional Earth in which

dinosaurs never went extinct, the film follows a young Apatosaurus named Arlo, who meets

an unlikely human friend while traveling through a harsh and mysterious landscape. Bob

Peterson, who came up with the idea for the story, directed the film until August 2013. In

October 2014, Sohn was announced as the new director. The film, along with Inside Out,

marks the first time that Pixar has released two feature films in the same year. The Good

Dinosaur premiered on November 10, 2015 in Paris, and was released in the United States on

November 25, 2015, to positive reviews. The film grossed $329.1 million worldwide – lowest

for a Pixar film – on a $175–200 million budget.

This film is directed by Peter Sohn, an American animator, director, voice actor, and

storyboard artist at Pixar Animation Studios. Sohn started his career with Pixar in the art and

story departments for Finding Nemo. He also worked on The Incredibles, Ratatouille and

WALL-E. Sohn also performed the voice of Emile in Ratatouille. He made his directorial

debut with the short film Partly Cloudy in 2009 which he also wrote. Partly Cloudy was

included in the Animation Show of Shows in 2009. Sohn co-directed the English-language

version of Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea in 2009 with John Lasseter and Brad Lewis. Sohn

was directing for about 18 film which as the production of Pixar and other studios. Some of

the films directed by Sohn are Monster University, Toy Story, Up and The Good Dinosaurs.

A very important thing to do during watching the movie is following the plot so that the

viewer could catch the story. Plot could be met by scene per scene with the dialogue that tells

us the story. Thus, because of the dialogue per scene contains its own discourse that stated by

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_film

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-animated

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy-drama

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventure

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddy_film

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney_Pictures

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Sohn

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screenplay

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meg_LeFauve

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apatosaurus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Peterson_(filmmaker)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Peterson_(filmmaker)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inside_Out_(2015_film)

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the actors that possibly to be analyzed the writer propose the paper under the title ―Deixis

Analysis of The Good Dinosaur Movie Directed by Peter Sohn: Pragmatic‘s Study‖.

Synopsis of the Movie

In an alternate timeline, the asteroid that would have caused the extinction of

the dinosaurs 65 million years ago passes safely over Earth. Millions of years later,

two Apatosaurus named Henry and Ida, who are farmers, watch as their three eggs hatch into

children: Libby, Buck, and the runt Arlo. Unlike his siblings, Arlo has trouble adjusting to

farm life; while the others are successful and allowed to "make their mark" (a mud-print on

the family's corn silo), Arlo's timid nature makes even his simple tasks difficult for him, so

Henry attempts to give Arlo a sense of purpose by putting him in charge of guarding their silo

from critters, and helps him set up a trap. The trap manages to capture a feral cave boy, but

Arlo doesn't have the heart to kill him, and sets him free. Disappointed, Henry takes Arlo to

track the cave boy, leading them into a ravine where it begins to rain. Arlo injures himself,

and Henry decides to turn back, but a massive flash flood occurs, and Henry only manages to

save Arlo before being swept away and killed.

Without his father, Arlo must shoulder more of the workload. He spots the same cave boy

inside the silo and, blaming him for his father's death, chases him until both of them fall into

a river. Arlo cannot swim, and is quickly swept downstream where he hits his head on a rock

and is knocked unconscious. Waking up, he is dismayed to find himself far from home and

tries to survive on his own with minimal success, becoming trapped when a boulder pins

down his leg. Arlo awakes to find his leg has been freed, and the cave boy appears with food

for him to eat. The cave boy then leads Arlo to a berry tree, where the cave boy fends off a

large snake, amazing Arlo, and also impressing a nearby Styracosaurus, who wants to keep

the boy. The eccentric older dinosaur forces Arlo to compete with him to give the boy a name

he will respond to, which Arlo finally wins when he calls him "Spot", and the Styracosaurus

relents. Arlo and Spot bond, as Arlo laments his lost family, and Spot reveals that his own

parents are dead. When a thunderstorm strikes, though, Arlo runs away in fear, and loses the

riverbank he has been following home.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternate_history

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apatosaurus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caveman

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Styracosaurus

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The next morning, Arlo wakes up to find Spot at his side. They are noticed by a band

of pterodactyls that appear to be conducting a rescue operation but turn out to be savagely

carnivorous. When the pterodactyls try to take Spot, Arlo and Spot flee, happening upon a

pair of Tyrannosaurus named Nash and Ramsey, who ward off the pterodactyls. Nash,

Ramsey, and their father Butch have lost their herd of longhorns, so Arlo offers Spot's help in

sniffing them out. They locate the herd, but Butch recognizes the work of cattle rustlers, and

uses Arlo as a lure. Arlo and Spot attract the attention of the rustlers allowing Butch and his

family to attack. During the fight, Arlo musters his courage and fends off two raptors that

have overwhelmed Butch, helping to turn the fight in their favor. Having gained their respect,

Arlo joins the T. Rexes in driving the cattle south when he sees the familiar mountain peaks

of his homeland in the distance, and leaves with Spot to return home. Along the way, Arlo

and Spot encounter an adult feral caveman in the distance, and though Spot shows interest,

Arlo dissuades him and they continue on.

As another storm approaches, the pterodactyls return and attack, this time managing to

carry Spot away. Arlo becomes entangled in some vines, where he has a vision of Henry

leading him back home. Arlo instead resolves to save Spot, making the vision of his father

proud before he fades away. Arlo wakes up filled with determination and finds and attacks

the pterodactyls, which have cornered Spot at the river. Arlo and Spot manage to overpower

the pterodactyls, plunging them one after another into the water where they are swept

helplessly downstream. Another flash flood occurs, triggering a massive torrent to approach.

Despite his fear, Arlo leaps into the water to rescue Spot as the two are swept away toward a

waterfall. Arlo protects Spot as the two falls, and carries him to shore.

As they approach Arlo's home, the two again hear the unknown caveman call, and are

approached by an entire caveman family. With great reluctance, Arlo pushes Spot to join his

kind, and the two of them share a tearful goodbye. Arlo finally arrives back home to his

mother and siblings, and makes his mark on the silo between those of his mother and father.

