2nd and 3rd Century Persecution
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Transcript of 2nd and 3rd Century Persecution
2ND AND 3RD CENTURY CHRISTIAN PERSECUTION,
MARTYRDOM, AND APOLOGY WITHIN THE ROMAN EMPIRE
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
iii
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION……………………….………………………………………………...….. 1
Roman Religion
Roman Way of Life
PERSECUTION..…………………….…………………………………………………..…… 3
Attitude Toward Christians
The Great Persecutions
MARTYRDOM…………………………………………………………………...................... 8
Important Documents
APOLOGY…………………...……………………………………………………….……… 13
Justin Martyr
Apology Tactics
CONCLUSION..……………………………………………………………………………... 15
WORKS CITED……………………………………………………………………………... 18
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
1
INTRODUCTION
In present-day American culture, both government leaders and citizens seem to
favor the idea of keeping religion separate from the state. Religion is viewed as a private
matter between an individual and their god. Pearcey describes this idea as the
secular/sacred divide that keeps faith locked into the private sphere of “religious truth.”1
The separation of church and state has become the dominate worldview in postmodern
culture. By contrast, most ancient people groups viewed religion more as an expression
of identification within an ethnic or geographic community.2 This was certainly the case
among the citizens of the early Roman Empire.
Roman Religion
The Romans did not practice religious pluralism, but were polytheistic in their
beliefs, to which everyone and everything in the empire was subject. It is quite
remarkable that the establishing of the Roman Empire coincided with the establishing of
Christianity. Roman emperors were eventually divinized during their lifetime and the
citizens were to accept the fact that “Caesar is lord.” Prior to the state’s unification under
Caesar, the nation had become inoperable due to personal ambition, corruption, and the
splintering of political leaders into competing factions. A unified government under the
authority of a single power became necessary to secure the future of the nation. The
Roman government’s successful implementation and practice of concepts such as
1 Nancy Pearcey, Total Truth: Liberating Christianity from Its Cultural Captivity (Wheaton:
Crossway books), 17.
2 Jeffers S. Jeffers, The Greco-Roman World of the New Testament Era: Exploring the Backgorund of Early Christianity (Downers Grove: IVP Academic), 89.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
2
monarchy, pax Romana (“Roman Peace”), cosmopolitanism, universalism, linguistic
advances, engineering, commerce, and colonization contributed to the veracity of the
empire. These concepts would eventually provide a framework for the proliferation of
Christianity, and also represented the methodology Jesus would use to establish His
Kingdom on earth. The sheer vastness of the Roman Empire, coupled with the ambitious
philosophy of world domination, opened the door for Christianity to fulfill its destiny of
becoming the universal church. Although Christianity encountered many hardships and
great persecution on account of the Romans, the very nature and infrastructure of the
Empire itself would eventually become Christianity’s greatest catalyst.
Roman Way of Life
The notable success of the state of Roman was highly cherished among its
citizens and was to be protected at all costs. As a result, the Romans would become
masters of jurisprudence. People and even ideas that undermined the Roman way of life
were viewed as hostile, and would be met with forceful resistance and punishment where
necessary. The state of Rome was not so much opposed to Christianity, as much as it was
opposed to Christianity’s capacity to undermine the Roman way of living. Due to
Christianity’s very nature, conflict between Rome and Christianity was inevitable.
Patriotism demanded that every citizen should unite in the worship of the emperor.3 Jesus
boldly claimed that He did not come to bring peace but a sword (Matt. 10:34).
Christianity by nature threatens pagan culture. Workman comments on this idea by
3 James Orr, The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (Chicago, IL: The Howard-Severance
Company, 1915), 2326.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
3
stating that a Christian faith that had ceased to be aggressive would speedily have ceased
to exist.4 This thought would become the basis for the second and third century
persecution of Christians, which would in turn become the basis for the rise of Christian
apology.
