27TH ALNAP MEETING - INDIA

8/3/2019 27TH ALNAP MEETING - INDIA

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1

In1900therewere16citiesaroundtheworldwithpopulationsof1millionormorepeople,

a lmostentirelyindevelopedcountries.By2000,therewere400citieswithpopulationsofmore

than1millionaroundtheworld,threequartersofwhichwereindevelopingcountries(UN,2005).

By2030,theglobalpopulationwillstandat9billion,andtheglobalurbanpopulationwill

accountforupto60percentofthisgure(ibid).Almostallpopulationgrowthinthenext30

yearswilltakeplaceinurbanseings.Toputthisshiintoperspective,therewillbealmosttwice

asmanypeoplelivingincities2030astherewerepeoplelivingontheplanetin1970. Mostofthisurbangrowthwillbeinsmallandmedium-sizedcitiesratherthanmega-cities,

withabouthalfoftheworldsurbanpopulationresidingincitiesof500,000peopleorfewer.

(UNHABITAT,2009)eseteemingcitieswillaccountforupto90percentofallglobal

economicactivity(UN,2005)

Intermsofsheernumbers,Asiawillcontinuetohousethelargestnumberofpeopleinitstowns

andcities.Africa,althoughtheleasturbanisedcontinenttoday,willbecomehometo1.2billion

urbandwellersby2050,withasignicantyouthmajority(ibid).

Urbanisationisasocialphenomenonandaphysicaltransformationoflandscapesthathasbeendescribedasoneofthemostpowerful,irreversible,andvisibleanthropogenicforcesonEarth(IHDP,2005).Itmaywellamounttothemostsignicantchangeinhumancivilisationsincethecomingofagriculture.etotalurbanpopulation,whichstoodatjust10percentoftheglobalpopulationatthestartofthe20thcentury,hasinthepastfewyearsreachedanunprecedented50percent(UN,2005).ismuch-reportedeventhasbeen

describedasanirreversibletippingpoint(CraneandKinzig,2005)-thethresholdofanewurbanmillennium(UNFPA,2007).Muchoftheavailabledataindicatesthaturbanisationwillcontinueatascaleandspeedthatredenesourrelationshipwitheachotherandwiththeplanet.(IHDP,2005).

1. Introduction

Were not

in the eld anymoreAdapting humanitarian efforts to

an urban world

27TH ALNAP

MEETING

CHENNAI , INDIABackground Paper

Figure 1: Urban and rural populations, 19502050 (UN Department o Economic and Social Afairs (UNDESA), 2010)


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Itiswellestablishedthatcitiescanbemuchmoreecientandeectivethanruralseings(Ravallion

etal,2007;ALNAP,2009).Itcanbemorestraightforwardtoprovidebasicneeds,aswellassocial

andculturalservicesforpeoplelivingclosertogetherinseingswithmoredevelopedinfrastructures

(WorldBank,2010).However,urbanisationisfarfrombeinganunalloyedgood.Ascitiesgrow,

populationdensityanddiversityalsoincrease.Humanvulnerabilityandstressesontheenvironment

andnaturalresourcesaretypicallyheightened.Asthishappens,thecostofmeetingbasicneedsinevitablyincreases(ibid).

Perhapsthegrimmestmanifestationofurbanisationistheriseofslumsandinformalselements,

housingaround1billionpeopleglobally,.isgureiscurrentlygrowingbyanestimated25million

peopleperyearandisprojectedtodoubleby2030(UNHABITAT,2009).

Whilesuchdatasendsapowerfulmessageaboutthescaleandpaceofurbanchange,workingout

specicsocial,politicalandeconomicimplicationsisnoteasy.ereisagreatdealofmisreporting

andmisunderstandingofsuchhigh-leveldataandprojectionsaboutwhattheymeasure,whatthey

meanandhowtheyshouldbeinterpreted(Cohen,2004).

Urbanplannersworkingalmost40yearsagodevelopedthetermwickedproblemswithspecic

referencetothecomplexityofurbandevelopmentissues.Inparticular,theyfoundthaturban

problemswerehardtosolvebecauseofincomplete,contradictory,andchangingrequirementsthat

areoendiculttorecognise.eeorttosolveoneaspectofawickedproblemwillfrequently

revealorcreateotherproblems(RiellandWeber,2003).Ifanything,thechallengesofurbanisation

haveincreasedinbothscopeandcomplexitysincethattime.In2005,urbansustainabilityand

vulnerabilitywereidentiedbytheMillenniumEcosystemAssessmentasareaswheresignicant

knowledgegapsexistandpersist.1Itisperhapsunsurprisingthaturbanisationisincreasinglyrecognisedasoneofthemostimportantchallengesofthe21stcentury.

Urbanisationpresentsamajorsetofchallengesfortheinternationalhumanitariansector(ALNAP,

2009;DEC,2011,Saerthwaite,2007).Ontheonehand,thereisanobviousissueofagrowing

urbancaseload,drivenbyacombinationoffactorsincludinggrowthinpopulationnumbersandrisk

levels(REF).Onewidelycitedtextonurbanvulnerabilitypublishedalmost10yearsagofoundthat

urbanareasindevelopingcountrieswerefacingdramaticallyescalatingdisasterrisks(Pelling,2003),

andtherehasbeenlileevidencesincetocontradictthisassessment(IFRC,2010).

epaernofurbanvulnerabilityhasfollowedsomegeneraltrends,whichcanbesummarisedas

follows:agrowingurbanpopulationisbeingincreasinglyanddisproportionatelyexposedtomore

hazardsandriskswhethermeteorological,geophysical,socio-economicorpolitical(Cohen,2003).

Povertyandinequalitymeanthatthesepopulationsarebecomingincreasinglyvulnerable.Disasters

andcriseshighlightthisvulnerability.einternationalcommunitymayengage,butwithhighly

varyingdegreesofsuccess.Rapidbutpoorlycoordinatedresponsesoenleadtoanincreaseinlong-

termurbanvulnerability,albeitinverycontext-specicways.Meanwhilethewindowofopportunity

fortakingpreventativeactionagainstfuturecrisesisdismayinglynarrow(seeCaseStudy1onSao

Pauloformoredetailonhowthisplaysoutinaparticularcontext).

27TH ALNAP MEETING CHENNAI, INDIA 17-18 JANUARY 2012 Background Paper

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1.McGranahanetal.2005



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Inparallel,theruralassumptionsthatunderpinhumanitarianaiddeliveryhaveprovedremarkably

resilient.Someobservers,includingDavidSandersonofOxfordBrookes,havelinkedthistothelarge-

scaleandlargelyruralfamineresponsesofthe20thcentury(Sanderson,2000;IASC,2010).Withthe

growthinurbancrises,however,thereisanincreasingmismatchbetweenthelong-heldassumptions

andthenewurbanreality.Asoneexpertdri lynotedduringthepreparationofthisbackgroundpaper,werenotintheeldanymore.2

Asaresult,weareincreasinglyseeinganumberofseriousproblemsinhowmajoragenciesthinkabout

anddeliverhumanitarianaid.erearealsoseriousproblemsintherelatedfunctionsofdisasterrisk

reduction(DRR)anddisasterpreparedness.WhilemanyofthefailuresoftheaidresponsetotheHaiti

earthquakein2010werealltoofamiliartolong-termobservers(DEC,2011;GroupeURD,2011),

therewerealsonumerousissuesresultingfromtheuniqueurbanseingofPort-au-Prince.eseranged

fromrelativelybasicissuessuchasthelogisticsofpuingupemergencysheltersorlatrinesonconcrete

insteadofinsoil,tohowtoengageeectivelywithmunicipalauthorities,legalcodesandstructures,and

urbancivilsociety.eurbancontextprovedthatmanyhumanitarianstandardoperatingprocedures

werediculttoimplementatbestandirrelevantatworst(DEC,2011).

islackofoperationalprogressbeliestheaentionthathasbeenpaidtotheissueovertheyears.ere

areanumberofinitiativescurrentlyunderwaywhichseektoaddressthechallengesofhumanitarian

actioninapredominatelyurbanworld(seeBox1).Urbandisasterinitiativesarenotnewanumber

wereinplace10yearsago.Buttheydonot(attimeofwriting,atleast)seemtohavehadthenecessary

inuenceonhowthesectorgoesaboutitswork.Asinmanyothercontexts,thegapsbetweenpolicy

dialogue,academicdebatesandoperationalrealitiesareconsiderable.

2010sawthelaunchofanimportantnewUNISDRcampaignonresilientcities,towhich58cities

havesignedupatthetimeofwriting(UNISDR,2011).ButthendingsoftheFihAsiaPacicUrban

ForuminJune2011weresobering.eforumposedthequestion:Complexurbandisastersarewe

ready?eanswerfromexpertsinJapan,ChinaandBangladeshrepresentingthespectrumfromhigh

tolow-incomecountrieswas:no,notyet.Acommonchallengeidentiedbytheparticipantswastheinstitutionalcomplacencythatsetsinaerseveralyearsofnotfacingaparticularkindofdisaster:relevant

expenditurebudgetsgetcut,leavingpopulationsatheightenedrisk(Alertnet,2011).