Film as a Literacy Media

Nowadays, technology has been long developed. Literacy resources could not only be

found by the reading habit but trough many resources that also involve another part of senses

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pterosaur

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrannosaurus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Longhorn

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattle_raiding

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such like visual, audio and the combination of both visual and audio. Even of course the use

of reading habit is the main resource to acquire the information.

Film also called a movie, motion picture or photoplay as described by Wikipedia (2016,

Retrieved may 12th

2016) is a series of still images which, when shown on a screen, creates

the illusion of moving images due to the phi phenomenon or optical illusion. In recent, the

use of a movie is not just as an entertainment to amuse the viewer, but also useful for

education. Quoted from Tempo (2016, Retrieved May 12th

2016), there are six ways to build

science literacy which one of them was trough film. Moreover, Noves (2000) in Tempo stated

that study of science should be fun, and the way to make it happen is by movies. This kind of

learning tyle has been applied for the student university in Brazil where there, they study

science by referring to such scientific movies such like Star Wars, A Space Odyssey, Star

Trek and others. This shows us that the existence of movie, now becomes the alternative ways

to educate the students and largely people.

Film literacy as explained by The West Georgia University in westga.edu (Retrieved May

12th

2016) is a convergence of the interdisciplinary practices of literary and media studies,

which both concentrate on the analysis of significance in all manner of texts: visual and

written. Ushering students toward a more open notion of literary discourse and practice,

critical media pedagogy begins with the assumption that visual images, songs,

advertisements, and film are inherently ideological and political. The media enacts, as John

Berger, an art critic frames it as the ways of seeing that can effectively produce and

determine the meanings and outcomes of discourse itself and which, therefore, shape the

cultural contexts.

John Berger according to make film as one of media reference proposed on his script

entitled Ways of Seeing (1972) that described by West Georgia University in his westga.edu

(Retrieved May 12th

2016) 3 core concepts of media literacy that can be applied to films as

follow:

1. Representations and images in media catalogue or mirror commonly shared practices,

ideologies and experiences. In this sense, media representations play a formative role in

reifying and entrenching cultural practices and are seen to be expressions, often, of the

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_phenomenon

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collective (or dominant) will. An advertisement, for example, might project gendered,

classist, and even racial fears or fantasies; a film might catalogue the beliefs, assumptions,

and prejudices of a particular historical moment.

2. To draw from Henry Giroux, one of todays leading critical pedagogy scholars, The media

enacts its own invisible pedagogy. Media is not neutral terrain but rather contains

embedded arguments, points of view, and messages.

3. According to Maurice E. Stevens, in an article on Spike Lees Malcolm X, the visual

medium is an arbiter of identities. Hence more than merely reflecting shared beliefs,

customs and value-systems by which we come to identify ourselves, the media plays a

critical role in constructing identities and social ideology, promoting, challenging, and

mediating prevailing attitudes toward corporeality, race, gender, class, sexuality,

occupation, (etc.) that permeate Western culture and language at their deepest levels.

Deixis in Pragmatics

Deixis deals with connections between discourse and the situation in which discourse is

used. The term of ‗deixis‘ is derived from the Greek word which mean ‗to show‘ or ‗to

indicate‘ used to denote the elements in a language which refer directly to the situation.

Moore (2001:14) give definition about deixis that "Deixis is an important field of language

study in its own right and very important for learners of languages. But it has some relevance

to analysis of conversation and pragmatics. It is often and best described as "verbal pointing",

that is to say pointing by means of language. The linguistic forms of this pointing are called

deictic expressions, deictic markers or deictic words; they are also sometimes called

indexicals."

Moreover, deixis is a technical term (from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do

with utterance. Or it can be said ‗pointing‘ via language. Essentially language, deixis

concerns with the ways in which the interpretation of utterance depends on the analysis of

that context of utterance.

Here are the explanations of five kinds of deixis as proposed by Levinson:

a. Person Deixis

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In many languages, person deixis can also contain other meaning elements like the

gender of the third person. In addition, to pronoun and agreeing predicates, person, or

participant-role is marked in various other ways. Person deixis concerns with the

encoding of the role of participants in the speech even in which the utterance in question

is delivered. Yule (1996, p.9-10) describe that person deixis involves the speaker and the

addressee and operates in a basic three-part division they are:

1) First person (I). The first person deixis is a reference that refers to the speaker or both

speaker and referent grouped with the speaker which is expressed in singular

pronouns (I, me, myself, mine) and plural pronouns (we, us, ourselves, our, ours). The

first person deixis can be divided into exclusive first person deixis, which refers to a

group including addressee.

2) Second person (you). The second person deixis is a deictic reference to a person or

persons identified as addressee, such as you, yourself, yourselves, your, yours.

3) Third person (He, She, It). Third person deixis is a deictic reference to a referent(s)

not identified as the speaker or addressee and usually imply to the gender that the

utterance refers to, for example: he, she, and they, him, himself, her, herself.

b. Place deixis

Is also described as spatial deixis, where the relative location of people and things is

being indicated. Place deixis or spatial deixis usually expressed in this, these, there, here,

that, and those. Place deixis can be described along many of the same parameters that

apply to the time deixis. Therefore, those references to place can be absolute or relational

in nature. Grundy (2000) add that there are three degrees of proximity is by no means

uncommon, with some languages distinguishing proximity to the speaker and to the

addressee. They are: here (proximal), there (distal), where (and the archaic hither, hence,

thither, thence, wither, whence), left, right, up, down, above, below, in front, behind,

come go, bring, and take.

Briefly, place deixis is an expression used to show the location relative to the location

of a participant in the speech even.

c. Time deixis

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Place deixis is also called as temporal deixis. Renkema (1993, p.79) stated that time

deixis is a reference to time relative to a temporal reference point and it is typically the

moment of utterance. These language resources are the adjectives of time in the line

yesterday, now and tomorrow, and the verb tenses. The verb sometimes also has another

function besides referring to a specific time.

