2006 Proceedings - University of Manitoba · 2007-02-08 · Manitoba, Brandon University, Centre...

Parks and Protected Areas Research Forum of Manitobawww.umanitoba.ca/outreach/pparfm

2006 Proceedings

Clarion Hotel 1445 Portage AvenueWinnipeg, Manitoba

October 26 & 27, 2006

5th Annual Parks and Protected Areas Research Forum of Manitoba 2

October 26-27, 2006 Clarion Hotel, Winnipeg www.umanitoba.ca/outreach/pparfm/

2006 Forum Proceedings

TOURISM IN PARKS AND PROTECTED AREAS: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES IN THE 21ST CENTURY

Parks and Protected Areas Research Forum of Manitoba (PPARFM)

October 26 & 27, 2006 Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

Edited by: Cheryl Perrett Rachel Cooley Kelly MacKay

Maureen Peniuk

Published by: Health Leisure & Human Performance Research Institute

University of Manitoba

The opinions expressed in this publication reflect those of the author(s) of the presentations and do not necessarily reflect those of the Parks and Protected

Areas Research Forum of Manitoba.

Copyright © 2006 PPARFM Health, Leisure and Human Performance Research Institute,

University of Manitoba Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N2



Table of Contents

Using Research to Help Manage Parks and Protected Areas.....................................................................4

Thank You to Our Sponsors and Supporters ..............................................................................................5

2006 PPARFM Steering Committee ...........................................................................................................5

2006 PPARFM Event Highlights.................................................................................................................6

2006 Forum Program .................................................................................................................................7

Research Paper Presentations...................................................................................................................8

Research Poster Presentations ................................................................................................................17

Closing Keynote .......................................................................................................................................43

2006 Parks and Protected Areas Research Forum of Manitoba Delegate List..........................................49



UUssiinngg RReesseeaarrcchh ttoo HHeellpp MMaannaaggee PPaarrkkss aanndd PPrrootteecctteedd AArreeaass The Parks and Protected Areas Research Forum of Manitoba (PPARFM) was established in 2001 by the University of Manitoba, Brandon University, Parks Canada, and Manitoba Conservation as a vehicle to encourage research, support scientific approaches to parks and protected areas management, and develop the skills of professionals in the area. PPARFM’s objectives are:

• to promote research to improve understanding, planning, management and decision making for parks and protected areas

• to encourage educational and training activities related to parks and protected areas • to facilitate more cooperation in parks and protected areas research • to establish a meeting place for people involved in parks and protected areas research • to exchange information on a regular basis among people involved in parks and protected

areas research; and • to monitor and report on research in parks and protected areas.

Since 2002, PPARFM has held an annual event to address these objectives. Previous Forum themes have been: 2002 Inside the Outside - Managing Backcountry Recreation. 2003 Challenges in Parks and Protected Areas: Advancing Knowledge and Practice through Research. 2004 What is the Meaning of a Protected Area? A Diversity of Perspectives. 2005 Parks and Protected Areas: Dynamic Landscape or Museum? This year’s Fifth Annual Forum focussed on the theme “Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas: Opportunities and Challenges in the 21st Century”. The theme was chosen to enhance our understanding of how tourism affects parks and protected areas. These Proceedings from the 2006 Forum include papers on research and practice in natural and social science settings that may aid in the planning and management of ecological resources and human use at parks and protected areas in Manitoba and elsewhere. Thank-you for your contributions.

Congratulations to 2006 Student Research Paper/Poster Award Recipients: Student Research Poster Award Recipient: Derrick Ko Heinrichs, University of Winnipeg:

Ecology of northern-white cedar (Thuja occidentalis L.) stands at their limit of distribution in Manitoba, Canada.

Student Research Paper Award Recipient: Astrid Vik Stronen, University of New Brunswick:

Wolf genetic relationships, dispersal, and disease in the Riding Mountain ecosystem.



TThhaannkk YYoouu ttoo OOuurr SSppoonnssoorrss aanndd SSuuppppoorrtteerrss

2006 PPARFM Support

Bison

Health, Leisure, and Human Performance Research Institute-University of Manitoba

Manitoba Conservation In Kind

Parks Canada In Kind

University of Manitoba In Kind

Prairie Orchid

Brandon University

Little Bluestem

Centre for Forest Interdisciplinary Research

Nature Conservancy of Canada

22000066 PPPPAARRFFMM SStteeeerriinngg CCoommmmiitttteeee Dr. Kelly MacKay - PPARFM Co-Chair Health, Leisure and Human Performance Research Institute; University of Manitoba Parks Canada Agency [email protected]

Maureen Peniuk - PPARFM Co-Chair Western & Northern Service Centre; Parks Canada Agency [email protected]

Rachel Cooley - PPARFM Coordinator Western & Northern Service Centre; Parks Canada Agency [email protected]

Rod Lastra (PhD Candidate)

Department of Botany; University of Manitoba

[email protected]

Dr. David Walker Clayton H. Riddell Faculty of Environment, Earth and

Resources; University of Manitoba [email protected] Cathy Shaluk Nature Conservancy of Canada -Manitoba Region [email protected]

Cathy Hummelt Park and Natural Areas Branch; Manitoba Conservation

[email protected]

Dr. Michael Campbell Health, Leisure and Human Performance Research Institute; University of Manitoba [email protected] Ryan Brook (PhD Candidate) Department of Environment and Geography University of Manitoba [email protected] Catie Burlando (PhD Candidate) Natural Resources Institute University of Manitoba [email protected] Dr. Jacques Tardif Centre for Forest Interdisciplinary Research (C-FIR) Department of Biology/Environmental Studies University of Winnipeg [email protected] Dr. Christopher Malcolm Dept. of Geography, Brandon University [email protected]

Cheryl Perrett (MA Candidate) Health, Leisure and Human Performance Research Institute; University of Manitoba [email protected]

Dr. Daniel Scott presents

Student Award winners

Panel presentation

Assiniboine Park Zoo field trip

Assiniboine Park Zoo field trip

22000066 PPPPAARRFFMM EEvveenntt HHiigghhlliigghhttss “Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas: Opportunities and Challenges in the 21st Century”

The 5

th Annual Parks and Protected Areas Research Forum of Manitoba (PPARFM) was held on October 26 and 27,

2006 at the Clarion Hotel in Winnipeg. Over 70 delegates from Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec attended the two-day Forum. Participants appreciated the opportunity to network with people from other organizations and gain insights on current research. Thank you to our supporters - Health, Leisure and Human Performance Research Institute of the University of Manitoba, Manitoba Conservation, Parks Canada, University of Manitoba, Brandon University, Centre for Forest Interdisciplinary Research, and, Nature Conservancy of Canada. The Forum would not have taken place without your generous support.

