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The ionisation process

Extracts from the doctoral dissertation of Dr.-Ing. Klaus Gebhardt

The benefit of copper and silver for mankind

Metals have always played a decisive role in the development of human

civilisation and this is reflected in the names given to historical ages the Iron

Age and Bronze Age. Even in prehistoric times, smelting techniques capable ofproducing metals from naturally occurring ores had already been developed.

Particularly undemanding was the smelting process used to obtain the so-called

precious and semi-precious metals such as gold, silver and copper. Above allgold occurs in its solid form, that is, in its pure elementary form. Other metals,

such as silver and copper, in contrast, also occur in the form of oxygen, sulphur

and various other compounds. Oxygen-metal compounds are known as oxides.

The most important metals from the technological viewpoint, such as iron,

aluminium and copper, are mainly found in the form of iron oxide, copper oxideand aluminium oxide. In order to obtain the elementary metals, energy-intensive

extraction processes are required: e.g. a blast furnace process for iron, the

bauxite process to obtain aluminium from aluminium oxide and electrolysis for

the recovery of pure copper. Despite the complex and expensive processes

required, man has not been deterred, but on the contrary, spurred on to obtain

these important metals in their pure forms.

Metal extraction and its effects on the human body

The extraction of metals as part of the human civilisation process not only lead

to the development of ever more complex tools, constructions and other

technological advancements, but also brought the human body into ever closercontact with metals.

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At an early stage, people realised that metals could not only have a damaging

effect on the biological functions of the human body, but also that certain metals

had health-enhancing properties.

The symptoms of poisoning caused by heavy metals like mercury, lead and

chromium and their compounds have long been known. Due to exposure to

heavy metals, prehistoric workers mining heavy metal ores and those processing

lead and mercury ores by boiling exhibited severe toxic symptoms. Even at

relatively young ages, they suffered loss of hair, premature loss of teeth,

weakness of bones and poisoning of the liver.

On the other hand, the positive effects of some of the precious and semi-

precious metals were also discovered in early prehistory. The biological effectsof copper, silver and gold are the subject of our current considerations.

It is not just because of the rarity of the precious metals silver and gold that they

have long been coveted and used for the production of jewellery. These metals

also have a positive influence on the general wellbeing of humans. It took more

than 3000 years, for example, before the physiological reasons for the

stimulating, in some cases euphoretic effects of the metal gold were explained:

gold stimulates the release of certain endogenous messenger substances, the so-

called endorphins. Endorphins are a series of proteins with opioid effects thatare synthesised in the human brain when the body is exposed to specific stimuli.

The name endorphin is derived from the two words endogenous (literally:growing from within) and morphine.

Silver on the other hand has been employed as a medicine since early times,particularly for internal use. It was widely prized as an oral medication, and had

been used especially for the treatment of heart disorders. It was Paracelsus who

established the use of silver in medicine. Although the Romans had already been

aware of the antiseptic effects of silver, and had employed this property to keepwater and other liquids potable by storing them in silver containers, the

bacteriostatic effects of silver were only discovered in the late 19th century.

Silver compounds, primarily silver nitrate (which also plays an important role as

a chemical used in photography), have long been used in medicine. These

compounds were applied topically to treat warts and, from the 17th

century

onwards, silver nitrate was used to prevent gonorrheal conjunctivitis in newborninfants, a major cause of neonatal mortality at the time. This culminated in a

legal requirement for the prophylactic treatment of neonates with silver.

The bacteriostatic (germicidal) effects of silver are also exploited for the

purposes of processing and purifying drinking water. This is not only the case

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down here on earth in drinking water recovery plants, but also up in orbit in

space stations, where water is recycled using the Katadyn process. The Katadyn

process (the name is derived from katadeynin, which means submerge) is a

process for the sterilisation of water using thin silver plates or the above-

mentioned silver compounds. In the Electro-Katadyn process, water is sterilised

by silver electrodes past which the water flows. The oligodynamic (Greek:

oligos= few, dynamis= force) germicidal properties of silver are also employedin medicine, where silver threads are integrated in the materials used for wound

dressings, particularly dressings used to cover burns. Here, the germicidal

properties of the silver prevent the development of inflammation.

The germicidal effects of silver ions

On another level, silver threads integrated in material used for example to make

socks inhibit the development of sweaty feet and athletes foot because fungi, as

well as bacteria, are killed by silver ions. Alone the secretions released from the

skin are sufficient to generate the minimum concentrations of silver at which a

bactericidal effect can be observed. Underclothes made from such material are

specially available for people with neurodermatitis to help prevent chronic

itching and scratching.

The mechanism responsible for the bactericidal properties of silver ions has not

yet been investigated adequately. However, it is well known that silver has a

high affinity for sulphur compounds (hence the tarnishing of silver cutlery and

the bad taste that eggs have when eaten with a silver spoon), so that it seems

obvious that silver ions react with the sulphide groups (SH groups, sulphur

complexes) of protein molecules.

Assuming this also occurs in the case of the proteins in simple bacteria, this

would result in the paralysis of the respiratory processes of these single cellorganisms. Concentrations of only 1 x 10

-8(molar), equivalent to a billionth of a

gram per litre of water, are sufficient to develop a germicidal effect.

Colloidal silver has traditionally been used as a remedy. Various processes can

be used to produce a solution of silver in colloidal form. The widespread

awareness of the bacteriostatic effects of colloidal silver largely disappeared

with the discovery of antibiotics in the 1920s. It now appears that colloidal silver

is facing a comeback, as the indiscriminate use of generations of novel

antibiotics has led to a dramatic increase in the development of resistance ofmany microorganism strains. It is thus very important that we should not forget

the oligodynamic germicidal properties of the metals.