For example:

A: I live here now

B: I live there now

The present tense is the proximal form as in (a) and the past tense is distal form as in

(b). The deictic items use reference that can only be determined in relation to the time of

the utterance in which they occur. Such as:

This / last / next Monday / week / month / year.

Now, then, ago, later, soon, before.

Yesterday, today, tomorrow.

In other words, time deixis is an expression in relation to point to certain period when

the utterances produced by the speaker.

d. Social deixis

Social deixis does not deal with three main components (person, place and time) of

the coordinate system of subjective orientation, but they show how different social

rankings and the participants of communication utter relationships within society via

language. It is rather to refer to the level of relationship between people than to

information.

Levinson (1983, p.90) stated that social deixis concerns with the aspects of sentences

which reflect or establish or determined by certain realities of participants or the social

situation in which the speech event occurs. He adds that there are two basic kinds of

social deixis information that seems to be encoded in language around the world. They

are: Relational social deixis and Absolute social deixis. Relational social deixis is a

deictic reference to some social characteristic of referrent apart from any relative ranking

of referents or deictic reference to a social relationship between the speaker and

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addressee. In English, relational social deixis may be a lexical items (e.g. my husband,

teacher, cousin, etc), pronouns (you, her). Absolute social deixis is a deictic reference

usually expressed in certain forms of address which will include no comparison of the

ranking of the speaker and addresse. For examples: your highness, Mr. President, your

majesty, etc.

Briefly, social deixis is a deictic expression used to distinct social status. Social deixis

separated in to two kinds relational and absolute social deixis.

e. Discourse deixis

Discourse deixis deals with the orientation in the text through the writer or the

speaker, the relation of the text passages to the current utterance either as a head of time

or past, forthcoming or simultaneous. It encodes reference to portions of the unfolding

discourse in which the utterance is located (Levinson, 1983, p.62). It means that discourse

deixis is deictic reference to a portion of a discourse relative to the speaker‘s current

location in the discourse, such as: above, below, last, previous, proceeding, next or

following (usually used in texts) and this, that, there, next, last (usually used in

utterances).

In spoken or written discourse, there is frequently occassion to refer to earlier or

forthcoming segments of the discourse. Since discourse unfolds in time, it is natural to

use temporal deictic terms to indicate the relation of the referred to to the temporal

location of the present utterance in the discourse. But spatial terms are also often

employed. Reference to parts of of a discourse which can only be interpreted by knowing

where the current coding or receiving point is, are clearly deictic in character (Asher

1994:856).

Levinson (1983:86) added that discourse deixis should be distinguished from a related

notion that of anaphora. Moreover, discourse deixis shares with anaphora and cataphora

the capacity to function as a text cohesion device. As we noted, anaphora concerns with

the use of a pronoun to refer to the same referent as some prior term. Anaphora can hold

within sentences, across sentences, and across at speaking in a dialogue. Deictic or other

referring expressions are often used to introduce a referent, and anaphoric pronouns are

used to refer to the same entity thereafter. However, it is important to remember that

deictic and anaphoric usages are not mutually exclusive. Therefore, in principle the

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distinction is clear: when a pronoun refers to a linguistic expression itself, it is discourse

deictic. When a pronoun refers to the same entity as a prior linguistic expression refers to,

it is anaphoric.

In other words, discourse deixis is an expression used to refer to certain discourse that

contain the utterance or as a signal and its relations to surrounding text.

Research Objective

Based on the background above, the paper only analyzed the scope of pragmatic that

focus on deixis in the film entitled ―The Good Dinosaurs movie directed by Peter Sohn‖. This

film is an English film that possibly to be analyzed the language used for communicating in

the film. Thus, the study of this paper will focus to analyze of the research question as

follow:

1. What are types of deixis found in the movie of The Good Dinosaur?

2. What is the most dominant deixis found in the movie and the analysis?


The research will present some data in order to complete the research and will use a

descriptive qualitative method to analyze the data because the goal of this method is to

describe the facts, characteristics, and relationship of the researched elements. Bogdan and

Biklen (1982:37) states that there are five features of qualitative method:

The natural setting is the direct source of data and the researcher is the key instrument in

qualitative research; qualitative data are collected in the form of words or picture rather than

numbers; Qualitative researchers are concerned with process as well as product; Qualitative

researchers tend to analyze their data inductively; How people make sense of their lives is a

major concern to qualitative researches.

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In addition, Moleong (1995, p.6) says that qualitative research is descriptive, which

means that the analyzed data and its findings are in the forms of descriptions, instead of

numbers. Therefore, it is clear why this method is chosen.

A descriptive method will be applied in presenting the data, analysis, and its findings.

This method is the most appropriate method because it will systematically and factually

describe and illustrate the characteristics and the connection between the phenomena studied

(Gay L. R: 1998:34). Descriptive methods is appropriate for this study because the goal of

this study is systematically, factually, and accurately describes or illustrates the fact,

characteristics and relationship of the researched element.

Discussion & Finding

1. The finding data

From those five kinds of deixis, there are the finding data from the Good Dinosaur movie:

a. Personal Deixis

Division Kind of Expression Type of Pronoun Number of Finding Data

First Singular I 81

Me 21

Myself 1

Mine 0

Plural We 18

Us 1

Our self 0

Our 5

Ours 0

Second You 100

Yourself 1

Yourselves 0

Your 39

Yours 2

Third He 4

She 3

They 9

Him 16

Himself 0

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Her 3

Herself 0

Total 304

b. Place Deixis

c. Time Deixis

Type Number

Now 6

Then 0

Ago 0

Later 0

Soon 0

Before 4

Yesterday 2

Today 1

Tomorrow 0

Last day 0

Last week 0

Last month 0

Next week 0

Next month 0

Total 13

d. Social Deixis

Kind Type Number

Relational Momma 15

Poppa 16

Son 2

Brother 1

Absolute - 0

Total 34

e. Discourse Deixis

Type Number

This 3

There 1

That 2

Total 11

Type Number

Where 9

Here 0

There 11

Total 20

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Analysis of Dominant Deixis Used in the Story of the Movie

From the finding data, we can observe the most dominant deixis used in the movie is

the personal deixis which completing 80% of the total deixis found in the movie. We can

observe it in the chart below:

Personal deixis longer we talk about the character of the movie. In this context, the

use the author, that is Peter Sohn, asks us to analyze the story from where the author tells

it in the context of narrating. This is called as point of view of a story.

