Introduction

Designers create to produce a result. Design produces a contractual agreement, a monetary exchange, and a social contract between individuals. If it does not, it fails to achieve its purpose.

Design is a visual communication between the creator and the potential clients. This distinguishes design from art. Art may also be a visual communication, created to impact viewers, but art does not require that there be a client.

There are various attitudes as to what should be included in the Principles of Design and the Elements of Design. Schools of Design and designers have their theoretical preferences about what to include as the Foundational Principles of Design: whether five foundational Principles (Balance, Emphasis, Proportion, Rhythm, Unity), six principles (Balance, Direction, Emphasis, Proportion, Scale, Unity), or more. It is a similar situation when considering what to include as the elements. It is apparent that agreement between designers about what are the guiding principles and elements has yet to occur. That is one reason why the design field is evolving and active, and why individual designs are visually engaging.

Rather than deliberate on the merits of one approach over another, I have included nine Principles and ten Elements for consideration. Being able to use these terms to discuss a design’s visible appearance is helpful in evaluating what is demonstrated, whether it is two or three dimensional, and to come to agreement on the level of success of that visual communication.

Principles of Design

Balance: the visual distribution of objects, color, texture and spaceEmphasis: The portion of the project that first draws the attentionMovement: The path that a viewer follows when looking at a projectPattern: The repetition of an object or symbol throughout the projectProportion: the relative sizes of the parts to the whole; also, the outer dimensions relationshipsRepetition: how elements are used several or more times in a projectRhythm: the sense of movement created by elements that are related to each other in a projectUnity: The harmony of the parts to create a visual wholeVariety: the use of different elements. Some refer to this principle as Contrast

Principle of Design 1

Balance: the visual distribution of objects, color, texture and space

How the space, the visual plane, uses balance in a design affects the response, the type of interaction by the potential client. If active response is the goal, an asymmetrical approach to balance promotes unease and angst. If it is the desire to calm the client, then symmetry is used. Within the scope of symmetry falls radial balance, i.e. balance that radiates out from a central spot or core. Designs that demonstrate reflective or mirror images, whether horizontally or vertically, are symmetrically balanced. This would be considered formal symmetry. Even elements that are dissimilar may produce symmetrical balance if they demonstrate a similar visual weight.

How elements are created or used in the visual plane of the design also affects how balance is perceived. Symmetry can calm or excite by its use of colors, textures, and the objects shown. In like fashion, an asymmetrical design, which usually promotes unease, could produce a calming effect through cool colors and subtle textures.

Principle of Design 2

Emphasis: The portion of the project that first draws the attention

Through the use of hierarchy in a design, that is, the visual order in which elements are read or looked at, a designer demonstrates the emphasis principle. If elements are too similar, chaos reigns, and the design has no cohesive thought presentation, no convincing manner in which it is perceived and understood. The emphasis of the design is the main point: that which you want to have the first and foremost visual impact, thus generating the initial response desired. Elements that follow suit after that initial impression create the hierarchy through the order in which they are seen. If the eye does not travel across the design in the manner that the creator envisioned, then the resultant impression is muddled and not effective. This may seem harsh, but it is within reason to observe that some designs have better visual impact and are therefore more memorable than others. Subsequently, if we remember a design we are more likely to act upon it than one we have forgotten.

Principle of Design 3

Movement: The path that a viewer follows when looking at a project

Designs are read through the elements along a visual pathway. Our recognition of repeated elements having similar characteristics prompts associations between those elements. If they are in near proximity to each other, we recognize that they are part of a pathway that travels through a design. As we visually follow that path, we are experiencing the principle of movement.

Dissimilar elements may also provide movement in a design if they possess some similarity through color, size, texture, or subject. An example would be different letters or numbers arranged

in alphabetical or numerical order, which being different, are visually followed in order due to our familiarity with the pattern. If there is a break in that order, the movement is similarly broken, or paused, until the order is reestablished.

Principle of Design 4

Pattern: The repetition of an object or symbol throughout the project

Fabric design often incorporates pattern, and as such is considered the organization of the foreground of a material’s design, yet pattern may also be associated with the background visual information of a graphic design, such as that found on the web or as integral to a physical product. It is not required that pattern be visually the same throughout a design, although it is primarily understood because of that quality. Subtle changes are understood as being of the same whole, and often go initially unnoticed, such as a gradual shift in direction or change of color. Whether achromatic or chromatic, the use of pattern serves to unify a design. It should be considered that the principle of pattern also could be understood as the negative space in a design.

