8/6/2019 2011 Japan

1/14

2011 THOKU (JAPAN) EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI

INTERDUCTION

The 2011 Thoku earthquake and tsunami (Higashi Nihon Daishinsai, literally"Eastern Japan Great Earthquake Disaster") was caused by a 9.0-magnitude underseamega thrust earthquake off the coast of Japan that occurred at 14:46 JST (05:46 UTC) onFriday, 11 March 2011. The epicenter was approximately 72 km east of the OshikaPeninsula of Thoku, with the hypocenter at an underwater depth of approximately 32km On 1 April 2011, the Japanese government named the disaster resulting from theearthquake and tsunami the "Great Eastern Japan Earthquake" ( Higashi Nihon

Daishinsai).The earthquake triggered extremely destructive tsunami waves of up to 37.9

meters (124 ft) that struck Japan minutes after the quake, in some cases traveling up to 10km (6 mi) inland, with smaller waves reaching many other countries after several hours.Tsunami warnings were issued and evacuations ordered along Japan's Pacific coast and atleast 20 other countries, including the entire Pacific coast of the Americas. The JapaneseNational Police Agency has confirmed 12,787 deaths, 4,661 injured and 14,991 peoplemissing across eighteen prefectures, as well as over 125,000 buildings damaged ordestroyed. The earthquake and tsunami caused extensive and severe structural damage inJapan, including heavy damage to roads and railways as well as fires in many areas, and adam collapse. Around 4.4 million households in northeastern Japan were left withoutelectricity and 1.5 million without water. Many electrical generators were taken down,

and at least three nuclear reactors suffered explosions due to hydrogen gas that had builtup within their outer containment buildings after cooling system failure.

On 18 March, Yukiya Amanothe head of the International Atomic EnergyAgencydescribed the crisis as "extremely serious." Residents within a 20 km (12 mi)radius of the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant and a 10 km (6 mi) radius of theFukushima II Nuclear Power Plant were evacuated. In addition, the U.S. recommendedthat its citizens evacuate up to 80 km (50 mi) of the plant. Estimates of the Thokuearthquake's magnitude make it the most powerful known earthquake to have hit Japan,and one of the five most powerful earthquakes in the world overall since modern record-keeping began in 1900.

Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan said, "In the 65 years after the end of WorldWar II, this is the toughest and the most difficult crisis for Japan." The earthquake movedHonshu 2.4 m (7.9 ft) east and shifted the Earth on its axis by almost 10 cm (3.9 in).Early estimates placed insured losses from the earthquake alone at US$14.5 to $34.6billion.

The Bank of Japan offered Y15 trillion (US$183 billion) to the banking system on14 March in an effort to normalize market conditions. On 21 March, the World Bankestimated damage between US$122 billion and $235 billion. Japan's government said the

8/6/2019 2011 Japan

2/14

cost of the earthquake and tsunami that devastated the northeast could reach $309 billion,making it the world's most expensive natural disaster on record.

Table 1: showing the details of earthquake

Date 14:46:23, 11 March 2011 (+09:00)Duration 6 minutesMagnitude 9.0 MwDepth 32 km (20 mi)Epicenter location 381919N 1422208EType Mega thrust earthquakeCountries or regions affected Japan (primary) Pacific Rim (tsunami,

secondary)Total damage Tsunami wave, flooding, landslides, fires,

building and infrastructure damage,nuclear incidents including radiationreleases

Peak ground acceleration 2.99gTsunami Yes (10+ meters)Landslides YesForeshocks 7+ (4+ above 6.0 MW)Aftershocks 915916+ (6061+ above 6.0 MW)

This is a list of foreshocks and aftershocks of the 2011 Thoku earthquake, Japan hadexperienced over 916 aftershocks after the 9.0 M earthquake on March 11, 2011 withabout 60 aftershocks being over 6.0 M and three over7.0 M. Some of these are listedbelow

Table 2: List of foreshocks and aftershocks of the 2011 Thoku earthquake

Foreshock

Date Time(UTC)

Magnitude(Mw)

Latitude Longitude

Depth

Max.

Max.Intensity(shind

8/6/2019 2011 Japan

3/14

o)09-March

-20112:45

AM 7.238.424N142.836E 32 kmlower 5

Main shock

DateTime(UTC)

Magnitude(Mw)

LatitudeLongitu

deDepth

Max.

Max.Intensity(shindo)

11-March-2011

05:46AM 938.322N

142.369E 32 km7

Aftershocks

DateTime(UTC)

Magnitude(Mw)

LatitudeLongitu

deDepth

Max.

