2.1 game design
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Transcript of 2.1 game design
2
Overview Game design as…
full-time occupation is historically new field of practical study – even newer
3
Overview Folk games [Costikyan]
“Traditional” games with cultural origins
Examples: Tic-Tac-Toe (Naughts and Crosses) Chess Go Backgammon Poker
5
Overview There is no one “right” way to
design There are many successful
approaches Specific requirements and constraints
of each project and team determine what works and what does not.
This introduction is but a scratch
6
The Language of Games Game development – a young
industry
Standards are still being formulated Theory Practice Terminology
7
The Language of Games Debate continues over high-level
views
Lack of standard (concrete) definitions Game Play
High-level concepts tricky to articulate
8
The Language of Games Workplace differences usually low-
level Working terminology
Example “actors” instead of “agents” “geo” instead of “model”
Workflow – how things get done Individual responsibilities Processes under which work is performed
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The Language of Games Why do we play?
Not a designer’s problem What is the nature of games?
Not a designer’s problem How is a game formed of parts?
A designer’s problem
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The Language of Games Our simplistic high-level definitions
Easy to modify to fit multiple cultures Practical over metaphysically true
play game aesthetics
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Play and Game Play
Interactions to elicit emotions Game
Object of rule-bound play
General enough to cover everything
12
Aesthetics and Frame Aesthetics
Emotional responses during play Naïve practical approach, not classical
Frame The border of a game’s context
Inside the frame is in the game Outside the frame is real life
13
Approaching Design Computer games are an art form Game design practices can be taught Technical discipline like music, film,
poetry
The art of making dynamic models
14
Approaching Design
Mental/Cognitive Concepts Beliefs Maps
Examples: Locations Relationships
Mathematical Equations Formulas Algorithms
A model represents something
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Approaching Design Abstract model
Conceptual and idealized A tool for investigating specific questions Simplifies thinking to help understand problems May include assumptions thought to be false
Abstract game One rule
The piece is moved to the open square
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A Player-Game Model A model of the player – game
relationship
M e c hanic s Inte r fac e Sys te m
P LAYER G AM E
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A Player-Game Model Mechanics
Things the player does Interface
Communication between player and game
System Underlying structure and behavior
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Control and State Variables Defined by Isaacs in Differential
Games
Control variables Inputs from players
State variables Quantities indicating game state
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Play Mechanics Gameplay
Feelings of playing a particular game Activities engaged in a particular
game (Play/game) Mechanics
Specific to game activities “What the player does”
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Seven Stages of Action
Execution Intention to act Sequence of action Execution of action
sequence
Evaluation Evaluating
interpretations Interpreting
perceptions Perceiving states
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action A goal is formed
Models the desired state The desired result of an action Examples:
Have a glass of water in hand Capture a queen Taste ice cream
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
Goals turned into intentions to act Specific statements of what is to be done
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte ntio nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
Intentions put into an action sequence The order internal commands will be performed
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte ntio nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
The action sequence is executed The player manipulates control variables
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte ntio nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
The state of the game is perceived State variables are revealed via the interface
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte ntio nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
Player interprets their perceptions Interpretations based upon a model of the system
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte ntio nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
27
Seven Stages of Action
Player evaluates the interpretations Current states are compared with intentions and
goals
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte ntio nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
Donald Norman’s approximate model Actions not often in discrete stages Not all actions progress through all
stages
29
Seven Stages of Action Scales to…
…an individual mechanic A “primary element”
Examples: Move Shoot Talk
…an entire game A generalized model of interaction
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Designer and Player Models Systems are built from designer mental
models Design models may only anticipate player
goals
Designer U ser
Us er 'sM o d e l
D es ig nM o d el
S y s tem Im ag e
System
31
Designer and Player Models Players build mental models from mechanics
Based upon interactions with the system image The reality of the system in operation
Not from direct communication with designers Player and designer models can differ significantly
D esigner U ser
Us er 'sM o d el
D es ig nM o d el
S y s tem I m ag e
System
32
Core Mechanics Typical patterns of action Fundamental mechanics cycled
repeatedly Examples:
Action shooters – run, shoot, and explore Strategy game – explore, expand, exploit,
exterminate referred to as the “four X’s”
33
Premise
The metaphors of action and setting
Directs the player experience Provides a context in which mechanics
fit Players map game states to the
premise
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Premise Story is the typical example of
premise Time Place Characters Relationships Motivations Etc.