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The cytocidal effects of colloidal copper

In addition to silver, copper also exhibits a cytocidal effect. In the case ofcopper, which as a semi-precious metal does not have the same bactericidal

potency as the nobler metal silver, it is its ability to prevent growth of algae thatmakes this metal so useful for water purification. Again, it was the Romans who

lined their thermal baths with copper plates to ensure good quality bathing

water. In recent years, the use of copper compounds, such as copper sulphate(copper vitriol) has been widely propagated.

Copper compounds introduced directly into the water supply will remain in the

whole pipeline system, bind with surface and piping materials and for theassociated optical reasons (e.g. they can cause black staining of the walls of

swimming pools and even react with human hair to turn it green) tend to beevaluated unfavourably. But such effects are the result of incorrect use of copper

compounds.

If copper is introduced into water at low concentrations by means of an

electronically controlled Electro-Katadyn process, the additive oligodynamic

effects of this copper will prevent growth of algae over the long term.

Ionisation as an opponent to chemicals

Contrary to the situation in Germany where the water guidelines prescribe other

purification systems, bathing water is purified in some parts of Europe by means

of an overwhelmingly superior process involving the release of controlledconcentrations of silver and copper into the water. One leading proponent of this

method of swimming pool disinfection is the community of St. Vith in Wallonia

in Belgium. With the support of researchers from the University of Louvain, thelocal councillors of St. Vith have advocated the use of copper and silver ions to

disinfect their public swimming pool for the past 20 years. St. Vith thus has one

of only two pools in Belgium in which the water is purified completely without

use of chlorine. The copper and silver ions are generated by an electrode

electrolysis system.

The silver ions provide the bacteriostatic effects required, while the copper

inhibits algae growth and causes flocculation of the bacteria. The bacteria bound

by the flocculation process can then be easily removed by a sand filter. The

swimming pool operators and those visiting the pool are delighted with the

excellent quality of the water.

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The safe alternative to the chemical mace for waterdisinfection

It is thus apparent that a system not dissimilar to that used by grandmothers a

hundred years ago, when a silver coin would be dropped into the milk container

to keep it fresh, is now being used to sterilise drinking water in aircraft and

space ships. The same traditional system, based on age-old practices developed

to enhance the wellbeing of humans, is now available for the purification of

water in the form of the technologically advanced and electronically controlled

Necon water purification system.

Necon, a company originally involved in the field of measurement and controltechnology and specialised in the automation of technical processes, is thecompetent partner for automated monitoring systems for the maintenance of

water quality by means of automatic oligodynamic disinfection using copper andsilver electrodes.

This method of processing of drinking and bathing water not only has aconsiderable beneficial effect for health, but also helps protect the environment,

as the Necon system can also be used for the processing of waste water from

industrial plants and laundries (industrial-scale laundries, e.g. in hospitals), thusproviding a water processing system that is environmentally-friendly, cost-

effective and economically viable that meets all the requirements of todays

water consumers.

The water purification system employing copper and silver developed and

patented by Necon, can also be used to prepare colloidal silver solutions for use

in the service of human health. These are both innovative and at the same time

encompass traditional elements of medicine.

Long before the pharmaceutical industry had developedantibiotics, nature had provided man with the best andmost powerful agent in the fight against viruses, harmfulbacteria and fungi: colloidal silver. This can only be goodnews at a time in which we are exposed on all sides tohorror scenarios of a bird flu pandemic!

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We are at war but our enemy is invisible. Every day we live in fear that he could

seize us, strike us down and then slowly kill us for his pleasure. It is of particular

perfidy that our enemy will not fight in the open with weapons, but uses a

Trojan horse strategy. He conceals himself in poultry meat, hovers around us in

the air we breathe or even takes the form of the deadly aftermath of an

affectionate encounter. This would appear to be the situation, at least if we are to

believe the reports presented in the media. Fungi, bacteria and viruses are out to

eliminate us and we, with our already compromised immune systems, are

completely at the mercy of these treacherous assassins.

Winner in this situation, is alone the pharmaceutical industry that thrives and

earns billions with vaccination campaigns and then makes an extra couple of

hundred million with the sale of antibiotics. And as we have now broached thesubject of antibiotics what on earth would we do without them? Would we die

in millions as in past eras, each of which had its own particular plague?

In the 11th

century, there was ergotism (caused by eating mildewed rye and

associated with deformities, convulsions and St. Vitus dance), the 12th

century

had its epidemics of pox and smallpox, the 13th

century was notorious for

leprosy, while in the 14th

century the Black Death struck, syphilis was rampant

in the 15th

century, dysentery in the 16th, tuberculosis in the 17

th, typhus in the

18th, cholera in the 19th and what about the 20th century? Was it AIDS - orcancer - the rates of which have increased tenfold in the course of the 20

th

century?

Today it is the viruses that appear to have got completely out of control. Ebola

and Hanta have become words associated with horror, bird flu is seen as the new

bogeyman and diseases like anthrax are considered to be so terrible that they

are being touted as weapons for use by terrorists. In fact, in the hygienic,

medically advanced USA on the threshold to the third millennium, infectious

diseases represent the third most common cause of death!

A warrior against all killers!!

But our fears are in fact unjustified. Not because we have antibiotics - that is not

the reason. After all, we should not forget that the all too frequent prescription of

antibiotics has resulted in a situation in which more and more pathogens are

becoming immune. In addition, each antibiotic is capable of eliminating perhaps

12 different pathogens, but considerably weakens the immune system in doingso.