Max.Intensity(shindo)

11-March-2011

06:15AM 7.936.27N 141.14E 35 kmLower 6

11-March-2011

06:25AM 7.738.05N 144.59E 18 km

07-April-2011

02:23PM 7.138.253N 141.64E 49 kmUpper 6

11-April-2011

08:16PM 6.637.007N

140.477E 10 kmLower 6

8/6/2019 2011 Japan

4/14

An aerial view of tsunami damage Japan region

Map showing the epicenter of the earthquake

8/6/2019 2011 Japan

5/14

Earthquake

Map of the Thoku earthquake and aftershocks on March 11. The 9.0-magnitude(MW) undersea mega thrust earthquake occurred on 11 March 2011 at 14:46 JST (05:46

GMT) in the western Pacific Ocean at a relatively shallow depth of 32 km (19.9 mi), withits epicenter approximately 72 km (45 mi) east of the Oshika Peninsula of Thoku, Japan,lasting approximately six minutes. The nearest major city to the quake was Sendai, on themain island of Honshu, 130 km (81 mi) away. The quake occurred 373 km (232 mi) fromTokyo.

The main earthquake was preceded by a number of large foreshocks, andhundreds of aftershocks were reported. The first major foreshock was a 7.2 MW event on9 March, approximately 40 km (25 mi) from the location of the 11 March quake, withanother three on the same day in excess of 6.0 MW. Following the quake, a 7.0 MWaftershock was reported at 15:06 JST, followed by a 7.4 at 15:15 JST and a 7.2 at 15:26

JST. Over eight hundred aftershocks of magnitude 4.5 or greater have occurred since theinitial quake.United States Geological Survey (USGS) director Marcia McNutt explained that

aftershocks follow Omori's Law, might continue for years, and will taper off in time. Oneminute before the earthquake was felt in Tokyo, the Earthquake Early Warning system,which includes more than 1,000 seismometers in Japan, sent out warnings of impendingstrong shaking to millions. The early warning is believed by the Japan MeteorologicalAgency (JMA) to have saved many lives. Initially reported as 7.9 MW by the USGS, themagnitude was quickly upgraded to 8.8, then again to 8.9, and then finally to 9.0.

GeologyThis earthquake occurred where the Pacific Plate is subducting under the plate

beneath northern Honshu; which plate is a matter of debate amongst scientists. ThePacific plate, which moves at a rate of 8 to 9 cm (3.1 to 3.5 in) per year, dips underHonshu's underlying plate releasing large amounts of energy. This motion pulls the upperplate down until the stress builds up enough to cause a seismic event. The break causedthe sea floor to rise by several meters. A quake of this magnitude usually has a rupturelength of at least 480 km (300 mi) and generally requires a long, relatively straight faultsurface. Because the plate boundary and subduction zone in the area of the rupture is notvery straight, it is unusual for the magnitude of an earthquake to exceed 8.5; the

magnitude of this earthquake was a surprise to some seismologists.

EnergyThis earthquake released a surface energy (Me) of 1.90.51017 joules, dissipated

as shaking and tsunamic energy, which is nearly double that of the 9.1-magnitude 2004Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that killed 230,000 people. "If we could onlyharness the [surface] energy from this earthquake, it would power [a] city the size of Los

8/6/2019 2011 Japan

6/14

Angeles for an entire year," McNutt said in an interview. The total energy released, alsoknown as the seismic moment (M0), was more than 200,000 times the surface energy andwas calculated by the USGS at 3.91022 joules, slightly less than the 2004 Indian Oceanquake. This is equivalent to 9,320 gigatons of TNT, or approximately 600 million timesthe energy of the Hiroshima bomb. Japan's National Research Institute for Earth Science

and Disaster Prevention (NIED) calculated a peak ground acceleration of 2.99 g(29.33m/s2). The largest individual recording in Japan was 2.7g, in the Miyagi Prefecture,75km from the epicenter; the highest reading in the Tokyo metropolitan area was 0.16g.