35
Premise Premise may also be abstract
Tetris operates under a metaphor The metaphor: arranging colored shapes
Encompasses all game elements Player discussions use the language
of the premise
36
Premise Games are models Activities being modeled form
premise Actions may appear similar in model Usually are fundamentally quite
different Sports games are good examples
Playing video games isn’t like playing the sport
37
Premise Goes beyond setting and tone Alters the players mental model
Basis of player understanding and strategy
38
Premise Possible
Capable of happening in the real world Plausible
Possible within the unique world of premise
“Makes sense” within the game’s premise Consistent with the premise as understood
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Choice and Outcome Choice
A question asked of the player Outcome
The end result of a given choice Possibility space
Represents the set of possible events A “landscape” of choice and outcome
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Choice and Outcome Consequence or Weight
The significance of an outcome Greater consequences alter the course of
the game more significantly Choices are balanced first by
consequence
41
Choice and Outcome Well-designed choice
Often desirable and undesirable effects Should relate to player goals Balanced against neighboring choices
Too much weight to every choice is melodrama
Orthogonal choices – distinct from others Not just “shades of grey”
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Qualities of Choice Terms in which to discuss choices
Hollow – lacking consequence Obvious – leaves no choice to be made Uninformed – arbitrary decision Dramatic – strongly connects to feelings Weighted – good and bad in every choice Immediate – effects are immediate Long-term – effects over extended period Orthogonal – choices distinct from each other
43
Goals and Objectives Objectives
Designed tasks players must perform Rigid requirements – formal
Goals An intentional outcome
Notions that direct player action Scales all levels of motivation
From selecting particular strategies… …to basic motor actions (e.g. pressing a button)
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Goals and Objectives
Objectives and goals can differ Players goals reflect their understanding of the game Designers must consider how the game communicates
with players Affordances – the apparent ways something can be used
D esigner U serSystem
F in d s w o r dKill d r ag o nR es c u e p r in c es s
F in d s w o r dR es c u e d r ag o nKill p r in c es s
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Resources Resources
Things used by agents to reach goals To be meaningful, they must be…
Useful – provide some value Limited – in total or rate of supply
46
Economies Economies
Systems of supply, distribution, consumption
Questions regarding game economies: What resources exist? How and when will resources be used? How and when will resources be supplied? What are their limits?
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Player Strategy
People usually reason with commonsense A view of linear causation – cause and effect
Complex systems do not behave linearly Players need information to support linear
strategy
Situat io n R e s ul tAc tio n
48
Game Theory Game Theory
Branch of economics Studies decision making
Utility A measure of desire associated with an
outcome Payoffs
The utility value for a given outcome Preference
The bias of players towards utility
49
Game Theory Rational Players
Abstract model players – not real people
Always try to maximize their potential utility
Solve problems using pure logic Always fully aware of the state of the
game
50
Game Theory Games of skill
One-player games Outcomes determined solely by choices
Games of Chance One-player games Outcomes determined in whole or part by nature
(chance) Games of Strategy
Competitions between two or more players
51
Game Theory Decision under certainty
Players know the outcome of any decision
Risky decisions Probabilities of nature are known
Decision under uncertainty Probabilities of nature are unknown
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Interface Interface
Input, presentation, and feedback. Input
Player to game Output
Game to player
53
Interface Contains both hardware, software, and
performance elements. Hardware such as game pads Software such as engines Performance such as pressing a button
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Interface Typical perspectives:
First-person Over-the-shoulder (OTS) Overhead (top-down) Side Isometric
58
Interface Controls
Physical input devices Control inputs
User manipulations of the controls They are not strategies
Example: a sequence of buttons to perform a combo
Strategies involve deciding when to perform
60
Interface Control diagrams
Show input, action, and contextAction Con tro l Con text
Le ft a llR igh t a llFo rwa rd a llBackwa rd a llSp rin t a llPass O ffenseLob O ffenseShoo t O ffenseStea l De fenseBlock De fenseHit De fense
61
Interface Front-end
In application software The visible portion of the application
In games GUI elements not displayed during play
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Interface HUD (Head-Up Display)
Displays during play Shows and other information difficult to
present directly in the game environment Examples
Scores Resource levels Mini Map Chat Alerts Level
2>nee d bac kup!!!>No>...
