2012 katalisis oganologam

KATALIS HOMOGEN

Catalytic Deuteration

Hydroformylation

Monsanto Acetic Acid Process

Wacker (SMIDT) Process

Hydrogenation by Wilkinsons Catalyst

Olefin Metathesis

KATALIS HETEROGEN

Ziegler-Natta Polymerization

Water Gas Reaction

KATALIS ORGANOLOGAM

Why should you care ? Kimia Organologam: basis dari homogeneous catalysis,

katalis homogen, alternatif metode sintesis yang bersih dan

efisien untuk pembuatan farmasetika dan berbagai

kemikalia skala besar

plastics (polythene, polypropene, butadiene rubber, ...)

dan deterjen dibuat via katalisis organologam.

Kimia Organologam: juga basis pemahaman tahapan reaksi

heterogeneous catalysis misalnya hidrogenasi olefin dan

oksidasi CO.

Senyawa organologam digunakan dalam skala besar sebagai

prekursor semikonduktor (AlN, GaAs, etc).

Silicone rubbers are one of the few classes of organometallic

compounds used as "final products". 2

Homogeneous Catalysis - Introduction

Reaction Coordinate

G

GReactants

Products

Ea

Eacatalyzed

Catalyzed rxn proceeding through

an intermediate

the catalyst and substrates for the reaction are in the same phase in the

homogeneous, but not in the heterogeneous type, where catalysis takes

place at the surface of a solid catalyst.

Advantages/Disadvantages of Homogeneous Catalysts Relative to

Heterogeneous Catalysts

Good homogeneous catalysts are:

Good generally far more selective for a single product

far more active

far more easily studied from chemical & mechanistic aspects (NMR)

far more easily modified for optimizing selectivity

Green Chemistry!!! Bad far more sensitive to permanent deactivation

far more difficult for achieving product/catalyst separations

Heterogeneous catalysts dominate chemical and petro-chemical

industry: ~ 95% of all chemical processes use heterogenous catalysts.

Homogenous catalysts are used when selectivity is critical and product-

catalyst separation problems can be solved.

Homogeneous or Heterogeneous? (N/A)

There are several general ways to test whether a catalyst is homogeneous or

heterogeneous.

Exposure to elemental Hg will generally poison a heterogeneous catalyst

Exposure to polythiols will poison most homogeneous catalysts

Light scattering studies to identify the presence of colloids (heterogeneous)

Product selectivity studies:

e.g., polymer bound alkenes:

Polymer

Catalyst

+ H2 Polymer

Catalyst Homo/Hetero % Yield

RhCl(PPh3)3 homo 100

Ni(OAc)2 + NaBH4 hetero --

[Rh(nbd)(PR3)2]+ homo 90

Pd/C hetero --

[Ir(cod){P(i-pr)3}(py)]+ homo 100

Some Catalysis Terminology (N/A)

Turnover (TO) -- one loop through the catalyst cycle. Typically one equivalent of

reactant is converted to one equivalent of product (per equivalent of catalyst).

Turnover Frequency (TOF) or Turnover Rate -- the number of passes through

the catalytic cycle per unit time (typically sec, min or hrs). This number is usually

determined by taking the # of moles of product produced, dividing that by the # of

moles of catalyst used in the reaction, then dividing that by the time to produce the

given amount of product.

0 5 10 15 20

Time (hours)

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

Ln P)

Vinyl Acetate Hydroformylation

8 TO/min

476 TO/hr

Equiv

Prod

Aldehydekobs = 0.0076 min

-1

Initial TOF

sampling from

autoclave causespressure glitches

Uptake curve

Ln plot

0.3mM catalyst -- 85C/90 psi H /CO2

Turnover Number (TON) -- the absolute number of passes through the catalytic

cycle before the catalyst becomes deactivated.

Academic chemists sometimes report only the turnover number when the catalyst is

very slow (they dont want to be embarassed by reporting a very low TOF), or decomposes quite rapidly.

Industrial chemists are interested in both TON and TOF. A large TON (e.g., 106 -

1010) indicates a stable, very long-lived catalyst. TON is defined as the amount of

reactant (moles) divided by the amount of catalyst (moles) times the % yield of

product.

Authors often report mole % of catalyst used. This refers to the fraction of catalyst

used relative to the amount of limiting reactant present.

These represent the

theoretical maximum #

of turnovers. One also

has to note the % yield

or the % conversion of

substrate into product to

figure out the actual # of

turnovers!!