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Box 1: Initiatives to address urban disaster-related issues

TheInter-AgencyStandingCommittee(IASC)projectonurbanhumanitarianism

UnitedNationsEducational,ScienticandCulturalOrganisations(UNESCO)initiativeonurbanbiospheres

TheMillenniumEcosystemAssessment

WorldBanksCitiesAllianceandCitiesinTransition

InternationalHumanDimensionsProgramme(IHDP)urbanisationscienceproject

Diversitasscienceplanonurbanisation

InternationalUnionfortheScienticStudyofPopulation(IUSSP)UrbanisationsandHealthWorkingGroup

USNationalAcademiesPanelonUrbanPopulationDynamicsandRoundtableonScienceandTechnologyforSustainabilitysTaskForce onRapidUrbanisation

UNInternationalStrategyforDisasterReductions(UNISDR)Asiadisasterriskreductionnetwork

EffortswithinspecicagenciesInternationalFederationofRedCrossandRedCrescentSocieties(IFRC),OxfamGB,WorldVision

2.DavidSanderson,PersonalCommunication,August2011


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AstheUNISDRcampaignstatementnotes,improvementsinurbandisasterresponsecannotbe

achievedatmunicipallevelsalone(UNISDR,2011).echallengeofurbandisastersrequiressustained,

coherentandstrategiceortfromacrossnationalandinternationalcommunities.Todate,however,such

aneorthasbeennoticeablepredominatelybyitsabsence.elessonsemerginginparticularfromthe

internationalresponsetotheHaitiearthquakehaveservedassomethingofawake-upcall.

Againstthisbackground,the27thALNAPMeetingpresentsatimelyandappropriateplatformfor

discussionofthisvitalissue.Itoersanopportunitytomovetowardsaroadmapforthehumanitarian

systemasawhole.ALNAPsmeetingsarenowwidelyacknowledgedasakeyplatformforall

internationalagenciestocometogetherandforgenewsharedagendasforreectionandaction.

Inrecentyears,themeshaveincludedmediarelations,impactassessments,innovationsandmost

recentlycollaborationwithnationalactors.esemeetingshavehadconsiderableinuence,bringing

keyissuesintosharedstrategicfocusandgivingshapeandmomentumtonumerousnewinitiatives.

isBackgroundPaperwillsetoutthekeyideasunderpinningurbanisation,urbanvulnerability

andurbanresponses,drawingonasynthesisofthelatestresearchandpractice.Itwillthenoutline

aseriesofstrategicandoperationalquestionsfacedbytheinternationalhumanitarianandDRR

communitiesinrespondingtoandpreparingfordisasters.Discussionofthesechallengesandways

tonavigatethemwillformthebasisoftheALNAP27thMeetinginChennai(seeAppendix1forthe

keyquestionstobeaddressedattheconference).


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Case Study 1: A typical urban disaster scenario Sao Paulo oods January 2011

SaoPauloisthelargesturbanagglomerationinBrazilandtheforemostindustrialcenterinSouthAmerica.Butuntilthe1880s,SaoPaulowasaminorcommercialcenter.In1890,whenRiodeJaneirohadapopulationofmorethanhalfamillion,thepopulationofSaoPaulo

wasonly65,000.Widespreadcoffeecultivationbroughtsuddenprosperitytotheregionandtransformeditfromanisolatedfrontiertoa

vibranteconomicregion.Bytheearly1900s,manufacturingbecameestablishedinSaoPauloandthepopulationgrewto240,000,duein

largeparttoamassiveinuxofimmigrantsfromvariouspartsofEurope.By1950,SaoPaulohadbecomethechiefmanufacturingcenter

ofBrazil.Today,theSaoPauloMetropolitanAreaaccountsforabouthalfofBrazilstotalindustrialoutput.

Notsurprisinglyperhaps,SaoPaulofacesmanyenvironmentalandecologicalproblemsassociatedwithrapidindustrializationand

populationgrowth.Morethan50percentofthepopulationlivesinsubstandardhousingandmanyresidentsdonothaveaccess

tocleanwaterorsanitationservices.Airandnoisepollution,crime,overcrowding,andtrafccongestionareallpervasiveproblems.

Moreover,despiterapideconomicgrowth,thelocaleconomyhasonlybeenabletoabsorbafractionofthegrowinglabourforcesothat

unemploymentandunderemploymentremainpersistentproblems.PoorperformanceoftheBrazilianeconomyduringthe1990scoupled

withthedevaluationoftherealinJanuary1998furtherexacerbatedweaknessesinthelocaleconomy(extractfromCohen,2003).

ThevulnerabilityofSaoPaulotodisasterswasdramaticallyhighlightedinJanuary2011,whentorrentialrainfallledseveralriverstoburst

theirbanksandcausedashoodsacrossthesouthofthecountry.SaoPaulowastheworsthitcity,withmanyroadsleftimpassableand

partsofthecitysubmerged.Mudslidesinthesprawlingfavelas,positionedonthehighinclinesaroundthecity,displacedlargenumbers

ofthepopulation,andkilledalmost500peoplearoundthecountry.Althoughtherewasntaninternationalappeal,somesupporttothe

responsewasprovidedbyUSAIDandothers.

Expertsblamedinadequatedrainage,whichhadfailedtokeeppacewiththerapidgrowthofthecity.Resourceswerepromisedinthe

immediateaftermathforimprovementsduringthere-building.Therewasawidelyacknowledgedneed,expressedespeciallyforcefullyby

Braziliancivilsociety,forimprovementstobemadeinacomprehensiveandequitablemanneriffuturedisastersaretobeprevented.

Althoughitisjustonecase,theSaoPaulostoryisanincreasinglycommononearoundtheworld.


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ekeyquestionsareasfollows:

Wha are urban disasers?Whatexactlydowemeanandunderstandwhenwesayurban

disasters?Howdourbandisasterseingsdierfromothercontextsinwhichhumanitarianwork

takesplace?

What is the nature of urban vulnerability?Howcanwebeerunderstanditsnature,form

anddynamics?

Wha are he challenges o urban disaser responses and how should hey be me?

Whatcanwesayaboutresponsesinurbanseings,andthechallengestheyface?

Wha do we need o do diferenly in urban disaser risk reducion?Whatareexisting

practicesandhowcanthesebeimproved?

How does urban developmen policy suppor or hinder humaniarian efors?How

candevelopmentpolicyandpracticetakeaccountofurbanvulnerability,riskanddisasters?

efollowingsectionssetoutsomeofthelatestideasandresearcharoundthevekeygaps,drawing

onliteratureandaseriesofkeyinformantinterviews.

ResearchdoneinpreparationfortheALNAPmeetinghasledtotheidenticationofanumberofquestionsthatneedtobeaddressedwithregardtodisastersandcrisesinurbancontexts.esequestionscanbeseenasrelatingtogapsinhumanitarianknowledgeandpractice.However,thisshouldnotbetakentomeanthatthereisnoknowledgeofhowthesemightbeaddressed.Rather,thereareanumberofindividualsand

groupsworkinginthesystemwhohaveakeensenseoftheseissuesandwaystonavigatethem.ButthelessonsfromurbanresponsessuchasHaitisuggestthat,aswithmanyotherareasofknowledgeinthesystem(ALNAP,2002;ALNAP,2004)3ourcollectiveunderstandingispatchy,informalandlargelytacit.Asaresult,institutionalresponsesarenotsucientlywelladaptedtothesecontexts.ishasbecomemoreapparentwiththeincreasedincidenceofurbandisasters.

3.1 From the urban-rural divide to the urban-rural continuumPerhapsthemostsignicantchallengeinunderstandingurbandisastersistoestablishwhaturbanactuallymeans(Cohen,

2003).Despitenumerousreports(includingthosecitedintheintroduction)thattheworldisbecomingmoreandmoreurbaninnature,thedenitionofurbanitselfisambiguousanddependentoncontext(FreyandZimmer,2001).4Deningthebasic

termsurbanandruralinauniversalwayisthesubjectofongoingdebate(Cohen,2003).

Whatisincreasinglyclearisthatasimplisticeither/orcategorisationisunhelpfulanddoesnotmatchtherealityofhowhuman

selementsareevolving.

2. Adapting to an urban world: ve key questions

3. What are urban disasters?


53.SeepreviousALNAPstudiesonorganisationallearningandeld-levellearningformoredetails.4.UNdata,whichisthebasisofmanyoftheprojections,isreliantonnationalstatistics.Dierentcountriesdeneurbanpopulationsinverydierentways.InAngolaandEthiopia,forexample,upuntilrelativelyrecently,anylocalitywithmorethan2,000inhabitantswasautomaticallyclassiedasurban.Inothercountries,suchasBenin,thegureishigher.InsomecountriessuchasBangladeshorPakistan,urbanselementsarethosewithacertainkindofadministrativeorbureaucraticstructure(Cohen,2003).


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AstheBriengstudyBeyondRural-Urban:KeepingupwithChangingRealities(IFPRI,2005)notes:

The labels urban and rural fall far short of capturing the

dynamism and diversity of reality. Conjuring up visions of

crowded cities and isolated countryside, they suggest separateworlds and ways of living. They mask the many ways urban and

rural overlap and intertwine, as well as the variety of livelihood

strategies within urban or rural areas. (IFPRI, 2005)

esamestudynotesthatitwouldbebeertoimagineadiversesetofconditionsplacedona

continuumfromtheveryruralatoneend(forexample,smallhamletsinthehighlandsofEthiopia)to

theveryurbanattheother(mega-citiessuchasDhakaandtheirsprawlingperipheries),withvillages,

smalltowns,regionalcentresandmedium-sizedcitiesinbetween.

e2009WorldDevelopmentReport(WorldBank,2009),whichfocusedoneconomicgeography,

representedtheshiasfollows:

Underpinningthecontinuumareissuesofdiversity,densityanddynamics.esefactorshavebeen

describedasdistinguishingruralfromurbancontexts,andcanbeobservedinawholeswatheof

dierenttrendsandphenomena.eseincludepopulationsizeanddensity,mobility,economic

factorssuchaslivelihoodstrategiesandinfrastructure,keysocialindicatorssuchasservicedeliverysystems,andenvironmentalfactors(ALNAP,2009).