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Interface Mapping
An understood relationship between two things
Especially the relationship of a model to its subject
Examples
64
HCI and Cognitive Ergonomics HCI – Human-Computer Interaction
Study of… Communication between users and computers How people design, build, and use interfaces Better support for cooperative work
Cognitive Ergonomics Analyzes the cognitive representations and
processes involved with performing tasks
65
Design of Everyday Things Norman’s five principles of design
Visibility Making the parts visible
Mappings Understandable relationships between controls
and actions Affordances
The perceived uses of an object Constraints
Prevent the user from doing things they shouldn’t Feedback
Reporting what has been done and accomplished
66
Systems System
A set of interrelated components Their function and relationships form a whole
Architecture The particular arrangement of system elements
Game systems exist to enable play mechanics
Relationships between components determine how the system works to produce results
67
Systems Objects
Pieces of a system Attributes
Properties determining what objects are Behaviors
Actions the objects can perform Relationships
How the behavior and attributes of objects affect each other while the system operates
68
Systems Two general approaches to design
Special case Experiences built one scene/level at a time Anticipate states while pre-scripting events Solved by discovering the intentions of the designer
Systemic General behaviors are designed Scenes/Levels are specific configuations Some events may still be pre-scripted Solved by understanding the system
69
Systems Emergent complexity
Behaviors that cannot be predicted simply from the rules of a system
Emergence Coined by George Henry Lewes in
1873
See: John Conway’s Game of Life
70
Systems Dynamics
The behavior of systems over time
Generalizing dynamic behavior is hard Dynamics determined by a given
architecture
72
Systems A basic cybernetic system has:
Sensor – detects a condition Thermometer
Comparator – evaluates the information Switch
Activator – alters the environment when triggered by the comparator
Senso r
C om par ato r
Ac t i vato r
73
Systems Feedback
The portion of a system’s output that is returned into the system
Feedback Loop The path taken by the feedback
L e v e l
G o a l
Info rm a tio nA c tio n
R a te
74
Systems Positive feedback
Leads to runaway behavior Difficult to make use of
Negative feedback Leads to goal seeking behaviors Most common form in systems
P o s i t ive Fe e dbac k N e gative Fe e dbac k
go al
75
Systems Negative feedback
Stabilizes the game Forgives the loser Prolongs the game Magnifies late successes
Positive feedback Destabilizes the game Rewards the winner Can end the game Magnifies early
successes
Marc Leblanc
76
Systems System Dynamics
Created by Jay Forrester 1956, MIT A discipline for modeling and
simulation Originally a tool for policy analysis
Applicable to any system
77
Constraints Platform
General description of hardware and software
Personal computer – PC, Mac, etc. Console – Game Cube, PlayStation, Xbox, etc. Handheld – DS, Game Boy Advance, PSP, etc. Mobile device – Cel Phones, NGage, PDA, etc. Arcade – custom vending games (e.g. Time Crisis)
80
Genres Action Adventure Arcade Casual Education Fighting First-person shooter Platform
Racing Rhythm Role-Playing (RPG) Simulation Sports Strategy Puzzle Traditional
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Audiences Target audience
Group of expected consumers Demographics
Study of relevant economic and social statistics about a given population
Demographic variables The relevant factors
82
Audiences Market
Demographic segmentation of consumers
Market segments Smaller sub-segment of the market; more tightly
defined Demographic profile
Typical consumer attributes in a market
83
Audiences Heavy Users
Those of the numeric minority of potential users responsible for majority of sales of any product
“80/20 rule”
Hardcore gamer Game industry term for heavy video game
users Casual gamer
Game industry term for all other gamers
84
Audiences Typically assumptions of the
hardcore: Play games over long sessions Discuss games frequently and at length Knowledgeable about the industry Higher threshold for frustration Desire to modify or extend games creatively Have the latest game systems Engage in competition with themselves, the game,
and others
85
Audiences Why We Play Games – Nicole Lazzaro
Internal experience Enjoyment from visceral activities
Hard fun Challenge of strategy and problem solving
Easy fun Intrigue and curiosity – exploration and adventure
Social experience Stimulating social faculties – competition,
teamwork, bonding, and recognition
86
Iterating Waterfall method
Development methodology Design and production are broken into
phases
Iterative development Practice of producing things incrementally
Refining and re-refining the product
87
Iterating Prototypes
Early working models of the product Used to test ideas and techniques
Physical prototypes Non-electronic models; physical materials
Software prototypes Used regularly during iterative development
88
Iterating Software testing
Process of verifying performance and reliability of a software product
Tester Person trained in methods of evaluation
Bug Discrepancy between expected and actual behavior
Problem/Bug report Description of the behavior of the discrepancy
89
Iterating Focus test
Testing session using play-testers Testers represent the target audience Lots of feedback at one time Data can be compromised by group
think
90
Iterating Tuning
Developing solutions by adjusting systems
Iterations are faster Changes are less dramatic
Balance Equilibrium in a relationship
Player relationships, mechanics, systems, etc.