PERSECUTION
Similar to the individual states within the United States of America, the Roman
Empire was subdivided into many local governments. Although there were imperialistic
consistencies established throughout the empire, each local government was
administrated in its own unique manner. Local governors were granted considerable
liberality within their jurisdiction. The events leading up to the persecution of Christians
were then unique to each locally governed area, of which Workman states that Christians
were outside the law and brought under arbitrary executive jurisdiction.5 Roman officials
were initially rather indifferent to Christianity, but tensions eventually developed. The
relationship between the early Christians and the Romans was a critical and very
influential factor in the infancy of the Church. The relational tension escalated from
initial disharmony, to local persecution, and eventually became empire-wide
persecution.6
4 Herbert B. Workman, Persecution in the Early Church (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 20.
5 Ibid, 24.
6 Everett Ferguson, Church History Volume I: From Christ to Pre-Reformation (Grand Rapids: Zondervan), 64.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
4
Culminating with the fire of 64, religious persecution advanced under Nero,
which set the stage for ensuing persecution of Christians throughout the Roman Empire.
History suggests that the fire became the excuse to address the tensions that were already
growing, and served to finally distinguish Christianity from its predecessor, Judaism.
Succeeding emperors Domitian, Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius all contributed to
the continued persecution of Christians either directly or indirectly through their
sanctioning policy. In general, scholars agree that by the time of Domitian it had become
the settled policy of the Roman emperors to treat Christianity itself as a crime.7 A disdain
for Christians was simultaneously growing among the masses which intensified the
oppressive cause. An imperial idea was soon formed that Christianity was hazardous to
the state of Rome.
Attitude Toward Christians
The prevailing opinion concerning Christians labeled them as being obstinate. In
general, Christians were guilty of noncompliance with the Roman way of living. In
general, Romans believed that Christians were responsible for troubles within the society
and to be blamed because of their noncompliance. Pliny the Younger, governor of
Bithynia took great exception to this noncompliance. His letter to Trajan stated that the
charge against Christians was concerning “the name.”8 Trajan responded to Pliny’s letter
with three determinations: 1) that Christians were not to be sought out, but if accused and
7 Workman, 20.
8 Ferguson, 69.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
5
convicted they were to be punished, 2) anonymous accusations would not be received,
and 3) punishment was on the basis of “the name.”9
Christians were instructed to recant their beliefs and were tested by being given
the opportunity to perform acts of worship to the emperor. Committed Christians
absolutely refused to pledge their allegiance to the emperor through worship. This refusal
was interpreted as rebellion towards a totalitarian government, within which Ferguson
states that obedience was the supreme virtue.10 Acknowledging Caesar to be lord and
swearing allegiance to him was incomprehensible to Christians, making them a threat to
the empire. Appearing to be secretive, Christians further insulted the state of Rome by
worshiping a Man who had been tried, convicted, and crucified by a Roman governor.
Augustus had previously required all new societies to register with the government and
obtain permission from either the emperor or the senate to convene.11 The sternness of
Rome’s refusal to allow societies to meet which had not registered was met with the
Christians refusal to do so. Workman states:
By Roman theory the State was the one society which must engross every interest of its subjects, religious, social, political, humanitarian, with the one possible exception of the family. There was no room in Roman law for the existence, much less the development on its own lines of organic growth, of any corporation or society which did not recognize itself from the first as a mere department or auxiliary of the State. The State was all in all, the one organism with a life of its own.12
9 Ibid, 70. 10 Ibid, 66.
11 Workman, 26.
12 Ibid, 28.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
6
Here lies the fundamental incongruence between the Church and the Roman Empire.
Along with an increasing number of civil disturbances, a backdrop was being painted
against which persecution would occur.
The Great Persecutions
Christians initially experienced the greatest oppression during the reigns of
Marcus Aurelius and Septimus Severus, continuing into the early fourth century. In its
beginning stages, Christianity was unprotected and not recognized as a legitimate ethnic
religion, being viewed as completely separate and distinct from its Jewish roots. In 202,
Septimus Severus (193-211) issued an edict which made conversion to Judaism and
Christianity illegal. Septimus Severus targeted upper-class Christians in Egypt. In
addition, he authorized persecution against Christians in Egypt because of their
proselytizing. However, during this time Christianity grew very rapidly in Asia Minor,
Egypt, and North Africa despite the public’s general negative attitude toward the faith.13
Alexander Severus became emperor in 222, showing considerable favor toward
Christians, introducing a brief period of relative peace. These events preceded the ‘storm
before the calm,’ which would come in the form of three more waves of major
persecution against Christianity under emperors Decius, Valerian, and Diocletian.