10 mole % catalyst = 10 turnovers



0.1 mole % catalyst = 1000 turnovers

0.01 mole % catalyst = 10,000 turnovers

Process Typical Catalysts

Petroleum Refining

Cracking Pt/Re on alumina, Zeolites

Reforming Pt/Re/Ge/Sn on alumina (dehydrogenation)

Hydrocracking alumina, zeolites, Pt

Hydrodesulfurization (Mo-Co) oxides, (Mo-Ni) oxides

Hydrodenitrogenation (W-Ni) oxides

Chemical Manufacturing

Natural Gas desulfurization ZnO, Cu, Fe on activated C

Hydrogenations Raney Ni, Raney Co, Pt, Rh

Methanol synthesis Cu-ZnO

Dehydrogenation Butadiene: Fe2O3, Pt/Re on alumina; styrene: Zn, Cr, Fe

or Mn oxides

Oxidations ethylene oxide: Ag, nitric acid: Pt/Rh mesh/gauze

sulfuric acid: V2O5, maleic, phthalic anhydrides: V2O5,

formaldehyde: Ag or Cu; Mo, Fe, V oxides

Polymerizations Ziegler-Natta polypropylene: Al alkyls + TiCl3

Dow single site polypropylene: Ti metallocene

Phillips -- Cr oxide on silica, Polyethylene (low density):

peroxides, peresters; Polystyrene: benzoyl peroxide;

Urethanes: amines, organo-tin, phosphine oxides

Hydroformylation Union Carbide/Hoechst/BASF: Rh/PPh3

Exxon/BASF: HCo(CO)4 , Shell: HCo(CO)4(PR3) (R =

bulky alkyl)

Rank Chemical Production

#4 Ethylene

33 billion lbs

Steam Cracking of Hydrocarbons:

larger hydrocarbon smaller hydrocarbon + H2

C2H6(g) C2H4(g) + H2(g)

Catalyst: Zeolites, Pt/Re on Al2O3 support

Conditions: 850C, 20-50 atm

#10 Propylene

18 billion lbs

Steam Cracking of Hydrocarbons:

C3H8(g) C3H6(g) + C2H4(g) + CH4(g) H2(g)

Catalyst: Zeolites, Pt/Re on Al2O3 support

Conditions: 850C, 20-50 atm

#12 Dichloroethane

15 billion lbs

Direct Chlorination:

C2H4(g) + Cl2(g) ClCH2CH2Cl(g)

Catalyst: FeCl3 or AlCl3

Oxychlorination:

2C2H4(g) + 4HCl(g) + O2 2ClCH2CH2Cl(g) + 2H2O

Catalyst: Cu salts on SiO2 or Al2O3 supports

#16 Benzene

10 billion lbs

Hydrocarbon Reforming (dehydrogenation)

C6H14(g) C6H12(g) + H2(g) Endothermic!

C6H12(g) C6H6(g) + 3H2(g) Endothermic!

toluene benzene + methane

Catalyst: Pt/Re/Ge/Sn on Al2O3 support

#17 Ethyl Benzene

9 billion lbs

C6H6(g) + C2H4(g) C6H5C2H5

1. Catalyst: Liquid phase system with AlCl3

2. Catalyst: Zelolite Lewis Acid based gas phase process

Classic Friedel-Crafts rxn.

#19 Vinyl Chloride

8 billion lbs

ClCH2CH2Cl(g) H2C=CHCl(g) + HCl(g)

This reaction is often coupled with the oxychlorination reaction

to produce dichloroethane, this allows recycling of the HCl.

#20 Styrene

8 billion lbs

Dehydrogenation of ethyl benzene

Catalyst: Fe oxides on Al2O3 support

Conditions: 550-600C

#21 Terephthalic

Acid

8 billion lbs

Amoco Process:

p-CH3-C6H4-CH3 + 3O2 p-HOOC-C6H4-COOH + H2O

Catalyst: Co/Mn salts (with some heavy metal bromides)

Conditions: liquid acetic acid solution, 200C, 20 atm

Ti or Hastelloy C lined reactor (very corrosive)

#22 Methanol

7 billion lbs

CO + H2 CH3OH

Catalyst: ZnO/Cu salt

Conditions: > 100 atm, 200-300C

#24 Ethylene Oxide

6 billion lbs

C2H4(g) + O2 ethylene oxide

Catalyst: Ag

Conditions: 300C

#26 Toluene

6 billion lbs

Catalytic Reforming of methyl cyclohexane and derivatives

Catalyst: Pt/Re on Al2O3 support

Conditions: 500C and 25 atm

#27 Xylenes

5.5 billion lbs

Catalytic Reforming of 1,4-dimethylcyclohexane

Catalyst: Pt/Re on Al2O3 support

Conditions: 500C and 25 atm

#28 Ethylene

Glycol

5 billion lbs

ethylene oxide + H2O HOCH2CH2OH

Catalyst: H2SO4 (0.5 - 1%), 50-70C

Conditions: Thermal @ 195C and 15 atm.

