Andragogy   Pedagogy  

Demands of learning   Learner must balance life responsibilities with the demands of learning.  

Learner can devote more time to the demands of learning because responsibilities are minimal.  

Role of instructor   Learners are autonomous and self directed. Teachers guide the learners to their own knowledge rather than supplying them with facts.  

Learners rely on the instructor to direct the learning. Fact based lecturing is often the mode of knowledge transmission.  

Life experiences   Learners have a tremendous amount of life experiences. They need to connect the learning to their knowledge base. They must recognize the value of the learning.  

Learners are building a knowledge base and must be shown how their life experiences connect with the present learning. 

Purpose for learning   Learners are goal oriented and know for what purpose they are learning new information  

Learners often see no reason for taking a particular course. They just know they have to learn the information.  

Permanence of learning   Learning is self‐initiated and tends to last a long time.   Learning is compulsory and tends to disappear shortly after instruction.  

 

LEARNING STYLES AND STRATEGIES Richard M. Felder

Hoechst Celanese Professor of Chemical Engineering North Carolina State University

Barbara A. Soloman

Coordinator of Advising, First Year College North Carolina State University

ACTIVE AND REFLECTIVE LEARNERS

• Active learners tend to retain and understand information best by doing something active with it--discussing or applying it or explaining it to others. Reflective learners prefer to think about it quietly first.

• "Let's try it out and see how it works" is an active learner's phrase; "Let's think it through first" is the reflective learner's response.

• Active learners tend to like group work more than reflective learners, who prefer working alone. • Sitting through lectures without getting to do anything physical but take notes is hard for both learning

types, but particularly hard for active learners.

Everybody is active sometimes and reflective sometimes. Your preference for one category or the other may be strong, moderate, or mild. A balance of the two is desirable. If you always act before reflecting you can jump into things prematurely and get into trouble, while if you spend too much time reflecting you may never get anything done.

How can active learners help themselves?

If you are an active learner in a class that allows little or no class time for discussion or problem-solving activities, you should try to compensate for these lacks when you study. Study in a group in which the members take turns explaining different topics to each other. Work with others to guess what you will be asked on the next test and figure out how you will answer. You will always retain information better if you find ways to do something with it.

How can reflective learners help themselves?

If you are a reflective learner in a class that allows little or no class time for thinking about new information, you should try to compensate for this lack when you study. Don't simply read or memorize the material; stop periodically to review what you have read and to think of possible questions or applications. You might find it helpful to write short summaries of readings or class notes in your own words. Doing so may take extra time but will enable you to retain the material more effectively.

SENSING AND INTUITIVE LEARNERS

• Sensing learners tend to like learning facts, intuitive learners often prefer discovering possibilities and relationships.

• Sensors often like solving problems by well-established methods and dislike complications and surprises; intuitors like innovation and dislike repetition. Sensors are more likely than intuitors to resent being tested on material that has not been explicitly covered in class.

• Sensors tend to be patient with details and good at memorizing facts and doing hands-on (laboratory) work; intuitors may be better at grasping new concepts and are often more comfortable than sensors with abstractions and mathematical formulations.

• Sensors tend to be more practical and careful than intuitors; intuitors tend to work faster and to be more innovative than sensors.

• Sensors don't like courses that have no apparent connection to the real world; intuitors don't like "plug-and-chug" courses that involve a lot of memorization and routine calculations.

Everybody is sensing sometimes and intuitive sometimes. Your preference for one or the other may be strong, moderate, or mild. To be effective as a learner and problem solver, you need to be able to function both ways. If you overemphasize intuition, you may miss important details or make careless mistakes in calculations or hands-on work; if you overemphasize sensing, you may rely too much on memorization and familiar methods and not concentrate enough on understanding and innovative thinking.

How can sensing learners help themselves?

Sensors remember and understand information best if they can see how it connects to the real world. If you are in a class where most of the material is abstract and theoretical, you may have difficulty. Ask your instructor for specific examples of concepts and procedures, and find out how the concepts apply in practice. If the teacher does not provide enough specifics, try to find some in your course text or other references or by brainstorming with friends or classmates.

How can intuitive learners help themselves?