Principle of Design 5

Proportion: the relative sizes of the parts to the whole; also, the outer dimensions relationships

All design has physical dimension, and the determining factor of any design is its exterior size in either two or three directions. A beverage container’s design purpose may require it be stodgy, plump, and stable; that being the intent then a mug would fill he requirement more successfully than a wine glass. If the design is to express energy, one with greater dimension of height than width would aide in that goal. Microbes are small, and so to appreciate their complexity it is required that their dimension be enlarged to a recognizable size. Thus, the proportion used is essential to an understanding of the subject.

Within the interior of a design are also proportions, the size relationships between the parts. These size relationships help establish a visual order, aiding in the visual hierarchy enclosed within the borders. The proportions can produce a visual depth of field through associations we have with recognizable objects and their associated sizes. For example, if an elephant is placed next to a canary, and the canary is larger, we associate the canary as being much closer to our primary visual plane. If similar elements are used, those that are larger are read as closer. If this principle is ignored, and smaller objects overlap larger objects, a design is easily misunderstood as to the priority order of visual information. To do so inhibits good design.

Principle of Design 6

Repetition: how elements are used several or more times in a project

As a principle, the use of an element of the same visual characteristics more than once, and usually more than twice, develops associations as to the relative importance of that element to the overall design. In music a refrain or chorus is used to develop continuity. In design, common factors also help tie the visual field together. Even so, there must be close proximity so that there is an associated visual pathway. Although repeated elements may be placed in several locations of a design, unless they are read as being of a unit the principle of repetition is not readily recognized.

Repetition can be developed with any of the elements of design. Equal textures or values cause an appreciation of repetition in a design. Common color, whether warm, cool, or neutral, reinforces our emotional response and attitude towards the design. Shapes having like perimeters or exterior angles, even though of different sizes, if organized in an ascending or descending order, create a message of repetition. But, if that order is broken, or the proximity between similar parts is not equal, our perception of the repetitive nature is compromised.

Principle of Design 7

Rhythm: the sense of movement created by elements that are related to each other in a project

As a principle of design, rhythm is easily overlooked or misunderstood. Though akin to movement, rhythm has its distinctive characteristics that cause a viewer to linger and get emotionally involved in a positively responsive manner. Rhythm soothes, reinforces sense of wellbeing, and can actually produce a smile. Rhythm is not readily sensed but when present reaches to our inner sanctum, eliciting an emotional rather than logical response.

To create a sense of rhythm there must be smooth transitions between similar elements. A drip of a faucet does not produce rhythm, as it is the same in each event. Gentle waves on the seashore are similar but not equal, and so produce rhythm; they soothe. In design, the principle is the same. Similarity of visual content and relatively smooth and similar repetition creating a visual pathway in a design tend to produce rhythm. Shapes or colors often create such rhythm, as can the element of line.

Principle of Design 8

Unity: The harmony of the parts to create a visual whole

Unity is not easily achieved. It must be rigorously pursued initially by purposeful thoughts. A designer’s approach must be vigorous from inception through roughs, culminating in completion. Determination to create a piece with no extraneous parts or missing any essential parts must be the goal from the outset. The design must not have sections or segments that are misplaced visually or that create a visual hitch in the visible plane.

These requirements may include simple or complex designs, designs of achromatic, monochromatic, or polychromatic nature, as well as textural characteristics, whether actual or implied: smooth, rough, or varied. The goal is to have all parts work together. If anything feels wrong, it likely does not contribute to the unity and needs to be changed or excluded. If it is decided to exclude anything, then something must take up that now unoccupied area, something that promotes a unity of the whole.

Here is a warning. It is easier to develop a design in a unifying direction through a process of reflection and evaluation as the design develops than to eliminate something at the culmination. For this reason it is essential to critique while developing a product, before ownership and ego become too powerful of forces. Once a design is finished and presented to others it is easy to defend it and difficult to admit errors, especially an error of unity.

Principle of Design 9

Variety: the use of different elements. Some refer to this principle as Contrast

Auto design demonstrates that variety is essential to success of a product. In contrast, the unicycle is a well-designed product, but its lack of variety makes it difficult to operate and of subsequent limited market share. Complex design affords the possibility for extended interactions, successful encounters, and repeated involvement.

In contrast, a traffic sign with only one meaning does not engender a desire to continue the visual relationship. It has been seen, understood, and now its time to move on to something with more variation.