Geophysical impacts

The quake moved portions of northeast Japan by as much as 2.4 m (7.9 ft) closerto North America, making portions of Japan's landmass wider than before. Portions ofJapan closest to the epicenter experienced the largest Shifts. A 400 km (250 mi) stretch ofcoastline dropped vertically by 0.6 m (2.0 ft), allowing the tsunami to travel farther and

faster onto land. The Pacific plate itself may have moved westwards by up to 20 m (66ft), though the actual displacement will have diminished with greater distance from thesite of the fault. Other estimates put the amount of slippage at as much as 40 m (130 ft),covering an area some 300 to 400 km (190 to 250 mi) long by 100 km (62 mi) wide. Ifconfirmed, this would be one of the largest recorded fault movements to have beenassociated with an earthquake. The earthquake shifted the Earth's axis by 25 cm (9.8 in).This deviation led to a number of small planetary changes, including the length of a dayand the tilt of the Earth. The speed of the Earth's rotation increased, shortening the day by1.8 microseconds due to the redistribution of Earth's mass. The axial shift was caused bythe redistribution of mass on the Earth's surface, which changed the planet's moment ofinertia. Because of conservation of angular momentum, such changes of inertia result insmall changes to the Earth's rate of rotation. These are expected changes for anearthquake of this magnitude.

Soil liquefaction was evident in areas of reclaimed land around Tokyo, particularlyin Urayasu, Chiba. The liquefaction damaged houses in the town and trapped almost 30cars in the Tokyo Disneyland parking lot. Nearby Haneda Airport, built mostly onreclaimed land, was not damaged. Odaiba also experienced liquefaction, but damage wasminimal. Shinmoedake, a volcano in Kyushu, erupted two days after the earthquake. Thevolcano had previously erupted in January 2011; it is not known if the later eruption waslinked to the earthquake. In Antarctica, the seismic waves from the earthquake werereported to have caused the Whillans Ice Stream to slip by about 0.5 m (1.6 ft).

Aftershocks

Japan experienced over 900 aftershocks since the earthquake with about 60 beingover 6.0 M and three over 7.0 M. A 7.7 M and a 7.9 M quake occurred on March 11 andthe third one on April 7, 2011, with a disputed magnitude. Its epicenter was underwater,66 km (41 mi) off the coast of Sendai. The Japan Meteorological Agency assigned a

8/6/2019 2011 Japan

7/14

magnitude of 7.4, while the U.S. Geological Survey lowered it to 7.1. At least four peoplewere killed, and electricity was cut off across much of northern Japan.

Tsunami

The earthquake which was caused by 5 to 8 meters upthrust on 180-km wideseabed at 60 km offshore from the east coast of Thoku resulted in a major tsunamiwhich brought destruction along the Pacific coastline of Japan's northern islands andresulted in the loss of thousands of lives and devastated entire towns. The tsunamipropagated across the Pacific, and warnings were issued and evacuations carried out. Inmany countries bordering the Pacific, including the entire Pacific coast of North andSouth America from Alaska to Chile; however, while the tsunami was felt in many ofthese places, it caused only relatively minor effects. Chile's section of Pacific coast is oneof the furthest from Japan, at about 17,000 km (11,000 mi) away, but still was struck by

tsunami waves 2 m (6.6 ft) high. A wave height of 37.9 meters (124 ft) was estimated atTar, Iwate.The tsunami warning issued by the Japan Meteorological Agency was the most

serious on its warning scale; it rated as a "major tsunami", being at least 3 m (9.8 ft) high.The actual height predicted varied, the greatest being for Miyagi at 10 m (33 ft) high. Thetsunami inundated a total area of approximately 470 km2 in Japan.

The earthquake took place at 14:46 JST around 67 km (42 mi) from the nearestpoint on Japan's coastline, and initial estimates indicated the tsunami would have taken10 to 30 minutes to reach the areas first affected, and then areas further north and southbased on the geography of the coastline. Just over an hour after the earthquake at 15:55JST, a tsunami was observed flooding Sendai Airport, which is located near the coast ofMiyagi Prefecture, with waves sweeping away cars and planes and flooding variousbuildings as they traveled inland. The impact of the tsunami in and around Sendai Airportwas filmed by an NHK News helicopter, showing a number of vehicles on local roadstrying to escape the approaching wave and being engulfed by it. A 4 m high tsunami hitIwate Prefecture. Wakabayashi Ward in Sendai was also particularly hard hit.