#29 Butylaldehyde

5 billion lbs

Hydroformylation -- Union Carbide/Celanese/BASF

propylene + H2 + CO CH3CH2CH2CHO

Catalyst: homogeneous Rh/PPh3 catalyst

Conditions: 100-125C, 8-25 atm

#31 Cummene

3.7 billion lbs

benzene + propene C6H5CH(CH3)2

1. Liquid phase catalysts: H2SO4, AlCl3, HF

2. Gas phase catalyst: H3PO4 on SiO2

Friedel Crafts reaction

Conditions: 35-40C, 7 bar (liquid); 200-300C, 20-40 bar (gas)

Cumene is mainly used to produce phenol and acetone.

#32 Acetic Acid

3.5 billion lbs

CH3OH + CO CH3COOH

Catalyst: homogeneous RhI2(CO)2-

(Monsanto Acetic Acid process)

Conditions: 150C, 35 atm

CATALYTIC DEUTERATION

.

Hydroformylation

+ CO + H2 H

O

+

OH

linear (normal) branched (iso)

Rh or CoR R

R

Aldehydes

R

alkene isomerization alkene hydrogenation

R

side reactions

*

* Proses katalisis homogen terbesar

* > 15 billion pounds of aldehydes (alcohols) per year

Katalis komersial menggunakan kompleks Co atau Rh

Selektivitas menghasilkan aldehid linear (normal) merupakan hal yang penting

Otto Roelen (1897-1993)

HYDROFORMYLATION

.

C CoC

C

H

CO

O

OO

- CO (disosiasi ligan)

+ alkena(cordination of olefin)

R

CoC

C

H

CO

O

O

R

+ COaddition of CO)

C CoC

C

C

R

O

O

OO

CoC

C

C

R

O

O

OO R

CoC

C

CO

O

O

Co

CO

CO

CO

O R

H

H

H

O

R

+ H2 (Oxidative addition)

1,2 migratory insertion

alkyl migration

CoC

C

H

CO

O

O

Reductive elimination

18e

18e

18e

18e

16e

16e

16e

Mekanisme lain tersedia : HYDROFORMYLATION USING HRh(CO)2(PPh3)2

Sintesis asam asetat

Asam asetat berperan penting dalam industri kimia.

Proses tradisional menggunakan fermentasi : bio-oksidasi

alkohol

C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2

C2H5OH + O2 CH3COOH + H2O

Bukan proses yang bersih dan efisien

Industrial proses:

CH3OH + CO CH3COOH, 2 juta ton per tahun

Katalisis menggunakan kompleks rhodium. 19

MONSANTO ACETIC ACID PROCESS

.

RhI

OC CO

I

HI

CH3I

CH3OH(+ H2O)

RhI

OC CO

I

CH3

I

RhI

OC

II

CH3

O+ CO

RhI

OC

II

CH3

OCO

H3C

O

I

+ H2O(hydrolisis)

H3C

O

OH

+ HI

HI sebagai side product dipakai lagi berikatan dengan methanol

oxidative addition

alkyl migration

ligand coordinaton

reductive elimination

Rh(I) 16e Rh(III) 18e

Rh(III) 16eRh(III) 18e

The reaction is independent of CO pressure First order in both rhodium and MeI. Rate determining step is the oxidative addition of MeI to the [Rh(CO)2I2]

- catalyst.

WACKER (SMIDT) PROCESS

(Nucleophilic addition of H2O at ethylene)

untuk sintesis asetaldehida dari etilena, dimana melibatkan siklus katalitik menggunakan

PdCl42- dimana Pd mampu mengubah sifat kimia alkena sehingga mampu mengadakan

reaksi kimia pada saat terikat pada Pd

.