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No, our rescue has once again been provided by Mother Nature. As long as

human beings have existed, there has been a remedy that is literally effective

against all known germs, all harmful bacteria that colonise us, all viruses thatattack us and can even put a halt to the insidious advance of the fungi: colloidal

silver.

Colloidal silver eliminates 650 different pathogens, at the latest within 6 minutes

after administration. It does not attack a single bacterium that is essential for the

maintenance of our physiological body functions, but only aggressive mutants.

Colloidal silver not only has no side effects, but actually strengthens the immunesystem instead of weakening it as antibiotics do.

Colloidal silver does not interact with other medications and does not causegastric disorders: on the contrary, it promotes digestion. It does not cause a

burning sensation on contact with the eyes. Reports in medical journals and

studies documented over the last 100 years make no mention at all of any

adverse side effects after oral or intravenous administration of silver colloids,

either in humans or animals.

A look through the magnifying glass

What exactly is colloidal silver? Colloid particles are the smallest particles that

a substance can be divided into while still retaining its original properties. The

next stage down would be the atom itself. These particles are suspended in

distilled water and carry an electrical charge. As particles with the same charge

repel each other, they continue to remain in suspension. Colloids play an

important role in nature. All the processes of life in a cell, the basic building

block of living beings, are based on materials in colloidal state.

Other examples of colloids are freshly pressed orange juice, detergents, film-coatings, but also smoke or mist, write Werner Khni and Walter von Holst in

their practical guide Kolloidales Silber als Medizin[Colloidal Silver asMedicine]. And dont lets forget blood and lymph, which are also colloidalsubstances.

The reduction of materials to microscopically small particles results in an

enormous increase in their total surface area and thus enhances their effects.

Moreover, the ability of such particles to enter the body and reach remote sites is

enormously improved. Of particular interest are the silver colloids, as theprecious metal silver is the best natural conductor of electricity, the authorscontinue.

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The tiny silver molecules invade single cell bacteria and block the activity of an

enzyme responsible for the production of oxygen. The metabolism of the

parasites is disrupted and they die. Experience shows that intact skin cells and

the bacteria that promote healthy body functions are not affected during

treatment with colloidal silver for which there is, as yet, no satisfactory

explanation, according to Khni and von Host.

Silver not only eliminates microorganisms hostile to life, but also stimulates the

growth of healthy body tissue, as Dr. Robert O. Becker, author of the bookTheBody Electric and eminent bioresearcher at the University of Syracuse in theUSA, discovered. He states silver provides extensive curative stimulation of

skin and other soft tissue in a way quite different to all other physiological

processes ().

It particularly stimulates bone development and accelerates the process of

healing of damaged tissue by more than 50%. Becker was astounded to

discover that colloidal silver promotes a new form of cell growth similar to the

process of cell formation in children.

These cells grow rapidly and during this process produce an amazing collection

of primitive cell forms that are capable of very rapid proliferation and

differentiation into the specific cells of particular organs or damaged tissue, evenin patients over the age of 50 years. Dr. Becker discovered that colloidal silver

is also capable of converting cancer cells back into normal cells.

Dr. Becker also sees a correlation between low silver levels and disease. On

average, silver constitutes 0.001% of the human body. Becker claims that if thepercentage of silver in the body falls below this level, a dysfunction of the

immune system is the result. It would seem that silver plays an essential role in

the basic processes of life.

The ancient Egyptians were already using silver forhealing purposes!

The properties of silver were well known in the ancient world. It is possible that

its first use in the historical era for medicinal purposes was in Egypt. It was used

in medicines by the Greeks, the Romans, the Persians, the Indians and Chinese.

Paracelsus (1493 1541) used processed silver amalgams in detoxification

baths, as silver is an excellent agent for eliminating mercury from the body.

Hildegard von Bingen (1098 1179) considered that silver, seen in the light of

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the ancient theory of the humours, was an excellent treatment for catarrh and

cough. Konrad von Megenberg, a canon of Regensburg Cathedral and polymath

of the 14th

century, mentioned in his Book of Nature that silver as a powder,which when mixed with fine ointments doth help expel tenacious foulness fromthe body. He recommended it for the treatment of mange, bleeding

haemorrhoids and weakness of the metabolism.

Silver was held to be effective against demons and diseases. Aristocratic

families stored their provisions in silver chests and ate and drank exclusively

from silver platters and goblets. Excessive use of silver can lead to a slight

bluish discoloration of the lips and mouth. It has been postulated that this is why

it was assumed that the aristocracy had blue blood.

Silver shavings, mixed with various plants and herbs, were believed to cure

rabies, nosebleeds, dropsy and many other disorders. However, the preservative

properties of silver were also well known: on their trail to the west, American

settlers put silver dollars in their milk to keep it fresh without refrigeration.

Some have claimed that it was because of their healing properties that silver and

gold were chosen as the first monetary coins. Silver provided a safe means of

keeping stored water fresh, assuming that this was protected from light and was

not kept in metal containers.

The medicinal qualities of silver in its colloidal form were discovered in the mid

19th

century. Silver was extensively investigated by numerous researchers in the

early 20th

century and leading journals, includingThe Lancet, the J ournal of theAmerican Medical Association and the British Medical J ournal publishedarticles describing the amazing properties of colloidal silver.

At the same time, the pharmaceutical companies were developing their

antibiotics programmes, and because antibiotics, in contrast with silver, can be

patented and sold for high prices, colloidal silver was gradually forgotten,despite the fact that it is superior to all chemical antibiotics.