Why do people run stop signs, or speed up when a traffic signal turns to yellow? They are familiar with the message. Interruption of progress is imminent. This is often viewed as negative. What if a more consequential negative such as a traffic camera introduced at those same intersections occurs in the design? This complexity elicits a different response. There is now a decision to consider consequences of opposing interactions with the design. The variety introduced by inclusion of a camera, whether functioning or not, creates mental and emotional pause.

Similarly, mental and emotional pause occur when variety is introduced in a graphic design. The elements must be considered, and if complex and visually pleasing, even enticing, then relished. Variety, like rhythm, generates emotional interaction. At first a mental response occurs, we notice differences. This notice then produces associations with previous experiences, and concludes with either feelings of acceptance or rejection. A successful designer is aware of and uses variety relevant to the intended audience.

Variety serves as a contributing principle, not the ruling principle. Variety must be controlled. It is used to promote the other principles. Too little produces boredom, too much creates chaos. To achieve the balance for the need of variety to sustain interest and the requirement for unity to prevent such complexity that renders a design incomprehensible should be a preeminent goal of any designer and of the work created.

II. Ten Elements of Design

Color: our perception of light being reflected from objects, having three characteristicsHue (appearance of name), value (how light to dark), intensity (how bright or dull). The inherent hues found in light or pigment.

Direction: the manner in which a line moves; also the manner in which the elements moveForm: the three dimensional object demonstrated by length, width, and depthLine: The extended mark that has more length than width and can be solid or not solid. Also, the

moving path of a point.Shape: the visually defined area of a design defined by a contour line, whether void or substance. A figure

or mass.Size: the relative space used by an object in design, whether positive or negative. The physical

dimensions of an element or formatSpace: the area demonstrated through void (negative) or substance (positive). The Area that

composes either rthe figure or the ground.Texture: the visually apparent surface quality of the surface. The tactile quality and characteristics

of a surface.Typography: the arrangement and aesthetics of letterformsValue: the lightness to darkness variety of a design element from tint (white), through

tone (gray) to shade (black)

Outline PlanIntroductionI Nine Principles of DesignII. Nine Elements of DesignIII. develop examples of each principle and elementIV. tie it all together with examples and critiquesV. include questions, discussions, resourcesVI. The purpose of roughs

VII. Gestalt Approach to Design: Gestalt Principles of PerceptionVIII. Wucius WongIX Art 122 The AiW approachX. Design TerminologyXI. Resources/Links/Websites/Films

VI. The Purpose of Roughs

A designer’s creative ability is in direct correlation to their degree of conceptualizing skill as demonstrated by a variety of rough approaches/solutions to each problem. To be able to draw roughs, also called thumbnails or sketches, is a skill that is developed, it is not a natural/innate ability. Often we are confronted with “designer’s block” if there is a dearth of ideas. This may come as a surprise, but ideas do not float down to our fingertips from the ether. Conceptualizing can only arise from a rich volume of thoughts, and those thoughts develop from keen observations of our environment, society, values, and potentials. So if you have difficulty thinking of how to create a variety of drawings/sketches/roughs of an idea for a design, think how to solve this problem. Observe, examine, consider, don’t just see, don’t just look dispassionately.

A wise designer considers various approaches to solve a design. This may include steps of consideration, discussion, and making planning drawings, called roughs. Roughs are visible representations of thoughts, organizations of ideas and approaches to develop solutions of design. Roughs may be done in any media, and usually include sketch-like conceptualizing, with lines of action, rough areas indicating shadow or form, and splotches of color to create the emotional tone.Roughs are quick images, and to develop skill in drawing quick images strengthens the designer’s ability to create a variety of design solutions that could meet the approval of the client.

Remember, the goal of any design is to get the client on board by meeting their perceived expectations.

VII. The Gestalt Approach to Design

Almost everything that makes graphic design work can be found in a setof laws and principles collectively known as the Gestalt principles ofperception. There is no more powerful tool at a designer’s disposalthan a comprehensive grasp of these principles. By the same token,those who don’t have a good grasp of them are lost when faced withdesign projects and often go “fishing” on design gallery sites, beingrelegated to cliché motifs and layouts. But clients deserve betterthan our vague understanding. If you haven’t already, resolve to learnthe Gestalt principles of perception.

Figure Ground Relationship

Elements are perceived as either figures (distinct elements of focus)or ground (the background or landscape on which the figures rest).

Law of Prägnanz

Humans tend to interpret ambiguous or complex images as simple and complete.