The morning began with a thought-provoking presentation on climate change impacts and adaptations related to tourism and protected areas by the keynote speaker, Dr. Daniel Scott, Canada Research Chair in Global Change and Tourism at the University of Waterloo. Dr. Scott provided insights on how protected areas will change over the next 50 years due to global climate change, challenging our traditional views of park management.

Following this, presentations and posters highlighted the broad range of research being conducted within parks and protected areas. Delegates enjoyed the

chance to learn about new and upcoming research and to network with other delegates. The Student Research

Awards were sponsored by the Health, Leisure & Human Performance Research Institute and presented by its director, Dr. Phillip Gardiner to Derrick Ko Heinrichs (University of Winnipeg) for Best Student Poster and Astrid Vik Stronen (University of New Brunswick) for Best Student Paper. The winners received an award certificate, funds to assist with their research, and complimentary registration to PPARFM 2007.

The Assiniboine Park Zoo was was the location for this year’s field trip. Curator, Dr. Robert Wrigley, and Foreman Chris Neuendorff provided interesting insights about the zoo, the animals, and the zoos role in animal conservation. Day one of the Forum wrapped up with a relaxing wine and cheese reception, catered by Restaurant Dubrovnik, held at the Assiniboine Park Conservatory. Day two of the Forum opened with keynote addresses from Dr. Brenda Jones, Chief Social Scientist, Parks Canada and Dr. Stephen Woodley, Chief Scientist, Parks Canada who shared their disciplinary perspectives about research trends and

challenges at national parks and national historic sites in Parks Canada.

The morning finished with a panel presentation moderated by Maureen Peniuk of Parks Canada and titled “Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas: Roles, Relationships, and Responsibility”. Panel presenters included: Carl Wall - Manitoba Lodges and Outfitters Association, Gene Fortney – Nature Conservancy of Canada, Dr. Rick Riewe – University of Manitoba, and Don Lamont – Travel Manitoba.

Dr. Robert Wrigley, Curator, Assiniboine Park Zoo, presented the closing keynote address titled: “Tourism and Research in Protected Areas – There goes the Neighbourhood”. Dr. Wrigley provided context and meaning for parks and protected areas research and management.

PPARFM was Co-chaired by Dr. Kelly MacKay, University of Manitoba and Parks Canada Social Science Research Affiliate, and Maureen Peniuk, Parks Canada. For more information on PPARFM, visit our website at www.umanitoba.ca/outreach/pparfm/ .



22000066 FFoorruumm PPrrooggrraamm

Day 1: October 26 8:30-8:45 Registration

8:45-9:00 Committee Welcome

9:00-10:00 Opening Keynote: “Park Tourism in an Era of Global Climate Change: Adapting to the Coming Challenges” Dr. Daniel Scott, Canada Research Chair, University of Waterloo

10:00-10:30 Coffee break 10:30-11:10 Research Symposium - A.M. Session

Presentations on Current Research Topics (2) 11:10-11:15 Research Poster Introductions 11:15-12:00 Research Poster Viewing 12:00-1:00 Lunch

1:00-1:40 Research Symposium - P.M. Session Presentations on Current Research Topics (2)

1:40-2:00 Student Research Awards

2:00-2:30 Transportation to Assiniboine Park Zoo

2:30-4:00 Field Trip “Beyond the Public Eye: Behind the Scenes at Assiniboine Park Zoo”

4:00-5:00 Wine and Cheese Reception Assiniboine Park Conservatory

Day 2: October 27

8:30-8:45 Registration

8:45-9:00 Committee Welcome

9:00-10:00 Opening Keynotes: “Charting our own path: opportunities and challenges for social science research” Dr. Brenda Jones, Chief Social Scientist, Parks Canada “Engaging park visitors in ecological integrity” Dr. Stephen Woodley, Chief Scientist, Parks Canada

10:00-10:30 Coffee break

10:30-12:00 Panel: Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas: Roles, Relationships, and Responsibility. Approach this statement from your organization’s perspective.

1. Carl Wall - Manitoba Lodges and Outfitters Association 2. Gene Fortney – Nature Conservancy of Canada 3. Dr. Rick Riewe – University of Manitoba 4. Don Lamont – Travel Manitoba

12:00-12:30 Lunch

12:30-1:30 Dessert & Closing Keynote “Tourism and Research in Protected Areas – There goes the Neighbourhood” Dr. Robert Wrigley, Curator, Assiniboine Park Zoo

1:30-2:00 Steering Committee Closing



RReesseeaarrcchh PPaappeerr PPrreesseennttaattiioonnss Peer reviewed presentations 1. Identifying Web-Based Information Users: Relationships to Visitor Behaviour at

Canada’s Four1 Mountain National Parks Kelly MacKay Dave McVetty University of Manitoba; Parks Canada Parks Canada Social Science Unit Health, Leisure & Human Performance Research Institute Western & Northern Service Centre

1 Banff, Jasper, Kootenay, and Yoho National Parks of Canada

The Canadian Rocky Mountain National Parks are a hallmark Canadian tourism destination. Although traditional information sources remain a common resource for information seeking travelers at all trip stages, web sites are starting to dominate some aspects of pre-trip information search (Andereck, et al., 2003; MacKay et al., 2005). Accordingly, the travel industry has adopted the Internet as its primary means of consumer travel information (Furr, Bonn, & Hausmann, 2002). Understanding how use of web-based information relates to visitors’ behaviours at the destination is a key to managing sustainable tourist behaviour. The purpose of this paper is to distinguish between visitors who engage in pre-trip electronic information search and those who do not, providing information about which visit and visitor characteristics contribute most in discriminating between them. Analysis of questionnaire data from 1,982 independent visitors to four national parks in the Canadian Rockies in 2003 indicated that 31% (n=572) used one or more web sources as part of pre-trip planning. Overall, 15% of visitors (or 52% of visitors who used web sources) used Parks Canada’s web site for pre-trip information, 12% used Travel Alberta’s site, 5% Tourism BC’s web site and 9% noted other web sites. Total information sources used by visitors ranged from zero to 26, with a mean of 2.5 for pre-trip purposes. Using LatentGold software to analyze characteristics of pre-trip information use, a three-cluster solution suggested three distinct types: 1) know it all (57.6% of visits); want it all (21.6%); and 3) learn from home (20.9%). Using this method, 95% of cases were correctly classified. Know it alls were usually repeat visitors from Alberta on single day visits, often in winter. Want it alls were often Canadians from outside Alberta on overnight visits, touring throughout the parks, often in summer. Learn from homes frequently represented international, first-time visitors, using many parts of the parks in spring and summer. Pre-trip information use varied across the three groups with know it alls using few web-based or traditional sources and mainly relying on past experience (59%); want it alls using multiple sources including websites; and learn from homes using print sources (60%) and some websites. Discriminant analysis was performed to determine the key characteristics that distinguish web searchers from non-web searchers. The resulting discriminant function equation found five significant variables. The table below displays the results with 70% of cases correctly classified.