Successfully treated disorders!

The authors of the bookKolloidales Silber als Medizin provide guidelines forthe treatment of a wide range of different diseases. On being asked whether

colloidal silver would also be effective against bird flu, Werner Khni gave a

positive answer, although he added that there was, as yet, no concreteexperience of its use against bird flu. However, he claimed that the relatedParrot Fever (psittacosis) had been successfully treated with colloidal silver.

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Colloidal silver can be taken orally and, in the case of skin disorders, be applied

topically. It is also effective in animals: particularly good results have been

achieved in the treatment of rabbit parvovirus infection and feline leukaemia. It

makes an excellent pesticide for use in the garden: simply spray diluted colloidal

silver onto the affected leaves and use it to water plants.

How it works!

Recent investigations of colloidal silver have given us some insight into how

this wonderful and versatile substance protects us against the malicious

invaders, in and on our bodies:

It is postulated that colloidal silver kills viruses by forming silvercomplexes with DNA and/or RNA or by destroying the nucleic acids.

It kills single cell organisms, plasmodia and fungi (including their

spores) and attacks worms, possibly by means of inhibition of phosphateuptake and alteration of the permeability of the cell membrane.

It inhibits the enzyme phosphomannose isomerase in yeasts.

It suppresses histamine and prostaglandin release in allergic and

inflammatory reactions.

It buffers excessive reactions of the immune system and thus alleviates

allergic and inflammatory manifestations.

It has an astringent effect on the surfaces of open wounds and thus

considerably accelerates the healing process. The skin remains elastic

and there are fewer lesions at mechanically stressed sites.

In the body it acts in the same way as a free radical and binds excess

electrons; it thus promotes detoxification in heavy metal poisoning.

To sum up: colloidal silver kills pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, protozoa

and fungi in vitro. There is no known bacterium that is not eliminated within 6minutes of exposure to colloidal silver at a concentration of only 5 ppm/litre.

According to Dr. Robert O. Becker, all pathogenic microorganisms that are

resistant to antibiotics are killed by exposure to colloidal silver.

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Trace element copper important for energy, blood,nerves and the immune system

Copper was once known as Cyprian metal. Bronze, a combination of copper

and tin, has been known for millennia. Copper has many applications: for

example in sugar production, in breweries, dairies, in pest prevention and in the

production of artificial silk and rayon.

In chemical terms, copper is a mono- to trivalent element and is essential forhumans. Our bodies contain approximately 70 150 mg copper. Copper is

mainly present in the bones, but is also found in muscles, the liver and the brain.

Copper has long been used in medicine. In the 16 th century, Paracelsus was the

first to use copper - he claims successfully- in the treatment of mental disorders,

epilepsy, hysteria and loss of reason. He also described curative effects in thetreatment of pulmonary diseases and syphilis. Hahnemann, the father of

homeopathy, subsequently built on Paracelsus experience and used copper

vitriol to treat madness, hypochondria, epilepsy, hysteria and other disorders.Copper salts also have medical uses as emetics and disinfectants (e.g. eye and

mouth rinses and dressings).

Copper has many important functions in the body!

Many of the essential enzymes contain copper. In addition, this element isinvolved in many physiological processes: it acts as an antioxidant, plays a role

in blood formation and energy production, and influences the immune system

and inflammatory processes.

Copper has a wide range of functions in the body. It is found in numerousenzymes (of which 16 have been identified to date). One example is superoxidedismutase (SOD) that, among other things, protects the cell membrane from

damage by free radicals and is thus an important antioxidant. Copper promotes

electron transport and thus the process of energy synthesis.

Copper is also needed for blood production, specifically for the synthesis of

haemoglobin (red-coloured blood pigment). Copper is involved in ironmetabolism and the formation of erythrocytes (red blood cells). Copper is

present in coeruloplasmin which is required for the utilisation of iron; itcatalyses the conversion of bivalent to trivalent iron. Microcytic anaemia can

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thus develop in severe states of copper deficiency. Copper is also involved in the

formation of collagen and elastin in the connective tissues.

In addition, copper also plays a role in the synthesis of epinephrine and

norepinephrine in the adrenal and nervous systems. Copper is also required for

the formation of melanin in the skin. The element stimulates the immune system

and inhibits inflammation.

The main sources of copper

Copper is present in foodstuffs, above all in offal, fish, shellfish, nuts, cocoa andcertain green vegetables. Some herbs and spices, such as basil, oregano, nutmeg

and pepper, are relatively rich in copper. Low concentrations of copper, on the

other hand, are found in meat, milk and dairy products, tuber and root

vegetables, sweets, pastries and pasta.

A maximum of 50% (but usually less) of the copper taken up by the body is

actually utilised. When intake increases, absorption decreases and the excess

copper is excreted from the body. The permitted upper level for the

concentration of copper in drinking water is 0.05 mg/litre.

The content of copper in 100 g of copper-richfoodstuffs

Chocolate: 12.5 mg

Lobster: 6.7 mg

Calfs liver: 3.5 5.5 mg

Oysters: 3.6 mg Cocoa: 3 - 4 mg

Ox liver: 2.1 3.5 mg

Sunflower seeds: 2.8 mg

Lentils, peas, kidney beans: 0.7 0.8 mg each

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2 mg copper (average daily requirement) is presentin

50 g nuts

75 g mussels

50 - 100 g liver

125 g wheat bran

150 g mushrooms

250 g whole grain rye bread

200 - 1000 g cheese

The daily copper requirement

Ensuring an adequate nutritional supply of copper is not seen as problematic. A

healthy, balanced diet will provide an adequate daily intake. However, there are

many reasons why a supplementary intake of copper may be necessary. A one-

sided diet and smoking can result in insufficient copper intake.

