20073004 TES Change Dissertation Final Master-u

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GLASGOW CALEDONIAN UNIVERSITY CALEDONIAN BUSINESS SCHOOL DIVISION OF MANAGEMENT MANAGING CHANGE: LEARNING LESSONS FROM THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE UK MINISTRY OF DEFENCE TECHNICAL ENABLING SERVICES. MICHAEL FINLAY MITCHELL FOR MASTERS IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION (2007) This dissertation is my own original work and has not been submitted elsewhere in fulfilment of the requirements of this or another award. Signed………………………………………………………………………………

Transcript of 20073004 TES Change Dissertation Final Master-u

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GLASGOW CALEDONIAN UNIVERSITY

CALEDONIAN BUSINESS SCHOOL

DIVISION OF MANAGEMENT

MANAGING CHANGE: LEARNING LESSONS FROM THE

TRANSFORMATION OF THE UK MINISTRY OF DEFENCE

TECHNICAL ENABLING SERVICES.

MICHAEL FINLAY MITCHELL

FOR MASTERS IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

(2007)

This dissertation is my own original work and has not been submitted

elsewhere in fulfilment of the requirements of this or another award.

Signed………………………………………………………………………………

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ABSTRACT

On the 1st April 2005 and as part of the United Kingdom (UK), Ministry of Defence

(MOD) Defence Acquisition Change Program (DACP) a department known as the

Technical Enabling Services (TES) was formed with dual accountability to the

Defence Procurement Agency (DPA) and the Defence Logisitics Organisation (DLO).

This dissertation examines the change environment of the MOD and in particular the

drivers for change. The research undertaken in support of this dissertation presents

a critical review of a range of academic literature on the management of change.

The review of literature was achieved by firstly establishing some definitions of

change, followed by identification of frameworks and models for change (Lewin;

Kotter; Fernandez & Rainey; Shaw; Beer & Nohria; McKinsey; Bridges), approaches

to managing change or styles (Goleman; Dunphy & Stace; Balogun & Hope-Hailey;

Kubler-Ross; Satir; Weinberg; Whetten & Cameron) and finally in the literature review

by exploring the possibility of common themes. Use was also made of other

available secondary data including internal management reports (Gershon; McKane),

journals, books and the observations of the author through his direct involvement in

the TES change program, to help inform conclusions.

A detailed primary research questionnaire was undertaken in support of this

dissertation (quantitative and qualitative) which identified the existence of three

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common themes, which were also observed during the review of literature

(Leadership, Culture and Communications).

The primary research revealed that there had been a lack of acceptance for the

changes in TES by staff, and in some cases, management. It also revealed that

there had been little in the way of cultural analysis carried out prior to changes being

implemented. This resulted in a fit for purpose organisation with a diverse range of

ideals and varying levels of understanding on the purpose of the new organisation.

The primary research provided some evidence to support the assertions made in the

literature review and the analysis of secondary data.

The dissertation concludes with the possibility of developing a maturity model for

testing ‘readiness for change’. The model is offered as an opportunity for further

research by the author and/or the MOD as a whole.

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Page

LIST OF TABLES vi

LIST OF FIGURES vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

1.1 Background to Dissertation 1

1.2 Aim of Dissertation 1

1.3 Dissertation Objectives 1

1.4 Chapter Summary 3

CHAPTER 2: DISSERTATION CONTEXT

2.1 Role of the UK Government 4

2.2 Contextualising the UK Ministry of Defence environment 5

2.3 Public Sector Drivers for Change 9

CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 Introduction to Literature Review 14

3.2 Definitions of Change 14

3.3 Frameworks for Change 18

3.3.1 Lewin 18

3.3.2 Kotter 20

3.3.3 Fernandez and Rainey 25

3.3.4 Shaw 26

3.3.5 Beer and Nohria 28

3.3.6 McKinsey 7S Framework 29

3.3.7 Bridges transition model 31

3.4 Styles of Managing Change 34

3.4.1 Goleman 35

3.4.2 Dunphy and Stace 36

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3.4.3 Balogun & Hope Hailey 38

3.4.4 Cognitive Change – Kubler-Ross; Satir; Weinberg 41

3.4.5 Whetten & Cameron 44

3.5 Common Themes of Change Literature 46

3.5.1 Leadership 46

3.5.2 Culture 49

3.5.3 Communication 54

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

4.1 Research Methodology 56

4.1.1 Qualitative Research 56

4.1.2 Quantitative Research 56

4.2 Approach adopted for Research Project 57

4.3 Data Collection methods 57

4.3.1 Primary Data 57

4.3.2 Secondary Data 58

4.3.3 Questionnaire Design and Distribution 58

4.4 Hypotheses 60

4.5 Research Conclusions 60

CHAPTER 5: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

5.1 Abstract of Primary Questionnaire data 62

5.2 Detailed Discussion on Responses to Questionnaire 62

5.2.1 Question 1 Analysis 62

5.2.2 Question 2 Analysis 64

5.2.3 Question 3 Analysis 65

5.2.4 Question 4 Analysis 66

5.2.5 Question 5 Analysis 67

5.2.6 Question 6 Analysis 69

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5.2.7 Question 7 Analysis 70

5.2.8 Question 8 Analysis 71

5.2.9 Question 9 Analysis 74

5.2.10 Question 10 Analysis 75

5.2.11 Question 11 Analysis 76

5.2.12 Question 12 Analysis 77

5.2.13 Question 13 Analysis 79

5.2.14 Question 14 Analysis 81

5.3 Interviews and Observations 84

5.4 Summary of Findings 85

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS OF RESEARCH

6.1 Benefits of the dissertation 86

6.2 Future Potential 87

6.3 Implications 89

6.4 TES Challenges 89

6.5 Reflection 90

CHAPTER 7: REFERENCE SECTION

7.1 References 92

7.2 Bibliography 99

7.3 Glossary 101

ANNEX A: PRIMARY DATA – MASTER QUESTIONNAIRE 102

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List of Tables Page

Table 1 Kotter (1996) and Fernandez/Rainey (2006): Comparison 25

Table 2 Goleman (2000): Six Leadership Styles 35

Table 3 Dunphy & Stace (1995): A Discussion of Different Styles 37

Table 4 Bennis (1994): Managers and Leaders 47

Table 5 Reflection on dissertation aims 91

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List of Figures Page

Fig 1 Organisation and structure of the UK MOD (Jan 2007) 6

Fig 2 UK MOD Manpower profile 2005/6 7

Fig 3 Defence Drivers for Change 13

Fig 4 Kotter (1996): Eight Step Model – Leading Change 20

Fig 5 The Relationship of Vision, Strategies, Plans and Budgets 23

Fig 6 McKinsey (1980) 7S Framework 30

Fig 7 Bridge’s Transition Model (1991) 31

Fig 8 Balogun & Hope-Hailey (2004): Types of Change 39

Fig 9 Satir et al. (1991): Change Curve 42

Fig 10 Weinberg (1997): Critical points in the change process 43

Fig 11 Relationships among factors in a climate of positivity 44

Fig 12 Johnson & Scholes (2005): The Cultural Web 50

Fig 13 Draft maturity model for assessing ‘readiness for change’ 88

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Acknowledgements

A big thank you to my tutor Angela Sutherland, Lecturer in Strategic Management,

Strategy, Operations & Leadership at Glasgow Caledonian University for continued

support and ‘frequent’ re-alignment throughout this dissertation.

A special thank you to my wife Carol, son Cameron and our new addition Cillian who

thought it best to arrive into the world in the middle of my studies.

Thanks also to Jim Donnelly (a TES colleague) for peer review and for challenging

everything at least once (or twice).

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

1.1 BACKGROUND TO DISSERTATION The following research project has been undertaken against the backdrop of huge

change in the public sector and in particular the UK MOD. The project and its

outcomes will be used by the author to improve his understanding of how change

might be managed and in so doing add value to the work being undertaken in the

MOD department of TES. TES faces a number of challenges now and in the future.

It is hoped that through a study of the available academic literature a clearer

understanding might emerge. The author also hopes that the project will provide an

opportunity to get better visibility of his work and provide him with the opportunity to

influence current and future thinking in departmental change.

1.2 AIM OF DISSERTATION

The aim of this dissertation is to “Examine the existing Change Processes in the UK

MOD, in particular the TES division, and propose if applicable a framework for

improving the approach.”

1.3 DISSERTATION OBJECTIVES

To achieve the overall aim of the dissertation a number of supporting objectives have

been set;

• Achieve an understanding of the academic theory regarding change and

establish whether common themes exist in academia.

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• To provide an insight into the environment of the UK MOD and in particular the

TES Change Programme.

• To understand the related management issues encountered in Change

programmes and their applicability.

• To evaluate the opinion of a sample of the TES Staff, in particular their

perception of the relative success of the Change programme to date.

• If applicable, to propose a framework that enhances future change

programmes in TES and the UK MOD.

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1.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY

The dissertation Chapters are summarised as follows;

CHAPTER 1

Describes the background, aim and supporting objectives of the Dissertation.

CHAPTER 2

Describes the specific context of the Public Sector and the UK MOD, in particular the

drivers for change.

CHAPTER 3

Provides a review of the past and current academic literature relating to change

management.

CHAPTER 4

Describes various research methodologies and the reasons for the chosen method in

this project.

CHAPTER 5

Provides an analysis of the primary research and detailed comment on the findings.

CHAPTER 6

Discusses the opportunities emerging from the research as well as a reflection on the

dissertation.

CHAPTER 7

Comprehensive list of references and acronyms used in the dissertation.

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CHAPTER 2: DISSERTATION CONTEXT 2.1 ROLE OF THE UK GOVERNMENT

The main role of government departments and their constituent parts is to implement

policy and to advise ministers. They are staffed by politically impartial civil servants

and generally receive their funding from money provided by the Treasury. They often

work alongside local authorities, non-departmental public bodies, and other

government-sponsored organisations.

The structure and functions of departments are sometimes re-organized if there are

major changes in government policy. A change of government, however, does not

necessarily affect the functions of departments. The work of some departments (e.g.,

the MOD) covers the UK as a whole. Other departments, such as the Department for

Work and Pensions, cover England, Wales and Scotland, but not Northern Ireland.

Others again, such as the Department for Education and Skills, are mainly concerned

with affairs in England and Wales.

Most departments are headed by ministers. However, some are non-ministerial

departments headed by a permanent office holder and ministers with other duties are

accountable for them to Parliament. For example, the Secretary of State for

Education and Skills accounts to Parliament for the work of the Office for Standards

in Education (OFSTED). OFSTED is headed by HM Chief Inspector of Schools in

England, who is largely independent of the Secretary of State.

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A non-departmental public body (NDPB) is a national or regional public body, working

independently of ministers to whom they are accountable.

2.2 CONTEXTUALISING THE UK MINISTRY OF DEFENCE ENVIRONMENT

The MOD is the government department responsible for formulation and execution of

defence policy. It is responsible for the operational and administrative control of the

armed forces and for the procurement of its equipment. The structure of the higher

organisation of the MOD is shown in Figure 1. The department is headed by the

Secretary of State for Defence, who chairs the Defence Council, the legal authority

for controlling the armed forces. The Defence council consists of elected politicians,

the two heads of the official structure of the Ministry and seven senior service officers

and civil servants. The Secretary of State with his four ministerial colleagues, two

Ministers and two Parliamentary under Secretaries are the elected politicians of the

council. The Secretary of State answers to Parliament for the actions of the Ministry

and the armed forces, and is a member of the cabinet chaired by the Prime Minister.

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Figure 1 – Organisation and structure of the UK MOD (Jan 2007)

The highest military post within the MOD is the Chief of the Defence Staff (CDS).

This position is filled by a senior officer from each of the three services on a rotational

basis. CDS is the professional head of the Armed Forces and is the principal military

advisor to the Secretary of State. Alongside him sits the top civil servant known as

the Permanent Secretary (PUS). His areas of responsibility are finance, planning and

administration of the MOD. CDS and PUS each have a deputy; the Vice-Chief of the

Defence Staff (VCDS) and 2nd PUS. Together VCDS and 2nd PUS are the joint

heads of the Central Staff, the heart of the Ministry of Defence planning and policy

departments. A number of other defence-related departments and agencies are also

controlled by the MOD. These include Logistics, Procurement and Intelligence. These

organisations have members of all three armed forces working alongside each other

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and are often referred to as 'Tri-Service' departments. Within the MOD, each of the

three Services has a permanent Chief of Staff. Figure 1 (Organisation and structure

of the UK MOD) was accurate until 02 Apr 07 when the Logistics and Procurement

wings (highlighted in dashed box) of the MOD merged to create a Chief of Defence

Materiel (CDM) and Defence Equipment and Support department (DE&S). There

are several boards and committees within the MOD which formulate the many

aspects of defence policy. The highest of these is the Defence Council, chaired by

the Secretary of State. The Council consists of the four ministerial posts detailed

above and ten senior civilian and military officials.

UK MOD accounts show that at the close of 2005/6 the MOD employed over 325k

people and spent over £29 billion annually (MOD Departmental Plan 2005-2009).

Tri-Service Volunteers3637011%

Civil Servants103930

32%

Royal Navy & Marines3707011%

Royal Air Force4530014%

Army102720

32%

Figure 2 – UK MOD Manpower profile 2005/6

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About 43% or £16 billion (DE&S in brief, April 2007) of defence expenditure is

expected to be spent on equipment and service procurement in 2007/8. The staff

and budget are being progressively reduced due to the ending of the cold war and

more recently political concerns over public expenditure.

Until 1964 there were five departments of state doing what the unified MOD does

now. The present MOD, the Department, was formed by the amalgamation in 1964

of the old MOD, the Admiralty, the War Office and the Air Ministry, and the inclusion

in 1971 of the Ministry of Aviation Supply. In 1973, the operations of the Atomic

Weapons Establishment were transferred from the UK Atomic Energy Authority to the

MOD. The MOD can seem complex and confusing to the uninitiated, which is in part

due to the variety of tasks it undertakes and also its origins.

The organisation of TES was being formed by merging technical support groups from

two different areas of the MOD; the Defence Logistics Organisation (DLO) and the

Defence Procurement Agency (DPA). Both groups are involved in the delivery of

high value Equipment (Sub-system of a platform) and Platform (e.g. Merlin

Helicopter; Challenger tank) projects (known as Integrated Project Teams (IPTs)).

The DPA are concerned with the procurement of the project or equipment before

going into service and the DLO are concerned with the maintenance of it once in

service (in simple terms procurement and support).