Kuji and funato were almost entirely destroyed also destroyed wasRikuzentakata, where the tsunami was reportedly three stories high. Other citiesreportedly destroyed or heavily damaged by the tsunami include Kamaishi, Miyako,tsuchi, and Yamada (in Iwate Prefecture), Namie, Sma and Minamisma (inFukushima Prefecture) and Shichigahama, Higashimatsushima, Onagawa, Natori,

Ishinomaki, and Kesennuma (in Miyagi Prefecture). The most severe effects of thetsunami were felt along a 670-km (420 mi)-long stretch of coastline from Erimo in thenorth to arai in the south, with most of the destruction in that area occurring in the hourfollowing the earthquake. Near arai, people captured images of a huge whirlpool thathad been generated by the tsunami. The tsunami washed away the sole bridge toMiyatojima, Miyagi, isolating the island's 900 residents. A two meter high tsunami hit

8/6/2019 2011 Japan

8/14

Chiba Prefecture about 2 1/2 hours after the quake, causing heavy damage to cities suchas Asahi.

Earthquake-triggered tsumani sweep along the coast in Iwanuma, northern Japan.

On 13 March 2011, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) published details oftsunami observations recorded around the coastline of Japan following the earthquake.These observations included tsunami maximum readings of over 3 m (9.8 ft) at thefollowing locations and times on 11 March 2011, following the earthquake at 14:46 JST:[99] 15:12 JST Iwate Kamaishi-oki 6.8 m (22 ft) 15:15 JST funato 3.2 m (10 ft) or higher 15:20 JST Ishinomaki-shi Ayukawa 3.3 m (11 ft) or higher 15:21 JST Miyako 4.0 m (13.1 ft) or higher 15:21 JST Kamaishi 4.1 m (13 ft) or higher 15:44 JST Erimo-cho Shoya 3.5 m (11 ft) 15:50 JST Sma 7.3 m (24 ft) or higher 16:52 JST arai 4.2 m (14 ft)

These readings were obtained from recording stations maintained by the JMA around thecoastline of Japan. Many areas were also affected by waves of 1 to 3 meters (3.3 to 9.8 ft)in height, and the JMA bulletin also included the caveat that "At some parts of the coasts,tsunamis may be higher than those observed at the observation sites." The timing of theearliest recorded tsunami maximum readings ranged from 15:12 to 15:21, between 26

and 35 minutes after the earthquake had struck. The bulletin also included initial tsunamiobservation details, as well as more detailed maps for the coastlines affected by thetsunami waves.

A joint research team from Yokohama National University and the University ofTokyo also reported that the tsunami at Ryri Bay funato was about 30 m high. Theyfound fishing equipment scattered on the high cliff above the bay. At Tar, Iwate, aUniversity of Tokyo researcher reported an estimated tsunami height of 37.9 m (124 ft)

8/6/2019 2011 Japan

9/14

reached the slope of a mountain some 200 m (660 ft) away from the coastline. Thisheight is deemed the second record in Japan historically, as of reporting date, that follows38.2 m (125 ft) of 1896 Meiji-Sanriku earthquake.

CasualtiesThe National Police Agency has confirmed 12,787 deaths, 4,661 injured and

14,991 people missing across eighteen prefectures. The total number of fatalities isexpected to reach tens of thousands. Prefectural officials and the Kyodo News Agency,quoting local officials, said that 9,500 people from Minamisanriku in Miyagi Prefectureabout a half of the town's populationwere unaccounted for. NHK has reported thatthe death toll in Iwate Prefecture alone may reach 10,000. On 14 March, Kyodo NewsAgency reported that some 2,000 bodies were found on two shores in Miyagi Prefecture.

The tsunami is reported to have caused several deaths outside of Japan. One manwas killed in Jayapura, Papua, Indonesia after being swept out to sea. At the mouth of theKlamath River, south of Crescent City, California, a man who is said to have been

attempting to photograph the oncoming tsunami was swept out to sea and confirmedDead.

Damage and effects

The degree and extent of damage caused by the earthquake and resulting tsunamiwere enormous, with most of the damage being caused by the tsunami. Video footage ofthe towns worst affected shows little more than piles of rubble, with almost no parts ofany structures left standing. Estimates of the cost of the damage range well into the tensof billions of US dollars; before-and-after satellite photographs of devastated regions

show immense damage to many regions. Although Japan has invested the equivalent ofbillions of dollars on anti-tsunami seawalls which line at least 40% of its 34,751 km(21,593 mi) coastline and stand up to 12 m (39 ft) high, the tsunami simply washed overthe top of some seawalls, collapsing some in the process.

Japan's National Police Agency said on 3 April 2011, that 190,000 buildings weredestroyed or damaged by the quake and tsunami. Of those, 45,700 were destroyed. Thedamaged buildings included 29,500 structures in Miyagi Prefecture, 12,500 in IwatePrefecture and 2,400 in Fukushima Prefecture.