OneusefulwayofcapturingtheseinacomprehensivefashionistheSTEEPframeworkusedinrisk

managementandstrategicfutureswork,whichunderpinssomeoftheworkoftheHumanitarian

FuturesProgramme(HFP,2008).eSTEEPapproachenablesustothinkaboutaparticular

situationintermsofSocial,Technological,Economic,EnvironmentalandPoliticalfactors.Box

2illustrateshowthismightbeappliedtolargeurbancontextsi.e.thelargecitiesendofthe

continuum.

Figure 2: Beyond Rural and Urban rom World Development Report 2009


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eoldeither/ormodel enewcontinuum


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Asthisverypreliminarydocument-basedanalysisindicates,itisnotsimplythaturbansocietiesare

morediverse,moredynamic,ordenserthattheirruralcomparators.Itisthat,intheextreme,largeurban

centrescanbeallthreeofthesethingssimultaneously.eimportanceofeachofthesethreefactors,

andhowtheyplayoutindierentsocial,technological,economic,environmentalandpoliticalcontexts,

variesconsiderablyfromcitytocityandregiontoregion(ResilienceAlliance,2007).


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Box 2: STEEP Analysis of Large Cities

Diversity Dynamics Density

Social Socialdiversitycanbe

intermsofethnicity,

class,gender,sexuality,

culture,religion,ageanddisability.

Challengesforservice

deliverytomeetthese

differentneeds.

Urbanpopulationsare

verymobile,bothona

day-to-dayandlonger-

termbasis.

Dynamicsofsocial

interactionare

complexandchange

rapidly.

Therearemanymorekindsof

groupslivingtogetherinclose

proximity.

Culturalconictsitswithinand

alongsideculturalintegration.

Technological Manymoreforms

ofinfrastructureand

technology.

Manydifferentlevels

oftechnological

development

simultaneously.

Technologicalchange

israpidandposesrisks

andopportunities.

Infrastructureisunderconsiderable

pressuresfrompopulationgrowth.

Urbansprawlsmakefora

dangerouslyhighdensityofland

usewhichincreasesvulnerability

torisks.

Economic Greaterrangeof

economicactorsfrom

large multinationals to

smallbusinesses.

Thereisconsiderable

diversityinwealthand

incomethevery

wealthyandverypoor

oftenlivinginclose

proximity.

Globalisationmakes

citiesmorevulnerable

toshocksandstresses.

Trajectoriesof

growthandrecession

canberapidand

unpredictable.

Economicclustersoccurfor

example,ofsimilarkindsof

businesses.

Manymoreformsoflivelihoodsco-

existandareinterdependent.

Environmental Manykindsofland

useformacomplex

tapestry.

Ecologicalstresses

areconsiderable,and

naturaldisasterscanhaveveryrapideffects

Pollutionandwasteareperennial

issueswhichresultinriskofhealth

epidemicsetc.

Greaterlevelsofdegradation.

Political Institutionsarediverse,

both formal and

informal,toserve

different needs and

constituents.

Urbaninhabitantscan

havediversepolitical

statuscitizens,

internallydisplaced

persons(IDPs),

unofcialrefugeesetc.

Politicalchangecan

beveryrapidand

turbulent,orthe

politicalsituationcan

beveryentrenched

and resilient to

reforms

Greaterdensityofformalpolitical

mechanisms.

Representationisanissuedueto

sheernumberofgroupsanduidity

ofurbanidentities.

Greaterpotentialfor

marginalisation.

Issuessuchaslandrightsare

especiallychallengingtotackle.


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Whatisclearisthattheparticularmixoffactorscontributingtoagivenurbancontextcarrieswide-

rangingimplicationsforpoliciesandpractices.isaectsallkindsofactorsoperatinginurbancontexts,

fromgovernmentstobusinessesandcivilsociety(ALNAP,2009),whethertheyworkinhealth,

educationorplanning.Organisationsthatfocusondisasterresponseandmanagementarenoexception

tothis(Saerthwaite,2007).

Attheveryleast,thediversity,dynamicsanddensityofurbancontextsreinforcedemandsfordisaster

managementandhumanitarianaidtomoveawayfromacookiecuermodel5andinsteadto

activelytakeamorerenedandnuancedapproachtocrises.Tosomeextent,thismeansdelivering

onthosechangesthathavelongbeencalledfortopaymoreaentiontocontext,toworkwithlocal

stakeholders,tolearnandmanageknowledge,tobemoreaccountable,tobemoreinnovative.

Inthemostchallengingurbancontexts,thesehoped-forchangeswillnotbenice-to-have

considerations,butrathermust-haverequirements.Buttherearealsomorechallengesposedbythe

threefactorsofdiversity,dynamicsanddensity,whichwilltestpoliciesandprocessesalike.

esechallengesmeanthathumanitarianagencieswillneedtoworkhardtodevelopamoredetailed

understandingofurbanlivelihoodsandvulnerabilities.Section4looksatthisinmoredetail.

erearechallengestotypesofresponse.Forexample,manyofthestrategicandoperationalapproaches

usedinhumanitarianaiddeliveryarechallengedbyurbancontexts.Implementingaidinlinewith

humanitarianprinciplesrequiresagoodunderstandingofthecrisis-aectedpopulation.Buturban

contextsposeconsiderablechallengestostandarddata-gatheringmethods,especiallyininformal

selements.Techniques,fromneedsassessmentstotargeting,monitoringandevaluationareverydicultindynamicanddiversecontexts.Operationaldeliveryalsofacesmajorchallenges.Someofthese

areconsistentwiththosefacinganyformofservicedeliveryeortinhighlydenseanddiverseurban

contexts.Butothersareuniquetodisasterresponse:forexample,manyofthepracticalkitsdelivered

throughaidmaysimplynotbeconguredtoworkinurbanenvironmentsaswasseenwiththelatrines

thatcouldnotbeinstalledintheconcreteseingofPort-au-Prince.Section5looksattheseissuesin

moredetail.

Disasterriskreduction(DRR)needstobebeerconguredtotheurbanenvironment.Inparticular,the

unpredictablenatureofurbanvulnerabilitymeansthateortsmayneedtobebroaderinscope,andtakeasystemicapproachtounderstandinghowdierentkindsofrisksandvulnerabilitiesmightcompound

eachother.Section6looksatthechallengeofurbanDRRinmoredetail,focusingonsomeofthekey

lessonsfromtheliteratureandtheongoingUNISDRcampaign.

Finally,theseissuesdonotmerelyconcerndisaster-relatedeorts.Vulnerabilityandexclusionare

developmentissuesasmuchastheyarehumanitarian,andthereisavitalneedforurbandevelopment

policytotakeaccountoftheseissues.Section7looksattheseissuesinbrief.


85.FromcommentmadebyPeterWalkerduringaplenarysessionoftheWorldHumanitarianStudiesConference,Groningen,theNetherlands,7February2009.


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Itisalmostaclichtopointoutthatwhilecitiespromisegreatpotentialforgrowthandinnovation,theyarealsositesofextremepoverty,inequality,unemployment,exclusionandviolence.Asof2008,estimateswerethatonethirdofallurbanresidentswerepoor,representingaquarterofalltheworldspoor(Ravallion,Chenand

Sangraula,2007).isamountstoapproximately290millionpeopleinurbanareasindevelopingcountrieslivingbelowthepovertylineofUS$1perdayin2002.IftheUS$2perdaygureisused,thegurerisesdramaticallyto750millionpeople.Withcontinuedurbanisation,thenumbersofurbanpoorarepredictedtorise,makingpovertyincreasinglyanurbanphenomenon(ibid).

4. What is the nature o urban vulnerability?

oughtheurbanpoorarediverseacrossregions,countriesandevenwithincities,theytendtoface

anumberofcommondeprivationswhichaecttheirdailylife.Intheextreme,thesedeprivationscan

amounttoanongoingchronichumanitarianemergencywitness,forexample,theconditionsof

HaitiansbeforetheearthquakeofJanuary2010(DEC,2011).

emainissuesraisedintheliteratureincludethefollowing(WorldBank,2008):

limitedaccesstoincomeandemployment

inadequateandinsecurelivingconditions

poorinfrastructureandservices

vulnerabilitytoriskssuchasnaturaldisasters,environmentalhazardsandhealthrisks

particularlyassociatedwithlivinginslums

spatialissueswhichinhibitmobilityandtransport

inequalitycloselylinkedtoproblemsofexclusion.

erearealsoanumberofnegativeside-eects,orexternalities,ofurbanisation,suchastracproblems,

theriseofgangs,andinadequateinstitutionalandgovernancesystems(UNHABITAT,2009).

Itishardlyunsurprisingthatthosepopulationsthathavethehighestlevelsofurbanvulnerability

arethosewholiveininformalselementsorslums.erearenowaround1billionpeopleliving

inpovertyinurbanslums,facingextremelevelsofvulnerabilityonadailybasis(UNHABITAT).

eirconditionsarediverse,butsomecommonpaernscanbeidentied.

Highdependenceonfoodproducedoutsidecitiesmakeurbanresidentsvulnerabletodroughts,

ooding,andotherextremeweatherevents.eurbanpoorarethemostvulnerable.Foodand

AgricultureOrganization(FAO)studiesinurbanareasshowthata10percentriseinthepriceof

astaplecanhurttheboom20percentoftheincomedistributionthemost.

360millionpeopleliveincitiesinlowelevationcoastalzonesandarevulnerabletosea-levelrises.

Stormsurgesandrisingtidescoulddamageurbaninfrastructureandtheprovisionofservices.

Around1billionurbandwellersliveinpoorquality,overcrowdedhousinginslumsor

informalselementsthatlackadequateprovisionforpipedwaterandmostotherformsof

infrastructure. Citiesareparticularlyvulnerableduetothehighconcentrationofpeopleandeconomicassets,

andinmanycases,theirhazard-pronelocationincoastalareas,alongrivers,andinseismiczones.