It is currently estimated that the average copper requirement is approximately 2mg daily. The Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Ernhrung e.V. [German Association

for Nutrition], on the other hand, assumes that the daily requirement for adult

men and women is somewhat lower, between 1 1.5 mg copper. The

distinguished American orthomolecular physician Melvyn Werbach

recommends a daily copper intake of 2 4 mg.

Does our daily diet cover our copper requirement?

Copper is not usually considered to be a critical trace element. A balanced,

mixed diet generally provides sufficient copper. Offal and shellfish are

particularly rich in copper, but these are not eaten very frequently. Most of our

dietary copper comes from our intake of cereal, vegetables and meat. Copper is

absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and, if excessive copper is taken up by

the body, it is excreted. The liver is the main organ in which copper is

metabolised and it regulates the concentration of copper in the body.

Uptake of copper can be inhibited by various substances, such as excessivevitamin C, calcium, molybdenum, zinc, sulphides and cadmium. Copper levels

can be influenced by smoking and various disorders.

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Groups that characteristically have an increasedcopper requirement

Infants that are fed solely with cows milk

Persons with one-sided nutrition or malabsorption

Persons exposed to marked oxidative stress, e.g. due to smoking

Persons with gastrointestinal disorders (chronic diarrhoea, bowel

inflammation)

All patients with inflammatory disorders

Persons with immune system disorders

Persons with nephrotic syndrome (impairment of protein metabolism)

Persons with cystic fibrosis Persons undergoing treatment with antacids (substances that bind gastric

acids) or penicillin.

Deficiency or excess of copper in the body

Disorders associated with copper deficiency have been identified to date only in

cases of extreme deficiency. Very many disorders for example, all forms ofinflammation are accompanied by a deficiency of copper.

In such cases, the intake of copper needs to be supplemented. As far as is

known, no undesirable effects are associated with minor copper deficiencies; it

is only when the deficiency is severe that symptoms of illness occur.

Copper deficiency can be the result of extremely one-sided nutrition or

malabsorption. The characteristic signs of copper deficiency are: loss of

appetite, loss of bodyweight, abnormal pigmentation (of skin and hair),disturbance of the central nervous system, of the immune system functions and

of growth; skeletal changes may also become apparent.

In copper deficiency, the uptake of iron is also inhibited so that blood formationis impaired. It is postulated that copper deficiency can also exacerbate

cardiovascular disease.

As a rule, the copper levels in the body exhibit dynamic changes in response to

all inflammatory processes. Low copper concentrations frequently accompanymany disorders, such as cancer, hepatitis, diabetes, gastritis, constipation, heart

failure, hypertension (high blood pressure), hypotension (low blood pressure),

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arrhythmia, eczema, parodontitis and bronchitis. In some disorders, such as

cystic fibrosis and nephrotic syndrome (impairment of protein metabolism),

there is a marked copper deficiency.

In addition, there are also specific, if rare, disorders directly related to problems

of copper metabolism (Menkes syndrome, Wilsons disease). These involve

impairment of copper uptake and progressive accumulation of copper in the

body.

In most cases of copper deficiency, it is possible to provide treatment to adjust

copper levels. However, such treatment is not provided as frequently as it is

required.

Some diseases are associated with an excess of copper in the body: these includearthrosis, colitis, prostatitis and sinusitis.

Is copper overdose possible and are there sideeffects?

In general copper is tolerated well. The intake of up to 5 mg copper daily is

considered to be perfectly safe. However, use of higher doses may be associatedwith side effects, such as nausea, intestinal pain, vomiting and diarrhoea. These

disappear when administration is discontinued. Harmful effects of copper have

been recorded only in connection with occupational exposure.

Copper as a preventive but how much?

Copper is most commonly available in the form of sulphate salts, but the

bioavailability of the organic compounds, such as gluconate, orotate and chelate,is better. Copper supplements should be taken between meals, at best in the formof small divided doses taken over the day. Copper should only be taken for

preventive purposes in situations in which there is a known risk of deficiency.

Supplementation of copper at doses up to the recommended daily intake will besufficient in most circumstances.

Suitable therapy is indicated whenever copper parameters deviate from normallevels, irrespective of whether the copper concentration is too high or too low.

An exception to this is when elevation of copper levels is caused by using aparticular medication. Copper therapy can be used in the treatment of allinflammatory disorders, rheumatic fever, rheumatoid arthritis and rheumatic

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diseases. Copper is also an effective emetic. Even where copper is being given

for therapeutic purposes, the doses are generally within the range of the

recommended daily intake.

Water purification by Mother Nature

A swimming pool that is not regularly cared for can rapidly become uninviting.The walls become covered with algae and limescale deposits. Bacteria begin to

proliferate. To date, chlorine has been routinely used to clean swimming pools,

and users have had to put up with the unpleasant side effects of the substance,

such as irritation of mucous membranes and an unpleasant odour. Dr.-Ing KlausGebhardt decided to take a completely different and innovative approach. He

developed an electrophysical system for purification of water that was both

environmentally-friendly and completely safe for humans and was associated

with low set-up and maintenance costs.