Winahyutari (2004:131) stated that point of view is the way the writer shows the

story. While Pratiwi (2005:45) argued that showing the point of view is the way to appear

the figure or actors in the story. From those definition, we can conclude that point of view

is a technique used by author in appearing the character of the story. Moreover, point of

view is apparently not only the way to appearing the character, but in the story, most of

point of view shows the story about the character, action, set and many occurrences that

make the story in some literature.

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Abrams in Nurgianto (2002:252) defined there are three kinds of point of view in the

story. They are:

1. Third person of point of view

The author is someone who put on his/herself in the outside of the story and show the

characters by the name or the pronoun such like he, she and they. The name of the

character always be mentioned and as a variation there is used the pronominal. This to

ease the readers to recognize the characters are being described in the story. The third

person of point of view is divided in to two kinds, they are:

a. He/she is the omniscient

In this point of view, told from the point of view he/she. Author knows everything

deals with characters, events, and actions also motivation which cause the story.

b. He/she as an observer

Author describes what the characters see, listen, experience, think and feel.

2. First person of point of view

a. I as the main character

In this point of view, I tells every occurrences and the behavior which ―I‖

experience well internal or external conflict of the ―I‖. Here, ―I‖ becomes the

focus of the story which every single event that has a relation towards I is told by.

b. I as an additional character

In this point of view, I arises not as the main character, but as an additional

character. I appears to bring the story towards the readers, while the characters of

the story are allowed to brim their self in the story to tell their experiences in the

story.

3. Mixed point of view

Mixed of point of view is the mix of both first and third of point of view.

From those explanations, we can analyze the point of view used in the movie of The

Good Dinosaur which mainly use the mention of the name of the characters of the story

and directly use a face-to-face conversation, in the film use the third person of point of

view. Even, basically the movie uses the third person point of view, however, in the

following story the character always uses the first of point of view to describe their own

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experience as a variation of the story. It proved by the use of the personal deixis which

also use the first pronoun. Now let us compare the use of the first, second and the third

person used in the movie.

Second personal is also dominate in the chart above, but as we know, in the third

person of point of view, the second personal pronoun is used as the opposite of the first

personal pronoun. It describes the plot of the story which also deliberating another

character that influencing each other. This might the real dialogue becomes real or

―lifelike‖ in the story and also make the readers deliberated to show directly to the

conflict which faced by the characters. So when we combine both of first and second

personal pronoun and compare it to the third personal pronoun it will be 99% accordance

with 1%. This caused by the dialogues of the movie deliberating the first and second

personal pronoun. It can be analyzed from some part of the dialogue that taken as

example below:

- Minutes 00:14:24,464 to 00:14:27,133: ―I got a new job for you tomorrow.‖

- Minutes 00:20:51,517 to 00:20:55,189: ―but I need you to do more, Arlo.‖

- Minutes 00:50:37,255 to 00:50:41: ―And I said we would get you home.‖

- Minutes 00:53:37,068 to 00:53:40,305: ―How many times I got to tell you this?‖

- Minutes 00:58:59,457 to 00:59:03,029: ―I know you're there. I can smell you.‖

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This can be combined both of the second personal pronoun with the third personal

pronoun and compare it to the first personal pronoun becomes 53% accordance with 47%.

This caused by some of the dialogues in the movie deliberating between the third and the

first personal pronoun. It means that between the third and the first or conversely has a

relationship that make both of personal pronouns used to make a conversation in the

movie. This could be analyzed from the example below:

- Minutes 00:11:10 to 670 00:11:15,575 : ―Tell Momma I love her.‖

- Minutes 00:37:08,126 to 00:37:10,869: ―I name him, I keep him. Hmm...‖

- Minutes 00:57:48,719 to 00:57:52,056: ―Ask me what I think they're doing.‖

- Minutes 01:12:34,171 to 01:12:37,808: ―So I got to go help him.‖

- Minutes 01:12:38,008 to 01:12:41,214: ―Because... I love him.”

In brief, it can be said that in the movie, there are two types of point of view used to

describe the experiences experienced by the characters of the movie. As the basic, the

author use third person of point of view to describe the story by let the characters talk and

make a dialogue between the characters by naming her/his self and make a mention of

each characters as the variation of using of pronominal.

In this context, the author is also allowing the character to have a direct conversation

that could be enjoyed by the readers in case as the viewers. However, in the way the

characters play their role, they also tell him/herself and sometime tell others by

combining both of first and second and second and third personal pronoun. As the

developing of the story, this is allowed in a story to add the pursue essence of the movie

could be longer enjoyed by the viewers.

Conclusion

Based on the data presentation and data analysis of deixis used in Good Dinosaur the

movie, the writer draws some conclusion as follows:

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1. Five types of deixis are found in the movie of The Good Dinosaur. They has different

number of finding data which the percentages are: personal deixis 80%, place deixis 5%,

place deixis 3% social deixis 9%, and discourse deixis 3%.

2. The huge number of deixis and will be the most dominant deixis found in the movie of

The Good Dinosaur is Personal deixis which accumulated 80% of total deixis. Personal

deixis could be the most dominant deixis used in the movie because of it deals with the

point of view where there, between the finding data and the point of view meet the

correlation. First and second personal pronoun and second and third personal pronoun can

built a story way which both of them influences the finding data that deploy the personal

deixis to be the most dominant.

References

Berger, John. 2008. Ways of Seeing. UK: Penguin.

Cutting, Joan 2002. Pragmatics and discourse. A resource book for students.London:

Routledge.

Keraf, Gorys. 1991. Tata Bahasa Rujukan Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: PT Grasindo

Leech, Geoffrey. 1983. Principle of Pragmatic. London: Longman.