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2.3 PUBLIC SECTOR DRIVERS FOR CHANGE

Since the late 1970s and the Thatcher government, public sector reformists have

been attempting to move public services from their traditional bureaucratic,

hierarchical stability to a more dynamic, fluid and flexible customer-orientated

organisation (Driscoll & Morris, 2001). The UK civil service fits Handy’s (1985) “role

culture” characterised by strong functional areas, high formalisation and

standardisation, activities governed by procedures, rules and regulations combined

with jobs allocated to posts with commensurate authority and positional power.

Attempted reforms have been based on the assumptions that the public sector was

too large, unresponsive to change, administration should be replaced by

management and that the private sector is superior to the public and thus should

provide the model for improvement. Gray and Jenkins (2000) consider that the

Labour government has continued on a broadly similar course. The main aim was a

culture shift away from rigid bureaucracy and an adoption of the commercial goals of

consumer focus and greater accountability, regulation and efficiency (Driscoll &

Morris, 2001). The most visible use of commercial management techniques is the

rise of New Public Management (Ferlie, 1996). This was expected to change the

public sector mentality, introducing customer focus, output management and a more

proactive management approach (Donnelly, 2005).

The current main driver for change in public sector organisations is the “Independent

review of Public Sector Efficiency” study carried out by Sir Peter Gershon in 2004.

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In addition to the Gershon (2004) report the UK MOD is further incentivised by the

UK Defence Industrial Strategy (DIS) of 2005 which seeks to provide a clear

understanding of the impact of MOD procurement strategy on industry’s capability, at

both supplier and sector levels, current and future. Gershon (2004) characterised

efficiency in the Public Sector as “…making the best use of the resources available

for the provision of public services”. He further identified a range of efficiencies that

were necessary in order to release resources to the front line. These are

summarised below and are the foundations for much of the public sector reform that

is in progress today.

Gershon efficiency foundations:

• Reduced number of available resource (e.g. people or assets), whilst

maintaining the same level of service provision

• Reduced cost for the resources needed to provide public services; or

• Additional outputs such as improved quality or increased levels of service, for

the same or less input

• Increased economy of scale termed as ‘allocative efficiency’

The DIS follows and enforces Defence Policy and its stated need to provide the

armed forces with the equipment which they require, on time, and at best value for

money to the taxpayer. The DIS will have a significant bearing on how the MOD

conducts its business. It is intended that the DIS will provide a clear understanding of

the impact of procurement strategies on industry's capability, at both supplier and

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sector levels, current and future. It will improve links with industry in an attempt to

shape medium and long term strategic decisions and to create partnering

agreements. The DIS makes the following assertion to underline what changes need

to take place in the MOD procurement cycle:

“We must be able to respond to the rapidly changing strategic and operational

environment by adapting current and future capabilities exploiting the

opportunities offered by technology innovation. We must remain alive to

developments in the commercial market, particularly in the fields of information

and communication technologies that are evolving at a pace that can outstrip

the ability of our procurement processes to respond.” (DIS 2005:C1.25)

These arrangements will be aimed at demonstrating best value for money for

defence, with competitive tendering being used only where it is appropriate. In

simple terms it was stated that for every pound spent in the procurement and

maintenance of defence capability the front line (armed forces) were denied a pound.

Rt. Hon. John Reid Minister for Defence 2005-2006 made the following comments

regarding the DIS

“We need to be assured that we can procure from a sustainable industrial

base, which retains within the UK those industrial capabilities (including

infrastructure, skills, intellectual property and capacity) that are required,

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from a national security perspective, to ensure our appropriate sovereignty.”

(John Reid, Minister for Defence, 2005)

As is the case in many large organisations, staff working within the MOD are familiar

with change. The MOD believes that change is necessary if it is to ensure that it

continues to meet both its customer and stakeholder expectations. In responding to

the need to deliver equipment and services more effectively and efficiently, teams are

considering and implementing revised and improved processes and services. This

encourages new ways of thinking, and in some cases provides the opportunity of

reviewing and amending relationships with both industry suppliers and front-line

customers.

Many of the drivers for the changes within Defence simultaneously affect different

areas of business. This relationship is illustrated in Figure 3 having been adapted

from the Office of Government Commerce (OGC), Managing Successful

Programmes (2004) paper.

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Figure 3 - Defence Drivers for Change

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CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE REVIEW

The range of literature attributable to Change is both large and diverse with ideas and

theories that stretch back two thousand years. Charles Darwin the British naturalist

(1809-1882) made the following well known statement in his ‘Origin of the species.’

“It is not the strongest of the species which survive, nor the most intelligent,

but the one most responsive to change.” Charles Darwin (1859)

The following literature review attempts to establish renowned and seminal research

and theory to identify and discuss where overlap or argument exists. In the final

section of the literature review the idea of common themes and frameworks deemed

pertinent to managing change in the MOD will be explored.

3.2 DEFINITIONS OF CHANGE

The term ‘Change Management’ can take many forms and cover many change

environments. The most common usage of the term refers to “organisational change

management”. Examples of organisation-wide change might include a change in

mission, restructuring operations, new technologies, mergers and major

collaborations (Burnes, 1996; Cameron & Quinn, 1999; Kotter, 1996).

Goodman (1984) tells us that “Change is the alteration from one state to another.” It

is generally accepted that the pace of change has increased. Kotter (1996) cites two

major drivers for this; faster communication over a wider network and increased

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international trade, sometimes referred to as globalisation. Two distinct types of

change process are recognised, transactional change and transformational change.

Transactional change is typically incremental, gradually altering skills, routines and

beliefs whilst leaving some factors constant. Transformational change is a more

fundamental change in the culture or paradigm of the organisation. The drivers for,

outcomes, of and leadership required for these two types are markedly different.

The gradual, evolutionary nature of transactional change means that there are no

step changes in processes, expectations or organisational change. This type of

change is relatively easy to effect and can normally be managed rather than led.

Transformational change however is totally different. The magnitude of change and

consequent disruption to professional and even personnel lives make it a

monumentous event, particularly for the more conservative employee, typified by the

following sentiment, “The whirlwind of change is taking us into a situation of extreme

uncertainty. We are no longer fat and flabby.” CLINTEC CREATE (1996).

Sixel (1995) tells us that “…downsizing became popular in the 90s to replace layoffs,

but then people started thinking downsizing was too negative”. From that he says,

'rightsizing’ was born. Additionally, new programs such as Total Quality

Management (TQM) or Business Process Re-engineering (BPR) made famous by

Hammer and Champy (1993) were also born.

Heller (1997) describes successful organisational change as “…to create so thriving

and developing an organic activity that organisations can provide excellent well paid

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work for all.” This is perhaps an aspirational statement, but is useful if only to

demonstrate the energy that might be required if an organisation is serious about

change.

Johnson & Scholes (2004) argue that frameworks for change management are useful

only when change agents or those involved are energized.

“Organisations have realized that all the structures in the world are of no use if

the people implementing them are not convinced of their necessity” (Johnson &

Scholes, 2004)

Johnson & Scholes (2004) perhaps illustrate not so much the importance of process

in change management but more the need for a commitment and drive in a change

team.

Clemmer (1995) lends support to that view when he talks of change management

“It [change] can’t be managed….it can be ignored, resisted, responded to,

capitalized upon and created. But it can’t be managed and made to march to

some orderly step-by-step process…whether we become change victims or

victors depends on our readiness for it.” (Clemmer, 1995)

Change management is also defined in terms of a process and in particular Recardo

(1995) states that “it [Change Management] is the process an organisation uses to

design, implement and evaluate appropriate initiatives to deal with demands placed

upon them by the external environment”. .” This definition and argument offered by

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Recardo (1995) sits neatly with the current mobilisation in the Public Sector and in

particular the MOD, where the fallout from Gershon’s (2004) report on Modernising

Government has meant that change is not so much a possibility as an inevitability.

The view offered by King Whitney Jr (1967). suggests the importance of the

psychological factors associated with Organisational Change and how belief might

create a better environment for change

“Change has a considerable psychological impact on the human mind. To the

fearful it is threatening because it means that things may get worse. To the

hopeful it is encouraging because things may get better. To the confident it is

inspiring because the challenge exists to make things better.” (King Whitney Jnr,

1967)

When it comes to organisational change management, change agents need to

ensure that the change fits the needs of the organisation (Ackerman, 1982); they

also should be prepared for people who are revolutionary to the change and may

resist it and often will try to sabotage it (Dunford, 1992). Indeed, the forces for

maintaining the status quo in most organisations are so strong that some change

leaders will plan for a quick and dramatic effort rather than undertake an

incremental approach which may place change in the hands of those employees

who have a vested interest in leaving existing power relationships unchanged

(Paterson, 1983).

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3.3 FRAMEWORKS FOR CHANGE

Frameworks or theories can help provide stability and order when faced with change.

Managers use frameworks to clarify complex situations, allowing the simple and

prompt identification of exceptions and thus early planning to manage them

effectively. Where a manager is not using a framework it could be said that the

framing of an exception becomes more difficult. The absence of a framework will

increase the level of difficulty associated with putting an exception in the context of

the change project/program. Questions such as ‘…what does this mean for the

project’ are more likely to arise.

3.3.1 LEWIN

Lewin (1946) offered a planned approach to change and proposed that there were

three stages to effecting change within an organisation. The first of these stages

describes the unfreezing of an organisation followed by movement or moving to a

desired future state with the inevitable next step of refreezing. Lewin’s (1946) model,

and in particular the wider notion of planned change, has attracted a degree of

criticism in the last two decades. (Dawson, 1994; Hatch, 1997; Kanter et al.., 1992)

Lewin (1946) makes the assumption in his first step that organisations operate in a

state of equilibrium and thus can be interrupted at any time to alter direction. This is

argued against by the movement who support the notion of Processual Change

(Buchanan and Storey, 1997; Burnes, 2004; Kanter et al..,1992; Pettigrew 1997)

which has many influences including culture, leadership and politics.

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It has been further said (Burnes, 2004) that it lacked depth and had limited

applicability for small scale projects only. There are those however that despite the

linear nature of the 3 step process, argue its ongoing credibility, in particular Hendry

(1996)

“Scratch any account of creating and managing change and the idea that

change is a three-stage process which necessarily begins with a process of

unfreezing, will not be far below the surface.”

Edgar Schein (1996) who was himself a notable figure in the field of Change

commented favourably on the work of Lewin (1946):

“There is little question that the intellectual father of contemporary theories of

applied behavioural science, action research and planned change is Kurt

Lewin. His seminal work on leadership style and the experiments in planned

change which took place in World War II in an effort to alter consumer

behaviour launched a whole generation of research in group dynamics and the

implementation of change programs.”

Conclusion: There has been much criticism of Lewin’s work, as well as praise in the

last 60 years. The three step approach to change he suggests has given rise to

numerous bodies of further work in both psychology and organisational change. The

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model may not suit the dynamic nature of today’s organisational environment, but it

provides the basis for further research.

3.3.2 KOTTER

To try to explain why change management might be different in the public sector and

in particular the UK MOD it is useful to apply Kotter’s Eight step process (Figure 4) to

public departments.

Figure 4 – Kotter (1996): Eight Step Model – Leading Change.

Sense of urgency – In the private sector this can be generated by one or more of

the following;

• significant loss of market share

• falling profits

• threat of impending bankruptcy

• job losses

The MOD is unlikely to go out of business and the drivers can normally be attributed

to influences that are external to the department, such as government policy.

Therefore, in most public sector examples a sense of urgency as is suggested by

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Kotter (1996) is never quite established. This can and invariably does lead to a lack

of staff connection and/or affiliation to the change. Tomkins (1987) suggests using

greater efficiency as the driver, clearly stating how efficiency and improvements will

be assessed. Techniques such as managing by objectives and performance

measurement are examples.

Creating the guiding coalition – This can be difficult in the public sector and in

particular in the MOD due to the complexity of the organisation, the accountability to

multiple stakeholders and the lack of empowerment and autonomy given to the

leader. Although the leader may control his budget and staff, he remains

accountable to government, under scrutiny by the National Audit Office, the media

and the general public. The level of interconnection between departments increases

the number of stakeholders.

Communicate vision and strategy – As a result of the size and complexity of public

sector organisations, generation of an accurate achievable vision is difficult. The

following vision statement is offered as an exhibit:

“By 2010 I want Cleveland Police to be at the forefront of modern policing, driving

forward problem solving police work, through close co-operation with our partners,

in response to the real needs of the communities we serve. This will be achieved

by investing in and supporting our staff, giving them the skills and equipment they

need to deliver the professionalism that the public deserves.” Sean Price, Chief

Constable, Cleveland police force (2006).

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The statement does not make clear how the vision might be achieved given that its

success will be partly based on the government’s willingness to sink treasury funds

into it. This could render the statement unachievable and perhaps not particularly

memorable to those [the organisation] who must identify with it.

“The complexities of developing and implementing healthcare strategies are

obvious”. Without a clear vision detailing everyone’s end state, individuals often

cannot see ‘What is in it for me.’ (The European Information Society (EURIM), 2002)

EURIM also cites “lack of top management and commitment” as a top five reason for

public sector project failure. The word vision can sometimes communicate a

grandness or mysticism that is rarely borne out, a simple example might be “...it looks

like it is going to rain heavily, let’s take shelter in the house.” Kotter (1996) tells us

that “….in successful transformation a vision is but one element in a larger system”.

To illustrate this fact Kotter (1996) offers a model for the relationship between Vision,

Strategies, Plans and Budgets which is illustrated in Figure 5. The model attempts to

illustrate the difference between creating the vision and delivering or managing its

achievement.

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Figure 5 – The Relationship of Vision, Strategies, Plans and Budgets

Empowering Employees –The very bureaucracy of the public sector prevents any

real level of empowerment. Responsibilities and levels of authorisation are relatively

fixed and people in most positions have clearly delineated power and authority.

Arguably this is necessary to ensure standard provision of services across the

department. It is however undoubtedly a barrier to swift and agile change.

Short Term Wins – Again difficult to achieve due primarily to a difficulty in measuring

public sector performance and the inability to set realistic, balanced targets. The

British Medical Association (2002) complained that “…doctors cannot be expected to

deliver a ‘sausage-factory’ service based on productivity targets.”