Many college lecture classes are aimed at intuitors. However, if you are an intuitor and you happen to be in a class that deals primarily with memorization and rote substitution in formulas, you may have trouble with boredom. Ask your instructor for interpretations or theories that link the facts, or try to find the connections yourself. You may also be prone to careless mistakes on test because you are impatient with details and don't like repetition (as in checking your completed solutions). Take time to read the entire question before you start answering and be sure to check your results

VISUAL AND VERBAL LEARNERS

Visual learners remember best what they see--pictures, diagrams, flow charts, time lines, films, and demonstrations. Verbal learners get more out of words--written and spoken explanations. Everyone learns more when information is presented both visually and verbally.

In most college classes very little visual information is presented: students mainly listen to lectures and read material written on chalkboards and in textbooks and handouts. Unfortunately, most people are visual learners, which means that most students do not get nearly as much as they would if more visual presentation were used in class. Good learners are capable of processing information presented either visually or verbally.

How can visual learners help themselves?

If you are a visual learner, try to find diagrams, sketches, schematics, photographs, flow charts, or any other visual representation of course material that is predominantly verbal. Ask your instructor, consult reference books, and see if any videotapes or CD-ROM displays of the course material are available. Prepare a concept map by listing key points, enclosing them in boxes or circles, and drawing lines with arrows between concepts to show connections. Color-code your notes with a highlighter so that everything relating to one topic is the same color.

How can verbal learners help themselves?

Write summaries or outlines of course material in your own words. Working in groups can be particularly effective: you gain understanding of material by hearing classmates' explanations and you learn even more when you do the explaining.

SEQUENTIAL AND GLOBAL LEARNERS

• Sequential learners tend to gain understanding in linear steps, with each step following logically from the previous one. Global learners tend to learn in large jumps, absorbing material almost randomly without seeing connections, and then suddenly "getting it."

• Sequential learners tend to follow logical stepwise paths in finding solutions; global learners may be able to solve complex problems quickly or put things together in novel ways once they have grasped the big picture, but they may have difficulty explaining how they did it.

Many people who read this description may conclude incorrectly that they are global, since everyone has experienced bewilderment followed by a sudden flash of understanding. What makes you global or not is what happens before the light bulb goes on. Sequential learners may not fully understand the material but they can nevertheless do something with it (like solve the homework problems or pass the test) since the pieces they have absorbed are logically connected. Strongly global learners who lack good sequential thinking abilities, on the other hand, may have serious difficulties until they have the big picture. Even after they have it, they may be fuzzy about the details of the subject, while sequential learners may know a lot about specific aspects of a subject but may have trouble relating them to different aspects of the same subject or to different subjects.

How can sequential learners help themselves?

Most college courses are taught in a sequential manner. However, if you are a sequential learner and you have an instructor who jumps around from topic to topic or skips steps, you may have difficulty following and remembering. Ask the instructor to fill in the skipped steps, or fill them in yourself by consulting references. When you are studying, take the time to outline the lecture material for yourself in logical order. In the long run doing so will save you time. You might also try to strengthen your global thinking skills by relating each new topic you study to things you already know. The more you can do so, the deeper your understanding of the topic is likely to be.

How can global learners help themselves?

If you are a global learner, it can be helpful for you to realize that you need the big picture of a subject before you can master details. If your instructor plunges directly into new topics without bothering to explain how they relate to what you already know, it can cause problems for you. Fortunately, there are steps you can take that may help you get the big picture more rapidly. Before you begin to study the first section of a chapter in a text, skim through the entire chapter to get an overview. Doing so may be time-consuming initially but it may save you from going over and over individual parts later. Instead of spending a short time on every subject every night, you might find it more productive to immerse yourself in individual subjects for large blocks. Try to relate the subject to things you already know, either by asking the instructor to help you see connections or by consulting references. Above all, don't lose faith in yourself; you will eventually understand the new material, and once you do your understanding of how it connects to other topics and disciplines may enable you to apply it in ways that most sequential thinkers would never dream of.