8/6/2019 2011 Japan

10/14

Nuclear power plants

The Fukushima I, Fukushima II, Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant and Tkai nuclear

power stations, consisting of a total eleven reactors, were automatically shut downfollowing the earthquake. Higashidri, also on the northeast coast, was already shut downfor a periodic inspection. Cooling is needed to remove decay heat after a reactor has beenshut down, and to maintain spent fuel pools. The cooling process is powered byemergency diesel generators, as well as in the case of Rokkasho nuclear reprocessingplant. At Fukushima I and II tsunami waves overtopped seawalls and destroyed dieselbackup power systems, leading to severe problems at Fukushima I, including two largeexplosions and radioactive leakage. Over 200,000 people were evacuated. Sea water waspumped onto the plant to attempt to cool it.

Nuclear power plant continuing to burn in Miyagi prefecture after Friday'searthquake

Europe's energy commissioner Guenther Oettinger, in remarks to the EuropeanParliament on 15 March, ignored the damage wrought by the tsunami along the coast and

8/6/2019 2011 Japan

11/14

called the nuclear disaster an "apocalypse", saying that the word was particularly wellchosen, and that Tokyo had almost lost control of events at the Fukushima power plant.

Ports

All of Japan's ports were briefly closed after the earthquake, though the ones inTokyo and southwards soon re-opened. Fifteen ports were located in the disaster zone.The north-eastern ports of Hachinohe, Sendai, Ishinomaki and Onahama were destroyed,while Chiba port (which serves the hydrocarbon industry) and Japan's ninth-largestcontainer port at Kashima were also affected though less severely. The ports atHitachinaka, Hitachi, Soma, Shiogama, Kesennuma, Ofunato, Kamashi and Miyako werealso damaged and closed to ships. All 15 ports reopened to limited ship traffic by 29March 2011.

Water

In the immediate aftermath of the calamity, at least 1.5 million households were reportedto have lost access to water supplies. By 21 March 2011, this number fell to 1.04 million.

Electricity

According to Thoku Electric Power (TEP), around 4.4 million households innortheastern Japan were left without electricity. Several nuclear and conventional powerplants went offline after the earthquake, reducing TEPCO's total capacity by 21 GW.Rolling blackouts began on 14 March due to power shortages caused by the earthquake.The Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), which normally provides approximately40 GW of electricity, announced that it can currently provide only about 30 GW. This is

because 40% of the electricity used in the greater Tokyo area is now supplied by reactorsin the Niigata and Fukushima prefectures. The reactors at the Fukushima Dai-ichi andFukushima Dai-ni plants were automatically taken offline when the first earthquakeoccurred and have sustained major damage related to the earthquake and subsequenttsunami. Rolling blackouts of three hours are expected to last until the end of April andwill affect the Tokyo, Kanagawa, Eastern Shizuoka, Yamanashi, Chiba, Ibaraki, Saitama,Tochigi, and Gunma prefectures. Voluntary reduced electricity use by consumers in theKanto area helped reduce the predicted frequency and duration of the blackouts. By 21March 2011, the number of households in the north without electricity fell to 242,927.

Thoku Electric Power cannot currently provide the Kanto region with additional

power, because TEP's power plants were also damaged in the earthquake. Kansai ElectricPower Company (Kepco) cannot share electricity, because its system operates at 60 hertz,whereas TEPCO and TEP operate their systems at 50 hertz; this is due to early industrialand infrastructure development in the 1880s that left Japan without a unified nationalpower grid. Two substations, one in Shizuoka Prefecture and one in Nagano Prefecture,can convert between frequencies and transfer electricity from Kansai to Kanto andThoku, but their capacity to do so is limited to 1GW. With the damage to so many

8/6/2019 2011 Japan

12/14

power plants, it could be years before electricity productions levels in eastern Japanreturn to pre-quake levels.

In effort to help alleviate the shortage, three steel manufacturers in the Kantoregion are contributing electricity produced by their in-house conventional power stationsto TEPCO for distribution to the general public. Sumitomo Metal Industries can produce

up to 500 MW, JFE Steel 400 MW, and Nippon Steel 500 MW of electric power.

TransportJapan's transport network suffered severe disruptions. Many sections of Thoku

Expressway serving northern Japan were damaged. The expressway did not reopen togeneral public use until 24 March 2011. All railway services were suspended in Tokyo,with an estimated 20,000 people stranded at major stations across the city. In the hoursafter the earthquake, some train services were resumed. Most Tokyo area train linesresumed full service by the next day-12 March.[213] Twenty thousand stranded visitorsspent the night of 1112 March inside Tokyo Disneyland.