LEADERSHIP CREATES MANAGEMENT CREATES

VISION

STRATEGIES

PLANS

BUDGETS

A sensible and appealing picture of the future A logic for how the vision can be achieved Specific steps and timetables to implement the strategies Plans converted into financial projections and goals

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Consolidating the Gains – Long reaction times make it difficult to identify change

benefits. The consolidation phase is also unattractive to politicians and managers as

it is unlikely to generate good headlines and publicity.

Anchor New Approaches – Much of the public sector has a deep rooted, fairly

conservative culture which is particularly difficult to change, identified by Kelly and

Amburgey (1991) as “organisational inertia.” There is often much personal

resistance to change, which continues throughout the program.

Kotter’s eight step model is one that appeals to many managers (Cameron & Green,

2004). Where there may be a problem with the model is in its promotion of early

enthusiasm and energy. The “Sense of urgency” and “….powerful guiding coalition”

that is followed by delegation of work, with a clear gap between ‘strategists’ and

‘staff’. The eight steps do not appear to emphasize the need for strategist (senior

managers) to follow through with the same vigour as is placed on steps one & two.

The use of words such as ‘consolidate’, ‘plan’ and ‘institutionalize’ seem to suggest

that these steps may be rather more straightforward or easy to accomplish, and, can

be achieved by individuals further down the management chain.

Conclusion: Kotter has identified a range of steps which suggest that their

implementation in parallel with a change program would be an additive. The problem

with Kotter’s steps is that they appear to suggest universal applicability, whereas

others suggest that the environment (e.g. public sector, private sector, not for profit,

etc…) will dictate the approach (or framework) required.

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3.3.3 FERNANDEZ AND RAINEY

Fernandez and Rainey (2006) have developed a set of eight factors specific to Public

Sector change which although similar in nature to Kotter (1996) have a distinctly

different emphasis, in that they suggest benefit can be obtained (in isolation) from

each factor as an additive to change. Kotter (1996) suggests that the eight step

model is a linear and progressively additive process. Table 1 below sets out the

eight steps and factors side by side.

Kotter (1996) steps Fernandez & Rainey (2006) factors

Establish a sense of urgency Ensure the need

Create a guiding coalition Provide a plan

Develop a vision and strategy Build internal support for change and

overcome resistance

Communicate the change vision Ensure top management support and

commitment

Empower employees for broad based

action

Build external support

Generate short term wins Provide resources

Consolidate gains and produce more

change

Institutionalize the change

Anchor new approaches in the culture Pursue comprehensive change

Table 1 – Kotter (1996) and Fernandez/Rainey (2006) Comparison

Both of the sets of steps/factors suggested by Kotter (1995; 1996) and Fernandez &

Rainey (2006) follow a logical sequence in a change program, however Fernandez &

Rainey place more emphasis on hard elements such as plans and resources in

contrast to the softer or less tangible steps provided by Kotter. Fernandez and

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Rainey perhaps do so in recognition of the more bureaucratic environment that exists

within the Public Sector, where innovation and agility are likely to be less often

referred to.

Conclusion: There is a strong likelihood that the factors identified by Fernandez and

Rainey would be more applicable to the environment in which the MOD operates.

The main benefit that can be seen from the factors are that they stand on their own,

and can provide benefit to the change program in isolation of the other stages.

Models such as Kotter (1996) suggest a linear journey through each step, taking

great care to implement all eight with more than a suggestion that all must be

adhered to if success is to be had.

3.3.4 SHAW

Shaw (2002) suggests a model for change but looks at it in a different way. Change

is seen as both complex and also evolutionary. The starting point for the model is

that the environment of an organisation is not in equilibrium and as such the change

mechanisms within organisations tend to be 'messy' and to a certain extent operate

in reverse to the way outlined by Lewin (1946).

“It is not appropriate to consider the status quo as an appropriate starting

point, given that organisations are not static entities. Rather the forces for

change are already inherent in the system and emerge as the system adapts

to its environment.” (Shaw, 2002)

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Such different models will have implications on the way organisations and their

leaders view change, the way they manage change and the effectiveness of any

change initiative.

Shaw (2002) questions the way in which much of the theory on change suggests that

we can choose and design new future states for organisations.

“...avoiding the widely favoured use of two by two matrices, idealized schemas

and simplified typologies that characterize much of the change management

literature today. We must be participative if we are to understand and

influence change” (Shaw, 2002)

The approach suggested by Shaw indicates that those participating in change

projects or programs should live within the immediate paradoxes and complexities of

organisational life.

Conclusion: Shaw paints a bleak picture for advocates of change

models/frameworks and their research, with a clear suggestion that the only way to

be successful in a change program is to ‘live the dream’. There is some truth in the

participative approach that Shaw suggests, however there must still be a strong

argument for frameworks if only to guide managers along when managing change.

3.3.5 BEER AND NOHRIA

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Beer & Nohria (2000) advocate a model that recognises that change is complex and

therefore requires a more complex, albeit still uniform set of responses to ensure its

effectiveness. They prescribe a six-step process to achieve effective change. They

concentrate on 'task alignment', where employees' roles, responsibilities and

relationships are seen as key to bringing about situations that enforce changed ways

of thinking, attitudes and behaving. Their stages are:

• Mobilise commitment to change through joint diagnosis.

• Develop a shared vision of how to organise.

• Foster consensus, competence and commitment to shared vision.

• Spread the word about the change.

• Institutionalise the change through formal policies.

• Monitor and adjust as needed.

Conclusion: The advice from Beer and Nohria through their change model leans

towards a systemic approach. It acknowledges that a change in one area of an

organisation can adversely affect another area of the organisation and it therefore

promotes organisational communication at all levels in order to avoid silos inside the

department. The premise for Beer and Nohria’s model is one that fits well with the

MOD where institutional silos are protected and maintained by senior managers. It is

most likely that this approach would encounter difficulty in the MOD, particularly in

the softer stages such as “Foster consensus, competence and commitment to shared

vision”.

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3.3.6 MCKINSEY 7S FRAMEWORK

The McKinsey (1980) 7S framework (illustrated at Figure 6) was originally developed

as a tool to enable broader thinking when organizing a company effectively,

suggesting that strategy must be thought about in terms of how it works in

conjunction with a number of other factors. Successful change requires attending to

the seven variables of the model and using them as a framework to diagnose how an

organisation currently operates and how change might be designed. Moreover, when

all seven variables are aligned and facing the vision, mission and strategy, there is a

real momentum to successfully operate/change. The premise of the model is that If

one element changes then this will also affect all the others. For example, a change

in HR management, like skills profile uplifts and associated training will have an

impact on organisational culture (management style) and thus will affect structures,

processes, and finally the characteristic competences of the organisation.

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Figure 6 – McKinsey (1980): 7S Framework

The McKinsey seven variables are outline below:

Soft s’s

• Shared values – Organisations values, beliefs, mission and objective.

• Staff and Skills – Matching people to the skills needed for the organisation

• Style – Managerial style (does it fit the organisational circumstances)

Hard s’s

• Strategy – Organisations plan for meeting its objectives.

• Structure – Who does what and who is responsible for non-achievement

• Systems – Adequate systems to support the organisation (e.g.

Communications, performance management, etc…)

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Conclusion: The 7-S Model is a useful tool widely used in the public sector (MoD,

OGC) to help initiate change processes and to give them some direction. It may be

helpful to determine the current state of each element and to compare this with the

ideal state, identified through benchmarking (Taylor, 1911). Based on this it might

be possible to develop action plans to achieve the required degree of change.

3.3.7 BRIDGES TRANSITION MODEL

The ideas of Bridges (1991) on transition assist in providing an understanding of what

is going on when an organisational change takes place. His phased model, illustrated

at Figure 7, can be particularly useful when organisations are faced with inevitable

changes such as site closures, redundancies and mergers.

Fig 7. Bridge’s Transition Model (1991)

The model suggests that before an organisation can begin something new or

implement change, it needs to end what ‘used to be’; identify who is losing what,

openly acknowledge the losses, mark the endings and continuously repeat

information about what is changing and why.

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In the neutral zone, individuals within the organisation feel disoriented with falling

motivation and increasing anxiety. The change manager must ensure that people

recognize the neutral zone and treat it as part of the organisation’s change process

(Cameron & Green, 2004).

The model then suggests that four elements are necessary to help individuals, and

therefore the organisation, make a new beginning and accept the change:

• Gain acknowledgement and acceptance of the purpose for the change (case

for change)

• Communicate a picture of how the new organisation will look and feel

• Communicate and gain a step-by-step understanding of how the organisation

will change and reach its desired end-state

• Ensure staff involvement (awareness of roles and responsibilities) in the

change and the outcome of their efforts in delivering it

Embracing the new whilst sweeping out the old may sound in theory like a sensible

thing to do. Mintzberg et al. (1998) explain that it may be “…a lot more effective (as

well as difficult) to find ways to integrate the best of the new with the most useful of

the old.” Too many organisations are subjected to ill-conceived and unnecessary

change.

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Conclusion: Bridges transition model focuses on the complete change of an

organisation and its individuals and in it he makes a clear distinction between

planned change and transition. Bridges’ ideas on transition are aimed at gaining a

deeper understanding of what is going on in an organisation, specifically what

emotions are present and at what stages. Bridges presents different views of change

through the transition model and it is one which could have uses in the public sector

where redundancy or closure of a site is inevitable.

As a final few thoughts on the models and frameworks for change Cameron & Green

(2004) explain that change models serve as a means to an end. They allow the

analysis and research to be bounded by a theoretical and conceptual framework in

which to act as the basis for future empirical research.

It is the belief (Johnson & Scholes, 2004) amongst theorist and researchers that

organisational Change models can provide the foundation for study of any type of

change and is not tied to any particular field or sector of industry. Practitioners are

often focused on achieving the end result of a change such as Quality System

Certification, without realising the impact on, or for, their organisation. This is an

important point that illustrates the need to check and re-check the projected aims of

the change program. This is best illustrated where an organisation is in a dynamic

sector of the market such as technology. In this case a long drawn out change

process would need to constantly re-focus its aim in context with the external factors

affecting it.

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3.4 STYLES OF MANAGING CHANGE

Much has been written and researched on management and the existence of distinct

styles. Managers have to perform many roles in an organisation and how they

handle various situations will depend on their personal style of management. A

management style is an overall method of leadership used by a manager (Dunphy &

Stace, 1993).

From the point of view of results, the effectiveness of the organisation is determined

by the way work is organized and by the way people work with or against each other.

The way in which people co-operate with each other, with the leadership and with the

community, indeed the extent of their commitment to the organisational objectives will

depend on the style of management.

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3.4.1 GOLEMAN

Daniel Goleman (2000) worked through a set of six different styles through a detailed

research of nearly 4000 executives worldwide. These six leadership traits or styles

are listed in Table 2 and adapted to provide a short definition, appropriate time to use

and potential drawbacks of using a particular style.

Coercive Authoritative Affiliative Democratic Pace-setting Coaching

Short Definition Telling people

what to do and when

Persuading and attracting people

with an engaging vision

Building relationships with people

through the use of positive feedback

Asking staff what they think, and listening to

this.

Raising the bar, and then asking

for a little bit more –

increasing momentum

Encouraging staff to try new

things and ‘upskill’

When to use this style

When there is a crisis

When step change is

required. When the manager is both respected

and keen

When staff relationships have broken

down

When staff have a contribution to

make (voluntarily)

When staff are self starters and a high degree of

competence

When there is a gap in the

required skillsets

Disadvantages of this style

Encourages dependence. People stop

thinking

Has a negative effect if the

manager is not respected

Cannot be used in isolation

May fail if staff lack experience

or ideas

Can be difficult to maintain

momentum – inappropriate

when staff need help

If the manager is not a good

coach or if staff are not

compelled to take part – will

not work Table 2 – Goleman (2000): Six Leadership Styles

The MOD has a mixed manning (military and civilian) approach to filling senior

management positions and these clearly bring different styles (which can be

observed overtly). The military could generally be identified with the Coercive and

Pace Setting styles whilst most civilian managers would fit more neatly with the

Democratic style. The disadvantages of both these styles are evident and include an

over-reliance on management, difficult in maintaining where less skilled and junior

staff are employed.

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Conclusion: Goleman has produced a useful map of management styles which are

helpful to understanding the styles in use in organisations. The MOD and public

sector in general could make use of the ‘when to use’ element of the table.

Identifying appropriate managers with complimentary styles for circumstances is a

more difficult challenge for organisations.

3.4.2 DUNPHY AND STACE

Whoever is responsible for managing change must consider the style of management

they adopt. Different styles will more than likely have degrees of appropriateness

depending on the context and complexity of the desired change. To illustrate this

point Dunphy & Stace (1993) offer a matrix to try and assist in identifying the right

style and people for managing change.

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Circumstance of

Style Means/Context Benefits Problems effectiveness

Education and Group briefings Overcoming lack of Time consuming Communication assume internalisation (or mis)information Direction or Of strategic logic and progress may be Trust of top management unclear Collaboration/ Involvement in setting the Increasing ownership Time consuming Participation strategy agenda and/or of a decision or process solutions/outcome resolving strategic issues may improve quality of within existing by taskforces or groups decisions paradigm Intervention Change agent retains Process is guided/controlled Risk of perceived Incremental or co-ordination/control: but involvement manipulation non-crisis delegates elements takes place transformational of change change Direction Use of authority to Clarity and speed Risk of lack of Transformational set direction and means acceptance and ill change of change -conceived strategy Coercion/edict Explicit use of power May be successful in crises Least successful Crises, rapid through edict or state of confusion unless crises transformational change or change in established autocratic cultures

Table 3 – Dunphy & Stace (1995): A Discussion of Different Styles

The matrix that is offered by Dunphy & Stace (1993) makes some observations that

appear in many other areas of change theory (Kotter, 1996; Lewin, 1946; Burnes,

2002). These have been adapted from Johnson & Scholes (2005) and summarised

below:

• Different stages in the change process will require different styles of

management

This points towards a mixed bag of styles within the change team and is supported

by Kotter (1996) who tells us that the right people will have “…strong position power,

broad expertise, and high credibility”.

Incremental Change or long-time horizontal transformational change

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• In terms of duration and scale, the participative styles are more likely to be

appropriate for incremental change within organisations.