Nucleophilic attack at ligand

Nucleophilic:

requires an electron-poor ligand atom

(acidic proton, coordinated C=X bond)

6/6/2012 23

+ OH- PdCl Cl

H2O

OH

-

PdCl Cl

H2O

The Wacker process (N/A)

karakteristik Wacker process:

Oksigen pada produk berasal dari air bukan dari oksigen langung sebagai oksidan

4 juta ton aldehid per tahun Olefin rantai lebih panjang menghasilkan keton, bukan

aldehid

Korosif karena perlu banyak halida Produk sampingan dihasilkan dari proses serangan

nukleofilik halida pada olefin

No longer important for acetic acid synthesis

Several variations (with more complicated nucleophiles) used in organic synthesis

25

The Wacker process (N/A) Characteristics of the Wacker process:

Alkena dapat menyerang nukleus membentuk kompleks logam alkil, lalu menata ulang membentuk produk lainnya. Hal ini

adalah dasar pengetahuan penting bagi proses industri

Fakta bahwa PdCl2 (aq) dapat mengoksidasi etilen menjadi asetaldehid telah diketahui sejak abad 19 meski mekanismenya

belum dimengerti saat itu

Reaksinya mengkonsumsi PdCl2 menghasilkan Pd(0), Pd Cl2 cukup mahal jika hanya digunakan sebagai reagen stoikiometri

J.Smidt pada Wacker Chemie (1950) menyadari bahwa Pd(0) dapat dihalangi pengendapannya menggunakan CuCl2 yang

mengoksidasi Pd sementara tereduksi menjadi CuCl.

Catalytic olefin hydrogenation (N/A) Many chiral variations

available.

enantioselectivity mechanism

can be very subtle

For achiral hydrogenation,

heterogeneous catalysts ("Pd

black") are often a good

alternative.

Extremely high turnovers

possible.

27

M

H

M

H

MH

MHH

H

H2

HH

coord

insox add

red elim

. Katalis Wilkinson, RhCl(PPh3)3 Ligan

phosphine mempunyai peranan

penting yang membuat kompleks ini

selektif

Rh hanya akan bereaksi dengan

senyawaan olefin yang tidak

mempunyai hambatan sterik.

Sehingga katalis wilkinson digunakan

untuk hidrogenasi selektif dari ikatan

C=C dengan tidak ada hambatan

sterik.

Catalytic olefin hydrogenation (N/A)

Alternative mechanism

for metals not forming

a "stable" hydride.

Requires oxidative addition,

not observed for

early transition metals.

Distinguish between

mechanisms using

H2/D2 mixtures or PHIP. 29

M

HH

coord

ins

ox add

red elim

M H2

M

HH

MHH

Wilkinsons Catalyst Rh

Ph3P

Ph3P PPh3

ClRh

Ph3P

H PPh3

Cl

H

PPh3

+ H2

- PPh3

RhPh3P

PPh3

Cl

RhPh3P

H PPh3

Cl

H

Rh

Ph3P

PPh3

Cl

HH

R

- PPh3

+ H2

RhPh3P

H PPh3

Cl

H

R

R

R

OLEFIN METATHESIS

.

ALKYNE METATHESIS

M

C C

C M

C

C

C+

M C

C C+

Metathesis

Reaksi antara dua substrat tidak jenuh (biasanya

alkena atau alkuna) yang menggabungkan kedua

gugus pada kedua ujungnya yang mempunyai ikatan

rangkap

+

+

C8 C8

C14 C2

The proposed mechanism for this involves metal-alkylidenes

and is shown below:

M M M M

MMM

migratoryinsertion

migratoryinsertion

elimination

elimination

ethylenedissociation

dieneaddition

Polymerization Catalysis

Polymerization is the reaction of an unsaturated organic reactant, typically a C=C,

with itself over and over again to produce a polymer chain:

**

nn

When only a few alkenes couple together to make a short chain, we refer to that

as oligomerization (oligomers are very short polymers).

Initiation: generating the active catalyst from a less active catalyst

precursor:

LnM-Cl LnM-R + AlR2Cl+ AlR3

+ MAO (methylalumoxane)

+ ZnR2

LnM-Cl LnM-H+ H- + Cl-

Applications of oligomers and polymers Ethene and propene come directly from crude oil "crackers"

Primary petrochemical products, basic chemical feedstocks

Dimerization rarely desired

Making butene costs $$$ !