A tsunami wave flooded Sendai Airport at 15:55 JST, about 1 hour after the initialquake, causing severe damage. Narita and Haneda Airport both briefly suspendedoperations after the quake, but suffered little damage and reopened within 24 hours.Eleven airliners bound for Narita were diverted to nearby Yokota Air Base.

The rolling blackouts brought on by the crises at the nuclear power plants inFukushima had a profound effect on the rail networks around Tokyo starting on 14March. Major railways began running trains at 1020 minute intervals, rather than theusual 35 minute intervals, operating some lines only at rush hour and completelyshutting down others; notably, the Tokaido Main Line, Yokosuka Line, Sobu Main Lineand Ch-Sbu Line were all stopped for the day. This led to near-paralysis within the

capital, with long lines at train stations and many people unable to come to work or gethome.

8/6/2019 2011 Japan

13/14

Telecommunications

Cellular and landline phone service suffered major disruptions in the affected area.On the day of the quake, American broadcaster NPR was unable to reach anyone inSendai with working phone or Internet. Internet services were largely unaffected in areas

where basic infrastructure remained, despite the earthquake having damaged portions ofseveral undersea cable systems landing in the affected regions; these systems were able toreroute around affected segments onto redundant links.

Space center

JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) evacuated the Tsukuba SpaceCenter in Tsukuba, Ibaraki. The Center, which houses a control room for part of theInternational Space Station, has been shut down, with some damage reported. TheTsukuba control center resumed full operations for the space station's Kibo laboratoryand the HTV cargo craft on March 21.

Scientific and research response

A large amount of data was collected that provides "the possibility to model in greatdetail what happened during the rupture of an earthquake." The effect of this data isexpected to be felt across other disciplines as well, and this disaster "would provideunprecedented information about how buildings hold up under long periods of shaking and thus how to build them better. We had very little information about that before now".

Seismologists had anticipated that the "big one" would strike the same place as the1923 Great Kant earthquakein the Sagami Trough, southwest of Tokyo. Since 1976,when Katsuhiko Ishibashi said a large earthquake in the Suruga Trough was forthcoming,

the government tracked plate movements, in preparation for the so-called Tokaiearthquake. Occurring 373 km (232 mi) northeast of Tokyo, the Thoku earthquake cameas a surprise to seismologists, since the Japan Trench was known for creating largequakes, but was not expected to generate quakes above an 8.0 magnitude.

8/6/2019 2011 Japan

14/14

Stations that recorded the seismograms shown above

Station Code Station Name Distance to Earthquake

JP . JHJ 2 Hachijojima Island 5.6 deg/622 km

TW . YHNB YE-HENG, Taoyuan 22.4 deg/2493 km

AV . OKFG Okmok Caldera, Umnak Island, Alaska 37.0 deg/4110 km

GE . UGM GEOFON Station Wanagama, Indonesia 54.7 deg/6085 km

US . WVOR Wild Horse Valley, Oregon, USA 71.1 deg/7904 km

GB . JSA SAINT AUBIN, CHANNEL ISLANDS 87.4 deg/9716 km

II. MBAR Mbarara, Uganda 107 deg/11924 km

IU . LCO Las Campanas Astronomical Observatory, Chile 151 deg/16798 km

http://rev.seis.sc.edu/definition.html?term=Station#Stationhttp://rev.seis.sc.edu/definition.html?term=StationCode#StationCodehttp://rev.seis.sc.edu/definition.html?term=StationName#StationNamehttp://island/http://taoyuan/http://alaska/http://indonesia/http://usa/http://islands/http://uganda/http://uganda/http://chile/http://rev.seis.sc.edu/definition.html?term=StationCode#StationCodehttp://rev.seis.sc.edu/definition.html?term=StationCode#StationCodehttp://rev.seis.sc.edu/definition.html?term=StationName#StationNamehttp://rev.seis.sc.edu/definition.html?term=StationName#StationNamehttp://island/http://island/http://island/http://island/http://taoyuan/http://taoyuan/http://taoyuan/http://alaska/http://alaska/http://alaska/http://indonesia/http://indonesia/http://indonesia/http://usa/http://usa/http://usa/http://islands/http://islands/http://islands/http://uganda/http://uganda/http://uganda/http://chile/http://chile/http://chile/http://rev.seis.sc.edu/definition.html?term=Station#Station