Conclusion: The Dunphy and Stace research is similar to that of Goleman (2000)

with the conclusion being that a contingency approach is required by management if

they are to succeed in managing change. There is no one ‘right way’ of managing in

a time of change, the difficulty again for organisations is the development and/or

recruitment of individuals who are capable of adopting appropriate styles when and if

required to do so. This is no more so than in the public sector where the drivers for

change (Figure 3, p. 13) are so wide ranging and in some cases predicated on

political gain rather than improved organisational effectiveness. The model underlines

the importance of identifying the type of change to be undertaken

3.4.3 BALOGUN & HOPE HAILEY

Balogun & Hope Hailey (2004) offer a scale for identifying the type of change. This is

illustrated in Figure 8;

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Figure 8 – Balogun & Hope-Hailey (2004): Types of Change

In the Balogun & Hope-Hailey (2004) model they identify four degrees or types of

change outlined below and adapted from Johnson & Scholes (2005);

• Adaptation – accommodated within the current paradigm, most commonly

used

• Reconstruction – rapid change with a fair degree of upheaval although no

change in paradigm. May have been instigated to turn around the company.

• Evolution – change in strategy and paradigm in a progressive manner. This

may be enacted through analysis of activities and the external envinronment of

the company.

• Revolution – major change in strategy and paradigm in a rapid fashion. This

could be present where a hostile takeover threatens the company.

Evolution

Revolution

Reconstruction

Adaptation

Incremental

Big Bang

Realignment Transformation

Natur

e of C

hang

e Scope of Change

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The Balogun & Hope-Hailey (2004) model advocates a flexible or contingent

approach to managing change and recognises the need for an unbiased style of

management.

In his paper, Caldwell (2003) asks the question “Change leaders and change

managers: different or complimentary?” The role and importance of leaders of

change in organisations has generated much debate in the last twenty years. Terms

such as ‘champion’ and ‘transformational leadership’ present these individuals or

groups as superheroes who would change the world if allowed, but were content to

break down the walls of corporate inflexibility (Kanter, 1983; Devanna and Tichy,

1986; Bass & Stogdill, 1990). A range of skills and attributes were bestowed on

these individuals such as risk taking and the ability to deal with uncertainty. Caldwell

(2003) offers the idea that in a change process, managers and leaders or agents of

change must coexist. This view is supported by Johnson & Scholes (2005) who

identify managers in an organisation as facilitators of change whilst the leaders

provide strategies, culture and systems to make it possible.

Conclusion: Balogun & Hope-Hailey present a logical assessment tool which can be

practically applied at the outset of a change program or whilst forming a strategy.

Models by both Dunphy & Stace and Goleman could be applied in parallel to this

model to aid in assessing a more complete picture of the change required and the

individual styles needed to support it. This model could have some practical benefit

to the MOD in assessing implementation risks in major change programs.

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3.4.4 COGNITIVE CHANGE – KUBLER-ROSS; SATIR; WEINBERG

The cognitive approach to change builds upon the behaviourist approach by putting

individual behaviour into the context of beliefs, with a focus on affecting outcomes

(Cameron & Green, 2004).

This approach looks at building a positive mental attitude backed up by an analysis of

which beliefs produce certain behaviours. For example a fear of flying once explored

and reasoned can be cured through an understanding of how an aircraft works and

the safety record associated with it. A drawback of this approach is that it shows a

lack of understanding of the internal emotions of the individuals concerned. Some

obstacles need to be worked through, and will not be ironed out by re-framing

opinions or through positive re-affirmation (Cameron & Green, 2004).

Kubler-Ross (1969) published her now seminal research ‘On death and dying’ which

suggested that terminally ill patients would typically go through five stages when

coming to terms with their prognosis. The stages were denial, anger, bargaining,

depression and finally acceptance. Management researchers have developed upon

the Kubler-Ross (1969) model. In particular Adams, Hayes and Hopson (1976)

developed a change curve which was built upon by the work of Satir et al. 1991

(Figure 9).

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Figure 9 – Satir et al. (1991) Change Curve

The Satir et al.. (1991) model suggests that relative equilibrium is in place in the

‘old status quo’ where the system is in harmony until what Satir et al. (1991) terms

as a ‘foreign element’ enters. This could be a new government policy in the case

of the public sector or a merger/acquisition in the case of the private sector,

whatever the instance, it affects the system. It is often when an individual or

organisation has reached the very depths of despair that an idea will emerge

(Cameron & Green, 2004). If we are to believe the Weinberg (1997) model this

idea will develop over time to become ‘the new status quo’.

Weinberg (1997) draws heavily on the work of Satir et al. (1991) to map it onto

what he saw as the critical points that will support or undermine a change process.

Foreign Element

Transforming Idea

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Figure 10 – Weinberg (1997): Critical points in the change process

Weinberg (1997) suggests in his model that if a change is not well planned, or if the

members of the organisation consciously or unconsciously decide to resist, the

change project or program will fail.

Conclusion: The cognitive style provides change managers and those involved in

change with an insight into the emotional turmoil that change creates in organisations

and individuals to help us understand where we are at any given time. The Weinberg

model suggests that you are able to map out the process of change and tinker with it

to get the required outcome in the way in which you would re-design a process

model. Despite the seminal nature of this work it appears to have limited benefit

when supporting public sector change such as in the MOD. Further refining of a

public sector model is necessary to recognize the unique environment.

Foreign element introduced

Try to reject foreign element

Try to accommodate foreign element in old model

Try to transform old model to receive foreign element

Practice to master transformed model

Try to integrate

Old status quo

New status quo

Transforming idea

Reject

Accommodate

Master Can’t master

Can’t integrate

Can’t transform

Transform

Integrate

Can’t reject

Can’t accommodate

CHAOS

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3.4.5 WHETTEN & CAMERON

As a final thought on frameworks for change Whetten and Cameron (2005) talk about

the importance of leading ‘positive’ change in particular a phenomenon they describe

as “bad is stronger than good”. People tend to pay more attention to negativity than

positivity (e.g. four people comment positively on your appearance and one is critical

of your attire, which is most memorable?). Whetten and Cameron tell us that

managers must establish a climate of positivity with three necessary conditions which

are highlighted in Figure 11 as leading to superior performance for both the

organisation and the individuals.

Figure 11 – Relationships among factors in a climate of positivity.

Conclusion: The approach recommended by Whetten and Cameron (2005) is useful

in a long term sense. They give us ideas on how best to create a positive

Positive Personal Energy and positive energy networks

Expressions of gratitude, forgiveness and compassion

Positive feedback on strengths and the best self

Superior individual and organisational performance

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environment within organisations, going on to explain that this will have a catalytic

effect during change programs. The problem with this approach is it would not be

suitable where a decision has been made to close down a site or to make a number

of redundancies. The opportunity to ‘create’ a positive environment, supportive to

change, has already gone. This approach may be useful to lower level teams within

the MOD where the opportunity exists for teambuilding in newly formed IPTs.

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3.5 COMMON THEMES OF CHANGE LITERATURE

The review of literature has identified three key themes which appear to crop up

regularly in Change management research. In no particular order Leadership,

Culture and Communication appear to be the principle factors that enable success in

a change project or programme. The following section of the review attempts to draw

on existing literature linking back to these three themes in a change project or

program.

3.5.1 LEADERSHIP

Mullins (2005) tells us that during change “...leadership is based on interpersonal

skills in a broader context. It has correlation with the willingness and enthusiasm of

the followers”. This projects a belief that a ‘good leader’ will be able to engage the

support of staff whilst also generating a sense of interest in the outcome of a

particular change. Bennis (1994) sought to extol the virtues of ‘visionary leaders’

and through this work he identified what he termed the three basic ingredients:

• a guiding vision;

• passion;

• integrity.

In order to identify what attributes would be specific to a leader Bennis, (1994)

developed a table for comparison, outlined in Table 4. The work of Kotter (1996) in

developing leaders agrees with that of Bennis (1994) and in particular he says that

“…we have raised a generation of very talented people to be managers, not

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leader/managers.” Kotter (1996) says of leaders “…they don’t make plans, they don’t

solve problems they don’t even organize people. What they [leaders] do is prepare

the organisation for change and help them deal with the struggle as they face it”

A Manager

A Leader

Administers Is a copy Maintains Focuses on systems and structure Relies on control Has a short range of view Asks how and when Has his eye on the bottom line Imitates Accepts the status quo Classic good soldier Does things right

Innovates Is an original Develops Focuses on people Inspires trust Has a long range perspective Asks why Has his eye on the horizon Originates Challenges the status quo His own person Does the right thing

Table 4 – Bennis (1994): Managers and Leaders

More recent research makes clear that such distinctions between leadership and

management which may have been useful in previous decades may no longer be

relevant (Cameron & Quinn, 1999; Quinn, 2000; 2004). Research now suggests that

those responsible for managing change must be contingent in their approach i.e.

“Managers cannot be successful without being good leaders and vice versa.”

(Whetten & Cameron, 2005). Theorists talk about unlocking positivity in individuals

during change. If a leader can project the positive benefits of a change they will be

able to unlock an individual’s ability to experience appreciation, collaboration and

meaningfulness in their work (Whetten & Cameron, 2005). There can be difficulty in

generating the ‘positivity’ in the Public Sector where there is limited opportunity to

reward individuals for participating in a change. For example, some ideas for change

are simply ill conceived, unjustified or pose harmful consequences for the members

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of the organisation. Even assuming that a well justified, well thought out and planned

change, leaders must build internal support and overcome resistance – no mean feat

in the Public Sector (Fernandez & Rainey, 2006).

There appears to be much in literature to suggest that positive leadership can make

significant gains for organisations (Bennis 1994; Kotter, 1996; Mullins, 2005 ;

Wallace, 1990; Whetten & Cameron, 2005).

Many of the most successful private sector organisations, including the Virgin Group,

Ryanair and Tesco, attribute their success in part to the quality of leadership in their

organisations. The names of Richard Branson, Michael O’Leary and Terry Leahy

roll off the tongue like the ‘A’ list celebrities of today and this forms part of the

attraction of working for the organisation (Palmer & Hartley, 2002)

Opportunity and selection for promotion in the MOD for both civil servants and their

military counterparts is generally based on the portrayal of good managerial

behaviour. If leadership is indeed a key factor in managing change then the MOD

must ensure that it can identify those individuals who can not only administer and

manage, but also portray the kind of behaviours that Bennis (1997) suggests are

important in Table 4.

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3.5.2 CULTURE

Although there are more than one hundred and fifty definitions of organisational

culture (Kroeber & Kluckholn, 1952) important theoretical discussions of (Cameron &

Ettington, 1988; O’Reilly & Chatman, 1996; Schein, 1996) agree with the notion that it

[organisational culture] is a socially constructed phenomenon, particular to

organisations, which serves to bind them together as a ‘social glue’ (Cameron &

Green, 2004). The vast majority of writers are in agreement that it [culture] refers to

the taken for granted values, underlying assumptions, definitions and expectations

that characterize organisations and their members. Culture represents and typifies

’How things are done around here’ or the prevailing ideology that is inherent in

members and affects their ability to behave independently. In summary it [culture]

will affect the way members think, behave and feel. (Cameron, 1997)

Culture change as an isolated objective is meaningless (Cameron & Green, 2004).

Researchers (Cameron & Ettington, 1988; O’Reilly & Chatman, 1996; Schein, 1996;

Cameron & Quinn, 1999; Molenaar et al., 2002) argue that organisations should only

involve themselves in culture change if the current culture does not adequately

support and facilitate the attainment of the strategic objectives. This premise is

based on the perception that culture can be measured and that by assessing the

organisation within a cultural web (Johnson & Scholes, 2005) or paradigm, you will

be able to identify levers to effect a shift in culture to a new state. Figure 12 is an

illustrative example of cultural context for change in a Technical Services department

in Local Government.

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Figure 12 – Johnson & Scholes (2005): The Cultural Web

Johnson & Scholes (2005) have developed the cultural web as an aid to

understanding the paradigm in which an organisation operates. They tell us that the

six surrounding physical behaviours will characterize and reinforce the central

paradigm. Johnson & Scholes (2005) define the cultural web as “…a representation

of the taken for granted assumptions, or paradigm of an organisation and the

physical manifestations of organisational culture.”

STORIES

• How things used to be; ‘it’s their fault

• The power of Chief Officers

RITUALS

• Overloaded problem solvers, reacting to complaints, narrowly avoiding mistakes

• ‘Get your head down’ and get on with the job if it goes wrong blame someone else

PARADIGM

• Strong belief about high quality service in terms of professional standards, rather than on satisfying the needs of the customer

CONTROL

• Emphasis on formal budgetary control

• Rapid response to crises and emergencies

ORGANISATION

• Departments as silos in which services are delivered and conventions preserved

• Hierarchical and mechanistic, strong emphasis on structures and budgets

POWER

• Groups with heads controlling access to to and influence of elected politicians

SYMBOLS

• Symbols of privilege for senior mangers (e.g. parking, offices and secretaries for ‘support’

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The work of Quinn & Rohrbaugh (1981) and more recently Cameron & Quinn (1999)

in developing a framework for diagnosing and changing organisational culture is

widely recognised as representing what is of value to people about the nature of an

organisations’ performance. They believe it is of value, appropriate and good for

forming opinions and acting on them (Beyer & Cameron, 1997; Cameron & Etington,

1998; Mitroff, 1983; Wilber, 2000).

Geert Hofstedes’ groundbreaking 1980 book, ‘Culture’s Consequences’ was borne

out of his research within IBM from 1973 to 1978. From what was at that time the

world’s largest survey data base, Hofstede and his colleagues analyzed the

differences in the responses of over 100,000 IBM staff across 50 nations. This laid

the groundwork for other research (Quinn & Rohrbaugh, 1981; 1986; Cameron &

Quinn 1999) to adapt his work and use it to study and suggest how to change

organisational culture. Hofstede’s (1980) work identified five major dimensions upon

which country cultures differed (Adapted from Aiman-Smith (2004):

• Power distance – how hierarchies and the distribution of power is viewed.

• Uncertainty avoidance – the extent to which individuals are at ease or not

with organisational uncertainty and clarity of structure.

• Individualism – this is the polar opposite of collectivism and is the extent to which individuals are supposed to be self-sufficient and able to look after themselves, versus group dependence and integration.

• Masculinity or Femininity – the dimension which has caused most debate.

This dimension is aimed at reflecting hardness vs softness; toughness vs tenderness in a culture.

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• Long term or short term orientation – this has to do with the culture’s members expectation of long or short term reward and recognition.

Researchers and theorists interested in organisational culture have been at odds

discussing the pros and cons of qualitative or quantitative ways of looking at culture.