Decius (249-51) became emperor in October of 249, followed by Valerian (253-
60), during which the Roman Empire declared war on the church, instituting systematic
13 Ferguson, 160.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
7
oppression.14 It was during this period that fragmented and sporadic, localized
persecution became a centralized objective of the empire. Because of Decius’ policies,
for the first time, adherence to the Christian faith was considered to be blatant rebellion
against the state of Rome. Decius arrested higher clergy and implemented a universal
order requiring all to sacrifice to the gods of the empire (burn incense, pour a libation,
and taste sacrificial meat).15 This decree was knowingly incompatible with Christian
beliefs, and was intended to force conformity upon the people within the empire. Those
who complied with the decrees were issued certificates to validate their conformity.
After a short reprieve, Valerian continued persecution in 257, sending bishops
into exile, forbidding Christian meetings, and even executing clergy. Valerian issued
several edicts that attacked the Church as an institution, with the objective of destroying
the church altogether. High-ranking Christians were demoted having their personal
property seized, as well as church corporate property and funds.16 Fabian (bishop of
Rome) and Babylas (Bishop of Antioch) were executed, while Alexander (Bishop of
Jerusalem) was imprisoned. Under extreme pressure to conform, many Christians
compromised their faith during this time. A number of theories have been suggested
regarding the state’s true motive for persecuting Christians, all with the intent of
supposedly supporting and protecting the Romans way of life.
14 Ibid, 161.
15 Ibid, 161. 16 Ibid, 161.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
8
Despite the challenges Christians had endured up until the late third century, the
worst was yet to come. In efforts to resolve major internal challenges, the Roman Empire
began to reorganize. It was during this reorganization process that Roman leaders
determined that unified religion, in addition to unity of language and administration, was
a significant and very much needed part of the reorganization process. It was upon this
premise that a resurgence of persecution took place under Diocletian’s rule. Hierocles,
governor of Bithynia labeled Christianity as an “empire in the empire” and insisted on
Christians sacrificing to the gods.17 This systemic campaign of persecution by the state
became known as the “Great Persecution,” during which Christian buildings were
destroyed, scriptures were burned, and bishops were imprisoned.
The same internal political conflict within the government of the Roman Empire
would also initiate the vindication of Christians, and mark the beginning of the end of
persecution. Emperor Constantine’s conversion and rise to power would significantly
alter history and the Christian way of life. Beginning in 312, Constantine extended great
favor toward Christians. In partnership with Licinius, Constantine issued the “Edict of
Milan” in 313, which granted religious freedom specifically to “Christians and all
others.”18 The Christians had been victorious in battling for their very existence. This
victory however, did not come easy or without great sacrifice. Until the time Christians
were exonerated under Constantine, they held their ground and courageously responded
to persecution in martyrdom and apologetics.
17 Ibid, 179. 18 Ibid, 183.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
9
MARTYRDOM
Christianity began as nothing more than an irritant in Rome, but was later
determined to be a serious problem that was injurious to the empire and needed to be
eliminated. Martyrdom represented the climax of persecution and the pinnacle of the
conflict between the Roman Empire and the Christian faith. Martyrdom held one
meaning for the state of Rome, but a different meaning for Christians. While Rome
desired to eliminate Christianity through martyrdom, Christian virtue would come to be
exemplified by the courage of the martyrs, the steadfastness of their resolve, and their
willingness to die for what they believe. Of course not all Christians elected martyrdom
when pressured to renounce their faith—most recanted. But with the death of each
additional martyr, the faith of other Christians would be greatly strengthened. Overall, the
number of martyrs to die at the hands of the Romans was considerable, but relatively
small—thought to be in the hundreds and not the thousands. However, the impact of their
death among the Christian community was enormous. Stark even suggests a theory of
rational choice held by martyrs, which concludes that the more people must sacrifice for
their faith, the greater the value of the rewards they gain in return.19 This ideology
contributed to what became known as the cult of the martyrs.
The martyr cult involved the practice of activities associated with acts of worship.
According to Ferguson, the extravagant regard for martyrs and the special privileges
19 Rodney Stark, The Rise of Christianity: How the Obscure Jesus Movement Became the
Dominant Religious Force in the Western World in a Few Centuries (New York: HarperCollins Publishers), 167.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
10
assigned to them were the basis for their cultic veneration.20 Even after martyrdom, the
death of the martyrs was celebrated annually. Ferguson states that the principal
expression of cultic practices was prayer addressed to the martyrs in the afterlife.