Mey, Jacob L. 2001. Pragmatics. An introduction. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell.

Moleong, Lexi. 1995. Metode Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: Remaja Rosda Karya.

Nurgiyantoro, Burhan. 2002. Teori Pengkajian Fiksi. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University

Press.

Pastia, Andi Lisano. 2013. Skripsi Analisis Penggunaan Deiksis Persona Pada Novel

Laksamana Jangoi Karya Muharoni.

Yuliana, Nuryati. 2011. Skripsi Analisis Pragmatik Dalam Kartun Editorial "Kabar Bang

One" Pada program Berita TV One. perpustakaanuns.ac.id.

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Tempo. 2005. Enam Aktivitas Membangun Literasi Sains. Retrieved May 12th, 2016, from

https://indonesiana.tempo.co/read/43502/2015/06/09/desibelku.1/enam-aktivitas-

membangun-literasi-sains.

Wikipedia. 2016. Film. Retrieved May 12th, 2016, from https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/film.

Westga.. Introduction: What is Media Literacy?. Retrieved May 12th, 2016, from

www.westga.edu/~mmcfar/Film-Media%20Literacy.htm

Discourse Analysis of a Song Lyric Entitled "We Will Not Go Down”

Faizal Risdianto

IAIN Salatiga

[email protected]

Abstract

This library research aimed at finding the three aspect of discourse analysis: contextual,

grammatical and lexical aspect of Michael Heart‘s song lyrics entitled ―We will not go down

(Song for Gaza). After analysis it can be found that the life experience and background of the

song writer and singer is closely related to the idea proposes within the song lyrics. Whereas,

the result of the grammatical and lexical analysis gives a depiction of cohesion and coherence

of the song discourse of ―We will not Go Down (Song for Gaza)‖. There are eight (8) forms

of first plural personal pronoun of ―We‖, four (4) second plural personal pronoun of ‗You‖

and seven (7) third personal pronouns in various forms. On the other side, it is difficult to

find lexical aspects of this song discourse. There is only one form of anaphoric repetition.

https://indonesiana.tempo.co/read/43502/2015/06/09/desibelku.1/enam-aktivitas-membangun-literasi-sains

https://indonesiana.tempo.co/read/43502/2015/06/09/desibelku.1/enam-aktivitas-membangun-literasi-sains

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/film


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The repetition of the sentence ―We Will Not Go Down‖ seven times is to influence the

hearers whether they are supporters or opponents of the idea brought by the singer/the author

that whatever happens Palestinian people will not surrender to every force, nation or people

that want to colonialize them.

Key words: Discourse analysis, Song for Gaza, Palestinian people.

Abstrak

Riset pustaka ini bertujuan untuk menemukan tiga aspek analisis wacana: kontekstual,

gramatikal dan leksikal dalam lirik lagu berjudul ―We will not go Down (Song for Gaza)‖

karya Michael Heart. Setelah diadakan analisis dapat diketahui bahwa pengalaman dan latar

belakang kehidupan seorang penulis and penyanyi lagu sangat berkaitan dengan ide yang

dikemukakan dalam lirik lagu tersebut. Sedangkan hasil analisis gramatikal dan leksikal

memberi gambaran adanya kohesi dan koherensi dalam lirik lagu. Terdapat delapan (8)

bentuk pronomina pertama jamak, empat (4) pronominal kedua jamak dan tujuh (7)

pronominal ketiga dalam bentuk yang bervariasi. Di sisi yang lain, sulit menemukan aspek

leksikal dalam wacana lagu. Hanya ada satu bentuk repetisi anaforis. Pengulangan tujuh kali

kalimat ―We will not go down‖ dimaksudkan untuk mempengaruhi pendengar entah mereka

mendukung atau menentang ide yang dikemukakan penulis atau penyanyi lagu bahwa apapun

yang terjadi orang Palestina tidak akan menyerah kepada kekuatan, bangsa atau orang yang

ingin menjajah mereka.

Kata kunci: Analisis Wacana, Lagu untuk Gaza, Orang Palestina.

Introduction

Human is social living being, who always need company in their life. It is hard to

imagine that they should live alone without anyone to accompany them. They always need

others in order to facilitate their efforts to provide themselves with their necessities of life. To

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carry out the cooperation among others, they need a means of communication, which is called

‗language‘.

Hornby (1992:62) defines that language is a system of sounds and words used by

humans to express their thoughts and feelings. Other definition is given by Carrol as quoted

by Ramelan that language is an arbitrary system of sounds or sequences of speech sounds

which is used or can be used to interpersonal communication (Ramelan, 1992:10). In other

words, it can be said that language is a system of sounds used as a means to communicate

human‘s feelings and thoughts with others. Ramelan states that the use of language enables

the members of a social group to cooperate with one another for their own benefits

.Regarding the use of language, the writer can say that the role of language is very important

in human life as a means to communicate ideas, feelings and desires among individuals as the

part of social community. By the use of language, we can communicate and express our

ideas, our feeling and also share information with other people. One way to communicate

with language is by the use of music.

The word ―music‖ was derived from Greek word ―mousike‖ taken from the name of

God which led the world of art and science. The primary subject matters of music are feelings

and sounds. These imply that the content of music is a revelation of feelings and sounds and

that music gives us more sensitive understanding of them. According to Webster (1983:781)

―music is the science of art ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination and in

temporal relationship to produce a composition having unity and continuity as well as

rhythm, melody, and harmony as its elements‖. Greek philosophers and ancient Indian

philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as

harmonies.

M. Stubbs' textbook (Stubbs 1983:1), discourse analysis is defined as:

a) concerned with language use beyond the boundaries of a sentence/utterance,

b) Concerned with the interrelationships between language and society and

c) Concerned with the interactive or dialogic properties of everyday communication.

Discourse analysis is how texts relate to contexts of situation and context of culture,

how texts are produced as a social practice, what texts tell us about happenings, what people

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think, believe etc., and how texts represent ideology (power struggle etc.) In this study, the

writer will focus on the implication meanings of the Michael Heart‘s song lyric entitled ―We

will not Go Down (Song for Gaza)‖.