100% chemical-free

The system consists of an advanced microprocessor-controlled electronic unitwith patented electrodes made of copper and silver. The water passes through a

special treatment cell in which the electrodes are located. A low, precisely-

controlled direct current activates the electrodes, resulting in the release of

copper ions (Cu++

) at 0.5 0.7 mg/l and silver ions (Ag+) at 1 10 ppb. Some of

these ions are transported with the water flow into the swimming pool. The

number of ions reaching the pool water is controlled by the microprocessor unit.

Test devices developed by NECON are used to ensure that the required level of

ions in the water is maintained. The innovative system also masters the problemof the development of limescale at the electrodes by means of the tried-and-

tested Self-Cleaning-System. The resultant pool water is perceptibly softer.

Numerous studies have demonstrated the antibacterial effect: the system

eliminates pathogens such as Cryptosporidium, E. coli, coliform and

pseudomonas bacteria, pathogens that cause cholera and Legionnaires disease,

and many other strains of bacteria and viruses that can be present in swimming

pool water. The results of these studies show that when copper and silver ions

are released into the water these surfactant cations (ions with a positive charge)

become highly effective natural decontaminants.

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It has also been demonstrated that the use of chemical disinfectants has resulted

in the development of immunity by certain bacterial strains. In other words, the

bacteria in question have adapted and changed because of exposure to the

various chemical products and no longer react because they have become

resistant to the strong chemical substances.

The electrophysical process

The water drawn from a well, a spring or the municipal water supply is first

passed by a pump through a coarse filter. The water then passes through the

treatment cell that contains the copper electrodes and from which copper ionsare released into the water. Some of the copper ions react with hydroxyl ions

and form the copper hydroxide that triggers the flocculation process.

The water containing the flocculate now passes through a filter that retains

these particles. The treated water that leaves the filter, free of all contaminants,then passes through the treatment cell containing the silver electrodes. The

water, now loaded with copper and silver ions, is then transferred to a supply

cistern, a direct supply point or to a swimming pool.

Flocculation and filtration

The standard flocculation process used for water purification involves the

addition of mineral salts that are readily soluble in water; the metal ions of

these salts trigger the flocculation process, but their anions alter the waterbalance (i.e. increase salt content, change of pH). This does not occur with the

electrophysical process. The agent used for flocculation here are copper ions

released into the water by electrolysis. No anions, such as nitrates, sulphates orchlorides, are added to the water and the balance of the water is not impaired.

The flocculation process can be described as follows:

A direct current is passed through the electrodes so that the anode releases

copper ions. The size of the electrical current determines the rate of release of

copper ions. The polarity is changed at regular intervals in order to ensure that

there is an even wear of the electrodes and the formation of limescale on

electrodes is prevented as far as possible.

That quantity of copper ions that exceeds the water saturation point for copper

reacts with hydroxyl ions produced at the cathode to form copper hydroxide

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(Cu(OH)2). This substance is insoluble in water and is precipitated, whereby it

binds to all the contaminants present in the water. Larger flocculates are

formed and these are subsequently retained in a filter unit.

The recommended filtration rate is approximately 35 m/hour per square metre

surface area. The flocculated particles are not only retained on the surface of

the filter medium, but also penetrate into the filter bed and gradually saturate

the entire filter material.

For this reason and to achieve an optimum filtration result, it is advisable to use

as deep a filter bed as possible. Small filters do not adequately retain the

flocculated particles, and these pass through the filter and escape into the pool

water which then becomes turbid. A temporary improvement of filtration isachieved if a porous filter material is used, but this improvement is rapidly lost

as the pores become choked with flocculate particles.

The various parameters that control electrolysis, flocculation and filtration

must be carefully selected to ensure the best possible overall efficiency, i.e.

crystal clear water with the highest possible level of bacteriostatic effect. This

can be achieved by means of a copper concentration that is appropriate to the

quality of the raw water supply and the technical apparatus employed.

The copper and silver ions that are dissolved in the water pass through the filterand develop their bactericidal effects in the processed water.

Disinfection capacity

The quantities of ions required to achieve an adequate bactericidal effect and to

ensure that an optimum level of hygiene and purity of the water are maintained

are very low (approximately 0.7 - 1 mg/l Cu++

and 1 - 10 ppb Ag+).

At these concentrations, water retains its natural organoleptic characteristics: it

has no perceptible odour or taste.

In contrast with the standard methods used for water disinfection (in which e.g.

chlorine, oxygen or bromium etc. are used) there are only very minor changes

in the concentrations of metal ions in the water. Physical parameters, such as

temperature and sunlight exposure, have no influence on concentration

stability.

The bactericidal capacity of copper and silver is not impaired even if there are

traces of ammonia in the water.

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It is thus not necessary to add further chemical stabilisers to water that is

processed by this method, which is not the case when chlorine-based

disinfectants (sodium hypochloride and hypochlorous acid) are used. When

these agents are employed it is necessary to add a stabiliser, e.g. cyanuric acid

or chlorinated isocyanurate, at relatively high concentrations (e.g. 50 200

ppm).

The bacteriostatic effects of the sand filter

The flocculation and filtration processes employed in the electrophysicalmethod are not only methods used for clarification of drinking water, but they

also have an important antibacterial effect. This effect is attributable to the

copper and silver ions which are irreversibly absorbed by the surface of the

filter medium.

As the optimum concentration at the electrode outflow is 1.3 1.5 mg/l

(dependent on to the above specified parameters), the duration of operation of

the system required to maintain a copper concentration of 0.5 mg/l (again,

dependent on water quality) can be calculated. In order to achieve a synergistic

effect of copper and silver, a silver concentration of 1 10 g/litre is required.