Important Documents
Various forms of second century Christian literature give insight into the actual
events experienced by Christian martyrs. These documents included letters from
churches, personal narratives, and legal documents from court hearings. Leading
Christian authors such as Tertullian, Origen, and Cyprian wrote “exhortations” to
martyrdom during the second and third centuries.21
One of the two most potent documents of martyrdom is the Martyrdom of
Polycarp. The letter is the story of the persecution of Christians in Smyrna in Asia Minor,
written to the church of Philomelium. The subject is the trial and execution of the 86-year
old Bishop Polycarp. Parvis highlights Irenaeus’ verification of Polycarp’s relationship
with the Apostle John, ‘the disciple of the Lord.’22 Polycarp’s supposed personal
relationship with the early Apostles bears considerable weight concerning the validity of
the letter. The actual date of the letter is disputed, but generally placed within the middle
to late second century. The trial of Polycarp was conducted by Proconsul Statius
Quadratus. The Martyrdom of Polycarp reads:
20 Ferguson, 162.
21 Ibid, 80.
22 Sara Parvis, “The Martyrdom of Polycarp” The Expository Times 118 (2006): 105.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
11
But when the magistrate pressed him hard and said, “Swear the oath and I will release you; revile the Christ,” Polycarp said, “Eighty-six years I have been His servant, and He has done me no wrong. How then can I blaspheme my King who saved me?”23
The charge publicly proclaimed by Quadratus’ herald simply stated, “Polycarp has
confessed himself to be a Christian.”24
The Martyrdom of Polycarp supported a theology of martyrdom that started with
Ignatius. Because Jesus was martyred, parallels were drawn between Him and those of
His followers dying a similar death. It was also believed that Jesus was present during the
actual execution of the martyr, sustaining them in their sufferings.25 Ferguson outlines the
eight pillars of the theology of martyrdom as:
1. Witness 2. Athletes and Heroes 3. Grace 4. Sharing the sufferings and victories of Jesus Christ 5. Eucharist 6. Holy Spirit 7. Eschatology 8. Baptism26
The meaning of the word “martyr” is “witness.” Even as the martyrs gave witness
through their testimony, their blood gave witness of Christ’s death and their commitment
to Him. Martyrs were depicted as well-trained athletes competing against Satan,
23 Martyrdom of Polycarp, n.p.
24 Ibid, n.p.
25 Ferguson, 83.
26 Ibid, 83.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
12
contesting for victory over the flesh. There was a sense that martyrs were chosen by God,
having received special grace from Him to embrace death. Martyrs considered
themselves quite privileged to share in the sufferings and victory of Christ. Martyrs took
Jesus’ words “to drink this cup” and “let this cup pass from me” literally. Martyrdom was
a supernatural occurrence. The Holy Spirit assisted in the process, granting endurance,
strength, and comfort. The martyr was believed to be a perfect Christian, who upon death
immediately entered Jesus’ presence and received special privileges. Finally, the theology
of martyrdom suggested that martyrs would have the sins of their past life canceled,
obtain a “baptism of blood,” and at once be admitted into the presence of the Lord in
Paradise.27
The second of the two most important second century documents on martyrdom is
the Letter of the Churches of Vienne and Lyons. This letter was sent to the churches in the
Roman provinces of Asia and Phrygia. Christians were falsely accused of cannibalism
and incest. They were brought to trial without legitimate charges. Ferguson remarks that
the persecution at Lyons is notable: (1) for this firsthand account of the rage of the
populace that resulted in exceedingly brutal experiences for the Christians and (2) for the
large number of martyrs—the Roman citizens being beheaded and the rest condemned to
the wild beast contests in the arena.28
The Letter of the Churches of Vienne and Lyons presents an even deeper
understanding of the second pillar of the theology of martyrdom. Referring to martyrs as