91
Iterating Intransitive relationships
Multiple elements offer weaknesses and strengths relative to each other as a whole
Balanced as a group Example: Rock-Paper-Scissors (RPS)
H e a v yI n f a n t r y
C a v a lr yA r c h e r s
92
Creativity
Ability to create Ability to produce an idea, action,
or object considered new and valuable
93
Creativity Classic approach - Graham Wallace
Preparation Background research and comprehension
Incubation Mulling things over
Insight Sudden illumination – Eureka!
Evaluation Validating revealed insights
Elaboration Transforming the idea into substance
94
Creativity Brainstorming
Generating ideas without discrimination
Evaluation after elaboration Can be unfocused
95
Creativity Six Thinking Hats
White Hat – neutral and objective Red Hat – intuition, gut reaction Black Hat – gloomy, naysayer Yellow Hat – Pollyannaish, optimistic Green Hat – growth and creativity Blue Hat – process and control
Symbolize perspective worn by people involved in the creative endeavor
Edward de Bono
96
Inspiration Board games
Spatial relationships Card games
Resource management Paper RPGs
Dynamic narratives Books
Fantasy and agency Sports
Team competition
Film Continuity techniques
Television Serialized stories
Music Temporal systems
Martial arts Discipline in action
Children Invention
97
Communication Documentation
Methods vary widely Written, descriptive model of the
game Depth varies according to the needs of the game
98
Communication Treatment
A brief, general description of the game and the fundamental concepts
May include: Concept statement Goals and objectives Core mechanics and systems Competitive analysis Licensing and IP information Target platform and audience Scope Key features
99
Communication Other document types may include:
Preliminary design document Initial Design Document Revised Design Document General Design Document Expanded Design Document Technical Design Document Final Design Document
100
Communication Flowcharts
A typical technique for diagramming steps in a process
Most developers are familiar
Star t /E ndP ro c e s s /
Ac tio nD e c is io n
Y/N D e lay
101
CommunicationS t art
W and eri n gC i t y
S e a r c h f o rQ u e s tQ u e s t
Q u e s t D e ta il sA c c e p t
G a th e r P C A ll ie s E m b a r k/Sp lit G o to
W ild e r n e s s
C i ty
N o
Y e s
Y e s
N o
Re c r u i ts
R e c r u it
E q u ip
G e a r
G a th e r
S e e k A id
A r t if a c ts A ss is ta n c e
Reg ro u p
En co u n ter
102
Communication Associative diagram
Drawing that helps manage and organize information visually Mind Map
A style of associative diagram Key words and figures are placed on branches
we ap o n
fi ghti ng
r a n g e
103
Psychology Working Memory
Holds roughly 7 ± 2 items at one time while other cognitive operations on them
104
Psychology Attention
Method of enhancing perceptions relative to other stimuli in the same environment
How we focus on important things Limited capacity
105
Psychology Classical conditioning
Reaction to stimulus is conditioned by pairing with another stimulus that elicits the desired response naturally
C o ndit io ning Af te r c o ndit io ning
B e fo re c o ndi t io ning
106
Psychology Unconditioned stimulus – Meat Unconditioned response – Salivation over meat Conditioned stimulus – Tone Conditioned response – Salivation over tone
C o ndit io ning Af te r c o ndit io ning
B e fo re c o ndit io ning
107
Psychology Operant conditioning
Learning by encouraging or discouraging Operant
A response; the action in question Example: pressing a button
Reinforcement contingency Consistent relationship between the
operant and a result in the environment
108
Psychology Reinforcers
Increase the probability an action will be repeated Positive reinforcement
Positive stimulus that reinforces the behavior Ex. Use umbrella and be dry
Negative reinforcement The removal or prevention of a negative stimulus
Ex. Use umbrella and keep from getting wet Punishment
Reduces the likelihood of a behavior with a stimulus Ex. Being burned by a hot stove