The qualitative school (Dey, 1993; Easterby-Smith et al., 2002, Silverman, 1993)

points out that the richness of perceptions and experience inside an organisation are

vital to deep understanding, and they say that culture cannot be constrained to a two

by two matrix or a list of dimensions.

The quantitative school (Morris, 1999; Pallant, 2001; Robson, 2002) of researchers

argue that managers need to have some hard data, and that the drawbacks of getting

slow, expensive, possibly unreliable (unique to the interpretation of the researcher)

qualitative information make the usefulness iffy at best.

The truth, you would suspect, lies somewhere in the middle and managers will be

best served by both. Case studies based on observation and insider interviews give

a sense of reality and currency that captures the attention. Observations of the

components of culture, with discussion and analysis, offer ways to do qualitative

tracking over time. Having a method for obtaining quantitative data has the

advantage of allowing managers to put together more “hard data” analyses to look at

culture as a component of management, and to track the standardized captured

components of culture as a linear process. Looking at an organisation using data

gathered in a variety of methods, or triangulation, combines quantitative and

qualitative data that can allow managers to capitalize on the advantages of

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quantitative methods as well as capturing a rich not-easily-quantified picture of the

organisation.

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3.5.3 COMMUNICATION

The importance of communication in a change project or program cannot be

understated. Kotter (1996) tells us in step four of his eight step model that

“…managers undercommunciate, and often not by a small amount. Or they

inadvertently send inconsistent messages. In either case the net result is a stalled

transformation”. The message that Kotter (1996) gives us is one that many

organisations could identify with today. Change can trigger a number of emotional

responses in individuals (Cameron & Green, 2004; Satir et al., 1991; Weinberg,

1997). If the individuals are directly affected with the change they are more likely to

receive them positively (Whetten & Cameron, 2005) if the message can be

personalized. Face-to-face discussions and communications on an individual basis

are especially important when the individual(s) are likely to be adversely affected by

the change (Cameron & Green, 2004). The complexity of change projects is often

underestimated, with timescales not being met. This is one of the main reasons why

timely communication is important. Managing people’s expectations is the key to

communication. If you declare a plan for a change activity it is essential that it is

adhered to, and where change to that plan is necessary, clear communication with

the affected group must take place in parallel (Cameron & Green, 2004; Kotter,

1996).

Fernandez and Rainey (2006) explain that, “…managerial leaders must build internal

support for change and reduce resistance to it through widespread participation”.

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Effective communication of the change program will be a key factor in achieving

individual participation and internal support building.

Kotter (1996) explains that communication of a vision is a difficult task to undertake

“…it can easily turn into a screeching one-way transmission in which useful feedback

is ignored.” The types of communication that do not allow for feedback, do not allow

for correction of errors. Cameron and Green (2004) talk about the importance of

one-to-one discussions, with feedback, during change as does Kotter (1996) who

tells us that “…two way discussions are an essential method of helping people

answer all the questions that occur to them…”

As a final thought on communications (in the context of organisational change) Kotter

(1996) offers the following:

“Clear, simple, memorable, often repeated, consistent communication from

multiple sources, modelled by executive behaviour, helps enormously.”

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CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

4.1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research is defined by Saunders et al. (2003) as something that people undertake in

order to find out things in a systematic way, thereby increasing their knowledge. The

important elements of this definition are ‘systematic’ and ‘to find things out’.

Research methodology is categorized into two main schools of thought,

phenomenology (qualitative) and positivistic (quantitative). For reasons that are

better explained at Chapter 4.2, both the qualitative and quantitative methods were

used in this research project

4.1.1 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research provides a non-specific answer to a question which may give an

insight into the respondent’s feelings. It aims to answer the ‘who, what and why’

questions. (Wickham, 2004).

4.1.2 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Although quantitative investigation of the world has existed since records began, the

modern idea of quantitative research has its roots in Comte's (1855) positivist

framework. Quantitative research provides answers to questions when there is a

desire to have them expressed in a statistical or numerical form. It aims to answer

the ‘how much, how often and how many’ questions (Wickham, 2004).

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4.2 APPROACH ADOPTED FOR RESEARCH PROJECT

The primary research for this project was carried out using a mixture of nine

qualitative and five quantitative (Likert,1932) questions relating to Level 1 of the TES

change program. These questions were put to Business Unit Group leaders within

TES, and a small selection of their staff in early July 2006. The combintion of both

methods (qualitative and quantitative) through the use of a questionnaire was

adopted following debate between project tutor, author and TES change team leader.

The final approach was seen as a compromise which would provide depth in terms of

the qualitative responses and also some harder statistical data from the quantitative

responses.

4.3 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Data collection can be divided into the two distinct categories of primary and

secondary data. Primary data is collected for the purpose of the research project and

is subdivided into qualitative (statistical hard data) and quantitative (subjective who,

what, when and how). Secondary data is information that has already been collected

for another purpose and usually takes the form of existing reports, articles and

information that proves relevant to the project (Wickham, 2004).

4.3.1 PRIMARY DATA

The primary data collection most suited for this research is a detailed questionnaire.

As this project is an evaluation of the TES change program in its early stages it was

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thought that detailed interviews would be too time consuming, if wide enough

conclusions were to be drawn from the questionnaire.

4.3.2 SECONDARY DATA

The secondary data required for this research proposal was collected from an

extensive and critical literature review of the research topic supporting the aims and

objectives of the research. This literature review also included in excess of one

hundred journals and a range of research book/guides and Government publications

such as McKane and Gershon reports. Secondary data was not limited to available

publications; the observations of the author (through direct involvement in the TES

change program as an internal consultant) were also used to inform conclusions on

applicability of available literature.

4.3.3 QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN AND DISTRIBUTION

The validity and reliability of the data you collect and the response rate you achieve

depend, to a large extent, on the design of your questions, the structure of your

questionnaire and the rigour of your pilot testing (Saunders et al., 2003)

Bourque & Clark (1994) also tell us that when individual questions are being

designed by researchers they do one of three things:

• adopt questions already in use in other questionnaires;

• adapt questions already in use in other questionnaires;

• develop new questions

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The initial set of twelve open questions prepared in early June 2006 had been a

mixture of all three. The question set was put to both the TES change team leader

and the research tutor for opinion and critique. Over the next three weeks a series of

e-mails and telephone discussions resulted in a set of fourteen questions (see Annex

A) which had now included within them, five quantitative questions.

The rationale behind the inclusion of the quantitative questions was that the TES

change team leader felt that it would break up the questioning and result in a greater

rate of return. This did indeed prove to be the case with a rate of return of 37%

based on 27 out of 74 questionnaires. Saunders et al. (2003) indicate that 30%

would be the average rate of return for an electronically delivered questionnaire

within an organisation.

The survey was initially planned to be embedded into an e-mail and sent directly to

participants for them to complete, however the fragility of the MOD infrastructure to

the use of Macros necessitated the use of an attachment. The results were compiled

manually due to the small nature of the sample and analysis carried out using an

excel spreadsheet as a template for both (quantitative) calculating and (qualitative)

analysis of the results. It was never planned to carry out one-to-one interviews as

part of the primary research although use was made of the author’s access to senior

management to better inform understanding and context. It was recognized that a

contingency approach might be necessary if there were no specific conclusions to be

drawn from the primary research or if a very poor rate of return emerged.

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4.4 HYPOTHESES

Despite there initially being no hypothesis, the academic literature review indicated

the possibility of one. This came about following the review of academic literature

where it emerged that there may be three potentially dominant themes in the

management of change. The following hypothesis was subsequently developed and

if applicable may aid further research and the potential for development of a maturity

model to provide a readiness test where a change is deemed necessary. There is

significant risk to the credibility of the project in taking this approach however the

author felt it necessary to produce a project with a tangible outcome.

“If effective management of change is to be achieved we must address three key

areas”:

• Organisational culture

• Leadership during transformation

• Communicating the change message

The questionnaire set out to gather evidence in support of the hypothesis which may

or may not be supplemented by the secondary data and a critical review of literature

on the management of change.

4.5 RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS

The research methods used provided the author with a range of data both secondary

and primary. The secondary data was extremely useful in understanding the internal

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context of change in the MOD which provided the opportunity to comment on the

academic literature. The primary research on the other hand provided a depth of

comment from respondent’s that was not expected.

There were a number of issues worth highlighting which were not expected at the

outset and had to be overcome to finalise the research, these included:

• Considerable debate with senior management over the content of the

questionnaire

• Debate over the timing of the questionnaire

o Staff demoralised could lead to biased responses

o DPA/DLO merger on the horizon could add further bias

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CHAPTER 5: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

5.1 ABSTRACT OF PRIMARY QUESTIONNAIRE DATA

The three recurring themes in the primary questionnaire data are: Leadership,

Culture and Communications although it could be argued that the questions led the

respondents partly down that path. The perception of success from respondents

seems to hinge on the extent to which they have been led, the environment in which

they work (culture) and the degree of clarity to which they have been ‘communicated

with’.

5.2 DETAILED DISCUSSION ON RESPONSES TO QUESTIONNAIRE

The following section of the review will look at each question in turn and try to form a

judgement on the responses using links to academic research.

In order to distinguish between the comments made by respondents, individual

comments made will be identified by the scheme R1, R2, R3 and so on. This is not

intended to identify comments to any individual, but merely to separate out one from

another.

5.2.1 Q1 - TO WHAT DEGREE DO YOU FEEL YOU HAVE CONTRIBUTED

TOWARDS THE CHANGES IN TES?)

Question 1 dealt with the respondent’s opinion on their own contribution towards the

change program in TES. Answers varied wildly from responses such as (R1)

“zilch!!” and (R2) “not at all” to those who gave clear accounts of their role in

managing and delivering on the change program. Some however pointed to the

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autocratic way in which the changes were imposed, a typical response being (R3) “I

have had the opportunity to comment on change proposals but not on the initial

direction. It has been a hierarchical process with limited debate until recently”. There

are a number of factors which may have contributed to a bias in the responses and

these must be considered. The organisation of TES was being formed by merging

groups from two very different areas of the MOD, the Defence Logistics Organisation

(DLO) and the Defence Procurement Agency (DPA). Both groups are involved in the

delivery of high value Equipment and Platform projects for IPTs. The DPA are

concerned with the procurement of the project or equipment before going into service

and the DLO are concerned with the maintenance of the once in service.

It was not a particular surprise therefore that the majority of the negative responses

to Q1 had originated in the ex-DLO groups as they had thought themselves to be the

main target of the savings in the TES change program. It is suggested from the

responses that different levels of support had filtered down from the directors in

TESEX to their respective group leaders. There are perhaps lessons from the

research through Kotter (1996) who places great importance on ‘creating a guiding

coalition’ and ‘developing a vision and strategy’ these do not appear to have been

high on the agenda of the initial TES change program. The change program was

broken down into three distinct and separate activities. A brief summary of these are

outlined below:

• Level 1 – Merging of the DPA functional groups (FGs) and the DLO

business groups (BGs)

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• Level 2 – Restructuring or rightsizing TES to allow it to serve its

customers more effectively

• Level 3 – Optimization of TES following the Level 1 merger and

customer re-alignment.

5.2.2 Q2 - I FEEL THAT I AM EMPOWERED TO MAKE INNOVATIVE

SUGGESTIONS ON CHANGES WITHIN TES

Question 2 was a Likert (1932) scale question which sought to build upon Q1, to

establish whether or not the opportunity had been made available for senior

managers to contribute to the change program. There is not much that can be read

from what appears on the face of it, to be a relatively spread out response, however

with the factors already mentioned in Q1 the split serves to reinforce the DPA/DLO

issue on participation.

Strongly Agree15%

Agree33%

Neither15%

Disagree26%

Strongly Disagree

11%

Q2 - I feel that I am empowered to make innovative suggestions on Changes within TES

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5.2.3 Q3 - TO WHAT DEGREE HAVE THE CHANGES IN TES

“FOLLOWED A LOGICAL PROCESS” THAT HAS BEEN CLEARLY DEFINED?

Question 3 attempted to analyse the planning and ongoing management of the

change program. The question also sought to examine if the process for change had

been communicated out to all levels. The majority (85%) of responses were negative

in nature. Responses provided include (R1) “Someone must have the master plan,

but it’s not me!” and (R2) “Not at all. TES appears to have an agenda to create an

organisation on some pre-conceived concept rather that looking for efficiencies and

economies within the management of its constituent parts.” Other responses

focussed on the lack of a clear and consistent message from the TES Executive

Board (TESEX) who were either unaware of the concerns of group heads or chose

not to listen. Examples of these types of response include (R3) “Not very much. The

purpose of TES (combining all the various departments under one head) was never

communicated (is it to save money, improve efficiency, or both). Until the real

objectives are known there is no logical path to follow” whilst others questioned the

original requirement for the change (R4) “It has never been clear what the original

‘exam question’ was therefore I believe a clearly defined and logical process has not

been followed”. It would be easy to look at the message coming out from inside TES

and conclude that there was a lack of support for the changes. Kotter (1996) tells us

that the errors made in change programs increase when a sense of urgency has not

instilled in managers and employees. It is clear from the responses to Q3 that whilst

managers were aware of the changes going on they were not active participants, and

where they were involved through necessity, they could not understand the rationale

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or individual reasons for the changes. This underlines the need for clear

communication with staff during change programs, followed by confirmation that they

understand and are prepared to take responsibility even if they do not necessarily

agree.

5.2.4 Q4 - CHANGES IN TES ARE NECESSARY IF IT IS TO PROVIDE

EFFECTIVE POLICY, ADVICE AND GUIDANCE AND TECHNICAL SERVICES TO

IPTS

Question 4 was a Leikart scale question which was aimed at analysing whether the

aim of re-focussing TES to be an organisation that only provided policy, advice and

guidance was a just one. If this was the case was change necessary in such a

significant way? The responses were fairly strong in support of the need for change

to realign the various business groups to be more effective in supporting IPTs. Over

half (52%) strongly agreed that changes were necessary with only 19% disagreeing

that change was necessary. Those in disagreement, were in the main, those groups

who had been engaged in what TES called ‘transactional activities’ to IPTs, a

‘service’ which did not fit with the future purpose of TES (“Providing IPTs with high

quality advice in order to enhance the acquisition of safe, supportable and technically

sound military equipment”).

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Strongly Agree52%

Agree22%

Neither7%

Disagree15%

Strongly Disagree

4%

Q4 - Changes in TES are necessary if it is to provide effective Policy, Advice and Guidance on Technical Services to IPTs

5.2.5 Q5 - TO WHAT EXTENT DO YOU FEEL THAT THE TESEX

CONVEYED A VISION FOR THE CHANGES IN TES?