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Box3providesthreespecicexamplesdrawnfromthe2010RedCrossWorldDisastersReport

(IFRC,2010).

Inmanylowandmiddle-incomecountrieswhicharethevastmajorityofthoseappealingforinternational

humanitarianaidthenegativeimplicationsofrapidurbanisationcanoutweighthepositives.Urban

growthindevelopingcountriesisfrequentlyhaphazardandoverwhelming,farexceedingthesecities

capacitytoplanadequatelyandcontroldevelopment.Suchuncontrolledurbanisationfeedsthegrowthof

slums,reinforcespoverty,anddiminishescitiesabilitytodealwithdisasters.

AsaChineseocialattheAsiaPacicUrbanForuminJune2011noted,duringrapidurbanisation,

manycriticalinfrastructureandinstitutionalarrangementsareignoredinfavourofotherpriorities(Alertnet,2011).Asthe1999/2000WorldDevelopmentReportnotedofAfricancities:[they]arenot

servingasenginesofgrowthandstructuraltransformation.Insteadtheyarepartofthecauseandamajor

symptomoftheeconomicandsocialcrisesthathaveenvelopedthecontinent(WorldBank,2000).

Aswellashigherlevelsofvulnerability,thisillustratesthatthereisalsogreaterdiversityinthedriversof

vulnerability,andagreaterdegreeofinter-dependenceinthefactorsthatcreatevulnerability(Pelling,

2003).

Risksareespeciallyhighinlowandmiddle-incomecountrieswhereathirdtoonehalfofthe

populationincitieslivesinslums.Peopleintheseandotherlow-incomeneighbourhoods

aremadeevenmorevulnerablebyovercrowdedlivingconditions,thelackofadequate

infrastructureandservices,unsafehousing,inadequatenutritionandpoorhealth.


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Box 3: Three examples of urban vulnerability

InBangladeshs capital, Dhaka,almost30percentofthe14millionpeopleliveinslumsalongthewatersedge,exposingthemto

severeoodrisks.Moreover,theStanford-basedearthquakedisasterriskindexlistsDhakaasoneofthe20mostvulnerable

citiesintheworldtoearthquakes.

Mumbai in Indiaisthefourthlargestcityintheworldwith20millionpeople,ofwhomsome6.7millionareslumdwellers

(WorldHealthOrganization).Mumbaiisoneofthetop10mostvulnerablecitiesintermsofoods,stormsandearthquakes

andisthemostvulnerablecityintheworldintermsoftotalpopulationexposedtocoastaloodhazard.LikemanyofAsiascoastal

mega-cities,mostofMumbaiislessthanametreabovesea-level.Moreover,italsoliesonanearthquakefault-line.Withthecity

accountingforalmost40percentofIndiastaxrevenue,UNHABITATnotesthatanyseriouscatastropheherecouldhavedrastic

economicconsequencesfortheentirecountry.

In Jakarta, Indonesia,40percentofthelandareaisbelowsea-level.Asaresult,its10millioninhabitantsareatriskofash

oods,particularlyalongthe13riversystemsthatpassthroughthecity.Jakartaalsohasamoderateriskofearthquakesdue

tothecountryslocationalongtheIndo-Asiasubductionzone.Thehighpopulationdensity,averaging14,000peoplepersquare

kilometre,asignicantportionofwhomareslum-dwellers,increasesthepotentialofadisastertocauseseriousharm.


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eexampleofBaidoa,SomaliaisprovidedinCaseStudy2,andillustratesthemulti-facetednature

ofurbanvulnerability.isisaninterestingexamplebecause,asatown,itsitsaroundhalfwayalong

ontherural-urbancontinuumpresentedinSection3.AresponsethatassumesthatBaidoaisapurely

ruralcontextislikelytobestymiedbytheissuesarisingfromthediversity,dynamicsanddensityofthe

context.


11

Common forms of urban vulnerability

Social Thesocialcontextincitiesmaybecharacterisedbycrime,fragmentationand

othersocialproblemswhichwillreducetheabilityofhouseholdstosupportone

anotherinordertofurthertheirlivelihoodstrategies.

Inaddition,poormenandwomenmaybeexcludedfromlivelihoodopportunitiesduetodifferencessuchascultureorethnicitywhichresultintheirexclusionfrom

socialnetworks.

Technological Urbanresidentslivingonillegallyoccupiedlandorininformallowcostrental

housinglacklegaltenurerights.Assuch,theyexperiencepoorhousingqualityand

facethethreatofsummaryeviction.

Theurbanpoormaybeespeciallyvulnerabletotechnologicalhazardssuchasres,

emissions,etc.

Economic Thoseininformalemploymentgenerallylacklabourrights.Theyare

thereforesusceptibletosuddenunemployment,andthedangersaccruingto

unprotectedworkingconditions(longhours,poorpay,insanitaryorunsafe

conditions).

Freegoodsandservices,suchascommonland,cleanwaterandfuel,arerarein

cities.Mostofthebasiclivingneedsofurbanresidentsmustbepaidforincash

makingtheurbanpoorparticularlyvulnerabletomarketvagariessuchasination,

andtheremovalofgovernmentsubsidies.Dependenceonthecasheconomy

frequentlymeansthatpoorhouseholdsarevulnerabletodebt(especiallywhere

theycannotrelyoninformalorsocialnetworksforloans).Borrowing,normallyat

usuriousrates,mayleadtolong-termindebtednesswithdisastrousresultssuchas

bondedchildlabour.

Environmental Poorlivingenvironmentsoftenendangerthelivesandhealthoftheurbanpoor,

especiallywheretheyareforcedtoliveandworkinmarginalareasthroughlackof

cheapalternatives.Thiscreatesfurthervulnerability,asillhealthunderminesoneofthechiefassetsoftheurbanpoortheirlabour(Satterthwaite,1997).

Linkedtohousingrights,thoseresidentsundertakingurbanagriculturemayalso

lacklegaltenure,andrisklosingtheirlandandcrops.

Political Manyresidentswilllacklegalregistration,maybedisenfranchised,excludedfrom

politicaldecision-makingand,inaddition,maysufferfrompoliceharassmentand

bureaucracy(Wratten,1995).

Note:ExtractedandadaptedfromMeikle,S.,Ramasut,T.andJ.Walker(2001)SustainableUrbanLivelihoods:Conceptsandimplicationsforpolicy.hp://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/35/1/wp112.pdf

Box 4: A STEEP view on urban vulnerabiliy


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12

Case Study 2: Urban vulnerability in Baidoa, Somalia

BaidoaisthecapitalcityoftheBayregion,whichislocatedincentralsouthernSomalia.ThetownofBaidoaissituated245kmwestofMogadishu

and240kmsoutheastoftheEthiopianborder.Baidoahasanestimatedpopulationof59,110people.However,populationguresregularly

uctuateduetofrequentshiftsinIDPnumbers.BaidoaisanessentialpartoftheSorghumBelt,oftenreferredtoasSomaliasbreadbasket.

SituatedintheBaysAgro-pastoralHighPotentialLivelihoodZone,itservesasanagriculturalandlivestocktradecentrewithstrongeconomic

linkstoneighbouringruralandurbancentres(Mogadishu,Merka,Qoryoley,BarderaandBeledHawa).Italsoconductstradeactivitieswiththe

EthiopiancitiesofDolowandQalaafe,andtheKenyantownofGarissa.

ThemaineconomicactivitiesinBaidoaincludebusiness(small,mediumandlarge-scale),casuallabour,self-employment,andlivestockand

agriculturaltrade.AnothernotableaspectistheregularlabourmigrationfromBaidoatothetownsofBossaso,Galkayo,Garoweandfurther

northtoYemenandtheArabianGulf.

Generally,thekeydrivingfactorsofBaidoaseconomyincludecropandlivestockproduction,thepresenceoftheTFG(TransitionalFederal

Government),nancialcontributionsfrominternationalorganisations,includingtheUNandotherNGOs,andremittancesfromthediaspora.

Baidoadistricthasexperiencedperiodicunrestsincethe1991falloftheSiadBarreregime.Regularinter-clanghtinghasgreatlyimpactedthe

livelihoodsofthelocalpopulation.Inaddition,duringmuchofthe1990s,heavyghtingandfrequentchangesofcontrolbetweentheSNA

(SomaliNationalAlliance)andtheRRA(RahanweyneResistanceArmy)alsoaddedtothesufferingofBaidoasmostvulnerablegroups.

AftertheRRAsrecaptureofBaidoainJune1999,asignicantnumberofpeoplewhoweredisplacedtootherpartsoftheBay,Banadir,Lower

ShabelleandGedoregions,returnedandlivelihoodandgeneralsecurityimprovedinBaidoa.However,recentinstabilitycausedbyfrequentshifts

ingovernmentcontrolhasonceagainleftBaidoaspopulationvulnerable.TheremovaloftheUnionofIslamicCourtsandthere-installation

oftheTFGin2006,followingtheBattleofBaidoa,meantthatBaidoatemporarilybecametheseatofSomaliasinterimgovernment.This

madeBaidoaatargetforIslamistmilitantsandledtothestationingofEthiopiantroopswithinBaidoaasprotectionagainstattacks.Theensuing

violenceleftmanydeadandforcedhundredstoeethetown.TheTFGreturnedtoMogadishuin2007,andalthoughBaidoahasseensome

improvementintermsofsecurityanditseconomy,ithasyettofullyrecoverfromtheeffectsoftheviolence.Successiverainfailure,recurrent

drought,recentinationandpoornutritionhavealsomadethislivelihoodhighlysusceptibletohumanitariancrisis.