Results of Discriminant Analysis

Significant Variables

1 Coefficient

Age .557 Likelihood of Return to Mountain Parks .477 Number of Park Activities -.438 Nights in Parks -.230 Group Spending -.090 Actual Group Group Centroids

2 Case N Yes Web Use No Web Use

Yes Web Use -.410 474 67 14.1% 407 85.9% No Web Use .177 1096 60 5.5% 1036 94.5% 1 Sig. =.00 2 Negative centroid interpreted as more characteristic of web use.

Discriminant analysis results indicated that age (older) and likelihood of another trip to the Mountain Parks in the next 2 years (more likely) were significant distinguishing characteristics of visitors who did not use online sources for pre-



trip information. Variables more characteristic of pre-trip web source users were length of stay in the parks (longer) and number of activities (more). 70% of respondents were correctly classified using these variables. Findings reveal that web site users are more likely to be want it alls and learn from homes from outside of Alberta and first-time visitors to the Parks, thereby helping to explain their lower likelihood of return visitation. These findings suggest web-based sources are an important tool for Parks Canada to target out of province markets efficiently and effectively. As a pre-trip inquiry source, the information that can be communicated to these markets may be used to extend visitation, encourage and/or discourage activities, guide visitors to/away from particular areas in the Parks, and more importantly communicate ecological integrity messages, as this may be their only visit to the Mountain National Parks. The potential for online communication to facilitate the above while visitors are in the Parks, and to be a resource for recollection and post-trip learning and memories, is still an area that is ripe for future research. References

Andereck, K.L., Ng, E., & Knopf, R.C. (2003). Traveler information search: Differences between Internet users and non-users. Proceedings of the 2002 Travel and Tourism Research Association Conference. Travel and Tourism Research Association, St. Louis, MO, June 2003. (Summer), 6-11. Furr, H. L., Bonn, M., & Haussman, A. (2002). A generational and geographic analysis of Internet travel-service usage. Tourism Analysis, 6, 139-147. MacKay, K., McVetty, D., & Vogt, C. (2005). Web-based information search and use: Is it the new tourism reality? A preliminary examination of visitors to Canada’s Mountain National Parks. Proceedings of Travel & Tourism Research Association of Canada Conference, Kelowna, BC.

2. Wolf Genetic Relationships, Dispersal, and Disease in the Riding Mountain Ecosystem. Astrid Vik Stronen Department of Biology University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB E3B 6E1 Astrid V. Stronen, Graham J. Forbes, Paul C. Paquet and Marco Musiani. Department of Biology, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, Faculty of Environmental Design, University of Calgary The combined effects of isolation, human-caused mortality and disease could threaten long-term survival of wolves (Canis lupus) in Riding Mountain National Park (RMNP). We collected data in the RMNP and in Duck Mountain Provincial Park and Forest (the Duck Mountains) from 2003 – 2006 to assess effects of genetic isolation and disease in the wolf population. We used radio telemetry and DNA analysis to assess dispersal and wolf movements. Eighteen Riding Mountain wolves were captured by net gun from helicopter and fitted with radio collars. We located wolves weekly from the air and opportunistically from the ground. Tracking of radio collared animals showed that several wolves moved extensively within RMNP, and several packs had overlapping home ranges (Figure 1). At least four wolves have traveled further within and near the Park boundary than the distance between the Riding and Duck Mountains. A female wolf collared near Ranch Creek in the north central portion of RMNP traveled to the western side of the Park in July 2004, and from here moved to the eastern side before returning to the central area of RMNP. We found her collar on the ground in December 2005. There were no signs of what may have happened to the wolf. However, the mortality sensor did not function on this collar so it took some time until we realized that the collar had become stationary. Another female wolf collared in the northwestern part of the Park traveled southeast in the winter of 2004 and spent some time south of the RMNP boundary before returning to the Park and settling in an area just west of her original home range. She seemed to have joined with at least two other wolves. We found her collar on the ground during summer 2005. As with the previously mentioned collar the mortality sensor did not function, so we do not know whether the wolf died or the collar slipped over the animal’s neck. While several wolves moved extensively inside RMNP, we have not documented movements between the Riding and Duck Mountains. Some radio signals have been lost, and we have searched extensively for these animals. It is possible that some wolves dispersed out of the area, but these collars may also have stopped functioning. Four collared wolves are known to have died outside the Park. Two were shot, one was caught in a coyote snare, and



another died from wounds inflicted by other wolves, likely from a fight in the Deep Lake pack during mating time during February 2005. Figure 1. Overlapping home ranges in wolves. Riding Mountain National Park, Manitoba 2004 – 2005.

We collected more than 800 DNA samples. Most were faecal samples, and in addition and we obtained several tissue samples from local trappers and hunters, and from animals found dead. Hair samples were also collected from wolves captured for radio collaring. We selected 420 samples for genetic analyses and performed DNA extractions in RMNP. Samples were then genotyped by GenServe Laboratories at the Saskatchewan Research Council in Saskatoon. We used 14 microsatellite DNA markers for genotyping, which are highly variable genes located in the cell nucleus. Three-hundred-ten samples successfully amplified at least 9 of the 14 markers and we are using these samples to assess wolf dispersal and genetic variation. When collecting non-invasive DNA samples such as faeces, it is possible to sample individuals several times. We therefore assessed the data for genotypes represented multiple times. Faecal DNA data are generally of lower quality than blood and tissue samples, which increases the chances of genotyping error. As well, not all of the 14 markers had amplified for all our samples. Therefore, samples were considered to originate from the same wolf if at least 75% of alleles were identical. By comparison, parent – offspring and siblings are expected to share 50% of their genetic material. Using this criterion, we identified 221 individual wolves (Figure 2).



Figure 2. Wolf genetic samples from Manitoba, n = 221.

We are currently analysing data for population genetic structure. Preliminary results suggest the presence of several genetic clusters. Most Riding Mountain wolves seem to belong to the same group, but some individuals on the south side of RMNP appear to have differing genotypes. Because of the probabilistic nature of the population structure analyses, we will be using various software programs with differing assumptions to determine the most likely classification of genotypes. All programs will be run multiple times to assess consistency of results. Of the wolf faecal samples collected, 307 were also used in parasitology analyses. We found seven gastrointestinal parasites common to wolves: Alaria sp. (62/307), Cryptosporidium sp. (5/307), Giardia sp. (125/307), Sarcocystis sp. (111/307), Taeniid sp. (82/307), Toxascaris sp. (8/307), and Trichuris sp. (2/307). Analyses of blood samples from collared wolves showed that 18/18 had been exposed to Canine Parvovirus, and 9/18 had been exposed to Canine Distempervirus. We documented one mortality owing to Canine Distempervirus, in April 2005. This wolf did not have antibodies to the virus when captured for radio collaring in February 2005. After completing population structure analyses, the next step will be to determine genetic differences within and between groups. We will also determine whether any groups have private alleles, which are variations of a gene not found in any other group. We will assess population structure and animal dispersal using assignment testing, which estimates current dispersal rates between populations by determining the proportion of individuals in one population “missassigned” to another population based on their genotype. Missasigned individuals likely represent dispersers or their descendants. The subsequent step is to prepare a predictive wolf dispersal model, where we will use the PATCH program. Here obtaining a territory is a prerequisite for successful breeding, and the program can be modified so that the territory holder is a social unit instead of an individual. It is therefore well suited to model dispersal in species such as wolves. We will estimate prey availability using landscape productivity and greenness. Road type and distribution in the study area will also be included. We will then test the dispersal model using the DNA and radio telemetry data. It is expected that genetic differentiation increases with geographic distance. Therefore, we can test whether genetic differentiation is generally correlated with geographic distance, or whether there appears to be landscape features that act as filters or barriers to gene flow.