Uniform Connectedness

Elements that share uniform visual characteristics are perceived asbeing more related than elements with disparate visualcharacteristics.

Good Continuation

Elements arranged on a line or curve are perceived to be more relatedthan elements not on the line or curve.

Closure

When looking at a complex arrangement of individual elements, humanstend to first look for a single, recognizable pattern.

Common Fate

Humans tend to perceive elements moving in the same direction as beingmore related than elements that are stationary or that move indifferent directions.

Proximity

Things that are close to one another are perceived to be more relatedthan things that are spaced farther apart.

Similarity

Things that are similar are perceived to be more related than thingsthat are dissimilar.

APPROACHES TO DESIGN

VIII. Wucius WongPrinciples of Two-Dimensional Design, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. NY, 1972Design is planned and as such has four elements:1. Conceptual elements are point, line, plane, and volume

These elements are not visible, they are the being communicated.Point indicates a position, but does not occupy space, it may be the intersection of linesLine is the path a point takes; it has length but not width, it has position and directionPlane is the path of a line that has direction in addition to its intrinsic direction, bounded by

lineVolume is the path of a plane in motion in a direction other than its intrinsic direction,

bounded by planes, so that it has position in space. In a two-dimensional design, volume is illusory, does not actually exist.

2. Visual elements are shape, size, color, and textureWhen conceptual elements can be seen they become visual elementsShape is anything that can be seen that has a visible plane or planes

This is to be distinguished from form, which in Mr. Wong’s thinking, is when any of the

conceptual elements are depicted.Size is measurable, and all shapes have sizeColor may be the hues of the spectrum as well as neutrals and all tonal and chromatic

variationsTexture is the surface characteristic of a shape, and may be physical (tangible) or

implied3. Relational elements are direction, position, space, and gravity

How the placement of the shapes affect the understanding of the objectsDirection of a shape is understood by how it is placed in relation to the viewer, to its

surroundings, and to the picture planePosition is the relationship of the form to the outside edgesSpace is either the solid object or the not solid area represented

Gravity is suggested by the location placement of forms in the space in relation to the edges4. Practical elements are representation, meaning, and function

Underlying the content and extension of a design: how it relates to cultural elementsRepresentation denotes a shape derived from nature or the man-made worldMeaning is present when a design communicates a messageFunction is the purpose of the design, how it will be used

The Framal Reference is the total space occupied by the design and any physical space associated with that design, usually the edges of the paper that are extra to the design. This is not to be confused with the Picture Plane.Picture Plane is the space occupied by the design structure

Form and StructureAll the visual elements constitute what is called formHow the form is created, constructed, or organized is the structure

IX. Art 122: 2-D Design The AIW approach

Principles and Elements of Design

Primary Principles

Unity and VarietyHierarchyProportion

Support Principles

ScaleBalanceRhythm and RepetitionProximity

Elements of Design

Shape and SpaceLineSizeColorTextureTypography

Primary Principles Definitions

Unity: the overriding principle that is served by all others; unity is the control of variety.

Variety: visual contrastHierarchy: an arranged order, the established order, importance, emphasis, and

movement given to visual elements, from the dominant ones to those that are subordinate.

Proportion: size relationships in a composition that serve as the image area and surface; the relation between outer dimensions and internal divisions.

Support Principles Definitions

Scale: size comparisons of the internal parts of a composition, from one element to another.

Balance: the visual distribution of elements in a composition.Rhythm: an alternating repetition of shape and space.

Repetition: a pattern of related or juxtaposed elements.Proximity: the position and space given to the placement of elements in a

composition.

Elements of Design Definitions

Shape: a figure or mass. Space: the area that composes either the figure or the ground.

Line: the moving path of a point.Size: the physical dimensions of an element or format.Color: inherent hues found in light and pigment.Texture: the tactile quality and characteristics of a surface.

Typography: the arrangement and aesthetics of letterforms.