 

Performance Objective Verbs in the Cognitive Domain Levels of learning range from the lowest, “knowledge” to the highest, “evaluation.” Evaluation – Assessing the value of ideas and things. Involves acts of decision -making, judging, or selecting based on criteria and rationale. Requires synthesis in order to evaluate. Appraise Assess Check Choose Compare Critique Decide on/to Determine value of

Discriminate Estimate Evaluate Grade Inspect Judge Measure Monitor

Rank/Rate Research Review Revise Score Select Value

Synthesis – Assembling a whole into parts. Combines elements to form new entity from original one, the creative process. Requires analysis in order to synthesize. Arrange Assemble Collect Combine Compose Conclude Construct Create

Design Determine Relationship of parts Diagnose Differentiate Dissect Examine Formulate

Manage Organize Plan Prepare Propose Refute Set up

Analysis – Disassembling a whole into parts until relationship among parts is clear. Requires ability to apply information in order to analyze. Analyze Appraise Calculate Categorize Compare Contract Criticize

Debate Diagram Differentiate Distinguish Examine Experiment Inspect

Inventory Question Relate Solve Test

Application – Using what has been previously learned. Requires comprehension of information in order to apply in new situation. Apply Assign Demonstrate Dramatize Employ

Illustrate Interpret Operate Practice Schedule

Shop Sketch Use

Comprehension – Interprets, translates, summarizes or paraphrases given information. Requires knowledge in order to demonstrate comprehension. Describe Discuss Explain Express

Identify Locate Recognize Report

Restate Review Tell Translate

Knowledge – Remembering/recalling facts and specifics Cite Define Give Label List Match

Name Recall Record Relate Repast

Select from a list State Tell how to Underline Write directions for

Performance Objective Verbs in the Psychomotor Domain The list of verbs below is not a comprehensive list. It is presented as a list of examples to stimulate thinking. The particular verb to use is dependent on the terminology associated with the particular equipment or process in which learners are being trained. Performance in each of the verbs can be required at the five levels immediately below; “imitation” the lowest level, “naturalization”, the highest. Naturalization – Completes one or more skills with ease and becomes automatic Articulation – Combines more than one skill in sequence with harmony and consistency Precision – Reproduces a skill with accuracy, proportion and exactness. Usually performed independent of original source Manipulation – Performs skill according to instructor rather than observation Imitation – Observes skill and attempts to repeat it. Add Adjust Advertise Alter Answer Apply Apportion Arrange Assemble Assist Attach Balance Bill Build Bundle Buy Calibrate Cancel Care for Carry out Center Change Check Clean Clear Clip Close Code

Collate Collect Conduct Conserve Construct Control Cook Cool Coordinate Copy Correct Count Create Cut Deliver Demonstrate Design Diagram Dictate Direct Dismantle Display Distribute Do Document Draw Dry Duplicate

Dye Edit Endorse Enhance Enter Examine Execute Exhibit File Finish Fix Fold Form Format Gather Gouge Grade Grid Grow Guide Handle Harvest Help Highlight Hold Implement Insert Inspect

Instruct Interview Keep Key Keyboard Layer Lay out Lead Lengthen Letter Lift Line Load/reload Locate Log Lower Maintain Make Manage Mark Match Measure Meet Mix Mount Move Number Obtain Open Operate Organize Package Perceive Perform Pick up Pin Place Plant Plate Portion Position Post Pot Power down Power up Practice

Prepare Present Preserve Preside Press Price Print Print out Process Produce Program Promote Proof Proofread Propagate Prove Provide Prune Punch Purchase Put in Raise Read Receive Recheck Record Recycle Refill Regulate Remove Renovate Repair Replace Replenish Reproduce Respond Retrieve Root Route Run Save Scarify Screen Search Season Seat

Secure Seed Select Sell Separate Serve Service Set, set up Sew Shear Sharpen Shorten Show Simplify Simulate Sit Size Sketch Sort Splice Spread Start/restart Stratify Sterilize Stitch Stock Store Tape Terminate Thank Transfer Transplant Transport Treat Trim Troubleshoot Type Use, utilize Verify Wash Water Wear Weed Wire Work with Write

Performance Objective Verbs in the Affective Domain Levels of learning in the affective domain range from the lowest, “receiving” to the highest, “characterizing.” Characterizing – Consistently behaves in a manner that predictably reflects the value system. Believe Practice Continue to Carry out Organizing – Development of a values system. Organize Select Judge Decide Identify with Valuing – Sensing worth in a value. Attain Assume Support Participate Responding – Minimal participation Reply Answer Follow along Approve Continue Receiving – Willingly hears or reads. Listen to Perceive Be alert to Show tolerance of Obey

Task Analysis for Changing a Tire 

 1. Find a stable and safe place to work. You need a solid, level surface. Avoid soft ground and hills. If you 

are near a road, park as far from traffic as possible and turn on your emergency flashers (hazard lights).  2. Make sure that the car cannot roll. Apply the parking brake and put car in "Park" position or in first or 

reverse if using a standard transmission. If possible, it is a good idea to place a heavy object (such as a brick) in front of the front tire (if changing a rear tire), and vice‐versa.  