Question 5 aimed to establish how well the TESEX had created a vision which was

aligned to the changes being made in TES. The responses to this question were

almost unanimous in their criticism of the TESEX and in particular their failure to

convey a vision. A sample of the responses are outlined below:

(R1) “TES Executive Board simply failed to convey any vision for the creation

of TES let al.one any changes within TES. I believe there is a TES vision

statement but it is hardly inspiring”

(R2) “Initially there was a vision set. However, the ensuing actions did not

seem to compliment this. There was then a lack of communication from the

TESEX. And a growing cynicism at a lower level that it was less to do with

vision and more to do with reducing numbers.”

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(R3) “Not at all. They have not been able to convey a reason for TES with

respect to its constituent parts.”

(R4) “Lots of confusion abounds about what our mission now is, or, indeed,

who our customers are.”

(R5) “No vision conveyed, no top level objectives, no justification for the

formation of TES and no direction.”

(R6) “Not at all. Whilst the TESEX may well have had a vision it was not

communicated clearly and there is still no overarching vision to cover the over

60 sites that TES occupies.”

In his research Bennis (1994) identified a guiding vision as one of the pre-requisites

to successful change management. Although some responses talked about a vision

being evident in TES, it did not make sense to them and did not fit with the actions

they saw or were engaged in. As the leaders of the department the TESEX should

have recognized the importance of clarity and simplicity when creating a vision for

change. (Bennis 1994; Burnes, 2004; Kotter, 1996; Mullins, 2005; Wallace, 1990;

Whetten & Cameron, 2005).

5.2.6 Q6 - TO WHAT DEGREE HAVE CHANGES IN TES BEEN

“COMMUNICATED WELL WITH STAFF AT ALL LEVELS”?

Question 6 dealt specifically with the TES communications processes and their

effectiveness in relaying the change agenda to employees throught the department.

There was a mixed response to this question which was a little surprising given what

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had already been said in Q5. Some responses were in a similiar vein with 3

individuals referring back to Q5 answer. Sample of negative followed by contrary

positive responses below:

(R1) “Lack of a coherent communications message. Web site only used by

those in the TES management community – therefore totally ineffective way of

communicating.”

(R2) “Not at all. Senior managers have a key role to communicate face-to-

face with their staff, so that all staff understand the rationale for change and

the impact on individuals. This has not been achieved.”

(R3) “Not well. The TESEX has fallen short of explaining the rationale for TES.

It has also failed to live up to its own published values.”

(R4) “Low – a major concern that we have lost our way in dealing correctly

with staff.”

and;

(R5) “I have been actively involved and therefore would state that it was done

well! I certainly tried to communicate as much information as I felt the staff

needed and was relevant to them.”

(R6) “Quite well – there has been plenty of information reasonably inventively

presented.”

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(R7) “Well, but comms requires both transmitting and listening. Latter not

always in evidence.”

Discussions with those directly involved in managing and administering the changes

suggested that there were instances during the Level 1 changes that staff refused to

listen to that which they did not want to hear. If there is a lesson for TES, it is that it

must be resolute in communicating change and keep making the relevant points until

staff can no longer ignore it.

5.2.7 Q7 - THE CASE AND NEED FOR CHANGE IN TES HAS BEEN

MADE BY THE TES EXECUTIVE BOARD

Question 7 has a degree of overlap with Q5 and Q6 although the subtle difference is

in whether the TESEX creating the ‘burning platform’ (Kotter, 1996) for employees.

There is little to draw from the responses which are even across all of the available

options. We can make the assertion used earlier that the DPA/DLO split is

responsible for the agree/disagree result.

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Strongly Agree7%

Agree33%

Neither19%

Disagree26%

Strongly Disagree

15%

Q7 - The case and need for Change in TES has been made by the TES Executive Board

5.2.8 Q8 - TO WHAT DEGREE HAVE CULTURAL ISSUES HAVE BEEN

CONSIDERED WHEN EMBARKING ON CHANGE IN TES, IN PARTICULAR DPA

AND DLO CULTURES AS THEY MERGE?

Question 8 was aimed at directly addressing the question that is asserted earlier in

Q1-Q7. Respondents used this question to make detailed responses on their

experiences and views of how the DPA/DLO merger had been managed. The

following is typical of the overall responses:

(R1) “The situation has been one of oil and water in terms of the differing

cultures and the reluctance of each to merge. The DPA and DLO “cultures”

are themselves sub-divided by various factions, although the smaller DPA

Agency seems more unified behind the need to meet particular key targets

than the larger DLO. There is a place for healthy tension between different

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specializations within any organisation but it needs to be tempered. I believe it

unlikely that these tribal differences will be resolved quickly, if ever, and are

likely to increase as the DLO/DPA merger proceeds. I do not think any

particular consideration was given to these factors in developing the TES

needs for change, indeed DPA sourced elements of TES were enthusiastic

about changes they knew would not affect them personally.”

(R2) “Not at all. I have a DPA background and, because of the management

style, see TES as a DLO organisation.”

(R3) “It is not apparent that these have been considered. Experience within

the DPA has shown that if this is not addressed early on then change is

difficult if not impossible.”

(R4) “No attempt at all, both sides still view the merger as one taking over the

other.”

(R5) “I do not believe that any cultural issues were considered”

(R6) “Too much emphasis has been placed on retaining existing cultures

where possible. You can’t make an omelette without cracking a few eggs.”

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The responses perhaps point to one of the main difficulties experienced in the TES

change program. Leadership was a key factor and a new Technical Director (TD) as

head of TES this appointment was prior to the next phase of the change program

beginning. This sent out a positive message and the early signs were that he had

credibility and was enthusiastic about the changes. Communications was also a key

factor in the TES change program, with a new website being developed, direct

access to the TD via e-mail and regular, timely briefings to staff to explain progress

and plans in the program. The one key ingredient is the lack of an analysis of the

people and their environment(s), in other words the culture. The research so far in

this dissertation points towards the critical nature of understanding the culture of the

organisation and assessing whether it is ‘fit for purpose’ for the new desired state

(Cameron & Ettington, 1988; O’Reilly & Chatman, 1996; Schein, 1996; Cameron &

Quinn, 1999; Molenaar et al., 2002). Much has been written (Quinn & Rohrbaugh,

1981; Cameron & Quinn 1999) about measuring the organisational culture and there

would have been significant opportunity to look at this prior to embarking on the

changes. Such an analysis may have given rise to greater consideration of culture,

which may not have solved the problem, but would certainly have focussed minds.

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5.2.9 Q9 - I UNDERSTAND THE ROLE I HAVE IN MANAGING CHANGES

WITHIN TES

Question 9 was trying to get a feel for levels of autonomy and delegation within TES.

In particular was it clear what responsibilities each senior manger had in the TES

change program. The response was particularly surprising given the negativity

towards the change program in the earlier questions. Only 15% of respondents felt

unsure about their role with 78% agreeing that their role was clear. The Fernandez

and Rainey (2006) paper on public sector change points to evidence that suggests

an ability within Public Sector managers to bring about change despite not being

behind the reasons. The mix of civil servants and military within the MoD is a mix

which supports a notion of command and control, this may be a admissible factor in

the response.

Strongly Agree33%

Agree45%

Neither7%

Disagree11%

Strongly Disagree

4%

Q9 - I understand the role I have in managing changes within TES

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5.2.10 Q10 - TO WHAT DEGREE HAS TES IMPROVED SINCE THE

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE LEVEL 1 CHANGES?

Question 10 aimed to identify the perception of senior managers that the changes

had improved the organisation as a whole. Responses were varied with around 35%

of respondents citing that it was too early to make a judgment on benefits of the new

TES. Others had more to say, sample below:

(R1) “Whilst there is now a structure and management arrangements in place,

the supporting infrastructure and business processes are not fully developed.

Leading, in my opinion, to a number of groups being in a worse position to

deliver outputs and manage resources than before the implementation of level

1 changes.”

(R2) “The customer base is still confused as exactly what TES now delivers –

services Vs advice/assurance is one large area of confusion. I think the

customer facing roles of the 1* is a vast improvement but we need to make

these roles work better for the customers.”

There has clearly been a communications problem with relation to the change

program and its component parts (Chapter 5.2.9, p73) and this is evident in the

responses below:

(R3) “I do not understand the question, as I am not aware of what the Level 1

changes are! Highlights communications issues.”

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(R4) “What are Level 1 changes?”

(R5) “Level 1 changes is management speak – is there any meaning in there?”

The perceived ‘benefits’ sought through the changes in TES do not yet appear to

have been realized, which is not a surprise in itself as the changes are significant and

planned to take place over a three to four year period.

5.2.11 Q11 - MOD RULES AND PROCEDURES ARE SUPPORTIVE TO THE

CHANGES THAT TES NEEDS TO MAKE, IN PARTICULAR THE AMBITIOUS

REDUCTIONS IN MANPOWER CONTROL TOTALS

Question 11 aimed to identify the feeling that the policy on dealing with surplus

manpower was an aiding factor for the TES change program. It did not come as a

surprise that there was a resounding negative response to this, with only 19% of

respondents agreeing with the assertion. Government departments (GD) have long

been criticized for their handling of surplus staff. Systems for managing this in GDs

include the ‘priority posting list’ and the most recent ‘Re-deployment pool’ have all

come in for heavy criticism from employees and their Trade Unions. The main focus

of the criticism is the notion that staff will happily transfer to other GDs if a post is not

available in their current one, even if that post was at the other end of the country.

The systems have failed to look at the social aspects of such moves not to mention

the skills required to carry out the new post. Many of the staff who work in TES have

enjoyed long careers in the MOD which has perhaps anaesthetized them to the

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changes going on in the private sector. It would be difficult however to ignore the

media headlines on closures and redundancies which are commonplace. Individuals

involved in such redundancies are not afforded the kind of treatment that public

sector workers enjoy. Whilst there are well publicised arguments on equal pay for

the public sector from the relevant Trade Unions, the benefits of such an environment

are underestimated.

Strongly Agree0%

Agree19%

Neither19%

Disagree47%

Strongly Disagree

15%

Q11 - MOD rules and procedures are supportive to the changes that TES needs to make, in particular the ambitious reductions in Manpower control totals.

5.2.12 Q12 - WHAT ASPECT(S) OF CHANGE WOULD YOU HAVE DONE

DIFFERENTLY TO IMPROVE THE TES CHANGE PROCESS

Question 12 was essentially a blank sheet of paper for respondents to make

suggestions on ways in which the change could have more effectively managed. The

responses were particularly constructive with many citing the need for a clear vision,

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clear strategy for achieving changes, improved communications and strong credible

leadership. Some of the respondents’ comments have already been implemented (at

the time of writing) such as an independent change team leader and improved clarity

of both the vision and strategy. A sample of these responses which are typical are

outlined below.

(R1) “Coherent strategy, programme management structure, better leadership

at 1*/ Band B level, improved communications, plan the people elements,

change TES EX role and construct. Follow Kotter!”

(R2) “Tease out a greater clarity of vision at the outset – but was this possible

until the organisation had been defined?”

(R3) “I would have been more open about the drivers and then more radical in

the reorganisation. People have been allowed to ignore the change.”

(R4) “Originally TES was an amalgamation of various SME outputs under a

single 2 Star, now it is part of DPA/DLO merger. The aiming point has

therefore significantly changed since the start of the journey. If we had started

with merger, the journey would have taken a different route. With a better

vision of the required end state at the start of the process and better definition

of the output requirements we would have undertaken proper development of

the right process and assessment of the manning required to deliver outputs.

This would identify the things that need to be done and the means to do them.

If the manpower required was then seen to be unaffordable it would be

possible to modify plans accordingly or develop alternatives through trade-offs,

outsourcing or other means.”

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(R5) “Engage with wider management levels and engage with customers at 1-

star level to understand their requirements. Provide feedback internally to

TES on the customer view of their requirements for the future.”

(R6) “More communication to bring the workforce on board, rather than

imposing change.”

(R7) “I would have been more open about the drivers and then more radical in

the reorganisation. People have largely been allowed to ignore the change.”

The responses to Q12 suggest a willingness (on behalf of the Group heads) to

participate in the change program which if taken up by the TESEX, could have

resulted in a more co-operative process, with group heads taking the lead. This was

originally the approach favoured by the TESEX, however as the pressure on Defence

from the government increased so did the required number of post reductions and

cuts against the financial budgets. It could be argued that the TESEX were left with

no option but to be autocratic in the way in which they sought about achieving their

targets and objectives.

5.2.13 Q13 - WHAT ASPECT(S) OF THE TES CHANGE PROCESS DO YOU

FEEL HAVE BEEN CARRIED OUT EFFECTIVELY?

Question 13 aimed to identify which (if any) elements of the change program had, in

the view of the respondents, been carried out with a degree of effectiveness. This

was one of the most sparsely populated areas of the questionnaire with very little

offered in the responses. The lack of response is not surprising given the (general)

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negative feeling about the changes in TES. Two or three of the responses pointed

towards a forced undemocratic or autocratic approach to the changes, see below.

(R1) “Nothing springs to mind. The changes have been made but how

effective they were are debatable. The function and role of TES has been

poorly communicated to potential customers”

(R2) “Hardly any! It always seemed there was never enough time to do the

required analysis properly, but always enough time to do it again when the

original answer was considered by TESEX to be the wrong one or did not

meet the direction they (thought) they had given us. Manpower targets were

never clearly defined and always changing, although admittedly this was

outside TESEX control and driven by wider MOD factors.”

(R3) “I guess that timescales have been achieved.”

(R4) “Meeting the Apr 06 implementation date. Although it was chaotic and

very little support was in place.”

Reference was made to the success of the communications process which indicated

that some success had been achieved in this area, although the content of the

messages appears as though it could have been a little clearer.

(R5) “Communication, even if the message was a bit unclear.”

(R6) “Communication processes but with inadequate content.”

(R7) “Communication down of the decisions made – that’s all.”

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(R8) “The development and use of communication channels has been

effective. While there has been variation in the perception of the quality of the

content there is no doubt that the communications were delivered regularly

and that focal points responsible for key areas of development were known.”