Michael Heart (born Annas Allaf ) is a Syrian American singer-songwriter, recording

artist, guitarist, producer and audio engineer based in Los Angeles, CA. He was born in Syria

and raised in Europe (Switzerland and Austria) and the United States. In January 2009, he

composed and released a song in support of the Palestinian civilian victims of the Israeli war

in Gaza. The song is called "We Will Not Go Down (Song for Gaza)" and gained popularity

on sites like YouTube. The official YouTube video of the song was viewed over 1 million

times within a month of its release; the recording of the song was broadcast on radio and

television in many countries along with blogs and websites worldwide and it was chanted in

many demonstrations in cities ranging from Sydney, Australia to London, England. The

Palestine Argentine Delegation Embassy website also put the song with lyrics on its page.

Heart initially made the mp3 of the song freely downloadable from his official

website, which he reports has been downloaded over 500,000 times, encouraging the listeners

to make a donation to United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the

Near East (UNRWA). After incessant emails from people asking why the song hadn't been

made available on iTunes, he finally uploaded it to the Apple music site in July 2010.

There are many people who like to listen to this song, but they don‘t really know the

true meaning of this song, especially in Indonesia. So the writer specifies the problem

through the following question: What are the contextual, grammatical and lexical aspect of

the song lyrics entitled ―We Will not Go Down‖ by Michael Heart?. It is hoped that after

reading this paper, the readers can be able to know the true meaning of this song, so they not

just able to sing it and listen to it, but they can also understand it.


In conducting this study, the writer used the qualitative approach which means that

the data were analyzed qualitatively. Berg (1989:2) states that ―quality refers to the what,

how, when, and where of a thing-its essence and ambience. Qualitative research thus refers to

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the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and description of

things.‖ The data in this study is in the form of paraphrasing the song lyrics of We Will not

Go Down by Michael Heart. There are two kinds of data in this research: main or primary

data and secondary data.

The main data was taken from Michael Heart‘s song entitled ―We Will not Go Down

(Song for Gaza)‖. The secondary data were taken from the relevant sources from the internet

that may support the analysis and find the answer from the problems.

The procedure of collecting the data in this study was divided into several steps: (1)

Reading - In the first step, the writer will read and re-read and also listen to the song in order

to get the meaning and the feeling. (2) Analyzing - Next is analyzing the words which need

to be explained to find the meaning. (3) Reporting - The data which had been analyzed will

be drawn in the form of conclusion by paraphrasing the song based on the implicated

meaning.

The theme of the song is about the struggle of the Moslems against the Zionist Israel‘s

army. People of Palestine still do not want to give up even though Israel has destroyed

homes, schools and mosques of the Moslems. The Israel‘s army has killed so many people of

Palestine. So many women and children killed in the war. However, the Muslims still want to

fight with Israel‘s army.

Discussion & Finding

Text might be said that the term of the text is restricted to written language. Modern

linguistics has introduced the concept of text that includes every type of utterance. For

examples, text may be a magazine article, a television interview, a conversation or a cooking

recipe. Besides that, according to De Beaugrande and Dressler (1981), text is defined as

communicative events which have seven criteria; there are: cohesion, coherence,

intentionality, acceptability, informative, situational, and textual.

The term of discourse is restricted to spoken language. Discourse is influenced by

contexts of situation and context of culture, how texts are produced as a social practice, what

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texts tell us about happenings, what people think, believe etc., and how texts represent

ideology (power struggle etc.). Discourse competence refers to the selection, sequencing, and

arrangement of words, structures, and utterances to achieve a unified in spoken. This is where

the top-down communicative intent and socio-cultural knowledge intersect with the lexical

and grammatical resources to express message and attitudes and to create coherent texts.

Lyrics (in singular form Lyric) are a set of words that make up a song. The writer of

lyrics is a lyricist or lyrist. The meaning of lyrics can either be explicit or implicit. Some

lyrics are abstract, almost unintelligible, and, in such cases, their explication emphasizes

form, articulation, meter, and symmetry of expression. The lyricist of traditional musical

forms such as Opera is known as a librettist.

Lyric derives from the Greek word lyrikos, meaning "singing to the lyre". The word

lyric came to be used for the "words of a song"; this meaning was recorded in 1876. The

common plural (perhaps because of the association between the plurals lyrics and words),

predominates contemporary usage. Use of the singular form lyric remains grammatically

acceptable, yet remains considered erroneous in referring to a singular song word as a lyric.

Lyrics can be studied from an academic perspective. For example, some lyrics can be

considered a form of social commentary. Lyrics often contain political, social and economic

themes as well as aesthetic elements, and so can connote messages which are culturally

significant. These messages can either be explicit or implied through metaphor or symbolism.

Contextual and Inferential Analysis

There are several contexts within this analysis that is socio-cultural and situational

contexts. Based on this contextual analysis then it will be explained about inferential aspect.

Socio-Cultural contexts

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The comprehension of cultural and social context can be developed through the

understanding of external context analysis of a discourse (Sumarlam, 2003:5). In this case, it

can be observed the cultural and social context by trying to find out the background of the

making of the song lyrics. Reading articles from websites and blogs it can be known that

during the war in Gaza, Michael Heart wrote a humanitarian song entitled ―We will not Go

Gown (Song for Gaza)‖ in January 2009. It is written in order to support of the Palestinians

victims from the Israeli Aggression.

The song was very well-known in all over the world because it is spread as a free

MP3 which means it can be downloaded without any charge. It has been downloaded by over

half a million people from the official websites and not yet counted from other web-sites.