Sixty-seven mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) samples have also been sequenced. These maternally inherited genetic markers will also be assessed for population genetic structure and compared to the results from the microsatellite analyses. As well, we have morphological measurements from 32 Manitoba wolf skulls from the Manitoba Museum. These data will be compared to the population structure results from the genetic analyses. With this study, we aim to determine whether there may be landscape features acting as movement barriers or filters to a highly mobile and wide-ranging species such as the wolf. As well, we hope to clarify the population structure of wolves in south-western Manitoba. Our preliminary results suggest that isolation and disease could be long-term concerns for the Riding Mountain population. Interaction between the two factors could intensify loss of genetic variation, and is a further risk to population persistence. We also hope to further the use of non-invasive sampling in the study of wildlife movement and population structure, in particular applications regarding the early detection of genetic differentiation and isolation in small populations.

3. Forest Dynamics, and the Application of a Natural Disturbance-Based Management Model in Duck Mountain Provincial Forest, Manitoba Brock Epp Louis De Grandpré Centre for Forest Interdisciplinary Research (C-FIR), Laurentian Forestry Centre University of Winnipeg Canadian Forest Service

Jacques Tardif Centre for Forest Interdisciplinary Research (C-FIR), University of Winnipeg The forest industry has been moving towards the adoption of ecosystem-based forest management techniques to achieve sustainable forest management. Different models have been developed in an attempt to incorporate increasingly diverse management goals. The objectives of this study were to utilize data from a pilot Forest Land Inventory (FLI) to characterize the forest canopy and major successional pathways for Duck Mountain Provincial Forest (DMPF) in western Manitoba. Due to large, catastrophic fires in the late 19

th century, and active fire

suppression in the latter half of the 20th century, much of the landscape originates from the 1880’s and 1890’s. One

objective of this study was to assess the successional variability of 1880-90 originated stands within each pathway with respect to composition and structure. The final objective of this study was to assess the applicability in this region of the three-structural cohort natural disturbance based management (NDBM) model, developed for the mixed boreal forest of Quebec. This model seeks to preserve biodiversity over a managed landscape by using a balance of even- and uneven-aged silvicultural techniques to create canopy structures that emulate the transition between successional cohorts that occur naturally on the landscape. Cluster analyses were performed to classify the forest canopy into 8 canopy types, which were further grouped into 3 major successional pathways: Aspen/white spruce, jack pine/black spruce, and black spruce/tamarack. Ordination analysis was used to determine the relationship between vegetation, environmental, and structural variables within and between each major pathway. Results suggested that the inventory’s abiotic attributes distinguished well between the three major pathways primarily along a moisture/slope gradient, but explained only a small amount of the compositional variability within each pathway. For each pathway, stands originating from the large fires of the 1880’s and 90’s were classified into successional trajectories according to the species composition of the upper, intermediate, and understory canopy layers. The trajectories exhibited a large amount of variability with respect to compositional and structural development despite similar origin dates and abiotic characteristics, particularly within the aspen/white spruce pathway. These results suggested that age is not the only factor affecting structural development of these stands. For the final objective, all DMPF stands were classified into species assemblages based on the composition of the upper, intermediate, and understory canopy layers. They were then associated to one or more of the three structural cohorts according to composition, structure, and age characteristics. Comparison of photo-interpreted origin dates from the FLI, with accurate cross-dated origin dates from another study conducted in the region revealed that there was a high degree of error associated with the FLI dates. As a consequence, stands were assigned to cohorts based primarily on species composition and structure. Stands were assigned to cohorts based on the following characteristics: Cohort 1 consisted of 1 to 2-layered stands, with a relatively continuous upper canopy layer



dominated by early-successional species; Cohort 2 consisted of 2-layered canopy stands, with the upper canopy breaking up and increasingly dominated by longer-lived conifers such as white spruce; and Cohort 3 consisted of 2 to 3-layered canopy stands, or a canopy of variable height (undefined layers), usually with a multi-layered overstory with gaps, and conifer understory. Approximately 59.5% of the forested landscape fell within cohort 1, while 34.5% and 6.0% of the landscape fell within cohorts 2 and 3, respectively. Results from this analysis also suggested that much of the first cohort was near, or at the transitional stage to the second structural cohort. In order to maintain the current proportion of structural cohorts in the managed landscape, approximately 40% of the first cohort should be treated with even-aged silviculture, and about 60% should be treated with uneven-aged management to develop into second cohort stands. For the second cohort, about 90% should be treated with even-aged management, and 10% treated with uneven-aged management, and for the third cohort, about 60% and 40% should be treated with even- and uneven-aged management, respectively. The balance of even- to uneven-aged management for individual cohorts can be adjusted to suit different management scenarios. This study has shown that the FLI is an important management tool for DMPF; however, the large degree of error associated with photo-interpreted origin dates makes the implementation of models based on forest age difficult. Because the three-structural cohort model focuses on maintaining structural diversity through different silvicultural techniques, this may be a better option in such a situation. The DMPF landscape mosaic is dominated by the effects of the catastrophic fires of the late 19

th century active fire suppression in the latter half of the 20

th century. As a result,

the landscape does not fit the theoretical “negative exponential” model of age class distribution for a landscape under a 110-year fire cycle. Evidence suggests that the past disturbance regime of DMPF has been characterized by large, infrequent fires associated with periods of drought. Additionally, global warming trends may increase the risk of severe drought, and subsequently the risk of large fires in the future. As a result, forest managers wishing to adopt NDBM must consider these past and future trends in their management plans, and adopt a strategy that would address these issues while preserving diversity within the forest.