27 James McClintock, Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1981), 830.
28 Ferguson, 81.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
13
athletes and heroes, a theology of spiritual warfare is revealed. The martyrs believed the
process of martyrdom to be a contest similar to one in which an athlete would compete,
and used athletic terminology to describe their experiences. The actual contest was
Satan’s attempt to use their bodies against them and to get them to recant. Those who
recanted lost. They viewed Satan as their opponent who was fighting for control of their
bodies, operating through the Roman Empire and its leaders. The martyrs labeled
themselves as combatants. As pain was used as a weapon, their objective was to deny
pain, which ultimately meant victory over the body and Satan himself. The letter reads:
“Or rather, like athletes who had overthrown their adversary several times, and were now contending for the crown itself, again they endured the lashes which were usual there; and they were dragged about by the wild beasts, and suffered every indignity which the maddened populace demanded in cries and exhortation proceeding from various parts of the amphitheater.”29
The hero of the letter is a young woman named Blandina. She was viewed as a type of
Christ. Speaking of her martyrdom it was stated:
“Blandina was filled with such power, that those who tortured her one after the other in every way from morning till evening were wearied and tired, confessing that they had been baffled, for they had no other torture they could apply to her:”30
As a noble athlete, having been tortured extensively, Blandina recovered her strength and
declared with vehement affirmation, “I am a Christian.” This theology of spiritual
warfare attributed evil strategies and contrivance to be the work of Satan. In maintaining
their commitment to Christ, despite the extreme torture of the flesh, the martyrs
29 Letter of the Churches of Vienne and Lyons, n.p.
30 Ibid, n.p.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
14
considered themselves to be winners in the contest, having endured and allowed Christ to
triumph through them. Blandina was said to have endured every kind of torture, and to
have inspired other combatants, having been clothed with the great and invincible athlete
Christ.31 The remaining beliefs of this theology required martyrs to forgive those who
denied the faith and maintain modesty in their own confession. They preferred to call
themselves “confessors,” reserving the name “martyrs” for those who had already died.32
Other key martyrdoms during this time included the martyrdom of the Christians
near Carthage. Twelve Christians refused to swear allegiance to the emperor and were
executed. The Acts of the Martyrs of Scilli is the oldest surviving work in Latin. The
Passion of Perpetua and Felicitas is further documentation of martyrdom in Carthage in
203. Perpetua was the daughter of a wealthy Roman man. Staying true to her conviction
as a Christian, she directly challenged Roman culture having defied the authority of her
own father. This defiance and undermining of Roman culture was the perceived problem
with Christianity. Both Perpetua and her slave Felicitas were martyred.
APOLOGY
Persecution and martyrdom in early Christianity was fueled by false accusations
against Christians. Charges of atheism, cannibalism, and incest were typical, along with
other accusations of immorality. From a practical point of view, atheism was defined as
failure to adhere to traditional religious practices, and was not a spiritual issue. The
Christian faith was not compatible with the cultural expectation to perform sacrifices and
31 Ibid, n.p.
32 Ferguson, 81.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
15
acts of worship to Roman gods. The charges of cannibalism were attributed to the
Eucharist, and incest perhaps to Christians referring to each other as “brother” and
“sister.”33 These charges were augmented by Christians excluding themselves from the
routine activities of mainstream culture. Christian apologists took it upon themselves to
refute these charges and many others, attempting to address public misconceptions about
their faith, challenge unjust treatment of Christians, and justify why Christians could not
participate in mainstream culture. As the early Christians attempted to appeal to the
inhabitants of the Greco-Roman world at large, use was made of the strategies and
methods of Hellenistic religious propaganda.34
Justin Martyr
Justin Martyr was the leading and most influential apologist of the second
century. Hagner describes Justin Martyr as the fountainhead of a stream of intellectual
thinking that defended the truth of the gospel and in the process gave shape to the
developing theology of the early Church.35 Justin was an apologist who was also
martyred for his faith. Justin was very instrumental in early apology, as the pioneer of the
Logos Christology. Hagner comments, “Justin’s exegetical method is shown to have
much in common with Jewish exegesis despite the fundamental difference in the
perspective of fulfillment.”36 Justin established from OT sources the significance of the
33 Ferguson, 67.
34 David N. Freedman, ed. “NT Apologetics” The Anchor Bible Dictionary (1992): 302.
35 Donald A. Hagner, “Justin Martyr” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 21 (1978):
277.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
16
term logos, and the ‘Word of the Lord’ being used to connect God with His people. He
suggested that the continuity of the reason of the mind and the spoken word represented
rational activity.37 Ferguson lists five stages of the thoughts of Justin and the Apologists:
1. The Logos as the reason or wisdom resident in the mind of God 2. The Logos as the spoken or articulated word 3. The Logos as the immanent in the world 4. The Logos as the revealed word of God in the prophets 5. The Logos as incarnate in Jesus
The framework of these stages was remarkably impactful upon the validity of the early
Christian faith. The Logos doctrine brought Christ into mainstream Greek culture and
served to clarify the Trinitarian doctrine. Christ was presented as the eternal reason of
God, by which He not only created but also saved.
