2007-8-31 Software Engineering Software Project Management 2007 The Project Management and...

2007-8-31 Software Engineering

Software Project Management 2007The Project Management and

Information Technology Context

Gao Zhisheng

School of Computer


Review of chapter 1

• What is project, what is project management

• The key elements of the project management framework– Stakeholders– Knowledge areas– Tools and techniques– Project success factor

• The role of the project manager, and what skills they need


Learning Objectives• Understand the systems view of project management

and how it applies to information technology projects• Analyze a formal organization using the structural, hu

man resources, political, and symbolic organizational frames(运用四种组织形式分析一个正规的组织 )

• Explain the differences among functional, matrix, and project organizational structures

• Explain why stakeholder management and top management commitment are critical for a project’s success


Learning Objectives

• Understand the concept of a project phase and the project life cycle

• Distinguish between project development and product development

• Discuss the unique attributes and diverse nature of information technology projects


Outline

• Opening case

• A system view of project management

• Understanding Organizations

• Stakeholder Management

• Project Phase and the Project Life Cycle

• The Context of Information Technology Projects


Opening case(开篇案例 )• Tom Walters accepted a new position at his college as t

he Director(主任，主管 ) of Information Technology• College introduction:

– small, private college– A variety of programs in the liberal arts(文学 ) and professi

onal(专业技术 ) areas.– Include 1500 full-time traditional students and about 1000 w

orking-adult students attending and evening program– Many instructors supplemented their courses with informatio

n on the intranet and course Web sites.– Did not offer any distance-learning programs– A few classrooms on campus with computers– A few more with just instructor stations and projection syste

ms


Opening case(开篇案例 )

• Tom’s work– With two other colleagues visited a local college th

at had required all students to lease(租 ) laptops in the class for the past three years.

– Tom and his staff developed plans to start requiring students to lease laptops at their college the next year

– Tom sent an e-mail to all faculty(教员 ) and staff(职员 ) in September, which briefly described this plans.


Opening case(开篇案例 )• Effect(效果 )

– Tom did not get much response– In the February faculty meeting, when he described some o

f the details of this plan, the chairs of the History, English, Philosophy, and Economics departments all voiced their opposition to the idea. The idea was ludicrous(荒谬）

– 计算机系主任认为已经有了最好的台式机，不乐意支付费用租用配置更低的笔记本

– 成人教育部主任也担心成人班的学生不会再愿意增加学费了

– Tom was in shock to hear his colleagues’ responses, especially after he and his staff had spend a lot of time planning details of how to implement laptops at their campus.


Opening case(开篇案例 )

• Question– What should he do?– What wrong he was?

You will find answer in the flowing parts


Outline

• Opening case

• A system view of project management• Understanding Organizations





A system view of PM• Projects Cannot Be Run In Isolation

– Projects must operate in a broad organizational environment（项目管理活动离不开组织的管理模式、企业文化等内部环境以及国家的政策法规和市场规则等外部环境。）

– Project managers need to take a holistic(全盘 ) or systems view of a project and understand how it is situated(处于 ) within the larger organization.

– Examples（你是否遇到这样的情况？）• 公司缺乏系统规范的项目管理体系，项目经理往往是从技术骨干中提拔出来的；

• 在项目人手十分紧的情况下，公司领导事先没有征得你的意见就突然将个别骨干抽调到其他项目组；

• 在项目已经正常验收之后，客户找各种借口不支付应给的项目款。


A system view of PM• What is a system approach?

– System approach emerged in the 1950s to describe a holistic and analytical approach to solving complex problems that includes flowing three parts.(解决复杂问题的整体分析方法 )

– Three parts include• Systems philosophy(系统观念 )

– 指一整套系统地思考事物的思维模式 View things as systems, interacting components working within an environment to fulfill some purpose

• Systems analysis(系统分析 )– problem-solving approach, 这种方法通过确定系统的研究范围，将其分解为各个组成要素，然后识别和评价各要素存在的问题、机会、约束和需求。然后分析人员要检查一些能够对现状进行改进的解决方案，设法找到一个最优的或至少是满意的解决方案或行动计划，并将起放在整个系统中考察其可行性。

• Systems management– Address business, technological, and organizational issues before mak

ing changes to systems（系统变革时解决… )


A system view of PM• Using a system approach is critical to successful

project management.• Top management and project managers must follow a

systems philosophy to understand how projects relate to the whole organization

• Use systems analysis to address needs with a problem-solving approach.