4. Monitoring trail use with digital still cameras: strengths, limitations and proposed resolutions

J. Michael Campbell Associate Professor Health Leisure and Human Performance Research Institute Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation Management University of Manitoba Keywords: Monitoring, digital camera, data management, activity identification. Introduction The monitoring of public use of natural areas has received increasing interest over the past two decades as managers of protected areas become concerned about visitor use types, levels, and intensity along with the accuracy and validity of their visitor use information. It has been suggested that this information is inadequate and often based upon the estimates or best guesses of area managers and park wardens. In order to deal with this lack of visitor use information, a number of researchers have begun to examine and assess a variety of means of collecting visitor use data. Watson et al (2000) describe a range of approaches that have been employed to understand visitor use characteristics including estimation, visitor observation, registration, permits, surveys, mechanical counters, 35 mm camera triggered at intervals or by activity, and more recently video monitoring (Arnberger et al, 2003, 2005). Digital photography is another recent development that has seen little application in visitor monitoring but may hold promise to further the science of visitor monitoring in natural areas. Understanding the limits and benefits of the various methods is essential for informed management. The changing structure of Canadian society and its influence on the use, appreciation and understanding of Canada’s natural heritage presents a significant challenge to Parks Canada (Parks Canada, 2005). In addition, there is little empirical data detailing the impacts these changes are having on the use of natural areas. Parks Canada has recognized these issues and is concerned that the changing cultural make-up of Canada coupled with a decrease in visitation will result in reduced support for parks and protected areas (Parks Canada, 2005). Given its mandate and the desire to facilitate visitor experience such that Canadians appreciate their natural heritage and develop a culture of conservation (Parks Canada, 2005) it is imperative that Parks Canada understand the patterns of use in its various parks. Informal and anecdotal observations by researchers and managers suggests that day use of backcountry



trails and facilities is increasing and may be placing unknown stress on park resources. Monitoring of visitor use of natural areas is essential for effective management of parks and natural areas and in many cases managers rely on best guesses to estimate use (Watson et al, 2000). This project evolved from an impact monitoring study developed in response to concerns that increasing use of the backcountry trails and campsites in Riding Mountain National Park might be negatively affecting the park’s ecological integrity. Working in consultation with the park, researchers at the University of Manitoba developed and implemented a backcountry impact-monitoring program during the summer of 2001 (Campbell and MacKay 2004, MacKay and Campbell, 2004). In excess of 50% of all backcountry respondents to the monitoring survey were day users, despite the fact that overnight users were strategically sampled through the use of the backcountry reservation system (Campbell et al, 2001). This mirrored results from other Canadian National Parks that suggested overnight use of the backcountry had peaked in 1979 (the year the median baby boomer was aged 21) and had declined slightly since (Page et al 1996). Clearly problems for managers of Canadian National Parks were different than those of their American counterparts where crowding and overuse are often significant issues.

1

Methods Information regarding day use of backcountry trails can be difficult to capture as registration is not typically mandatory, voluntary registration boxes have unknown reliability, and intercept surveys are labour intensive and costly. Increasingly technology has been employed in an attempt to clarify use patterns in parks and natural areas. Infrared (IR) trail counters have had limited success as they do not differentiate between humans and wildlife, thus recording false readings. 35mm cameras linked to IR sensors allow researchers to distinguish between wildlife and humans but film-based systems are limited to 36 exposures and therefore require significant maintenance. In addition, film based systems can incur significant costs for film and development. Digital cameras used in conjunction with IR sensors may be able to overcome some of these concerns but still remain a relatively untested technology in the field. Over the course of the summer seasons in 2004 and 2005 several digital camera/passive infrared (IR) sensor units were installed along backcountry trails in Riding Mountain National Park in Canada. Each unit was self contained and enclosed in a waterproof housing. IR sensors were calibrated over the course of 48 hours by observers and set to low sensitivity to reduce the likelihood of being triggered by birds and small mammals. Digital cameras were set in standby mode to reduce battery drain and calendars and clocks set to the appropriate time. The cameras were also set to the lowest resolution possible to; 1) maximize the number of events that could be recorded; 2) speed the refresh rate of the camera and; 3) reduce the likelihood that individuals could be recognized in the resulting images. In addition, lenses were blurred to further reduce the likelihood of identification of individuals. Each digital camera contained a 512mb or 1 Gb memory card capable of storing 3346 or 6690 images respectively. In the first year of the study cameras were placed on three backcountry trails. In the second year of the study cameras were place on four backcountry trails and two interpretive trails (at the request of the park). Placement of the cameras was critical to their accuracy and effectiveness and represented the most challenging and time-consuming component of unit setup. Results A summary of the results of the monitoring program is presented in Table 1 and is intended to be illustrative of the type of information that can be gleaned from the system employed here. As such, the significance of the results to park managers is not the focus of this discussion. The use of digital still cameras linked to passive infrared sensors can provide managers of parks and natural areas with a cost effective and accurate means of evaluating the spatial, temporal and activity type of use occurring on park trails. The digital camera sensor units employed in the Riding Mountain Study allowed researchers to identify numbers of visitors, group size, direction of travel, the type of activity engaged in, day use vs. overnight use (evidence of backpacks) and in some cases the amount of time people spent on the trail. When compared to simple mechanical counters, combining the digital camera with the counter not only provides greater information and detail but also can be used to assess the accuracy of the counters. That is, the image captured will indicate the size of the party or if there was indeed an event. When compared with counters or sensors linked to 35 mm camera the advantages of the digital camera sensor unit include ease of data management, lower maintenance costs in both time and money, and detailed information about trail use.

1 Cole (1997) suggests that less attention be paid to already crowded sites and more attention should be focused upon less popular areas.



A primary benefit of digital cameras linked to passive infrared sensors lies in the attribute file associated with each digital still image. Using DOS, a directory file of the attributes is created and saved as an RTF file. The resulting RTF file is then imported into Excel where temporal data can be manipulated and analyzed. This tab-delimited file can then be exported to SPSS or other similar programs for further analysis. While 35 mm print film can also record time and date of events the data must be manually entered resulting in increased costs and time. Similarly, 35 mm cameras linked to trail counters do not provide a single merged file. In the case of digital images, blank images can be eliminated from the database (stored for later review) and the data files remain associated with each image, greatly reducing the drudgery that is often associated with monitoring work (Gardner and Campbell, 2002). In addition to providing ease of manipulating time and date data, the addition of a digital camera to a passive sensor provides more information about the nature of trail activities. In the Riding Mountain study researchers were able to determine the ratio of, and type of activity (hike, bike, horse), the peak times of these activities and in some cases the length of time people spent on the trail. Some authors have suggested that Passive IR sensors can be triggered by non-human events such as snow, cloud cover etc resulting in lower accuracy than for active IR or Radio frequencies (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2000). By adjusting the sensitivity of passive IR sensors and combining them with digital photos these limitations can be minimized. When positioned correctly, the resultant image provides evidence of whether the sensor was triggered by a trail event or other factors. Generally, however the effect of environmental triggers is evident in the images as fog, cloud etc and data sets are easily cleaned. In addition, this overcomes the most significant limitation of Radio and active IR Beams, that of hikers traveling side-by-side and resulting in only a single count. Trail Number

of events* Number of individuals

Average Party size

User type Peak activity

% Day use

North Escarp- Ment1

242 88 2.1 Hike 95% Bike 5%

60% 10:00 – 14:00

92

Moon Lake2 88 49 2.5 Hike 90%

Bike 10% 58% 10:00 – 14:00

100

Brule 542 266 2.0 Hike 92% Bike 8%

51% 10:00 – 14:00

100

Grey owl 117 19 1.9 Hike 70% Bike 30 %

55% 10:00 – 14:00

100

Central2 1127 234 2.5 Hike 56% Bike 36% Horse 8%

60% 10:00 – 14:00

97

Ominik2, 3 622 888 2.3 Hike 99%

Bike 1 % 52% 10:00 – 14:00

100%

Table 1. Trail use counts, party size, type and timing based upon digital camera sensors.