More than 500 new clips have been made with ―We Will Not Go Down‖ by people all over

the world, and thousands of websites have uploaded the clip and posted the lyrics. As the first

release, the official video on YouTube has viewed by over one million people within the first

month. And the appreciations of the song are very high since the statistic shows that over

10,000 e-mails, comments, and messages are sent to respond this song. The protest towards

Palestinians victims can be seen from these lines of song lyrics:

(1) A blinding flash of white light

(2) Lit up the sky over Gaza tonight

(3) People running for cover

(4) Not knowing whether they're dead or alive

(5) They came with their tanks and their planes

(6) With ravaging fiery flames

(7) And nothing remains

(8) Just a voice rising up in the smoky haze

(9) We will not go down

(10) In the night, without a fight

(11) You can burn up our mosques and our homes and our schools

(12) But our spirit will never die

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(14) In Gaza tonight

(15) Women and children alike

(16) Murdered and massacred night after night

(17) While the so-called leaders of countries afar

(18) Debated on whose wrong or right

(19) But their powerless words were in vain

(20) And the bombs fell down like acid rain

(21) But through the tears and the blood and the pain

(22) You can still hear that voice through the smoky haze















In addition, the song has also been translated into a dozen languages and subtitled on

numerous clips. Besides his popularity achieved from the song, he also received some

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critiques. The first, of course, comes from the Israeli politician because they would get the

disadvantages from it. Besides that, many people also claimed that Heart is a follower of any

particular religion. Therefore, to encounter that, Heart explained that the song has nothing to

do with religion. It is only a humanitarian song in nature. Based on the above explanation, it

can be drawn to the conclusion that how phenomenal this song so it can gain many respects,

responds, or claims from many people around the world.

Situational Context

Situational context consists of physical, epistemic, social context with personal,

locational and temporal analogical interpretation principle:

a. Physical context. These are some aspects of physical context and its analysis.

(1) Based on locational interpretation, the real situation which is expressed in this

song lyric is in chaotic area of Gaza, Palestine and the far away countries

neglecting the suffering of Palestinian people.

(2) The topic of conversation is the voice and steadfastness of Palestinian people

facing the dreadful terror of Israeli murdered and massacred Palestinian people for

years.

b. Epistemic Context

Based on epistemic context, it can be assumed that there is a common

understanding between the speaker/the writer of song lyrics and the hearer/the reader

about the bittering truth and evidence of the misery of Palestinian people particularly

in the area of Gaza and the importance of establishing world‘s peace.

c. Social context

In the perspective of participant‘s activeness, this discourse can be categorized as

a monologue discourse (Baryadi, 2002:10). This discourse does not involve the hearer

who can turn as the hearer treats in this discourse remains to be the hearer.

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The interpretation about the hearer in social context can be viewed by analyzing

the speeches of the speaker. The misery or the suffering of Palestinian Gaza is the

saddening problem that worries the speaker so much. It is a naked truth that the more

powerful terrorizing, murdering and destroying the weak without any accepted

rational and humanistic consideration for normal healthy-minded people. In Social

life this is a shameful thing and a dreadful violation of human rights.

Grammatical Aspect analysis

Grammatical aspect analysis in discourse analysis consists of reference, substitution,

elliptical aspect, and conjunction. These are some grammatical aspect found in the analysis of

song lyrics of ―We will not Go Down (Song for Gaza)‖.

1. Reference

a. Personal Reference

First personal reference found in song lyrics of ―We will not Go Down (Song

for Gaza) can be viewed in line of these verses below:








The element of ―We‖ in line (9), (13), (23), (27), (29), (33) and (35) is the first

plural personal pronoun reference. In this case, the element of ―We‖ refers to the

voice of Palestinian Gaza and for everyone who support the struggle of Palestinian

people to achieve their independence from the annexation of Israel.

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The second personal reference in this song can be seen in line of these verses:





All the elements of ―You‖ in line (11), (22), (25) and (31) refer to the hearer. The use

of the word ―You‖ here refer to plural personal pronoun reference.

The third personal reference in this song can be seen in line of these verses:






(17) While the so-called leaders of countries afar



All the elements of ―A blinding flash of white light‖ in line (1), ―People‖ in line (3),

―They‖ in line (5), ―A voice‖ in line (8), ―Women and children‖ in line (15), ―Leaders of

countries afar‖ in line (17), ―Powerless words‖ in line (19) and ―the bombs‖ in line (20) refer

to the third personal pronoun reference. All of them consist of two category: the plural third

personal pronoun like ―People‖, ―They‖, ―Women and children‖, ―leaders of countries afar‖,

―powerless words‖ and ―the bombs‖ and there are only two data of singular third personal

pronoun found in the song lyrics ―A blinding flash of white light‖ in line (1) and ―A voice‖ in

line (8).

b. Demonstrative reference

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Demonstrative reference is easily marked by the use of the forms of ―this‖, ―that‖,

―these‖, and ―those‖ and there is only one data can be found in the song lyrics:


The use of ―that‖ on the phrase ―that voice‖ refers to the voice of freedom in the mind of

Palestinian People.

2. Substitution

Substitution is the replacement of particular element which refers to the same realities

(Sumarlam, 2003: 28).

This substitution can be seen in the line of verses below:





The word ―They‖ in line (4), ―a voice‖ in line (8), ―their‖ in line (19) refer to Palestinian

people that is simply wrote by the song writer as ―people‖ in line (3).

3. Elliptical aspect

Elliptical grammatical aspect can be viewed below:

(3) People Ørunning for cover

(4) Not knowing whether theyØ're dead or alive

(8) Just a voice Ørising up in the smoky haze

(21) But through the tears and the blood and the painØ.

(22) You can still hear that voiceØ through the smoky haze

The actual grammatical construction is:

(3) People (of Palestine are) running for cover

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(4) Not knowing whether they (are) dead or alive

(8) Just a voice (which is) rising up in the smoky haze

(21) But through the tears and the blood and the pain (of Palestinian)

(22) You can still hear that voice (of Palestinian) through the smoky haze

4. Conjunction

There are some elements of conjunction which can be found in the song lyrics ―We

will not Go Down (Song for Gaza)‖:



(7) And nothing remains



(16) Murdered and massacred night after night



(21) But through the tears and the blood and the pain





There are 11 forms of conjunction ―And‖ in line (5), (7), (11), (15), (16), (20), (21),

(25) and (31) whereas there are four (4) forms of conjunction ―but‖ in line (19), (21), (26)

and (32). There is only one data of the form of conjunction ―or‖ in line (4).