Analysisoftheurbanvulnerabilityidentiedthefollowingrisksfacedbyallincomegroups:

Security:civilinsecurityaffectsallwealthgroups,causingdisplacement,lossoflifeandpropertyandahighrateofunemployment.

Ination:theaverageexchangerateduringthestudyyearwas14,500SomaliShillingsperUS$and[inMay2008]stoodat

35,000SoShperUS$(anincreaseofmorethan140percent).Thiswillsignicantlyreducethepurchasingpowerofpoorand

lower-middlewealthgroups.Severeexchangeratedepreciationshaveincreasedthecostsofimportedfoodandnon-fooditems.

Ifdepreciationscontinue,poorerhouseholdswillsuffermost,particularlyiftheirwagesandprotsdonotrisetocompensate

forsuchdevaluation.

Drought (failure of the rainy season):cropproductionisadrivingeconomicfactorinBaidoa.Cropfailureduetodroughtwill

signicantlyreducefoodandincomeaccessforpoorergroups.Incomefromagriculturallabourandthecerealtradewillalso

decline.Cerealpriceswillincreaseresultinginpoorergroupsnotmeetingrequiredenergyneeds.

Water shortages:forthemajorityofthepeopleinBaidoa,themainwatersourceisshallowwells,whicharefreetoaccess.

Duringperiodsofpoorrain,thereareextremewatershortages,whichraisewatercosts.

Unemployment:jobopportunitiesweregenerallymanageableduringthereferenceyearduetorelativestability.However,there

iscurrentlyahighprobabilityofunemploymentduetoincreasinginsecurityandreducedtradeactivities.

Increased cereal prices:duringthereferenceyear,cerealpriceswerelowduetoabumpercerealharvestinthe06/07season.

However,recentpoorlocalcerealproduction,combinedwithhighcerealdemandfromotherpartsofthecountry,hascaused

cerealpricestoincrease.Cerealstocksalsodepletedearlierthanexpected,whichfurtherreducedcerealavailabilitywithinthe

SorghumBelt.

Disease (e.g. AWD (acute water diarrhoea) and malaria):diseasecauseshighchildmortalityrates.Riskofexposureishigher

duringdryseasonswhenwatershortagesforcethelocalpopulationstousedirtywater.Theabsenceofmosquitonetsalso

increasestheriskofmalaria.

Other risk factorsmentionedbykeyinformantsincludelimitedtradeactivities,adeclineinthetermsoftradeandaninuxofIDPs.

Extractedfromwww.fsnau.org/downloads/Baidoa-Urban-Baseline-Analysis-Report.pdf


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5. What are the challenges o urban disaster responses and howshould they be met?

efactorsofdiversity,dynamicsanddensitymeanthaturbandisasterscanhavesomecommoncharacteristics:

Highpopulationdensitymeansthatmorepeoplemaybekilledandinjuredwithinasmallspace,but

diversityofapopulationwillmaketheirneedshighlydierentiated.

edensephysicalnatureofcitiesmeansthattherewillbemoredamagedinfrastructuretocontend

withbuildings,roads,businessareas,sewers.

edynamicsofchangemeanthattherewillbebothagreatersenseofcollapsewhenadisasterhits,

butalsofasterratesofrecovery,supportedbydiverseeconomicstructures.

ediversityanddensityofpoliticalinstitutionsmeansthatthereisaneedforbeerandmore

nuancedengagement.

eWorldBanks2010publicationNaural hazards-unnaural disasersalsoarguesthatincreasing

andinterconnectedriskswithinrapidlyurbanisingtownsandcitiesareagame-changerintermsof

humanitarianresponse.ArecentDisastersEmergencyCommiee(DEC)evaluationoftheHaiti

response(DEC,2011)providesfurtherinsights:

[agenciesneedto]learnnewrulesofthegameinurbanpost-disasterresponse.Issuesofcomplexity,

rangeofactors,space,theimportanceofcommerceandtrade,services,infrastructureandsheer

concentrationsofpeoplerequireaconsiderationofhowtooperatecomparedtoruralcontexts.

e10keylessonsfromtheDECevaluationareworthseingoutindetail(seeBox5).


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Box 5: Lessons from DEC agencies in Haiti

This2010evaluationisoneofanumberthatfocusontheurbannatureofdisastercontexts.The10lessonsonrespondingtourban

disastersidentiedbythereportareasfollows:

1. Workwithandthroughmunicipalitieswhereverpossible.

2. Findanduseneighbourhoodnetworksandcapacities.

3. Workwiththelocalprivatesectoranddontcompeteunfairly.

4. Focusonlong-termhomes,notshort-termshelter.

5. Keeppeopleinorclosetotheirneighbourhoods,ifsafe.

6. Assumeskillsandresourcescanbefoundlocally.

7. Assumefast-changingenvironmentsandhaveanexitstrategy.

8. Usecashtostimulatemarkets.

9. Usetherighttoolsforworkingwithcomplexsetsofstakeholders.

10. Preparenowforthenextbigurbandisaster.

5.1 The scale o the challengeenatureofurbancontextsandurbanvulnerabilitiescarrymanyimplicationsforhumanitarianeorts.Becausecitiesarehometolargepopulationslivinginhighdensitiesandoeninimpoverishedconditions,thepotentialimpactofemergenciescanbehugeintermsoflossoflifeandeconomicassets.However,citiesalsogenerallyprovideahigher,albeitvariable,levelofhumanandinstitutionalresourcesthatmaybedrawnuponforthedeliveryofemergencyresponsesandlonger-termresilience.


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ereisaclearneedtoadaptexistinginternationalresponsemechanismsandprocessesinorder

thattheyaremorerelevanttourbancontexts.isincludesresponsemobilisation,planning,needs

assessments,targeting,monitoringandevaluation.Perhapsmostimportantly,thehumanitarianresponse

toolboxmayneedtoberadicallyre-thoughtinwaysthatwillprovechallengingforoperationalagencies

anddonorsalike(ALNAP,2009).

WorkbyGroupeURD6ontheHaitiresponseidentiedthathumanitarianandreconstructionaid

needstobebeeradaptedtothespeciccharacteristicsofurbancontexts.isincludespracticalissues

suchasworkingthroughexistingneighbourhoodsratherthancreatingcampsandarticialsites.Ata

morestrategiclevel,thehumanitarianresponseneedstomovefromasystemthattargetsindividualsand

householdstoonethattargetscommunitiesinanurbanenvironmentwiththeaimofcomplementing

andstrengtheningpublicservices(GroupeURD,2011).

eIASCstrategyforurbanhumanitarianism(IASC,2010)setsoutsomeofthespecicissues,

drawingonacross-countryreview.Inparticular,itidentiedmoreeortrequiredinthefollowingareas:

anticipation,preparedness,andurbansurgecapacity

workingwithnewpartners

anewurbananalyticalandoperationaltoolkit

newapproachestoperformanceandaccountability.

erestofthissectiondrawsextensivelyfromtheIASCwork,withreferencestoothermaterialwhererelevant.

Anticipation and preparedness or response

escaleandoenunpredictablelocationofurban-basedhumanitariandisastersunderscorestheneed

forpreparedness,riskmanagementandcontingencyplanningtobedevelopedforat-riskurbanareas.A

growingbodyofevidencepointstothebenecialimpactsofpreparednessintermsofloweredoverall

costsofreliefassistance,reducedlossoflifeandlivelihoods,greateruseofsafertechniques,engagement

withlocalcapacitiesandresilience,andenhancedcapacitytorebuildandrecoverfaster(IASC,2010).

ToquotetheIASCstrategydirectly:

Recent experience in the aftermath of floods in Manila demonstrates

that joint implementation plans with host governments and service

providers, including the private sector, are most effective if forged

prior to an emergency. This is because agencies are reluctant to

take the time required to plan when confronted with an emergency

and instead resort to pre-established (pre-emergency) ways of

doing business. These strategies need to recognise that the host

government must lead, or at the very least coordinate, an emergency

response (IASC, 2010).

5.2 Addressing the response challenge: Key Lessons rom the IASC urban strategy


14

6.hp://haitiinnovation.org/en/2011/01/29/beyond-emergency-relief-haiti-groupe-urd


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iscanbeproblematic,however,inplaceswheregovernmentisweak,asinthecaseofurbanHaitiaer

the2010earthquake.

Keymeasuressuggestedinclude:

euseoflocalriskandvulnerabilityanalysesandearlywarningcapacities,includingmapping communityhotspots(moreonthisinSection6).

Strengtheningcontingencyplanningandpartnership-buildinginadvanceofanurbancrisis,

includingcommunityresiliencemechanismswithgenderandyouthsensitivity.

Improvedpre-positioningofemergencystocksoffood,temporaryshelter,andhealthproviders;

preparinglogisticschainsandestablishingpro-formacontractswithlocalproviders.

Deningrolesandresponsibilitiesofdierentactorsandmappingcapacities.

Strengtheningcitizensecurity,communitypolicingandmonitoringrolesbycivilsociety

organisations(CSOs).

Workinginpartnershiptobuildthecapacityofpartnernationalandlocalgovernmentsin

responsesandpreparedness.Stakeholdersinthesepartnershipsshouldinclude:hostnationaland

localgovernments,disasterresponseagencies,civildefenceorganisations,emergencyresponse

services(e.g.reservices),nationalNGOs,civilsociety(neighbourhoodcommunity-based

organisations(CBOs))andbusinessactorsinurbanareas.

ereisaparticularneedtoprepareformoremega-disasterslikeHaiti,Pakistan,Japanwhichhavethe

potentialtodramaticallyaectlargenumbersofapopulation,shapingbothshort-termvulnerabilityand

long-termdevelopment.Suchdisasterswillneedcollaborativepreparationeortsacrossthewholeof

theinternationalcommunity,includingdevelopment,diplomaticandmilitaryeorts(HFP,2008).