1 Monitor placed orthogonal to trail assumed many cyclists missed

2 Monitor placement ideal and calibration suggests 98% accuracy

3 Interpretive trail near townsite

*Events refer to total number of times the camera was triggered, irrespective of whether there was activity captured or not. Note that in some situations (e.g. Central trail) individuals lingered in front of the camera for some time resulting in multiple counts. However the images allowed this to be easily rectified. Arnberger (2005) noted that at low use levels, counting (by researchers) was more accurate than video observation data. However, in very large low use areas with many entry and exit points such as Riding Mountain National Park (and many other Canadian National Parks) the use of personnel to perform counts is, except in rare cases, prohibitively expensive. As noted previously, counters alone (whether, Passive IR, Active IR, radio beam, pneumatic or other) require delicate calibration to differentiate between user types (eg. horse, bike) and in many cases differentiation is impossible. Furthermore, in low use areas wildlife may be a significant portion of trail activity. Film based cameras linked to active IR sensors have been employed and shown to be very effective and highly accurate. However, the costs associated with purchasing and developing film can be significant and when coupled with the limited storage capacity and additional data management costs, make film based systems a poorer choice. All trail monitors require some degree of maintenance. Maintenance includes ensuring the units are functioning properly, monitoring data capacity and ensuring adequate power (battery life). Containing the sensor and the camera



in one sealed unit thus protecting the sensitive electronics from the elements minimized maintenance of the units employed in this study. In addition the single sealed unit ensured that there was no need to connect sensors to cameras with external cables.

2 Given the advances in digital storage media (512mb up to 3000 images, 1 Gb 6000

images), the fact that images were collected at the lowest possible resolution, and the relatively low levels of use in RMNP, data capacity was not an issue. The number of events and to some degree ambient air temperature impacted battery life. However, even in the most extreme of cases (high use and low temperatures – a rare condition in RMNP) battery life averaged 5-6 weeks. As a result, when batteries were replaced every 3-4 weeks no data was lost. Finally, maintenance involved checking to ensure that vandals and or wildlife did not damage the units. Despite the fact that most of the units were in plain view, none were stolen, though some were moved and this resulted in lost data. In addition, several units were damaged by wildlife, and one irreparably so. This is discussed further in limitations below. Limitations Despite the numerous advantages of using digital cameras linked to passive infrared sensors the system is not without its limitations. The most significant challenge in employing the current generation of digital cameras and IR sensors is the time lag between the camera emerging from standby and the taking of the picture. The units employed in this study experience a nominal delay of between .8 and 1.5 seconds between the sensing of an event and the capture of an image. In a number of cases this meant that the camera was triggered but no image was captured thus resulting in decreased accuracy. In general, this type of underreporting was noted when cyclists moving at speed passed the camera before an image could be captured. The simplest way of resolving this issue is to ensure that the camera unit is optimally placed. This involves ensuring the unit is placed at a bend in the trail on level ground and that the trail user is moving away from or towards the unit rather than orthogonal to it. This placement has the added advantage of being able to capture large groups strung out along the trail thus providing more accurate counts. The negative consequence of this solution is that it leaves the unit much more exposed and visible and therefore increases the potential for vandalism and theft. Given that the units were secured to trees with straps rather than some form of locking mechanism, this is a significant concern. A second approach applied in 2004 is to separate the sensors from the camera unit so that the delay from sensor trigger to image capture can be accommodated for. This setup allows somewhat more flexibility and facilitates the concealment of the camera, however it also requires external wiring to connect the sensor to the camera and more time to setup and calibrate. Given that there are now three pieces of equipment, it can be more difficult to conceal and maintain. External wiring should be avoided if at all possible as wildlife has a tendency to chew through the cables. Finally advances in digital photography may provide a solution. Digital SLR cameras are currently on the market featuring startup to image capture lags (from power off to shot) of less than .2 seconds and lower lags from standby. Unfortunately, at present these units are also quite expensive and require expensive proprietary batteries. In addition, the best cameras for these purposes tend to be simple with relatively few functions and the trend has been towards more complicated instruments. While for the most part the units required maintenance checks every three weeks, on a few occasions the units were damaged or moved by wildlife and rendered ineffective for periods of time. Bears in particular were attracted to the new units and would rub against them and occasionally chew on the housing. While only one unit was significantly damaged, the units were moved from their optimal position and as such failed to register trail events. It is worth noting that in the second year of the study the only units affected by wildlife were the new units indicating that, perhaps, there is some scent associated with the cases or electronics that is attractive to wildlife. Conclusion Digital cameras linked to passive infrared sensors have the potential to provide managers of parks and natural areas with valuable and detailed information regarding visitor use of the areas in a manner that is both cost effective and facilitates ease of data management. In order to capitalize upon the potential benefits of this new technology it is imperative that the units be properly calibrated and more importantly properly positioned. Based upon two years of study in Riding Mountain National Park in Manitoba, Canada the most effective configuration is one that places the camera in an exposed location oriented parallel to visitor movements and as such it must be placed in secure

2 In comparative studies undertaken in 2004, active infrared sensors linked to 35mm cameras were frequently damaged by wildlife when connecting cables were chewed through. Cables were replaced five times over the course of eight weeks and as a result very little data was collected