Oligomers: surfactants, comonomers

High added value, but limited market

Polymers: plastics, construction materials, foils and films

Very large market, bulk products

45

Propagation: the polymer chain growth portion of the reaction that occurs

over and over again:

M CH3 M CH3

-

M

H3C

M

H3C

MCH3

Termination: a reaction step that stops the polymer chain growth:

MCH3 CH3M H +

CH3M H +H2

Cossee (migatory insertion) Propagation Mechanism

M CH3 M CH3

-

M

H3C

M

H3C

MCH3

The commonly accepted mechanism for polymer chain growth on a transition metal

catalyst is the very simple migratory insertion mechanism initially proposed by Piet

Cossee (Royal Shell labs) in 1964.

Green-Rooney (alkyidene metallacycle) Propagation Mechanism

However in 1978 Malcolm Green and John Rooney proposed a rather different

mechanism based on the recently reported Schrock alkylidenes:

ZIEGLER-NATTA POLIMERIZATION

.

CO2 and CO activation Berbagai reagen organik saat ini dibuat secara komersial dari

etilena, turunan proses pemurnian minyak bumi

Di masa depan perlu mencari sumber karbon lain

Batu bara atau natural gas (metana) dapat diubah menjadi

campuran CO/H2 (water gas/synthesis gas/syn gas) dengan udara

dan uap yang nantinya dapat diubah menjadi metanol dan bahan

bakar alkana melalui berbagai katalis heterogen.

WATER GAS REACTION

H2O + C H2 + CO T & P tinggi Fischer-Tropsch process H2 + CO alkana ; Co catalyst 3H2 + CO CH4 + H2O ; Ni catalyst 2H2 + CO CH3OH ; Co or Zn/Cu catalyst Steam reforming, pada P & T tinggi CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2 ; Ni catalyst, 700-1000

0C Water gas shift reaction CO + H2O CO2 + H2 ; Fe/Cr or Zn/Cu catalyst, 400

0C Solusi Green Chemistry : Chem.Rev. 2007, 107, 40224047 Hydrogen Production by Molecular Photocatalysis Arthur J. Esswein and Daniel G. Nocera fotokatalisis dengan bantuan katalis

organologam dll. untuk mengubah berbagai substrat kimia menjadi sumber hidrogen

Misal reaksi FischerTropsch mengubah syn gas menjadi campuran

alkana rantai panjang dan alkohol dengan katalis heterogen( biasanya

Co, Fe atau Ru)

Rasio CO:H2 syn gas dapat diubah melalui watergas shif treaction,

yang terkatalis heterogen (Fe3O4 or Cu/ZnO) atau berbagai katalis

homogen Fe(CO)5 atau Pt(i-Pr3P)3.

Baik reagen maupun produk mempunyai energi bebas yang serupa

maka reaksi dapat berjalan kedua arah sehingga dapat dianggap sebagai

aktivasi CO maupun CO2.

Homogeneous Catalysis of Water Gas shift reaction

.

Pd-Catalyzed C-C Coupling Rxns

R-X + R'-SnR3

Pd(0)

R-R' + XSnR3

aryl orvinyl halide

organotin

R-X + R'-ZnRPd(0)

R-R' + XZnR

aryl orvinyl halide

organozinc

R-X + R'-B(OH)2

Pd(0)

R-R' + XB(OH)2

aryl orvinyl halide

organoboron

R-X +Pd(0)

+ HX

aryl orvinyl halide

alkene

R'R'

R

R-X +Pd(0)

+ HX

aryl orvinyl halide

alkyne

R' R'R

Stille coupling:

Negishi coupling:

Suzuki coupling:

Heck reaction:

Sonogashira coupling:

Anorg. Chem. Inst. der Technischen Universitt Mnchen

Why the Heck Bother with the Heck Reaction:

Applications in Industry and Total Synthesis

Non-Steroidal

Anti-inflammatory drugs

Sunscreen Agents

Flavourings

Cosmetic Additives

Key Steps in Total Synthesis O

O O

ACB

L.F. Tietze and T. Grote,

J. Org. Chem., 1994, 59, 192

J.J. Masters, D.K. Jung,

W.G. Bornmann and

S.J. Danishefsky,

Tetrahedron Lett., 1993, 34, 7253

O

NH

NSO2Ph

Taxol

Skeleton

CC-1065

Skeleton

MeO

O

O

2-Ethylhexyl trans-4-methoxycinnamate

MeO

O

O

Isoamyltrans-4-methoxycinnamate

COOH

CH3

MeO(s)-Naproxen

Br

MeO

MeO

Heck reaction

The Heck reaction

For most systems,

we don't know the

coordination environment

of Pd during catalysis.