A point which has been missed by most if not all respondents is that all of the targets

and timelines placed upon TES have been met at the time of this report. Given the

management challenge that can be seen from some of the responses in Q1-Q12 this

is a significant achievement. The fact remains however that staff have not in all or

indeed many cases accepted or been taken with the changes. Another effective

element of the TES change program was the appointment of a military 2 star (Rear

Admiral Royal Navy) who was dually accountable and sat on both the DPA and DLO

boards as the senior technical authority in the MOD. This was an ambitious

undertaking but sought to solidify the TES role as ‘enabling the acquisition and safe

supportability of military equipment.

5.2.14 Q14 - IS THERE ANY ADDITIONAL COMMENT THAT YOU WOULD

LIKE TO MAKE, WHICH MIGHT GIVE INSIGHT INTO HOW YOU FEEL ABOUT

THE CHANGES WITHIN TES?

Question 14 provided a final opportunity for respondents to suggest additional

changes or general observations from the changes to date. There was an excellent

response to this final question which will undoubtedly inform the detailed lessons

learned from the TES change program. Some welcomed the opportunity for a final

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say on the changes and provided detailed responses with pointers towards what

might contribute to a more successful second phase of change in TES.

(R1) “The changes were necessary in a changing world but, yet again, there

was an emphasis on improving output when the real objective was to reduce

costs through manpower reductions. Therefore we find that workload has

increased under the ‘banner’ of efficiencies. The military/civil service have a

‘can do’ approach, but that goodwill is being eroded by the constant pressure

to be ‘more efficient’ which really means getting one person to do the work of

two, three or even four previously.”

(R2) “Make no mistake there are many ways to do some of the things we do

and there is a clear danger that the SMEs can become too far removed from

the urgency of need at the IPTs level. History demonstrates that getting the

IPTs to do some of the expert things often results in their being done either

badly or not at all. The results of such omission are not always readily

apparent and indeed can take years to manifest themselves. There is probably

a middle ground and the new direction from the new Technical Director has

the potential to get us there, possibly. However, the continued evolution of the

DLO/DPA merger has the potential to prolong the uncertainty. Coupled with

further change at the political level this may lead to continuation of the cycles

of upheaval MoD has endured since the days of the Rayner Report and the

quotation often attributed to Petronius.“

"We trained hard, but it seemed that every time we were beginning to

form up into teams we would be reorganised. Presumably the plans for

our employment were being changed. I was to learn later in life that,

perhaps because we are so good at organising, we tend as a nation to

meet any new situation by reorganising; and a wonderful method it can

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be for creating the illusion of progress while producing confusion,

inefficiency and demoralization."

(R3) “Opportunity for feedback on key change reports is not often

documented. Change recommendations are made and consultation on the

recommendations conducted but an assumption that the recommendations will

be implemented. Where there is challenge however, with good reason, to

recommendations this should also be recorded. Recommendations are often

dependant upon other planned developments and revisited many times before

a realistic opportunity for implementation ever arises.”

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5.3 INTERVIEWS AND OBSERVATIONS

Although no formal recorded interviews were conducted as part of the primary

research informal discussions and briefings took place during the research period

with TES Change Team Leader and the TES team leader. The author of the report

has utilised these discussions as well as his own experiences and observations to

draw out additional factors not presented through the primary research questionnaire

which aid the overall project.

There was (and is at the time of this report) enormous pressure on TES to

fundamentally change the way in which it supported IPTs, and in so doing, generate

efficiencies for the greater MOD. This pressure will inevitably reduce the number of

professionally qualified staff remaining in TES and present continuity risks for current

activities. That is why TES is working towards transforming the way in which it

currently delivers services to IPTs to make it easier for them to access clear and

consistent support when they need it. The strategy for TES is to provide easy access

to industry through a series of framework contracts whilst retaining those services

where there is justification to do so for sensitivity or value for money reasons.

Strong arguments have been made to restructure TES have drawn support from the

wider MOD (at a senior level). At a time when Defence is not seen as a vote winner

for the ruling government, TES is very much a supporting act to the visible elements

of the MOD (Front line forces) and is therefore an easier target.

When budgets are reducing and the armed forces are expected to do more, Chiefs of

staff in the Ministry talk about the trade-off between flying hours of a helicopter in

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Iraq/Afghanistan and detailed technical support (TES) to projects from within the

MOD.

5.4 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

The primary research has in the main provoked a negative response to the Level 1

changes in TES. In particular there has been criticism of the lack of reasons for the

changes and absence of a clear vision for the future. Responses have been critical

of the communications processes utilised during the Level 1 changes which has been

partly explained at chapter 5.2.6. Kotter (1996) explains that the vision or strategy for

change is often under-communicated and despite being in a possession of a clear

vision it may only be fed out in a few meetings or memos to staff. Kotter (1996) goes

on to say that failure can occur also, when despite clear communication and top-level

support for the change, there are still some highly visible individuals who behave in

ways that are contrary to the vision. The net result is that staff become cynical and

the vision subsequently becomes less believable. The latter appears to have been

the case for TES, many of the respondents cited 1 star director(s) not projecting the

positive benefits of the change and in some cases openly opposing it. There appears

to have been a focussed approach to implementing the Level 1 changes in TES

which resulted in a ‘complete at all costs’ mindset for those supporting and

implementing the changes and this is evident in the primary research.

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CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS OF RESEARCH

6.1 BENEFITS OF THE DISSERTATION

This dissertation it is hoped will have some tangible as well as unquantifiable benefits

for the author and the organisation. These are summarized below;

Author

• Clearer understanding of the academic literature attributable to change, and

the access routes to it

• More critical outlook on research, less willing to accept a theory without

testing it first

• Ability to take new skills and knowledge to positively impact on current and

future change programs within TES and the wider MOD

• Professional recognition of the undertaking and increased credibility

• Identification of three common themes in change programs

Organisation

• Evaluation of Level 1 changes in TES with the opportunity to learn from the

experience and improve/clarify processes for the future

• Three key areas (Leadership; Culture; Communication) identified where an

increased focus might deliver benefits to future change programs

• Starting point for assessing readiness for change through the developmental

maturity model

• Opportunity to undertake further research into organisational change and

make subsequent improvements

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6.2 FUTURE POTENTIAL

The dissertation has sought to identify the common themes in change management

theory and the implications for TES as a result. Three common themes have been

identified as Leadership, Culture and Communications. As a basis for discussion and

to provide a starting point the author has developed a maturity model (Figure 13)

using some of the work of researchers on Change (Bennis, 1994; Cameron, 1997;

Kotter, 1996) to inform the types of training individuals in organisations require if they

are to participate and lead on change in the MOD. The terms Expert, Practitioner

and Awareness are terms particular to the MOD when describing organisational

competence in a particular skillset or field.

The model is intended as a discussion point for management and given more time it

was the intention to have fully developed it, as well as have conducted focus groups

to establish its applicability and utility.

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Maturity Level

Leadership

Culture

Communications

Gold Expert

Actively engages the support of staff whilst also generating a sense of interest in the outcome of change. (Bennis, 1994)

Understand and have tested the current organisational culture against attainment of strategic objectives (Cameron, 1997)

Clear, simple, memorable, often repeated, consistent communication from multiple sources, modelled by executive behaviour (Kotter, 1996)

Silver Practitioner

Understands the challenge and has considerable experience in leading change. In possession of the necessary tools, but has difficulty in projecting the positive benefits of the change.

Understands the cultural dimensions of the organisation and the levers for change. Understands whether cultural change is necessary in order to meet strategic objectives.

Has established Communication routes with appropriate feedback loops, not always modelled by executive behaviour.

Bronze Awareness

Aware of the challenge in managing change, however not in possession of either experience or significant knowledge of the tools which would benefit a leader.

Aware of the existence of a specific cultural identity. Not sure of the need to alter the current state to meet with the strategic objectives.

Aware of the existence of communication routes with varying degrees of success in transmission. Feedback loops not used or trusted by staff

False start No awareness

Actively discourages staff involvement in change projects none of the positive benefits of the proposed changes.

Does not accept the existence of a specific culture. Do not believe that culture needs specific consideration prior to embarking on a change

Communication routes are not established or understood. Feedback is actively discouraged.

Figure 13 Draft maturity model for assessing ‘readiness for change’

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6.3 IMPLICATIONS

As outlined in chapter 6.1 is hoped that this dissertation report will help to inform

current and future thinking on change to those who read it.

The authors close links to current change activity in the MOD will ensure that where

there are clear lessons to be learned these will be as widely circulated as possible

within the department.

The research project has had direct benefit to the organisation and has helped to

provide the author with the skills and opportunity to lead on a large scale change

project (TES-Technical Information Group review, 2006). This project has been

widely praised by senior management for the author’s understanding and measured

approach to Leadership, Communications and assessment and subsequent

approach to the Cultural dimension of the changes.

6.4 TES CHALLENGES

There are no clear recommendations to emerge from this research but there are a

number of areas (chapter 6.1) where further study is necessary in order help with the

challenges ahead. At the time of writing this report the group of TES was completing

the implementation of Level 2 (chapter 5.2.1) design with the prospect of a detailed

look at efficiency (Level 3) just over the horizon.

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Some of the assertions and observations made in this dissertation have already been

addressed by TES such as appointing a very senior (1 star) lead to focus on change

and a clearer approach to communications. There still remains the fundamental

issue of leadership and whilst TES has been successful in managing and

administering the necessary changes it has failed to project the positive benefits.

The cultural dimension(s) of TES are unknown although attempts have been made to

understand and develop bespoke solutions for geographic issues, this however is

very much the exception.

6.5 REFLECTION

Cameron & Green (2004) tell us about the importance of reflection in our day to day

lives and how we will make better decisions if we reflect on what has and is going on

around us. The process of carrying out this dissertation was not one that was

particularly relished at the outset. The period in which the research project was to be

carried out had a few other considerations (new job, new baby, new house) all of

which were competing for attention. In the early stages and prior to deciding on a

research topic, some development areas (DA) were jotted down that might benefit

from the research. These are outlined in Table 5 together with a supporting aim and

post dissertation reflection

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Table 5 – Reflection on Dissertation Aims

Development Area Aim Post dissertation reflection

DA1 Plan a piece of research

Improve project management skills and improve ability to manage competing priorities

Vastly improved planning skills although still finding difficulty in managing competing priorities.

DA2 Carry out the collecting, collating and analysis of research material

Develop ability to locate relevant data and identify that which is irrelevant and why. Identify a research area and establish a means of primary research.

Improved focus when searching for information, early recognition of relevant and irrelevant data. Conducted a well planned piece of primary research that delivered a large data set for analysis.

DA3 Concisely communicate the findings

Develop the ability to take large amounts of data and present relevant elements in a clear and concise way.

Improved ability to summarize and present information accurately and with brevity and clarity.

DA4 Critically evaluate secondary data

Be a bit more cynical about written material. Assume less and investigate more.

Found myself arguing with highly praised work and at times became overly cynical. Healthy respect established for research - ‘once tested’.

DA5 Complete a sustained piece of work within an agreed time frame

Gather together a number of elements and present in a clear widely readable manner – ‘on time’.

Had to delay the submission of the research as a result of work and family commitments outlined at the beginning of chapter six. Hugely underestimated the demands that the dissertation places on you

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CHAPTER 7: REFERENCE SECTION

7.1 REFERENCES

Ackerman, L. S. (1982, Summer). Transition management: An in-depth look at managing complex change. Organisational Dynamics, pp. 46-66 Adams, J, Hayes, J and Hopson, B (1976) Transitions: Understanding and Managing Personal Change, Martin Robertson, London Balogun J and Hope-Hailey V. (2004). ‘Exploring Strategic Change’, Second Edition, FT Prentice Hall, Gosport. Barrett,D J. (2002). Change Communication: Using Strategic Employee Communication To Facilitate Major Change, Corporate Communication: An International Journal, Vol 7, No 4, pp. 214-231. Bass, B.M. and Stogdill, R.M. (1990) Bass & Stogdill's handbook of leadership : theory, research, and managerial applications, Collier Macmillan, London Beer, M and Nohria, N (2000) ‘Breaking the code of Change’, Harvard Business School Press, New York Bennis, W. (1994) On becoming a leader, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA Beyer J and Cameron K.S. (1997) “Organisational culture” in Enhancing Organisational Performance, pp 65-96, National Academy Press, Washinton DC Bourque, L.B. and Clark, V.A. (1994) Processing data: the survey example, in Lewis-Beck, M.S., Research Practice, Sage, London Bridges, W. (1991). Managing Transitions, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, MA Bridges,W. (2003). ‘Managing Transitions – Making the Most of Change’, Second Edition,Da Capo Press, USA. Buchanan, D. A. and Storey, J. (1997). ‘Role-taking and role-switching in organizational change: the four pluralities’. In McLoughlin, I. and Harris, M. (Eds), Innovation, Organizational Change and Technology, International Thompson, London Burke, W.W. (1994), Diagnosis for Organisational Change, New York, Guildford Press, Ch. 3

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Burnes, B (1996a), “No such thing as…..a one best way to manage organisational change”, Management Decision, Vol. 34 No 10, pp. 11-18 Burnes, B. (1996), Organisational choice and organisational change, Manchester School of Management Burnes, B. (2004), Kurt Lewin (1946) and the Planned Approach to Change: A Re-appraisal, Manchester School of Management Caldwell, R. (2003) Change leaders and change managers: different or complementary?, Leadership and Organization Development Journal, Volume 24, Number 5, 2003, pp. 285-293 Cameron E and Green M. (2004).‘Making Sense of Change Management A complete Guide to the Models,Tools and Techniques of Organisational Change’, Kogan Page, London. Cameron, K. S. and Ettington, D.R. (1988), “The Conceptual foundations of organisational culture.”, Higher Education: Handbook of theory and research, pp. 356-396, New York Cameron, K. S. (1997), ‘Techniques for making organisations effective’, National Academy Press, Washington DC. Cameron, K.S. and Quinn, R.E. (1999) Diagnosing and Changing Organizational Culture, Addison Wesley, Reading, MA. Cameron, K. S. (2004), ‘A process for changing organisational culture’ Michael Driver, New York Chapman, J A. (2002).‘A framework for transformational change in organisations’, Leadership & Organisation Development Journal, 23/1, pp. 16-25. Child, J. (1977).‘Organisation, A Guide to Problems and Practice’, Harper and Row Ltd, London. Clarke A and Manton S. (1997). ‘A benchmarking tool for change management’, Business Process Management Journal, Vol. 3, No 3, pp. 248-253. Clemmer, J (1995) Pathways to Performance, Prentice Hall Cummings, T.G. and Worley, C.G. (1997) Organisational Development and Change, Cincinatti, OH, South-Western College publishing