Apology Tactics
The Apologists sought to encourage society’s embrace and tolerance of
Christianity, while simultaneously presenting Christianity as being very beneficial to the
Roman Empire. Both Justin and Tertullian explained Christian worship practices and
championed Christian morality, attempting to prove Christianity and elaborate on the
faith. The Apologists’ tactics were not only defensive, but offensive as well. They
responded by attacking the immorality and illegitimacy of pagan cults associate with
mythology.38 One of their chief arguments was that Christianity was not new, but was
rooted in the OT. Their efforts would become the building blocks in the establishment of
36 Ibid, 278.
37 Ferguson, 76.
38 Ibid, 78.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
17
a Christian theology. Christian thought and intellectualism began to expand into the
culture, drastically calling for monotheism in a polytheistic culture.
CONCLUSION
Unfortunately, the physical persecution of Christians is still a reality in the
present-day world. Although it is neither widely accepted nor reported, it does still occur
in areas that are hostile toward the gospel. Where there is physical persecution, there will
also be martyrdom. Because today’s culture is driven and defined by ideologies,
Christians around the world are dealing with new forms of intellectual, social, and
spiritual persecution and martyrdom. Christians are being persecuted and experiencing
martyrdom in the spheres of politics, education, entertainment, and business, whenever
the line separating church and state is crossed. The concept of religious freedom has been
culturally redefined to mean tolerance and the inclusion of all beliefs, but the suppression
of Christian values. The removal of prayer from educational institutions and the Ten
Commandments from the courtrooms are forms of persecution. The forced elimination of
the phrase, “Merry Christmas!” in favor of “Happy Holidays” is yet another form of
persecution.
As during the great persecutions of the second and third centuries, Christians must
once against respond to persecution with offensive and defensive tactics of apology, with
the spirit and courageousness of the early martyrs. Intellectualism must once again
become the priority of Christian apologists and Church leaders, with the intent to engage
the culture. Baker suggests that there are certain logical steps in defending the Christian
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
18
faith, and that the overall argument can be put into twelve basic propositions. Those
propositions are:
1. Truth about reality is knowable 2. Opposites cannot both be true 3. The theistic 4. Miracles are possible 5. Miracles performed in connection with a truth claim are acts of God to confirm the
truth of God through a messenger of God 6. The NT documents are reliable 7. As witnessed in the NT, Jesus claimed to be God 8. Jesus’ claim to divinity was proven by a unique convergence of miracles 9. Therefore, Jesus was God in the flesh 10. Whatever Jesus affirmed as true is true 11. Jesus affirmed that the Bible is the Word of God 12. Therefore, it is true that the bible is the Word of God and whatever is opposed to any
biblical truth is false39
The faith displayed by Christian heroes such as Polycarp, Blandina, and Perpetua is
needed once more. May the dignity, sincerity, and authority of the declaration “I am a
Christian!” once again defy the oppression of the culture and summon Christians
everywhere to authentic faith.
39 Norman L. Geisler, Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics, (Grand Rapids: Baker
Academic, 2007), 36.
Copyright © 2010 James E. Ward Jr.
19
WORKS CITED
Geisler, Norman L. Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics. Grand Rapids: Baker
Academic, 2007. Ferguson, Everett. Church History Volume I: from Christ to Pre-Reformation. Grand
Rapids: Zondervan, 2005. Freedman, David N. ed. “NT Apologetics.” The Anchor Bible Dictionary. New York:
Doubleday, 1992. Hagner, Donald A. 1978. “Justin Martyr” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society.
21(3): 277-278. Jeffers, James S. The Greco-Roman World of the New Testament Era: Exploring the
Background of Early Christianity. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1999. McClintock, John., and James Strong. ed. Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1981. Orr, James. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Chicago: The Howard-
Severance Company, 1915. Parvis, Sara. 2006. “The Martyrdom of Polycarp” Expository Times. 118(3): 105-112. Pearcey, Nancy. Total Truth: Liberating Christianity from Its Cultural Captivity.
Wheaton: Crossway Books, 2008. Stark, Rodney. The Rise of Christianity. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1997.
Workman, Herbert B. Persecution in the Early Church. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1980.