Anotherkeyformofpreparednessisinrelationtointernalcapacities.Humanitarianagenciesneedto

adaptandupgradetheskillsbaseoftheirstatoaddressurban-basedchallenges(IASC,2010).Recent

emergencieshaveservedtormlyunderlinethisissue.

Working with new partners

Whileapartnershipapproachhasbecomeanincreasinglyimportantcomponentofthedevelopment

strategiesadoptedsincethe1990s,disasterresponseisstilllaggingsomewaybehind(ALNAP,2005).

eneedtocollaboratebeerwithnationalandlocalactorsremainsamajorissue,highlightedin

successiveevaluations(forexample,theTECevaluationandtheHaitievaluations),butwithseeminglylileornoprogress.Asonepaperputsit:

Perhaps the biggest challenge for humanitarian actors and also a

major opportunity is to develop ways of working with the existing

institutional framework of municipal and civil society organisations

which exists in most towns and cities in the developing world...

(Zetter and Deikun, 2007)


15


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Insteadofsuchpartnershipsbeingseenasanice-to-have(ALNAP,2005),inurbancontextsthey

shouldbeseenasfundamentaltoenablinganeectiveresponse.Inparticular,localandnationalactors

haveknowledgeofthehazardsandvulnerabilitiesofbeneciarycommunitiesandofinstitutional

resourcestocomplementdeliveryofassistancebyinternationalactors.eyalsopossesscommunity

outreachcapacitytoengagethemostvulnerablebeneciaries.

ereisgrowingrecognitionofthepotentialroleoftheprivatesector,orpublic-privatepartnerships

(PPPs),forthedeliveryofurbaninfrastructureandhousing.ereisaneedtoconsiderthedegreeto

whichtheprivatesectorcanplayabenecialrole,frompreparednesstoresponseandrecovery.

RecentcomplexemergenciesandnaturaldisastersinPakistan,HaitiandKyrgyzstandemonstratethe

importanceofcommunitiesandhostfamiliesinsavingliveswhentheysupportaectedpopulations.

eycanbecriticaltobuildingresilienceofcommunitiesandinprovisionofessentialservices.Findings

fromrepeatedevaluationsindicatethatpuingcommunitiesatthecoreofanintegratedresponseyields

higherimpacts.

Countrycasestudies7conductedbytheIASCTaskForcehaveshownthathumanitarianassistance

ismoreeectivewhenclearandeectivestrategiesformulti-stakeholderpartnershipsaredeveloped

beforeacrisishits,orfailingthat,asearlyaspossibleaerwards.

Acentralfocusofsuchstrategieswillbetodeterminehowmuchoftheresponsecanbeprovided

byexternalassistanceandinseingclearindicatorsforexitstrategies,i.e.thepointatwhichexternal

agenciesshouldleavetoallowlocalandnationalactorstotakeovertherecoveryprocess(DEC,2011).

ismeanshavingaclearandcollectivesenseofwhatsuccesslookslikeforaneectiveresponse.8

Adapt and develop new urban analytical and operational toolkits

eIASCassessmentofthehumanitariantools,approachesandguidelinesusedbymemberagencies

andothersfoundthatthevastmajorityweredevelopedforpredominantuseinruralseings.While

sometoolsarealreadybeingadapted,experiencesuggeststhatthisisnotenough,andthatnewtoolswill

alsobeneeded.

eseincludeagreaterrangeofrapidassessmenttools,urbanindicatorsforneedassessments,urban

marketassessmenttools,urbanlivelihoodassessmenttoolsandurban-specicassessmenttoolsforeachofthekeysectorsofresponse(foodsecurity,shelter,WASH,healthandprotection).Oneofthe

majorgapsidentiedbytheIASCwastheneedforastandardisedurbanvulnerabilityandresilience

assessmenttodeneandmapthevulnerabilitiesandresilienceofdierenturbangroupsandhowthey

mightbeaectedbychangingstressesandshocks,apointwhichispickedupinthenextsection.

ereisalsoarangeofareaswherehumanitarianpracticeswillneedbothradicalandincremental

improvements.Targetedinnovationprocesseswillhelpidentify,testandscaleupnewideasand

processesacrossallofthekeysectorsofhumanitarianresponse(SeeBox6).


16

7.IASCTaskForceonMeetingHumanitarianChallengesinUrbanAreasCaseStudiesforNairobi/Eldoret,ManilaandHaiti,May-June,20108.DavidSanderson,PersonalCommunication,August2011


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Adapt humanitarian evaluation and accountability approaches

Giventhevitalimportanceoflocalandnationalcapacitiesindisasterresponse,itisimportanttoidentify

andcommunicateclear,accountablerolesfortheinternationalsysteminwaysthataresupportiveof

localfunctions.isneedstobedoneattheoutsetofaresponse,throughtraining,secondmentsand

technicalsupport.ereisalsoscopetobuildsuchworkintopreparednesseorts.Urbandisaster

responseposesparticularchallengesforaccountabilitytodisaster-aectedpeople.enatureoflocalpopulationsdemandsamoredynamicapproachtoaccountability.Recentinnovations,especiallyin

communicationtechnologies,looktoplayacentralroleinsucheortsinthefuture.

enatureandscopeofurbanresponsemeansthatstandardexpostevaluationsmaynotalwaysbe

sucienttoaddresslearningandaccountabilityneeds.Inparticular,theremayneedtobeabeer

developedmenuofevaluativeoptions.Attheveryleast,thisshouldincludenewapproachestourban

real-timeevaluations,moreparticipatoryandinclusiveformsofmulti-stakeholderevaluation,and

context-specicwaysofdealingwithimpactassessmentindynamicanduidenvironments.

Ontheevaluationside,thisneedstobeunderpinnedwithmorerealistictheoriesofchangeemployed

fromtheoutsetofaprogrammeorintervention.Agencieswillneedtoworkhardtothinkthroughhow

dierentinterventionsmightwork,andtheyneedtorevisitthisonaregularbasissoastoenablethe

necessaryadaptationstotakeplace.Asaresult,urbanresponsesmayrequirethebalanceofevaluation

investmenttobemoretiltedtowardformativeapproaches.Ontheprogrammemanagementside,this

meansbeingopentoprogrammesthatenduplookingverydierenttotheoriginalproposals.


17

Box 6: Sector-specic innovations needed for urban response

Shelter:Thereisaneedtoimplementbettertransitionalshelterprocesses,i.e.notjustshedsbutactivitiesthatinvolvepeople,

makeuseofrentalmarkets,etc.Urbanplanningalsoneedstobere-thoughttotakeaccountoflandtenureandpropertyrights

issues.Approachesformoreeffectiveurbanrubbleremovalanddisposalneedtobedeveloped,whichwillhavebenetsin

freeinguplandfortransitionalorpermanentshelterconstruction.

WASH:Promisingapproachesincludede-sludgingtechnologies,pre-identiedwastedisposallandlls,upgradingschoolsanitary

facilitiesandcommunity-ledtotalsanitation.

Food aid:Thisneedstoconsiderthechallengesoffoodpreparation,distributionandurban-basedagriculturalproductionin

limitedandverycrowdedurbanneighbourhoodsaswellasnavigatingsecurityrisksrelatedtostockpilinglargerations.Haiti

demonstratedthatworkingwithpre-existingfoodvendorswasaneffectiveapproachformeetingsomeimmediatefoodneeds.

Livelihoods:Humanitariansshouldscaleupexistinginnovativetools,suchasmicronanceandsmallbusinesssuppor t,andmore

effectivelytargettheseinurbanareas,includingthroughstrengthenedpartnershipswithlocalcommunitiesandtheprivate

sector.Newtoolsareneededforenhancednaturalresourcesmanagementandadaptationtodifferinglivelihoodcontextsin

urbanareas.

Use of technology forbettercommunicationofissuesandofresources,e.g.theuseofmobilephonestosendcashtransfersand

tocommunicatesimplemessages.

Protection:Thesecurityandprotectionneedsofaffectedpopulationsdiffersignicantlybetweenruralandurbansettings.

InnovativeapproacheshavebeendevelopedbytheprotectionclustersinNairobiandBogotatoprovideprotectionagainst

needsforincreasingnumbersofrefugeesandIDPswhomigratetocities.UNHCRhasalsodevelopedanewurbanrefugeepolicy

(IASC,2010).


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6. What do we need to do diferently in urban disaster riskreduction?

Aswellasresponse,disasterriskreductionalsoneedstobeconsideredthroughtheurbanlens.erearea

numberofkeydriversofchangeandthreattocitiesonglobal,regionalandlocallevels.DRReortsneedtobefocusedonmakingbothinternationalandnationalactorsmoresensitivetothesedrivers.eliteratureindicatestheneedforeortsinthreedistinctareas.

Development o a global Urban DRR assessment methodology

Atagloballevel,thereisneedtodevelopusefultypologiesofcitiesandtheirvulnerabilityprolesas

calledforintheIASCstrategycoveredearlier.OneinterestingdevelopmentinthisregardistheWorld

BanksGlobalFundforDisasterReductionandRecoveryandsupporttothedevelopmentofamulti-

hazardUrbanDisasterRiskIndex(UDRI).UDRIisatoolwhichprovidesabaselineagainstwhichrisks

canbemappedandagainstwhichprogresstowardsresiliencecanbemeasuredovertimeandinrelation

toothercities.eplanisforUDRItobecomeagloballyacceptedstandardinassessingandmonitoring

disasterrisksandcapacitiesforresilienceincitiesaroundtheworld(GFDRR,2010).

eUDRIbuildsonmappingandidentifyingthefollowingaspectsofurbanrisk:

hazards(bothslow-andrapid-onsetevents,e.g.earthquake,volcaniceruption,tsunami,typhoon,

precipitation-basedooding,landslide,sea-levelrise,temperatureincreases,andchanging

precipitationpaerns)

exposure(intermsofpotentialdamageandlossoflife,infrastructure,andeconomicassets)

adaptivecapacity(e.g.nationalandlocalpoliciesandinstitutions,abilitytoraisenancesfromlocal sources,technicalcapacity/linkstotechnicalinstitutes,contingencyplanning).