• Use system management to identify key business, technological, and organization issues related to each project in order to identify and satisfy key stakeholders and do what is best for the entire organization.


A system view of PM

• Opening case analysis– Tom did not use a system approach. Members of th

e IT department did all of the planning– 发送了 EMAIL，但对项目组织上的事情只字未提，而且秋季开学老师很忙，绝大数老师没有看完

– Tom对项目对其它部门的影响一无所知，根本没有弄清项目相关的那些业务、技术和组织事宜。


The Three-Sphere Model for Systems Management


Outline

• Opening case


• Understanding Organizations• Stakeholder Management




Understanding Organizations

Structural frame: Focuses on roles and responsibilities, coordination, and control. Organization charts help define this frame.

Human resources frame: 重点在于形成组织需要与个人需求之间的平衡与协调

Political frame: 主要描述组织团体和个人的政治，企业组织是由各种人和利益集团组成的联合体，存在团体和个人争夺权利和领导地位的斗争 .

Symbolic frame: Focuses on symbols and meanings related to events. Culture is important.


Organization Structures• Many discussions of organizations focus on or

ganizational structure.( 集中于组织结构）• Many new managers try to change organizatio

nal structure when other changes are needed.• Three basic organizational structures:

– Functional: Functional managers report to the CEO.– Project: Program managers report to the CEO.– Matrix: Middle ground between functional and proj

ect structures; personnel often report to two or more bosses; structure can be a weak, balanced, or strong matrix.


Figure 2-2. Functional, Project, and Matrix Organizational Structures


Functional


Project


Matrix


Table 2-1. Organizational StructureInfluences on Projects

Project Characteristics

Organizational Structure Type

Functional Matrix Project Weak Matrix Balanced

Matrix Strong Matrix

Project manager’s authority

Little or none Limited Low to Moderate

Moderate to high

High to almost total

Percent of performing organization’s personnel assigned full-time to project work

Virtually none 0-25% 15-60% 50-95% 85-100%

Who controls the project budget

Functional manager

Functional manager

Mixed Project manager

Project manager

Project manager’s role

Part-time Part-time Full-time Full-time Full-time

Common title for project manager’s role

Project Coordinator/

Project Leader

Project Coordinator/

Project Leader

Project Manager/ Project Officer

Project Manager/ Program Manager

Project Manager/ Program Manager

Project management administrative staff

Part-time Part-time Part-time Full-time Full-time

PMBOK Guide, 2000, 19, and PMBOK Guide 2004, 28.

项目管理/行政人员

项目经理/项目群经理


Example: Microsoft


Website Project Organizational Structure

高层领导

合同管理者

项目经理

应用域专家商务模型专家

质量保证组系统开发组内容管理组项目支持组


案例题你的项目管理的经验告诉你，你的基本职责就是通过授权，将任务分配给团队的成员，依靠它们的力量开发出项目计划要求的可交付成果。由于你的项目不是项目型组织，因此你不能直接参与人力资源管理的工作（它们是职能经理和人力资源经理的主要工作），因此，你需要

A) 从外部筹集资源来完成项目工作B) 确保项目人员认识到为了保证项目的顺利完成，

服从行政管理是必要的C) 希望职能经理不要过多的管理项目团队的成员D) 请求人力资源主管亲自批准项目人员分配计划


Organization Culture• Organizational culture is a set of shared assumption

s, values, and behaviors that characterize the functioning of an organization.– 岳母刺字 -“ 精忠报国”

• Many experts believe the underlying causes of many companies’ problems are not the structure or staff, but the culture.