This concentration is maintained if the rate of release of silver is 10 mg/m3

water/24 hours.

The antibacterial effect

The disinfectant effect achieved with the copper/silver method is attributable to

the electrostatic binding of cations to the microorganisms, whose cell walls carry

a negative charge. This binding results in reduction of the permeability of thecell wall, so that the cells ability to take up substrates is considerably impaired.

The ions subsequently invade the cells and destroy the amino acids required for

photosynthesis. The consequence is that the cells die. When sufficient ions have

bonded with cells to form natural flocculates, these are automatically trapped by

the filter system.

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Methods of measuring copper and silver ionconcentrations

When copper and silver electrodes are used, it is also important to measure the

ion concentrations in the pool to ensure that an optimum oligodynamic

disinfection effect is achieved. There are several methods that can be used for

this purpose. The most widely known, but at the same time the most complex, is

laboratory spectroscopy.

Very precise test kits that use, for example, a photometric method, have recently

become commercially available. In this technique, a dye substance is added to

the test water using an indicator and an accurate result is shown on a digitaldisplay. Although ion levels can be determined using colour comparison charts

or cuvettes, results can be subject to considerable variation.

NECON has developed a tried-and-tested system for online analysis using an

ion-selective measurement technique. The advantage of this system is that due to

the continuous measurement by means of electrodes (reference electrode andion-selective electrode) with simultaneous automatic evaluation of results and

adjustment, the ion concentrations can be maintained at a constant level. The

values are shown on a digital display.This is equivalent to the systems used to measure and control levels of

chemicals, but with the great advantages that no chemicals are added to the

water and no storage of these chemicals is necessary.

Wide range of applications

NECON water processing systems can be used for private swimming pools andwhirlpools and for the processing of the water supply and drinking water for usein spa baths, hotel amenities and public swimming pools. The technique is also

used in water cisterns, waste water processing units, car washes, laundries and

water cooling systems.

Minimal maintenance

One major advantage of the ionisation technique is that minimal maintenance isrequired. Until sufficient flocculates have been formed and captured and all ions

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have done their work, the ions remain in the water and provide additional

protection. The ions in the water continue to have algicidal and bactericidal

effects even when the processing unit is switched off. This depot effect can

persist for up to several months. No maintenance of the pool is required in this

period, and this can be particularly advantageous in situations in which the pool

is closed for winter.

The polarity of the electrodes is continuously switched to ensure that there is

even depletion. An increased electrode lifetime of several years can be achieved.

NECON provides a 2-year guarantee on all its products (apart from consumable

electrodes).

Complete systems

For ease of installation, we recommend our complete system. This needs only to

be connected to the inflow and outflow of the pool (by means of two-way ball

valves) and all the fun of bathing in fresh, sparkling water can commence! The

bothersome adjustment of water pH is no longer required, as pH (the DIN

standard requires that drinking water should have a pH of 6.5 9.5) has no

effect on the activity of the ions.

The system is perfect for installation both in new swimming pools and for the

updating and upgrading of already existing pools. The complete system is

supplied on a galvanised, plastic-coated, adjustable platform, with all piping

connections already in place. The electronic control system needs only to be

plugged into a power supply.

Further optional extras, such as an automatic backwash, heat exchanger and

circulation pump and water level monitoring systems (e.g. for spillover pools)

can be readily fitted or come ready installed in the delivered unit.

NECON can also supply filtration material (for technical reasons, this is

supplied in 15 kg sacks) with the ordered system.

Satisfied customers worldwide

NECON GmbH, based in Freiburg, Germany, can already look back on a long

series of successful international projects. Large-scale amenities in the

Dominican Republic, Turkey, Cyprus, Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Mexico,

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Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, the Ukraine, China, Taiwan, India, the Arabic

states and numerous pools in Germany have been fitted with this new

technology.

The water for the diving pool (3000 m3) and the competition pool (2500 m

3) in

the National Sports Training Centre in Kaohsiung in Taiwan has been processed

by the NECON system since 2003. The innovative NECON ionisation technique

was selected in an international competitive tender and after complex

negotiations for use in the pool (3000 m3) at the Goudi Olympic Swimming

Centre near Athens, which was the location for the pentathlon swimming events.

The market prospects for the 100% chemical-free water processing systems

produced by NECON are excellent. Customers from the Eastern European,Asiatic and Arabic countries have shown considerable interest in this innovative

system at trade fairs.

NECON works to very high quality standards. CE and ISO 9001 certification

provide our customers with the assurance that our 100% chemical-free systems

offer optimum reliability. The locations of our distributor outlets ensures that

replacement parts can always be readily obtained. Short delivery times and

efficient order processing by our qualified personnel at NECON are further

advantages for our clients.We can provide guarantees of compliance of our individual systems with all

international standards.

NECON also provides in-house and on-site training of personnel to ensure that

our specialist staff can provide end customers with the best possible advice.

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Discoloration of pool liner membranes

Under certain circumstances, copper ions can be deposited on the surface ofpool liners resulting in discolorations.

Possible causes are:

1. Residual lubricants on the surface of the linermaterial

Lubricants (waxes) are used in the production of swimming pool linermembranes. In most cases, any residue will be automatically removed when

chemical disinfectants are added to the pool.

This is not the case when the ionisation method (using positively charged ions)

is used, as no chemicals are employed. It must thus be ensured that the liner

material is first thoroughly cleaned with an acidic cleaning agent before filling

the pool. If this simple precaution is followed, no problems will occur when the

NECON system is used.