AnUDRIpilotiscurrentlyunderwayacrossvecitiesintheNingboregionofChina,withafurtherfour

citiesinIndonesiaandailandtofollow.esepilotswillhelprenethemethodologybycomparing

citiesacrosscountriesaswellaswithincountries.

ereisscopeforusingsuchatooltodevelopaglobalurbandisasterhotspotsmap,whichcanhelp

shapepreparednesswork.ismapwillneedtobeforward-looking,anticipatingratesofgrowthofcities

andconcurrentincreasesinvulnerability.eURDIworkalsoaimstosynthesiseexistingdata,andshouldbeausefultestofwhatcanbedoneusingexistingdataandinformation.


18


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Mainstreaming urban issues into DRR eforts

erearemanyeortsgoingoninspeciccitiesaroundtheworld,includingthefollowing:

UNISDRhasestablishedtworegionaltaskforcesforUrbanRiskReduction(oneinLatinAmerica

andtheCaribbeanandtheotherinAsiaPacic).etaskforcesarealreadyplayingakeyrolein termsofcoordinatingurbanDRReortsandprovidingguidanceandstructuretothemultitude

of regionalinitiatives.isledtotheResilientCitiescampaignof201011,mentionedearlier

(UNISDR,2011).UNDPhasprojectsonurbanDRRinKathmandu,Manila,Amman,Aqaba,

Kermanandothers,andsupportsregionalinitiatives.eGlobalFacilityforDisasterReductionand

Recovery(GFDRR)hasfundedprojectsinurbanDRRinManilaandQuito.

eRegionalStrengtheningandDisasterRiskReductioninMajorCitiesintheAndean

CommunitiesrunbyUNDPhasfocusedonriskreductioneortsforthecapitalcitiesofve

Andeancountries(Bolivia,Ecuador,Venezuela,PeruandColombia).

ereisalsoalotofworkunderwayonstrategiesforclimateresilientcities,ledbydierentregional

consortia,forexampletheRockefellerFoundationsAsianCitiesClimateChangeResilienceNetwork.

Nationalgovernmentshaverecogniseddisasterrisksintheircitiesandhaveinitiatedriskassessment,

preparednessandinsomecases,mitigationprograms.Turkey,Jordan,Indonesia,thePhilippines,

India,Uzbekistan,EcuadorandColombiaallhaveactivenationalurbanDRRprograms.

MunicipalandlocalgovernmentsareincreasinglyengagedwithDRReortsduetothegrowing

awarenessoftherisksofnaturalandman-madehazards.Citiesthathavedevelopedacomprehensive

understandingoftheirexposuretohazardsandhavetakenstepstoimprovetheircapabilitiesto

respondandreducedisasterrisksinclude:Istanbul,Bogota,Tehran,LaPaz,KathmanduandMumbai.

AspartoftheResilientCitiescampaign,UNISDRprovidesthefollowing10-pointchecklistforurbanDRR:


19

Box 7: Key lessons for urban DRR

1. Putinplaceorganisationsandcoordinationtounderstandandreducedisasterrisk,basedonparticipationofcitizengroupsand

civilsociety.Buildlocalalliances.Ensurethatalldepartmentsunderstandtheirroleindisasterriskreductionandpreparedness.

2. Assignabudgetfordisasterriskreductionandprovideincentivesforhomeowners,low-incomefamilies,communities,

businessesandthepublicsectortoinvestinreducingtheriskstheyface.

3. Maintainup-to-datedataonhazardsandvulnerabilities,prepareriskassessmentsandusetheseasthebasisforurban

developmentplansanddecisions.Ensurethatthisinformationandtheplansforyourcitysresiliencearereadilyavailabletothe

publicandfullydiscussedwiththem.

4. Investinandmaintaincriticalinfrastructurethatreducesrisk,suchasooddrainage,adjustedwhereneededtocopewith

climatechange.

5. Assessthesafetyofallschoolsandhealthfacilitiesandupgradetheseasnecessary.

6. Applyandenforcerealistic,risk-compliantbuildingregulationsandland-useplanningprinciples.Identifysafelandforlow-

incomecitizensanddevelopupgradingofinformalsettlements,whereverfeasible.

7. Ensureeducationprogrammesandtrainingondisasterriskreductionareinplaceinschoolsandlocalcommunities.

8. Protectecosystemsandnaturalbufferstomitigateoods,stormsurgesandotherhazardstowhichyourcitymaybevulnerable.

Adapttoclimatechangebybuildingongoodriskreductionpractices.

9. Installearlywarningsystemsandemergencymanagementcapacitiesinyourcityandholdregularpublicpreparednessdrills.

10.Afteranydisaster,ensurethattheneedsofthesurvivorsareplacedatthecentreofreconstructionwithsupportforthem andtheircommunityorganisationstodesignandhelpimplementresponses,includingrebuildinghomesandlivelihoods

(UNISDR,2010).


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Integrating DRR into development eforts

WorkbyMarkPellingandBenWisner(2009)presentsdetailedcasestudiesofurbanDRRfromsix

dierentcountries.Eachcasestudyincludesspecicbackgroundinformationonurbanisationprocesses,

ahistoryofdisastersinagivencityandananalysisofprocessesthatleadtotheaccumulationofrisks.

InthecaseofAccra,Ghana,everydaydisasterrisksassociatedwithmultipleenvironmentalhealth

inadequaciesinpoorneighbourhoodsaredescribed,andvariousrecommendationsaremadeto

improvepublichealthandaccesstobasicservices.

IntheSouthAfricancasestudyonthecityofCapeTown,15yearsofconsolidateddataoneveryday

rerisksininformalselementsarediscussed.

InthecasestudyonunplannedselementsinDarEsSalaam,Tanzania,variousdisasterrisks,

processescausingthemandmeasurestakenbydierentstakeholdersareidentied.

Inanumberofthesecasestudies,theauthorsndthatDRRneedstobeintegratedwithdevelopment

andurbanplanning.esameconclusionhasbeenreachedbytheorganisationscollaboratingto

enhanceDRRinMumbai,India,asillustratedinCaseStudy3.


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Case Study 3: Mumbai DRR programme

Extract from Sinha and Adarsh, 1997:

Likemostmajorurbancentresinourcountry,Mumbaihasgrowntremendouslyinthelastfewdecadesduetounabatedmigration

fromthesmallertownsandruralareas.Asaresult,thecityhasdevelopedinahaphazardfashionwithlittleconsiderationforproper

town-planningnorms.Thishasresultedinmostareasofthecitylackingbasiccivicamenities.Infact,almost50percentofMumbai

populationlivesininformalhouses(oftenillegalandofverypoorquality)inslums.Eveninthenon-slumareas,thebasicamenitiesmay

belackingandthestructuresmaybeofpoorquality.Anylong-termdisruptionofnormalcyinthiscitymayhaveextremelyadverseconsequencesfortheentirenation.Thereis,consequently,aneedtobepreparedagainstallpossiblenaturalandman-madedisasters

thatarelikelytooccurinMumbai.Forthispurpose,itisessentialtohaverealisticunderstandingoftheconsequencesoflikelydamagein

Mumbaiduetodifferentdisasters.Thiswillpermitrationalplanningofmitigationeffortsinordertominimizeeffectsofthesedisasters.

(SinhaandAdarsh,1997)

Inthepastfewyears,theGovernmentofMaharashtra(GoM),theMunicipalCorporationofGreaterMumbai(MCGM),theIndian

InstituteofTechnology(IIT),theEarthquakeandMegacitiesInitiative(EMI)andtheEarthquakeDisasterMitigationResearchCenter

ofJapan(EdM-NIED)collaboratedtoidentifytherangeofhazardsthathaveimpactedorcouldpotentiallyimpactthecityofMumbai.

Theseincludedoods,whichhavethepotentialtoparalysethecity,earthquakes,resandindustrialaccidents,nuclearhazards,terrorist

attacks,andothers.

Anumberoffactorsareseenascontributingtoheightenedvulnerabilitiesandrisksinthecity,includingthefactthatMumbaiisan

islandcitywithgenerallypoortransportnetworks,poorbuildingdesignandconstructionpractices,changinguseofbuildingswithout

retro-ttingorstrengthening,lackofback-upsystemsforwatersupply,inadequatesewerage,weakinfrastructure,vulnerabilitytopower

failures,extensivereclamationofcoastalareas,existenceofhazardousindustries,highpopulationdensityincommercialareasandslums,

andimproperandinadequategarbagecollectionanddisposal.

Consistentwiththenationalapproach,MumbaisDisasterManagementPlanreferstoitsgoalsofmitigationstrategyas:

tosubstantiallyincreasepublicawarenessofdisasterrisksothatthepublicdemandssafercommunitiesinwhichtoliveandwork

tosignicantlyreducetherisksoflossoflife,injuries,economiccosts,anddestructionofnaturalandculturalresourcesthatresult

fromdisasters.

Followingonfromthis,alldistrictshaveundertakenaninventoryofexistingresourcestoidentifygapsandneeds,toimprovepreparednessandresponsecapabilitytofuturedisasters.District-levelDisasterManagementCommitteeshavebeenestablishedto


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7. How can urban development and humanitarianeforts be mutually supportive?