• “ 小企业看老板，中企业看制度，大企业看文化” – 企业竞争可以分为四个层次：产品竞争、营销竞争、

战略竞争和文化竞争


Organization Culture• 企业文化其实就是老板的文化

– 海尔文化中最突出的是执行力强 . 海尔内部流传着一个寓言，说一只狮子领导的一群绵羊可以打败一只绵羊领导的一群狮子 , 海尔在张瑞敏领导下，只要认准了的事，就能够得到强有力的执行 .

– TCL文化中最具特色的是内部企业家精神， TCL 受广东文化的影响，市场意识、业绩导向非常明显。公司开会，业绩好的单位代表自动坐在前面，业绩不好的单位代表自动地坐在后排。李东生并没有压制其它企业家的产生，而是鼓励其它企业家的产生。

– 联想比较突出的特色是 " 亲情文化 "，柳传志


Ten Characteristics ofOrganizational Culture

• Member identity(成员一致 ) – The degree to which employees identify with( 把…看成 ) the organization as whole rather than with their type of job or profession(主人翁精神 )

• Group emphasis– The degree to which work activities are organized

around groups or teams, rather than individuals

• People focus– The degree to which management’s decisions take

into account the effect of outcomes on people within the organization.



• Unit integration(部门融合）– The degree to which units or departments within an organiz

ation are encouraged to coordinate with each other.• Control

– The degree to which rules, policies, and direct supervision( 监督 ) are used to oversee and control employee behavior

• Risk tolerance– The degree to which employees are encouraged to be aggre

ssive(有闯劲的） , innovative, and risk seeking.• Reward criteria( 标准 )

– The degree to which rewards, such as promotions and salary increases, are allocated according to employee performance rather than seniority, favoritism, or other nonperformance.



• Conflict tolerance– The degree to which employees are encouraged to

air( 气氛 ) conflicts and criticism( 批评 ) openly.

• Means-ends orientation(目的手段倾向）– The degree to which management focuses on outco

mes rather than on techniques and processes used to achieve results

• Open-systems focus– The degree to which the organization monitors and

responds to changes in the external environment


Outline

• Opening case







Stakeholder management

• Project stakeholders are the people involved in or effected by project activities. See chapter 1.

• Project managers must take time to identify, understand, and manage relationships with all project stakeholders.

• Using the four frames of organizations can help you meet stakeholder needs and expectations


Stakeholder management• Opening case

– Tom Walters seemed to focus on just a few internal project stakeholders. He viewed only part of the structure frame of the college. The did not even involve the main customers for this project- the students at the college.

– Organizational chart: academic(学院 ) department heads and members of different administrative areas.

– Human resources frame: identify individuals who would most support or oppose requiring laptops.

– Political frame: considered the main interest( 利益 ) groups that would be most affected by this project’s outcome.

– Symbolic frame: what moving to a laptop environment would really mean for the college.


Importance of Top Management Commitment

• Several studies cite top management commitment as one of the key factors associated with project success.

• Top management can help project managers:

– Secure adequate resources.( 扼杀一个项目的最佳方式是断奶）

– Get approval( 批准 ) for unique project needs in a timely manner. (Especially halfway needs)

– Receive cooperation from people throughout the organization.

– Learn how to be better leaders.


Need for Organizational Commitment to IT

• If the organization has a negative attitude toward IT, it will be difficult for an IT project to succeed.

• Having a Chief Information Officer (CIO) at a high level in the organization helps IT projects.

• 安排一些非 IT人员全职参与一些大项目，以促进系统基层用户的参与。


Outline

• Opening case







Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle

• A project life cycle is a collection of project phases.(一系列项目阶段的集合 )– What work will be performed in each phase.– What deliverables will be produced and when.– Who is involved in each phase. – How management will control and approve work produced

in each phase.• Characteristics of project phases

– Each project phases is marked by completion of one or more deliverables(可交付的成功 ).

– The conclusion( 结论 ) of a project phase is generally marked by a review of both key deliverables and project performance to date.