X. 2-D Design Terminology

Abstract: images that represent the physical world but are simplified or distortedAchromatic gray: a mixture of black and whiteAdditive color system: color system of lightBalance: the visual distribution of elements in a compositionColor: inherent hues found in light and pigmentContinuity: all parts of a design support and are cohesive with the totalContrast: the differences I a design created by color, shape, texture, placement, etc.Dominance: the prevailing influence of one element over another; that which attracts attentionFigure/ground: the space occupied by the solid object (figure) and surrounding space (ground)Gestalt: the way things come together; the sum is more than the partsHierarchy: the arranged order of important to lesser important elements in the designLine: the moving path of a point; an extended mark that indicates directionMonochromatic; a single color, when mixed as tints, tones, or shades may still be referred to as the sameOrientation: the point of view determined by the designer, e.g. Portrait (taller) or landscape (wider)Proportion: the outer dimension of a composition that determines the use of the interior spaceProximity: the position and space given to the placement of elements in a composition, the distance between partsRepetition: a pattern of related elementsRhythm: an alternating repetition of shape and space; a smooth movement of the designShade: the mix of black with a colorShape: a 2-D figureTexture: the tactile quality and characteristics of a surface, actual or perceivedTheme: the subject or topic presented, the meaning of what is ccreated in a designTypography: the arrangement and aesthetics of letterformsUnity: the control of varietyValue: lightness or darkness

XI.

RESOURCE LINKS/WEBSITES/Films

Exploring the Use of Grid Systems in 2-D Design

http://www.aisleone.net/ 2009/design/myths-misconceptions-about-grid-systems/

http://www.thegridsystem.org/

http://graphicdesign.about.com/ od/layout/a/grid_system.htm

Using the Rule of Thirds

http://desktoppub.about.com / od/designprinciples/l/aa_balance4.htm

Using Multiple Grid Systems

http://desktoppub.about.com/cs/newsletterdesign/qt/nl_multigrids.htm

Use Consistency, Conservation, Contrast to Improve Newsletter Design

http://desktoppub.about.com/ od/newsletters/a/newsletter3c.htm

Film Sources: about 35 minutes running time each unless specified otherwise

Graphic Design: An Introduction to Graphic Design, Teacher’s Video CompanyAIW Library Z, 246, .G72, 2001

Key Points: Four Important elements in Graphic Design ( I have purposely listed these in reverse order.)

ProximityAlignmentRepetitionContrast

The rule of thirds for page layout: divide page horizontally into three equal sections

A Page is read as an X, top left to bottom right, across bottom, then from bottom left to top right

Overall Design : What pictures and words are wanted to be used, what is the visual hook, what will catch the viewers eye?Using Typography: concord, conflict, and contrast

Concord: using one type face onlyConflict: using fonts that are too similarContrast: using typefaces with very distinct differences

Graphic Design: 1 Demonstrating the Values of Good Design, Learn and Earn Video, Step by Step VideoAIW Library Z, 253.5. G73, 1989, pt.1

Key Points: art work that is useful, it must communicate, it must inform and teach, illustrate and delineate, intrigue and fascinate the reader.

Pictures and visual symbols are used

Designers need disciplines that parallel free art/fine art: All the sensory skills are involved. Sensitivity to color, drawing, judging and comparing, understanding a relationship of size, knowing the power of the line or the shape of a free curve. Also must know materials/media used.

The Small Job: the bread and butter of Graphic Designers*see Key Points for pt 2, as these are also covered in this video

Small JobsExplore

The Bricks of Good Design

Building Blocks of Successful Design: PurposeMedia Arena

Suppliers Results Discipline Freedom

This video demonstrates several projects from concept to completion, including designing a logoGraphic Design: 2 The Application of Good Design, Learn and Earn Video, Step by Step Video

AIW Library Z, 253.5. G73, 1989, pt.2Key Points: Take risks

ExploreDefine PurposeClients?Media?Arena?SuppliersResponse

Building Blocks of Successful Design: PurposeMedia Arena

Suppliers Results Discipline Freedom

This video demonstrates several projects from concept to completion.

DVD format

Elements and Principles of Design, ShopwareAIW Library N, 7430, .E4, 2006

This is an Australasia Production so the accents are apparent and the approach is different

Design Solutions, Graphic Design: What’s in a Logo?, Films for the Humanities and SciencesAIW Library NC, 1002, .L63, G73, 2003

This is a British production so the accents are apparent. This is 15 minutes in lengthA look at the development of the logo for Digital Animations Group PLC (DA Group)

By Navy Blue of Edinburgh, ScotlandKey Points:

Client: Concept: the pitch to the clientDesign: different approaches to the desired concept that client has accepted

Need for usability and flexibilityProduction: incorporating the design across the various media use applicationsDesign Solution

DVD format

6 Tips for Graphic Design Sizzle, Learning ZoneXpressAIW Library NC, 997, .A56, 2004

This is a high school oriented production. It is 12 minutes in length

Key Points:A picture says a thousand wordsDivide and conquerAnswer the 5 WsUse the “Z” formatReverse the font to catch the eyeForget the feet: do not use serif fonts