3. Take out the spare tire and the jack. Place the jack under the frame near the tire that you are going to change. Make sure that you place it where it will meet the metal portion of the frame. 

4. Raise the jack until it is supporting, but not lifting the car. The jack should be firmly in place against the underside of the vehicle. Make sure that it is lifting straight up and down.  

5. Remove the hub cap and loosen the nuts by turning counterclockwise. Don't take them all the way off. Just break the resistance. Having the wheel on the ground means that you're turning the nuts instead of the wheel.  Use the wrench that came with your car or a standard cross wrench. Your wrench may have different sizes of openings on different ends. Place the right size of the wrench on the lug nut. The right size is the one that slips easily over the nut but does not rattle.   

6. Pump or crank the jack to lift the tire off the ground. You need to lift it high enough to remove the flat tire and to put the spare on it. As you lift, make sure that the car is stable. If you notice any instability, lower the jack and fix the problem before full lifting the car.  If you notice the jack lifting at an angle or leaning, lower and reposition it so that it can lift straight up.  Chock the tires if you notice the car starting to roll. You can use logs, large stones or other heavy, solid objects to help keep the car in place.  

7. Remove the nuts the rest of the way. Turn them counter clockwise until they are loose. Repeat with all lug nuts, then remove the nuts completely.  

8. Remove the tire. Place the flat tire under the vehicle so in event of jack failure the vehicle will fall on the old wheel, hopefully preventing injury. If the jack is placed on a flat, solid base, you shouldn't have any problems.  

9. Place the spare tire on the hub. Take care to align the rim of the spare tire with the wheel bolts, then put on the lug nuts.  Tighten the nuts by hand until they are all snug. They should turn easily at first.   Using the wrench, tighten the nuts as much as possible. To ensure the tire is balanced, don't completely tighten the nuts one at a time. Going in a star pattern around the tire, one nut across from another, give each one a full turn until they are equally tight.  Avoid using so much force that you risk upsetting the jack. You will tighten the lug nuts again once the car is down and there is no risk of it falling.  

10. Lower the car to the ground. Do not put full weight on it yet. Finish tightening the nuts as much as possible.  

11. Lower the car to the ground fully and remove the jack. Tighten the nuts again. Replace the hubcap.  12. Put the old tire in your trunk and take it to a mechanic. Small punctures can usually be repaired for less 

than $10. If the tire is not repairable, they can dispose of it properly and sell you a replacement.  

Objectives 

1.  _________________________________________________________________________________________ 

     _________________________________________________________________________________________ 

2.  _________________________________________________________________________________________ 

     _________________________________________________________________________________________ 

3.  _________________________________________________________________________________________ 

     _________________________________________________________________________________________ 

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Alternative Methods of Assessment   

Observation   http://www.aaia.org.uk/pdf/asst_learning_practice.pdf  

Performance Tasks  http://www.plsweb.com/resources/newsletters/enews_archives/43/2005/04/01/  

Checklists, Rating Scales, Rubrics  http://www.flaguide.org/cat/rubrics/rubrics1.php    

Portfolios / ePortfolios   http://www.ukcle.ac.uk/resources/trns/portfolios/index.html  

Journals and Learning Logs   http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/FEB02_Issue/article04.html  

Informal and Formal Writing   http://www.you‐can‐teach‐writing.com/formative‐assessment.html  

Projects  http://www.gsn.org/Web/pbl/pblintro.htm  

Graphic Organizers  http://www.enchantedlearning.com/graphicorganizers/  

Seminar Presentations  http://www.clt.uts.edu.au/assess1.html#anchor38217  

Posters  http://insights.engr.wisc.edu/article‐assessment‐posters.shtml 

Interviews  http://www.flaguide.org/cat/interviews/interviews1.php  

Questionnaires  http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/knowlsurvey.htm  

Peer Assessment   http://www.clt.uts.edu.au/assess1.html#anchor36458  

Learning Contract   http://www.clt.uts.edu.au/assess1.html#anchor35423  

   