At best, we can detect

one or more resting states.

The dramatic effects of

ligand variation show

that at least one ligand

is bound to Pd for

at least part of the cycle.

59

Pd

H

R

Ar+

Pd

RAr

+Pd

Ar

R

+

X-

H+

R

Pd

Ar

X

Ar

RPd

ArX

ox add

subst

ins

-elim

R-X +Pd(0)

+ HX

aryl orvinyl halide

alkene

R'R'

R

The Heck reaction

Works well with aryl iodides, bromides

Slow with chlorides

Hardly any activity with acetates etc

Challenges for "green chemistry"

Pt is ineffective

Probably gets "stuck" somewhere in the cycle

Oxidative addition, reductive elimination 60

Suzuki and Stille coupling

The oxidative addition and

reductive elimination steps

have been studied extensively.

Much less is known about

the mechanism of

the substitution step.

The literature mentions

"open" (3-center) and

"closed" (4-center) mechanisms

This may well be different

for different electrophiles. 61

Pd

Pd

R

X

Pd

R

Ar

RX

ArEEX

RAr

ox add

subst

red elim

Cross-Coupling of Organometallics and Halides

R-X + R'-MPd(0)

R-R' + MX

M = MgX, ZrCp2Cl, ZnX, SnR3, B(OR)2, AlMe2, SiR3, Cu,

The mechanism involves oxidative addition of the halide or triflate to the initial Pd(0) phosphine

complex to form a Pd(II) species. The key slow step is a transmetallation, so called because

the nucleophile (R') is transferred from the metal in the organometallic reagent to the palladium

and the counterion (X = halide or triflate) moves in the opposite direction. The new Pd(II)

complex with two organic ligands undergoes reductive elimination to give the coupled product

and the Pd(0) catalyst ready for another cycle.

L Pd L

Pd

L

L R

X

+ R-X

R'-MM-X

Pd

L

L R

R'

R'-R

transmetallation

The halide partner (RX) must be chosen with care,

as -hydride elimination

would decompose the first

intermediate during the

slow transmetallation step.

The choice for R is

restricted to substituents

without -hydrogen atoms:

vinyl, allyl, benzyl, and

polyfluoroalkyl halides,

triflates, and phosphates

have all been coupled

successfully.

Heck reaction: R-X +

Pd(0)

+ Base-HX

aryl orvinyl halide

alkene

R'R'

R

Base

R3P Pd PR3

R

PdR3P X

PR3

R

PdR3P PR3

X

-X-

R'

+

R

PdR3P

PR3R'

oxidativeaddition

migratoryinsertion

PdR3P

PR3R'

R

PdR3P

PR3R'

R

-hydrideelimination

H

H H

H

+ R-X

R' R

+ Base

+ [HBase]X

- PR3

R

PdR3P

X

R'+

R'

PdR3P

XR'

RH H

H

migratoryinsertion

PdR3P

X R'

RH

-hydrideelimination

R' R

+ Base

+ [HBase]X

+ PR3

+X-

Big Summary

Dari keseluruhan kuliah MRA anda telah mendapatkan (setidaknya

salah satunya):

+/- 3 bab dari buku teks kimia anorganik

Pengetahuan tentang berbagai mekanisme reaksi baik stoikiometrik

maupun katalisis kimia koordinasi dan khususnya kimia organologam

Bekal tambahan ketika anda menghadapi kuliah kimia tingkat

advance: kimia bioanorganik, sintesis kimia organik,+ anorganik

(organologam)!

(sintesis kimia merupakan kajian terpenting ilmu kimia !)

gambaran bagaimana sebagian besar reagen kimia yang anda kenal

dihasilkan melalui proses katalisis dari source minyak bumi (syn-gas)

oleh perusahaan terkemuka dunia

Gambaran bagaimana mempelajarinya dalam skala laboratorium

Mengetahui perkembangan terakhir katalisis dan sintesis kimia (eq.

nobel: ziegler-natta 1963, ferrocene1973, sintesis L-DOPA 2001)

Aplikasi kimia dalam industri

Sintesis kimia organik!

KIMIA BIOANORGANIK, MEDISINAL

BIOKIMIA

KIMIA LINGKUNGAN GREEN CHEMISTRY

2012 katalisis oganologam

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