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Dawson, P. (1994) Organizational Change: A Processual Approach, Paul Chapman Publishing, London Devanna, M.A. and Tichy N.M. (1986) The Transformational Leader, Wiley, New York Dey, I (1993) Qualitative Data Analysis, Routledge, London Driscoll, A and Morris J. (2001), Stepping Out: Rhetorical Devices and Culture Change Management in the UK Civil Service. Public Administration Vol 79 No 4 Blackwell Publishers Oxford. Donnelly, J (2005) Alliancing as an acquisition methodology , MDA Thesis. Cranfield University, Royal Military College Shrivenham. Dunford, R. W. (1992). Organisational behaviour: An organisational analysis perspective. Sydney: Addison-Wesley Dunphy, D. & Stace, D. (1993), The strategic management of corporate change, Human Relations, vol. 46, no. 8 pp. 905-920. Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. and Lowe, A. (2002) Management Research: An Introduction, Sage , London Ferlie, E. (1996) The New Public Management in Action. Oxford. Fernandez, S and Rainey H.G. (2006), Managing successful organisational change in the public sector, Public administration review, Mar/Apr 2006, pp. 168-175 Gershon, P. (2004), Releasing Resources to the Front Line: Independent Review of Public Sector Efficiency (London: HM Treasury). Goleman, D. (2000) Leadership that gets results, Harvard Business Review, (Mar) pp. 78-90 Gray, A and Jenkins, B. (2000) Government and Administration 1998-99: Overcoming “Conservatism” – a job half done? Parliamentary Affairs 53, pp. 219-41 Hammer, M. and Champy, J. (1993) Reengineering the corporation: a manifesto for business revolution, Harper Business, New York Handy, C. (1985), Understanding Organisations. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Hatch, M. J. (1997) Organization Theory: Modern, Symbolic and Postmodern Perspectives, Oxford University Press, Oxford

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Heller, R. (1997), In search of European Excellence, Harper Collins Business, p. 34 Hendry, C. (1996). ‘Understanding and creating whole organizational change through learning theory’. Human Relations, 48, 5, pp. 621–41. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture and organisations: Software of the mind, McGraw-Hill, London Hopfl, H. (1994), The paradoxical gravity of planned organisational change, Journal of Organisational Change, Vol. 7 No. 5, pp. 20-31 Johnson, G. & Scholes, K. (2005) Exploring Corporate Strategy, Sixth Edition, Prentice Hall, London Johnson, D. (2004) Adaptation of Organisational Change Models to the Implementation of Quality Standard Requirements, International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, Vol. 21 No. 2, pp. 154-174 Kanter, R.M. (1983) The change masters: innovations for productivity in the American corporation, Simon and Schuster (1983) Kanter, R. M., Stein, B. A. and Jick, T. D. (1992) The Challenge of Organizational Change, Free Press, New York Kaplin, R. and Norton, D. (2001) The Strategy Focused Organisation. Harvard,. p159. Kelly, D., Amburgey T. L. (1991) Organizational Inertia and Momentum: A Dynamic Model of Strategic Change, The Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 34, No. 3 pp. 591-612 Kotter, J. (1996) Leading Change, Harvard Business School Press Kreitner, R; Kinicki, A and Buelens, M (2002), Organisational Behaviour, Second Edition, Prentice Hall Kroeber, A.L. and Kluckhohn, C. (1952) Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions, New York Kubler-Ross, E (1969) On Death and Dying, Macmillan, New York Lewin, K. (1946). ‘Action research and minority problems’. In Lewin (1946), G. W. (Ed.), Resolving Social Conflict. London: Harper & Row.

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Miescher A. (2002) Change Management in the Public Sector. MDA Thesis. Cranfield University, RMCS. Miles, R.E. and Snow, C.C. (1978) Organisational Strategy, structure and process, New York , McGraw Hill Mintzberg, H., Ahlstrand, B. and Lampel, J. (1998) Strategy Safari, Prentice Hall Mitroff, I. (1983) Stakeholders of the organisational mind, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco Molenaar, K, Brown, H, Caile, S and Smith, R (2002) Corporate culture, Professional Safety, Park Ridge Morris, C. (1999) Quantitative Approaches in Business Studies, Financial Times Prentice Hall, Harlow Mullins, L. J. (2005) Management and Organisational Behaviour, Seventh Edition, Prentice Hall O’Reilly, C.A. and Chatman, J.A. (1996) ”Culture as social control: Corportaions, cults and commitment.”, Research in organisational behaviour 18: pp157-200, Greenwich, New York Pallant, J. (2001) SPSS Survival Manual, Open University Press, Buckingham Palmer and Hartley (2002) The Business Environment, Fourth Edition, McGraw Hill, London Partridge, L. (1999). ‘Managing People, Book One’, London, Financial Times Management. Pascale, R.T., Millemann, M and Gioja, L. (1997), Changing the way we change, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 75 No. 6, pp.126-139 Pascale, R.T. (1985), The paradox of ‘corporate culture: Reconciling ourselves to Socialization”, California Management Review, Winter 1985, p. 38 Paterson, J. (1983). Bureaucratic reform by cultural revolution, Canberra Bulletin of Public Administration, 10, pp. 6-13 Pettigrew, A. M. (1997). What is a processual analysis? Scandinavian Journal of Management, 13, 40, pp. 337–48.

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Recardo. R.F. (1995), Overcoming resistance to change, National Productivity Review, Vol 14 No. 2, pp. 5-12 Quinn, R.E. and Rohrbaugh, J. (1981) A special model of effectiveness criteria: towards a competing values approach to organisational analysis, Management Science 29: pp. 363-377 Quinn, R.E. (2000) Change the world: How ordinary people can achieve extraordinary results, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco Quinn, R.E. (2004) Building the bridge as you walk on it, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco Robson, C. (2002) Real World Research: A resource for social scientists and practical researchers, Blackwell, Oxford Satir, V, Banmen, J., Gerber, J. and Gomori, M. (1991) The Satir Model: Family therapy and beyond, Science and Behaviour Books , California Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A (2003) Research Methods for Business Students, Prentice Hall, Harlow Schein, E. H. (1996). ‘Kurt Lewin’s change theory in the field and in the classroom: notes towards a model of management learning’. Systems Practice, 9, 1, pp. 27–47. Shaw, P (2002), Changing Conversations in Organisations: A Complexity Approach to Change, London Silverman, D. (1993) Interpreting Qualitative Data, Sage, London Sixel L. M. (1995) "New terms, old ideas," The Houston Chronicle, Houston Smith, R.C. (1997), “The seven levels of change”, Strategy and Leadership, Vol. 25 No.4, pp. 48-49 Snow, C.C. and Hrebiniak, L.G. (1980) Strategy. Distinctive competence, and organisational performance, Administrative Science Quarterly, 25, pp. 317-335 Snow, C.C. and Hrebiniak, L.G. (1982), Top-Management agreement and organisational performance, Human Relations, Vol 35, pp. 1139-58 Tomkins, C. (1987) Achieving Economy, Efficiency and Effectiveness in the Public Sector. Edinburgh. Wallace, T.F. (1990) MRPII: Making it happen, The implementers’ guide to success with manufacturing resource planning, Oliver Wight, Vermont

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Waterman, R. Jr., Peters, T. and Phillips, J.R. (1980) “Structure Is Not Organisation”, Business Horizons, Iss. 3 1980. pp. 14-26 Weinberg, G (1997) Quality Software Management: Volume 4, Anticipating Change, Dorset House, New York Whetton, D.A. and Cameron K.S. (2005) Developing Managing Skills, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey Wickham, P.A. (2004) Management Consulting: Delivering an Effective Project, Prentice-Hall, Harlow Wilber, K. (2000) “A theory of everything: An integral Vision for Business, Politics, Science and Spirituality.” Shambhala, Boston

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7.2 BIBLIOGRAPHY Aiman-Smith, L (2004) What Do We Know about Developing and Sustaining a Culture of Innovation, North Carolina State University, New York British Medical Journal (2002) Apr/May 2002, London Bruch, H and Sattelberger, T (2001), Lufthansa’s transformation marathon: process of liberating and focussing change energy, Human Resource Management, Autumn 2001, Vol 40, pp. 249-259, Wiley & son CEO Major Insurance Broker (1996) Leading People. CLINTEC/CREATE leadership report for London’s business leaders. Comte, A. (1855), Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte, Part 1, Kessinger Publishing, Montana Creswell, J. (2003) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, California Davidson, J. The role of leadership in the management of change: A case study analysis of private and public sector organisations. MBA Thesis. Cranfield University, RMCS. Jul 2000. Doyle, M; Claydon, T and Buchanan, D (2000) Mixed Results, Lousy process: the management experience of change, British Journal of management, Vol 11, ppS59-S80 European Information Society Group. (2002) Making IT work, the Pre-conditions for Public Sector Systems Success. EURIM Briefing No 37., www.eurim.org/briefings/BR37_final.htm Goodman, P. (1984) Change in Organisations. Jossey-Bass p. 2 Hacker, M and Washinton, M (2004) How do we measure the implementation of large-scale change?, Measuring business excellence, Vol 8, No. 3. pp. 52-59, Emerald group publishing Harvard Business Review (1998), on Change, Harvard Business School Publishing, Boston Harvard Business Review (2002), on Culture and Change, Harvard Business School Publishing, Boston

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Likert, R. (1932). A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes, Archives of Psychology, 140, 55 McKinlay, A (2002) The public private partnership initiative at HMNB Clyde: partnering or privatization?, MBA Thesis, Glasgow Caledonian University Mintzberg, H; Ahlstrand, B and Lampel, J (1998) Strategy Safari, Prentice Hall, London Office of Government Commerce (2004), Managing Successful Programmes, OGC, London Taylor, F (1911) The principles of scientific management, Dover, New York

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7.4 GLOSSARY BPR Business Process Review

CDM Chief of Defence Materiel

CDS Chief of the Defence Staff

DA Development Areas

DACP Defence Acquisition Change Program

DE&S Defence Equipment and Support

DIS Defence Industrial Strategy

DLO Defence Logistics Organisation

DPA Defence Procurement Agency

GD Government Department

IPT Integrated Project Team

MinAF Minister of State for the Armed Forces

MinDP Parliamentary Under Secretary of State and Minister of State for

Defence Procurement

MinVA Parliamentary Under SofS and Minister for Veterans’ Affairs

MOD Ministry of Defence

NDPB Non-Departmental Public Body

OFSTED Office for Standards in Education

OGC Office of Government Commerce

PUS Permanent Secretary

SME Subject Matter Expert

SofS Secretary of State for Defence

TD Technical Director

TES Technical Enabling Services

TESEX Technical Enabling Services Executive Board

TQM Total Quality Management

UK United Kingdom

VCDS Vice Chief of the Defence Staff

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ANNEX A: PRIMARY DATA – MASTER QUESTIONNAIRE

GLASGOW CALEDONIAN UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT – MASTERS IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

Dear Sir/Madam, I am inviting you to participate in a research project to study the ‘Existing Change Processes in the UK Ministry of Defence, in particular the Technical Enabling Services division’. Attached with this letter is a short questionnaire about the change processes employed. I would sincerely appreciate your participation in completing the responses. Please be as open and honest as you can and it should only take about 10 minutes to complete. This is a completely anonymous survey, I guarantee not to share any information that identifies you with anyone outside of my research group which consists of myself and my dissertation tutor, Angela Sutherland. If you decide to complete the questionnaire I would be most grateful if you could or either e-mail, or post it back to me, the completed response to [email protected] or [email protected] on or before the 28th July 2006. All completed questionnaires will be entered into a draw to win a £20 Threshers voucher. The results of this project forms part of my research to gain a Masters degree in Business Administration. Through your participation I hope to understand more about the way in which we approach change in TES. The aggregated results of the survey will be fed back to Cdre Hockley in his role as Chairman of the people sub-board. Your perspective and the time taken to complete and return the questionnaire is appreciated and will be of great value. Regardless of whether you choose to participate, please let me know if you would like a summary of my findings which I hope to have available by the end of August 2006. If you have any questions or concerns about completing the questionnaire or about being in this study, you may contact me on 0141 224 2404 or 94561 2404. This project has been approved as suitable for submission as an MBA dissertation by Glasgow Caledonian University. Sincerely. Michael Mitchell, TES-TIG Business Manager MP 13, Room 1.2.09, Level 1 Kentigern House, 65 Brown St, Glasgow G2 8EX

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Q1 To what degree do you feel you have contributed towards the Changes in TES? (Please type comments into the text box below) Q2 I feel that I am empowered to make innovative suggestions on Changes within

TES (Please highlight the answer most appropriate to you by highlighting the text in bold)

Strongly Disagree

Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree Q3 To what degree have the Changes in TES “followed a logical process that has

been clearly defined”? (Please type comments into the text box below) Q4 Changes in TES are necessary if it is to provide effective Policy, Advice and

Guidance on Technical Services to IPTs (Please highlight the answer most appropriate to you by highlighting the text in bold)

Strongly Disagree

Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

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Q5 To what extent do you feel that the TES Executive Board conveyed a vision for the Changes in TES?

(Please type comments into the text box below) Q6 To what degree have Changes in TES been “communicated well with staff at

all levels”? (Please type comments into the text box below) Q7 The case and need for Change in TES has been made by the TES Executive

Board (Please highlight the answer most appropriate to you by highlighting the text in bold)

Strongly Disagree

Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree Q8 To what degree have cultural issues have been considered when embarking

on change in TES, in particular DPA and DLO cultures as they merge? (Please type comments into the text box below)

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Q9 I understand the role I have in managing changes within TES (Please highlight the answer most appropriate to you by highlighting the text in bold)

Strongly Disagree

Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree Q10 To what degree has TES improved since the implementation of the Level 1

changes? (Please type comments into the text box below) Q11 MOD rules and procedures are supportive to the changes that TES needs to

make, in particular the ambitious reductions in Manpower control totals. (Please highlight the answer most appropriate to you by highlighting the text in bold)

Strongly Disagree

Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree Q.12 What aspect(s) of change would you have done differently to improve the TES

change process? (Please type comments into the text box below)

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Q.13 What aspect(s) of the TES change process do you feel have been carried out effectively?

(Please type comments into the text box below)

Q.14 Is there any additional comment that you would like to make, which might give insight into how you feel about the changes within TES?

Many thanks for taking the time to complete this questionnaire your name has been entered into a draw to win a £20 Threshers voucher. The draw will be made after the 21st July and before the 31st August 2006.