Lexical Aspect Analysis

Lexical aspect used in this discourse to support cohesion and coherence in semantic

perspective. There are some lexical aspects in the song lyrics ―We will not Go Down (Song

for Gaza)‖.

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1. Repetition

The terminology used in this repetition refers to the terminology used by Gorys Keraf

(in Sumarlam, 2003:35). In this discourse there is only one form of repetition that is

anaphoric repetition. Anaphoric repetition is the repetition of lingual constituent in a form

of word or the initial phrase on every verse or subsequent sentence. The sentence ―We

will not go down in line (9) is repeated in the sentence in line (13). And it is also repeated

without change in line (13), (23), (27), (29), (33) and (35).








The objective of the repetition of the sentence ―We will not go down‖ seven times is to

influence the hearers whether they are supporters or opponents of the idea brought by the

singer/the author that whatever happens Palestinian people will not surrender to every force,

nation or people that want to destroy and take the legacy of their ancestors. The Israeli may

burn up Palestinian mosques, homes and schools but they cannot destroy their zeal or

enthusiasm to fight against the enemies or colonialists.

2. Synonymy

Synonymy can be found in these verses:



In the first line of the song lyrics there is a phrase ―a blinding flash of white light‖

which has a synonymic relation to the phrase ―the bombs‖ in 20th

line.

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Conclusion

The song lyrics ―We will not Go Down (Song for Gaza) has been analyzed based on

the aspects of discourse analysis. Contextual aspect illustrates a vivid picture of song lyric

reality and song writer‘s reality. Many efforts had been made to comprehend contextual

aspects. One of them is investigating the background and the life experience of the song lyric

author and singer and then it is connected to the speeches of the verses or lines produced in

the song lyrics. Music news from internet gives great contribution to the understanding of the

contextual meaning and analysis.

The result of the grammatical and lexical aspect gives a depiction of cohesion and

coherence of the song discourse of ―We will not Go Down (Song for Gaza)‖. It can be seen

that there are eight (8) forms of first plural personal pronoun of ―We‖, four (4) second plural

personal pronoun of ‗You‖ and seven (7) third personal pronoun in various forms like the

elements of ―A blinding flash of white light‖ ,―People‖ ,―They‖ ,―A voice‖ ,―Women and

children‖, ―Leaders of countries afar‖, ―Powerless words‖ and ―the bombs‖.

On the other side, it is difficult to find lexical aspects of this song discourse. There is

only one form of anaphoric repetition. It is the repetition of the sentence ―We Will Not Go

Down‖ seven times is to influence the hearers whether they are supporters or opponents of

the idea brought by the singer/the author that whatever happens Palestinian people will not

surrender to every force, nation or people that want to destroy and take the legacy of their

ancestors.

References

Alba-Juez, Laura. 2009. Perspectives on Discourse Analysis: Theory and Practice. England:

Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

Baryadi, 2002. Dasar-Dasar Analisis Wacana dalam Ilmu Bahasa. Yogyakarta. Pustaka

Gondosuli.

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115

BeauGrande, Robert & Ulrich, Dressler. 1981. Introduction to text

Linguistics.London.Longman Press.

Berg, L. Bruce, (1989). Qualitative Research Methodes for the Social Science: Introduction

to Qualitative Research. Methods. New York: John Wiley and Sons Press.

Halliday MAK, Hasan R (1976) Cohesion in English. Longman, London.

Hornby, A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary of Current English. England. Oxford

University Press.

Ramlan, 1992. Introduction to Linguistic analysis.Semarang.IKIP Press.

Sumarlam. 2003. Teori dan Praktik Analisis Wacana. Surakarta. Pustaka Cakra.

Stubbs, Michael. 1983. Discourse Analysis..Chicago.University of Chicago Press.

Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. Merriam-Webster Inc, 1983

Michael Heart 'We will not Go Down' played in London Gaza Rally 17th Jan 2009 YouTube

video

―We will not go down (Song for Gaza)‖ Official Video at YouTube

http://www.rabble.ca/rabbletv/program-guide/best-net/song-gaza-we-will-not-go-down

http://www.alertnet.org/db/blogs/29542/c1be2c8229a2af970d6f1f2767c8646c.htm

http://www.groundreport.com/Arts_and_Culture/WE-WILL-NOT-GO-DOWN-Song-for-

Gaza/2888268

http://www.michaelheart.com/Michael_Heart_Bio.html

http://www.palestina.int.ar/noticias/Enero08/Noticia_452.html

http://www.michaelheart.com/Song_for_Gaza.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Heart

INDEX

Arabic, 44 Bilingual, 27 Code Mixing, 31 Code Switching, 24 Code-Mixing, 24

Deixis, 74 Demonstrative reference, 101 Grammatical Aspect, 100 Grammatical equivalence, 63 Language, 25

http://www.rabble.ca/rabbletv/program-guide/best-net/song-gaza-we-will-not-go-down

http://www.alertnet.org/db/blogs/29542/c1be2c8229a2af970d6f1f2767c8646c.htm

http://www.groundreport.com/Arts_and_Culture/WE-WILL-NOT-GO-DOWN-Song-for-Gaza/2888268

http://www.groundreport.com/Arts_and_Culture/WE-WILL-NOT-GO-DOWN-Song-for-Gaza/2888268

http://www.michaelheart.com/Michael_Heart_Bio.html

http://www.palestina.int.ar/noticias/Enero08/Noticia_452.html

http://www.michaelheart.com/Song_for_Gaza.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Heart

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Learning Process, 43 Lexical Aspect, 103 linguistics, 2 Literacy Media, 79 MAKTUM, 8 Metaphoric Expressions, 13 Metaphors, 20 Personal deixis, 74 Pragmatics, 80

Research, 34 Second Language, 52 Second Language Acquisition, 53 Socio-Cultural contexts, 97 speech recognition, 1 teaching, 26 Textual Equivalence, 60 Translation, 62 Young Learners, 52

3. 7 article june edition vol 9 no 1 2016 register journal iain salatiga

Education

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