• Checkpoint– 在规定的时间间隔内对项目进行检查，比较实际与计划之间的差异，并根据差异进行调整。

– 常见的间隔是每周一次，项目经理需要召开例会并上交周报。

• Milestone– 完成阶段性工作的标志，不同类型的项目具有不同的

里程碑。• Baseline

– 基线是指一个或一组配置项在项目生命周期的不同时间点上，通过正式评审而进入正式受控的一种状态。



• The project life cycle serves(提供 ) to define the beginning and the end of a project.

• In the early phases of a project life cycle:– Resource needs are usually lowest.– The level of uncertainty (risk) is highest.– Project stakeholders have the greatest opportunity to influence th

e project.• In the middle phases of a project life cycle:

– The certainty of completing a project increases.– More resources are needed.

• In the final phase of a project life cycle:– The focus is on ensuring that project requirements were met.– The sponsor approves completion of the project.



• Distinguishing project life cycles and product life cycles– The project life cycle applies to all projects, regardless of the products

being produced– Product life cycle models vary considerably based on the nature of the

product– Most large IT products are developed as a series of projects– Project management is done in all of the product life cycle phases( 产

品生命周期的所有阶段都要进行项目管理 )

• Project phases vary by project or industry, but some general phases include– Concept（概念阶段）– Development（设计阶段）– Implementation（实施阶段）– Close-out（收尾阶段）



经验教训初步成本分析预算成本分析确定的成本估计

绩效报告

最终工作包


Product Life Cycles

• Products also have life cycles.

• A systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a framework for describing the phases involved in developing information systems.

• Systems development projects can follow: – Predictive life cycle: The scope of the project can be c

learly articulated( 清晰明白地说 ) and the schedule and cost can be predicted.

– Adaptive Software Development (ASD) life cycle: Projects are mission driven and component based, and use time-based cycles to meet target dates.


Predictive Life Cycle Models• Waterfall model: Has well-defined, linear stages of systems

development and support.

• Spiral model(螺旋模型 ): Shows that software is developed using an iterative or spiral approach rather than a linear approach.

• Incremental build model(增量模型 ): Provides for progressive development of operational software.

• Prototyping model: Used for developing prototypes to clarify user requirements.

• Rapid Application Development (RAD) model: Used to produce systems quickly without sacrificing quality.


Adaptive Life Cycle Models• Extreme programming (XP): Developers program in

pairs and must write the tests for their own code. XP teams include developers, managers, and users.

• Scrum: Iterative development in which repetitions are referred to as sprints, which normally last thirty days. Teams often meet each day for a short meeting, called a scrum, to decide what to accomplish that day. Works best for object-oriented technology projects and require strong leadership to coordinate the work.


The Importance of Project Phases and Management Reviews

• A project should successfully pass through each of the project phases in order to continue on to the next.

• Management reviews, also called phase exits(阶段出口 ) or kill points(终止点 ), should occur after each phase to evaluate the project’s progress, likely success(成功的可能性 ), and continued compatibility with organizational goals( 与组织目标的持续兼容性 ).

• 在项目阶段结束时设定具体的可交互成果和一个终止点，这样有助于经理们更好地在是否继续项目、重新定位或结束项目等问题上做出决策

• The real improvement that I saw was in our ability to know when to stop beating a dead horse --Thomas Edison


Outline

• Opening case







The Context of IT Projects

• IT projects can be very diverse in terms of size, complexity, products produced, application area, and resource requirements.

• IT project team members often have diverse backgrounds and skill sets.

• IT projects use diverse technologies that change rapidly.


Chapter Summary• Project managers need to take a systems approach when

working on projects.• Organizations have four different frames: structural,

human resources, political, and symbolic.• The structure and culture of an organization have strong

implications for project managers.• Projects should successfully pass through each phase of

the project life cycle.• Project managers need to consider several factors due to

the unique context of information technology projects.

2007-8-31 Software Engineering Software Project Management 2007 The Project Management and...

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