housings and locked to posts or poles. The first iteration of this design is currently being employed in Riding Mountain National Park and to date has been effective in dealing with the limitations identified above. Less intrusive and more visually appealing installations are being designed for use in 2007, as is the possibility that linking digital cameras with radio beam may allow for a more concealed camera placement. Finally digital SLR cameras are being investigated as possible solutions to the issues of time lags between the sensing of an event and camera firing. References Arnberger, A. and Hinterberger, B. (2003). Visitor monitoring methods for managing public use pressures in the Danube Floodplains National Park, Austria. Journal for Nature Conservation 11. 260-267. Arnberger, A., Haider, W. and Brandenburg, C. (2005). Evaluating visitor-monitoring techniques: a comparison of counting and video observation data. Environmental Management 35 (4). 1-12. Banff-Bow Valley Study. (1996). Banff-Bow Valley Study: at the crossroads. Technical report of the Banff-Bow Valley Task Force. Minister of Canadian Heritage. Ottawa. ON. 432p. Campbell, J. M. and MacKay, K. J. (2004). The role of people, place and process in implementing a successful backcountry monitoring program: the case in Riding Mountain National Park. Environments 32(1). 31-45. Campbell, J.M., MacKay, K.J. and Steiner, C. (2001). Recommendations for implementing an integrated backcountry monitoring strategy at Riding Mountain National Park, HLHPRI Technical Report HLHPRI091B. Cole, David N. (1997). Recreation management priorities are misplaced--allocate more resources to low-use wilderness. International Journal of Wilderness 3(4). 4-8. Gardner, J. and Campbell, J.M. (2002). A century of research in Banff and surrounding national parks. Bondrup-Neilsen, S. and Munroe, N.W.P. (eds.) Managing protected areas in a changing world. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Science and Management of Protected Areas (SAMPAA IV). Waterloo, ON. May 14-19, 2000. 234-243. MacKay, K. J. and Campbell, J. M. (2004). An integrated approach for measuring environmental impacts in nature based tourism and outdoor recreation settings. Journal of Tourism Analysis 9(3). 141-152. Parks Canada. (1996). Riding Mountain National Park Management Plan. Environment Canada. Ottawa. Parks Canada. (2005). Response of the Minister of the environment to the recommendations made at the third minister's roundtable on Parks Canada. Environment Canada. Ottawa. 22p. Watson, A.E., Cole, D.N., Turner, D.L., Reynolds, P.S. (2000). Wilderness recreation use estimation: a handbook of methods and systems. USDA General Technical report RMRS-GTR-56. 198p.

RReesseeaarrcchh PPoosstteerr PPrreesseennttaattiioonnss Peer reviewed posters

1. Management Strategies for Beaches and Sand Dunes in Grand Beach Provincial Park Allyson Demski Emdad Haque Natural Resources Institute Natural Resources Institute University of Manitoba University of Manitoba Introduction Recreational use in Grand Beach Provincial Park has been popular in Manitoba and has been steadily rising. The issues concerning the park relate to various resource users and stakeholders, including local cottage owners, beach users, surrounding landowners, and the larger urban and rural community. The usability and access of the park to the public are important public agenda items in Manitoba, and maintaining the quality of ecological elements is vital. The beach and sand dune area is an area of intense recreational use during the summer months. It would be important to the community to know if the beaches are being adversely affected, and if so, how they can be managed in a more sustainable fashion. Freshwater beach and dune systems only represent a small fraction of a landscape. These small areas have a tendency to attract a large number of people, particularly in the summer months. The ability of such a small area to accommodate a large number of people is weak. The beach and dune system is extremely sensitive to any kind of impact. Sand dune areas are also extremely susceptible to wind erosion and vegetation damage. Once the vegetation is damaged, generally by human causes, the sand dunes are exposed to a higher amount of wind erosion (Lake Huron Center for Coastal Conservation, 2004). Most beach ecosystems have been altered based on human needs. Sometimes the alteration of the landscape is intentional, where the environment is considered less desirable. Other times the change is unintentional, where



Fig. 1: Grand Beach Provincial

excessive use of the beach environment creates disturbance in sand accumulation, and the trampling of natural vegetation to stabilize the dunes (Pye, 1990). Areas that are considered to have highly excessive human traffic should have proper management strategies to preserve the landscape as best possible. Education of beach visitors about the sensitivity of the beach and sand dune environment may also help alleviate some of the stress that is being put on the landscape. Research Goals/Objectives The goals of this research project are: 1. Create a benchmark for visitor’s perception of beach and sand dune resources. 2. Establish baseline geomorphological data for the Grand Beach area. 3. Develop a sustainability approach whereby ecological integrity of the beach and sand dunes and the recreational resource value would be maintained. 4. Make Grand Beach a well maintained park that incorporates the sustainable recreational use of the beach and sand dunes. Study Area The study area is Grand Beach Provincial Park in Manitoba, approximately 90 minutes north of the provincial capital, Winnipeg (Figure 1). The park itself is approximately 25 km

2 in

area with a three-kilometer stretch of white sand beach (Manitoba Conservation, 2002). The sand dunes consist of sandstone that is very finely textured, and are constantly shifting in the park and are about 12 meters high. The beach is divided into two areas, the west beach and the east beach. The west beach has more recreation and development, with thousands of visitors every summer. The east beach is much quieter and less-used. Landward of the beaches is a lagoon, a sheltered environment for several water recreation sports. Grand Beach Provincial Park is considered to be a natural park, which preserves a natural region while at the same time accommodating various recreational activities (Manitoba Conservation, 2002). Almost all of the beach ecosystems in Manitoba have yet to be analyzed to determine if they are changing in a positive or negative fashion. The dunes and beaches at Grand Beach Provincial Park have a large number of visitors each year that may cause major stress to the system. Manitoba Conservation has taken the first step to study the beach ecosystem with emphasis on Grand Beach Provincial Park. Implementation of the Grand Beach Management Plan involves a study of the natural processes in the park with emphasis on the dune and beach system. Part of this study will include a monitoring program for the area, which is already under construction. The result of this initiative will be a more knowledgeable view, as well as possible solutions for the preservation of the sand dune and beach system. This in turn, may lead to further beach studies and a better understanding of freshwater beach and dune systems in Manitoba. Methodology A mixed methods approach was used in the methodology to this project. This approach is useful for this project by providing the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative data collection (Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2004). A mixed methods approach will also help to answer a wider variety of questions pertaining to the sand dune and beach system in Grand Beach Provincial Park. Quantitative Data Collection Prior to this project, there has not been any significant quantitative data collected. Quantitative data collection will focus on the physical environment of the beach and dune ecosystem within Grand Beach Provincial Park. Measurements of the sand dunes include: sand dune heights, widths, length, proximity to high traffic areas, as well as measurements of foot paths created through the sand dunes. These measurements and observations will assist in the determination of the dune structure and type within the park. Using a GIS program, dune measurements and locations will be mapped according to high and low traffic areas to see if there is a relationship between human traffic flow and decreased vegetation within the dunes.