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Resource List for Adult Learning, Learning Styles, and Instructional Design  

1. The Learning Style Inventory.  A self‐scoring questionnaire you can take to discover your learning style.   http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/ILSpage.html  

2. This is a nice article about Malcolm Knowles that goes through the development and components of his theory.  It is quite interesting and a quick read. It makes a good introduction to the idea of adult learning and education and links it to other theories that he draws from.   http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et‐knowl.htm 

 3. This is a good comprehensive website with clickable links so you can skip down to a particular part. It is 

broad and covers a lot but is not overwhelming to read. http://www.fsu.edu/~adult‐ed/jenny/learning.html  

4. An excellent article by Richard Felder and Rebecca Brent entitled “Understanding Student Differences”:   http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/Papers/Understanding_Differences.pdf 

 5. A Dozen Teaching Tips for the Diverse Classroom:  Article focuses on diverse student populations found 

in community colleges. http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/12tips.htm   

6. This website leads to a synopsis of Dr. Oullette’s research on styles of learning in adults.  There is a link to the presentation.  http://polaris.umuc.edu/~rouellet/learnstyle/learnstyle.htm 

 7. This “About” website offers a very general overview of experiential adult learning based on Malcolm 

Knowles’ theory and has links to more resources for assessing and instructing adults.  http://adulted.about.com/od/teachers/a/teachingadults.htm 

 8. This website is also a brief overview of learning styles and Kolb’s theory, specifically looking at Adults.  

Its very general but would be good to use in combination with the learning styles questionnaires, it references the inventory designed here at NCSU.  http://www.educationforadults.com/Help‐Center/learningstyle.html 

 9. This website on the 7 habits of highly effective Adult Learning Programs has some good overall 

information and has a link to tips for teaching and learning. http://www.newhorizons.org/lifelong/workplace/billington.htm 

 10. The strategies link leads to more links that give articles on the various types of learning and 

intelligence.  Each link leads to more and this group has a lot of information that can be searched as needed and based on what you’ re looking for at a particular time.  http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/front_strategies.html 

 

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11. This website provides a good broad overview of the concepts of adult learning in a paper by Stephen Brookfield of National Louis University.  It covers: Research, Self Directed learning, Critical reflection, Experiential and learning how to Learn, Trends, Cross cultural Adult learning, Practical Theorizing, Distance Learning, and goes extensively into further research areas. There is also a long solid reference list and links to other papers by this author, and other faculty on the topic.  http://www.nl.edu/academics/cas/ace/facultypapers/StephenBrookfield_AdultLearning.cfm  

12. This is an extensive site about the history of instructional design from the University of Houston http://www.coe.uh.edu/courses/cuin6373/idhistory/index.html   

13. A hugely popular site with instructional designers, Big Dog and Little Dog’s Juxtaposition is extensive in its materials about instructional systems design, with a focus on performance.  http://www.nwlink.com/~Donclark/hrd/sat.html  

14. This is a list of the skills and knowledges that are essential for competency in instructional design.   http://www.coedu.usf.edu/it/resources/files/competen.html    

15. On this website you will find a review of many of the theories and models that form the framework for the practice of instructional design.   http://www.spsu.edu/htc/hughes/papers/interface.htm   

16. This site provides an in‐depth introduction to instructional design and provides historical perspectives on the development of instructional systems design.    http://www.whidbey.com/frodo/isd.htm   

17. This is an article about instructional design where the designer is working with subject matter experts (SMEs).  http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/coffs00/papers/mike_keppell.pdf   

18. This is a link to a paper by Brent Wilson that suggests that instructional design should be performed based on the context of the learning.  http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~bwilson/sitid.html   

19. This site explains how to design instruction based on competencies.  http://home.att.net/~jnimmer/Competency.htm   

20. This site is an in‐depth resource about all facets of instructional design from models to evaluations. http://www.gdrc.org/info‐design/instruct/instruct.html   

21. This site provides a tutorial on how to develop objectives using a Mager approach with a twist. http://edweb.sdsu.edu/courses/edtec540/objectives/objectiveshome.html   

22. This site provides a tutorial focused on how to apply theory to instructional design. http://www.patsula.com/usefo/webbasedlearning/    

23. This website is full of great resources that are aimed at faculty at a community college. http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/adults‐2.htm