2. Black discoloration on parts of the liner and alongwelds

This problem is attributable to the black mold fungus (Aspergillus niger), whichfrequently also develops on the silicon grouting in shower cubicles. The

explanation is as follows: the swimming pool membrane is water vapour

permeable. This means that moisture collects under the membrane and,

depending on the nature of the backing material, the growth of this mold is

promoted. Manufacturers offer special underlining materials (protective fleece)containing fungicides or materials interwoven with silver threads. These are not

required if a chemical water processing technique is employed as chlorine atoms

can also penetrate into these areas. However, metal ions are too large to reach

these lower layers and prevent the mold developing. The mould then germinates

under the liner and frequently appears at weak points of the liner (at weld joins,

for example).

The discoloration can be removed by washing the affected sites with a chlorine-

based cleaning agent. In most cases, it will first be necessary to drain the pool.

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3. Unattractive scum line

In most surface skimming open-air pools, a scum line along the pool wallsdevelops at the water surface level. This originates from airborne environmental

pollutants (soot, plant pollen etc.) but also from bound copper ions. This scumline needs to be cleaned at regular intervals.

Any of the widely available 25% hydrochloric acid solutions (follow the safety

instructions of the manufacturer!) can be used for this purpose.

Depending on the ion concentration in the water, ions may also be precipitated

to form surface discolorations, but these can also be readily removed with an

acid solution. Discolorations of this kind represent a surface problem only, asthe ions are not able to penetrate the pool liner or other plastic elements.

4.Overall discoloration

Overall discoloration can develop on the pool liner if the liner material reactswith substances present in the water supply or with salts added to the water.

When chemicals are used, there is little risk of discoloration in the pool areabecause halogens are very aggressive and reactive (the term redox potential is

thus used in connection with chemical disinfection). However, these chemicals

require stabilisers, such as sodium hypochloride, hypochloric acid, cyanuric acidor isocynaurates at relatively high concentrations(50 200 ppm according to the

DIN standard).

Many reactions involving chlorine result in the formation of hydrochloric acid,

which can cause chemical burns. The hydrochloric acid formed (or hydrogen

bromide or hydrogen iodide) reacts with all inorganic and organic alkalines, andcan lead to chemical burns or, in less serious situations, to irritation of the

mucous membranes, reddening of the eyes or allergic reactions, which is a

considerable disadvantage for bathing.

If an alternative water processing system, such as that offered by NECON, is

used, there is no redox potential. For this reason, it is important that the pool

technician makes sure that the correct type of pool liner is used. In this case, the

pool constructor should contact the liner manufacturer. An analysis of the water

to be used will show whether there is any risk of discoloration of the liner. There

are pool liner manufacturers who are aware of this potential problem and have

already developed methods to avoid it.

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Table of recommended filters for NECON systems

System Poolcapacity in

in m

Filterdepth

in mm

Filtersand

layer in

in mm

Sandin kg

Filterdiameter

in mm

(Sand granulation0.7- 1.2 mm)

Lower support layer in

kg

(Sandgranulation 0.2 -

0.7 mm)

Filter layer

NEC-

1000.1/

7000.1

0-40

(private

indoor pool)

1680 1000 250 500 50 200

NEC-

1000.2/

7000.2

40-60

(private

indoor pool)

1680 1000 250 500 50 200

NEC-

1000.2/

7000.2

60-80

(private

indoor pool)

1530 1000 400 650 50 350

NEC-

1000.3/

7000.3

80-100

(private

indoor pool)

2000 1200 550 650 50 500

NEC-

1000.4/

7000.4

100-160

(private

indoor pool)

2000 1200 750 800 75 675

NEC-1000.4/

7000.4

160-200(private

indoor pool)

2000 1200 750 800 75 675

NEC-

1000.5/

7000.5

200-300

(private

indoor pool)

2X

2000

1200 550 650 50 500

2

NEC-

1000.5/

7000.5

or

NEC-

8000.4

300-400

(public

pool)

3-4

2000

1200 750 800 75 675

NEC-

8000.4

400-500

(public

pool)

4-5 X

2000

1200 750 800 75 675

NEC-

8000.5

500-600

(public

pool)

3 X

2120

injector

filter

1200 1500 1000 200 1300

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System Pool

capacity in

in m

Filter

depth

in mm

Filter

sand

layer in

in mm

Sand

in kg

Filter

diameter

in mm

(Sand granulation

0.7- 1.2 mm)

Lower support layer in

kg

(Sand

granulation 0.2 -

0.7 mm)

Filter layer

NEC-

8000.8

600-800

(public

pool)

3-4 X

2120

injector

filter

1200 1500 1000 200 1300

NEC-

8000.10

800-1000

(public

pool)

4 X

2790

injector

filter

1500 2000 1200 350 1650

NEC-

8000.10

1000-1200

(public

pool)

4- 5 X

2790

injector

filter

1500 2000 1200 350 1650

NEC-

8000.10

1200-1500

(public

pool)

5- 6 X

2790

injector

filter

1500 2000 1200 350 1650

NEC-

8001.8

1500- 2000

(public

pool)

3 X

2000

injector

filter

1200 5800 2000 1300 4500

NEC-

8001.8

2000- 2500

(public

pool)

3- 4 X

2000

injector

filter

1200 5800 2000 1300 4500

NEC-

8001.10

2500- 3000

(public

pool)

4- 5 X

2000

injector

filter

1200 5800 2000 1300 4500

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Filterdiameter

With heat exchanger

Without heat exchanger

Tow

astedrain

Topoolfromheat

exchanger

Topool

Frompool

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