AlthoughnottheprimaryfocusoftheALNAPmeeting,itisalsoimportanttohighlighttherolethatdevelopmentactorsmustplayinenhancingurbanresilience.elatestthinkingfromtheWorldBankonurbandevelopmentstrategies(WorldBank,2009)andothersrecommendsthatdevelopingcountriestakeathree-prongedapproachtourbanisation,eachelementofwhichhastangiblerelevancefortheissuescoveredalreadyinthisBackgroundPaper.

Designnationalandmunicipalpoliciesandinstitutionsthatanticipateurbanisationandmaximise resilience.Atthenationallevelthisincludesmacro-economicpolicyframeworksthatpromotetrade

andcapitalows,nationalframeworksforlandandlabourmarkets,andsoundinter-governmental

scalsystemswhichinuencehowcitiesmanagetheirnancesanddevelopment(ibid).

Ensurethatappropriatemechanismsareinplacetofacilitatenational,regionalandlocalpolicy

coordinationanddecision-makingforresilientdevelopment.Countriesmoresuccessfulin

managingtheurbantransitionhavereliedondedicatedcommissions,forumsandothersuch

networkedinstitutionalarrangementsthatlinkalllevelsofgovernmentandpolicy-makerswith

urbanplanninginstitutions,universities,NGOsandtheprivatesector.Ifthisapproachistowork, itisespeciallyimportantthatitisgroundedinsounddatacollectionandanalysissystemsandin

robustmeansofdesigningandtestingdierentresilienceapproaches(ibid).

Establishclosercollaborationacrossalltiersofgovernmentandtheinternationalcommunity.

Urbanisationisnotexclusivelyachallengeforcities.Tobeeective,developingcountrieswill

needecient,multi-tieredcoordinationmechanismstosupportpolicyformulationandcoordinated

interventionsbetweennational,regionalandlocalgovernmentsandtheinternationalsystemof

actors.Newtechnologieshaveaconsiderableroletoplayhere(ibid).


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reviewthethreatsofvariousdisasters,assessvulnerabilityofthedistrict,evaluatepreparedness,andconsidersuggestionsforimproving

thedistrictdisastermanagementplan.

Theadministrativestructuredealswithplanning,coordinationandawarenessissues.Thishasbeenonthebasisofanintegratedmulti-

hazarddisasterplanthatisaccompaniedbyresourcesmaps,anticipatoryresponsestrategiesandthecreationofexpertgroupson

differentkindsofdisasterstoprovideadviceandexpertisetoresponseeffortswhentheydohappen.

Effectivecoordinationamongallinvolvedagenciesforeffectiveresponsehasbeenoneofthemajorconcernsintheprocess.

Communicationsandawarenessraisingarekey,andhaveincludedanumberofcampaignstosensitiseandembedconceptsabout

disastersandriskreductionamongkeyactors,fromeducationalestablishments(schools,colleges,universities),teachersbodies,through

togovernmentalorganisationstoNGOsandcommunity-basedorganisations.

Extractedandadaptedfromwww.emi.pdc.org/cities/CP-Mumbai-09-05.pdf


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Researchdoneondonoreortsinurbandevelopmentsuggestssomeclearshisinthinkinginthe

internationaldonorcommunityonengagementatthemunicipallevel(Milbert2004).Duringthe1990s,

urbanprojectswereoennegotiatedatthenationallevelwithminimalengagementoflocalgovernment

institutions.Sincethen,severaldonorcountrieshaveengagedinlong-termpartnershipswithlocal

governmentsandhavebeenincreasingsupportforinternationalandlocalNGOsengagedinurbanareas.Suchinterventionsrecognisethekeyroleofmunicipalandlocalauthoritiesandcivilsociety(Milbert

2004).

Perhapsthemostsignicantnewareaindevelopmentpolicyhasbeenthegrowingaentionpaidto

ideasofresilience.isnewbigideahashadseveraltriggers,fromworkonclimatechange,todealing

withglobalcrisesinfoodandnance,throughtoworkonsocialprotectionandDRR.Itisincreasingly

seenasasharedframeworkforbridgingthegapsbetweenpreviouslydisparateareasofinternational

aid.erelevanceforurbancrisesisspelledoutintheUKGovernmentsHumanitarianEmergency

ResponseReview(HERR):9theneedtomakeresilienceacentralelementofourworkrequiresusto

analyseglobal,regional,nationalandlocalresourcestressandmakesureourinvestmentsdonotincrease

vulnerability.iswillrequireastepchangeinDFIDsdevelopmentwork(DFID,2011).

Attheveryleast,strengtheningurbanresiliencerequiresthecoherentapplicationofawiderangeof

strategieswhichreducethevulnerabilityofthosemostatrisktoshocksandstresses,andwhichenable

moreadaptiveresponsestoshocksandstresseswhentheydooccur.

ismeansthaturbandisastersarenotseenpurelyasaresponsibilityofhumanitarianagencies,butthat

suchresponsibilityextendsacrosstheaidsystemandthewholeinternationalcommunity.

9.hp://www.dd.gov.uk/Documents/publications1/HERR.pdf

8. Towards urban humanitarianism: a challenge or learningand leadership

Itshouldbeapparentthatthesevequestionsarefarfromtrivialissuesfortheinternationalhumanitariancommunity.However,manyoftheintervieweesinvolvedintheresearchforthisBackgroundPaperwereclearthatthesefundamentalissueswillneedtobeaddressedinasustainedway,atthelevelofbothpolicyandpractice,ifwewanttoseeimprovedhumanitarianactioninurbancontexts.

econceptsandpracticesthatneedtobeembracedforeectivelyworkingwithurbandisasters

presentaconsiderableadaptationchallengetotheinternationalcommunity.evegapsoutlined

abovearenotbeingaddressedsucientlywellorwiththenecessarysenseofurgency.Partofthereason

isthattherearemanyothergame-changingissuesonthetableforhumanitariananddevelopmentaid,

ofwhichurbanisationisjustone.

However,iftheevidencethatisemergingiscorrect,andiftheevaluationsofresponsestoHaitiand

otherurbancrisesareaccurate,thenurbanisationmaywellbeagame-changerforthehumanitarian

communityonaparwithclimatechange.


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Addressingthesegapswillrequirealotofthingstobeputinplace,astheyhavemanydierentdimensions.

Buttwooverarchingchallengesstandoutasmostimportant,giventhecurrentstateofthesystemsresponse.

eseareespeciallyrelevantfortheALNAPmembershipandmandate.

First,amorecollectivelearningagendatoaddressthesegaps,mobilisingtheresourcesacrossthesystemasawhole,ismuchneeded.isneedstobebothtechnical,addressingissuesofdata,accuracyandtrends;

butalsohuman,addressingtraining,operationalguidance,andsoon.Suchalearningagendawouldalso

needtotakeaccountoftheinherentlycomplexnatureofurbancontexts.Oneinterestingideaisforthe

establishmentofaglobalurbandisasterobservatorytosupportresearch,developmentandcapacity

strengthening;suchamechanismwouldneedtobefundedcollectivelybythekeyactorsinthesystem,and

supportedbyexistingmechanisms.

esecondchallengeisinstitutionalandpoliticalinnature.Specically,thereisasignicantleadershipgap

thatneedstobeaddressed,tohelpputurbanissuesrmlyonthetable,andtoensurethatthenecessary

adjustmentsarechampionedthroughoutthesystem.Moreover,theimplicationsforbuildingurbanresilience

spantheentireinternationalcommunityaswellasnationalauthorities.Urbandisastersposeacollective

actionchallengeofthekindthehumanitariansystemhasprovedparticularlybadattacklinginthepast.

Whileitishearteningtoseegrowingeortstotakethisissueforward,urbanisationstillneedsmoreurgent

andstrategicaentionacrossallagencies,networksandcoalitionsinthesector.Mobilisationofleadersof

internationalandnationalbodiesmaybeonewayofdoingthisperhapswiththekindofhigh-levelforum

thatwasestablishedforthefoodpricecrisisin2008,chairedbyahigh-prolegure.

eDECreportonHaitiwarnedthatwecanexpectthreetoveurbanmega-disastersinthenext10yearsalone.Andyet,asnotedbyCareInternationalsPresidentHelenGayle,internationalagencieshave

singularlyfailedtoco-evolvewithurbanisationasquicklyasithashappened.10iscontinuedlackof

strategicandoperationaladaptationisserious.Failuretoaddressthegapsoutlinedherethreatenstomake

urbandisastersyetanotherareawheretheinternationalsystemfailedtomeetexpectationsandwhereit

failedtodeliveronitsgoalsofmobilisingproportionate,equitable,andaboveallrelevantresponsestomajor

disastersandcrises.11

Key questions or conerence participants to consider ahead o the meeting

Howcanwedevelopasharedunderstandingofurbancontextsinwaysthatarerelevanttohumanitarian

action?

Howdoestheurbancontextchallengeourunderstandingofvulnerability?

Whatisdierentaboutthehumanitarianresponseinanurbanenvironment?Whatarethechallenges

andpossibilities?

WhatpracticalexamplesarethereofbringingurbanissuestobearonDRR,preparednessandresponse?

Whatshouldournextstepsbecollectively,andasindividualorganisations?

Whatcommitmentsareneeded/possiblefromacrosstheinternationalcommunity?

10.hp://www.irinnews.org/IndepthMain.aspx?InDepthID=63&ReportID=7402111.hp://www.fmreview.org/urban-displacement/FMR34/05-07.pdf


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isBackgroundPaperbeneedgreatlyfromcommentsandfeedbackfromJoshHarris,ManuGupta,

PaulKnoxClarke,JohnMitchell,DavidSanderson,KevinSavageandKimScriven,

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27TH ALNAP MEETING - INDIA

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