Table 1: Visitors Surveyed

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

18-29 30-49 50-59 60+

Age Category

No

. o

f P

eop

le

West Beach

East Beach

Table 2: Visitors were asked the importance of plants on sand dunes

Majority answered correctly

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%

Correct Incorrect

Answer

Per

cen

tag

e o

f P

eop

le o

ut

of

200

18-29

30-49

50-59

60+

Table 3: Majority of visitors would take the time to read signage about beach and dune processes

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

Yes No Don't Know

Per

cen

tag

e o

f P

eop

le o

ut

of

200

18-29

30-49

50-59

60+

Aerial photos will also be used to determine the changes of the dune environment over time (Figure 2). The aerial photos will first need to be georectified, which will involve the collection of several ground control points using a GPS. This in turn will make the aerial photos more useful for measuring change and variability over time. Other quantitative data collection will include the use of a GIS program to map the settlement patterns outside of the park to determine if there is a correlation to the changing environment within the park itself. If settlement patterns are found to be encroaching on the park, this may result in more visitors to the park, generating more stress on the beach and dune system. Data used will be from the Manitoba Land Initiative. Topographic Profile In May 2006, survey equipment was used to generate a topographic profile of the primary dunes of the west beach. The primary dunes within a beach system show the greatest change. Measurements were taken every at 20 meters of highest point of the primary dunes. Aerial Photography Aerial photography was collected between the years 1968 and 1998. The area has only been photographed from the air four times, with the last set of photographs taken in 1998 by Manitoba Hydro. Footpath Measurements Measurements of foot paths on the back side of the sand dunes on the west beach were collected over the last two spring and summer seasons. Qualitative Data Collection A field survey was generated and two hundred visitors to the park were surveyed in the summer of 2006. The survey was very brief, and visitors to both the east and west beach were asked to participate. The purpose of the questionnaire was to determine the visitors impressions of the sand dunes as well as how they access the beaches from the parking lots. Preliminary Results Data collection was completed in September 2006 with the data currently being analyzed. Complete results are expected by the end of 2006; however, preliminary results have already shown some significant results. Survey of Visitors Perceptions The information gathered will provide some insight to the thoughts of the visitors to Grand Beach Provincial Park regarding the beach and sand dunes. A stratified sample was used to collect visitor information from 200 visitors (Table 1). The initial results of the qualitative survey revealed: •The majority of visitors surveyed were from Winnipeg and the surrounding area. Other visitors included in the survey were from various regions across Canada. •The majority of visitors came to the park with family and/or friends, generally in groups of three or more. •Visitors are aware that erosion of sand dunes can occur by walking on them and trampling the vegetation. • The majority of visitors knew the importance of beach plants and shrubs on the dunes in order to prevent sand from blowing off of them (Table 2). • Visitors were concerned about the beaches and sand dunes and would be willing to read and follow guidelines on various signs posted throughout the area (Table 3). • Older visitors (over 30 years) are more willing to read a brochure about beach and dune processes than younger visitors. • When visitors were asked if they would be willing to participate in a community involvement program, the majority of visitors declined.

Table 4: If more structured walkways were made available, the majority of visitors would use them instead of walking

through the sand dunes

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

Yes No Don't Know

Per

cen

tag

e o

f P

eop

le o

ut

of

200

18-29

30-49

50-59

60+

Figure 2: Aerial Photography



Figure 3: Changes to footpaths throughthe sand dunes on the west beach

1968

1971

1998

Figure 4: Changes to the west beach

Site 3 Spring - Fall '05 +0.15m Site 6d Spring - Fall '05 +0.2m

Fall '05 - Spring '06 -0.25m Fall '05 - Spring '06 +0.2m

Spring - Fall '06 +0.9m Spring - Fall '06 +0.05m

Total Change +0.8m Total Change +0.45m

Site 4 Spring - Fall '05 +1.0m Site 6c Spring - Fall '05 +1.05m

Fall '05 - Spring '06 -0.25m Fall '05 - Spring '06 -1.0m

Spring - Fall '06 +0.9m Spring - Fall '06 +1.5m

Total Change +1.65m Total Change +1.55m

Changes in length to specific pathwaysWest Beach

Finally, visitors were asked if they would access the beach through more structured walkways if they were available. Most commented enthusiastically that they would use a structured walkway as opposed to walking through the sand dunes to access the beach. Most visitors felt that some of the walkways were simply too far away and decided to access the beach through the dunes (Table 4). One interesting note regarding the visitor surveys: Most people in the past and the present have associated alleged beach deterioration to the Manitoba Hydro lake regulations on Lake Winnipeg for the last 40 years. However, while speaking with visitors on the beach, the majority did not mention these regulations at all. Baseline Geomorphological Data Data collected during the spring of 2006 will show a topographic profile of the west beach primary sand dunes. Initial results show dune heights ranging from 6.1 meters to 19.5 meters. Lower areas were areas of blow out zones, while the higher areas were covered with various tree and shrub species. The topographic data will be useful for further study in the area to determine if the dune heights vary over time.

Aerial photography analysis has showed various changes over time on both the east and west beaches. In particular, the areas near parking lots where paths have become increasingly noticeable (Figure 3). Other noticeable changes are the encroachment of vegetation (Figure 4), although a significant change, the reasoning behind the encroachment is beyond the scope of this project.

The results will be enhanced when earlier aerial photographs are acquired from the 1940’s. Photographs prior to the 1960’s will be able to show the differences in the area prior to it

becoming a provincial park as well as prior to Lake Winnipeg water level regulations. Sustainable Recreational Use of the Beaches and Sand Dunes

Grand Beach Provincial Park is a recreational park; it is intended for human use. Measuring various pathways over the last two beach seasons on the west beach dunes reveal that they are slowly elongating (Table 5). Pathways that are closer to larger parking lots have become more elongated (Sites 4 & 6c). However, several sites have shown that during the months when there are less people in the park (fall & winter), the pathways appear to become less elongated. Preliminary qualitative survey results also showed that a significant

amount of visitors do access Grand Beach through unmarked pathways through the sand dunes. Visitors also commented that they would prefer to use a structured walkway instead of walking through the sand. By providing additional structured walkways, users of the beaches and dunes will be able to use the area in a more sustainable fashion thereby minimizing their impacts on the area. Developing a Sustainable Approach to Ecological Integrity With the use of both quantitative and qualitative data collection, Grand Beach Provincial Park can become better maintained by responding to the natural changes of the beach and dune area, as well as respond to the park visitors’ needs to better understand the park’s unique environment. The qualitative data revealed that park visitors would take the time to read and understand the processes that occur at Grand Beach, as well as adjust their foot traffic patterns to structured walkways, if available. However, the key to a sustainable beach environment is to carefully monitor the beach and dune system over several years. Grand Beach Provincial Park currently does not have prior biophysical and plant surveys, which would assist in creating a benchmark for monitoring the area. Much more research can be done in the area, which would only increase the appeal of Grand Beach Provincial Park to visitors. References Johnson, R. & A. Onwuegbuzie. (2004) Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm Whose Time has Come. Educational Researcher 33(7), 14–26. Manitoba Conservation. 2002. Grand Beach Provincial Park Management Plan. Parks and Natural Areas Branch. Pye, K. (1990) Physical and human influences on coastal dune development between the Ribble and Mersey estuaries, northwest England. In: Nordstrom, K.F., N.P. Psuty, and R.W.G. Carter (Eds), Coastal Dunes: Forms and Processes. (pp339-359) John Wiley & Sons Ltd. New York..

Table 5:



The Lake Huron Center for Coastal Conservation. (2004) Sauble Beach Management Plan. The Lake Huron Center for Coastal Conservation.

2. Burning Questions: fire plants and people in a Cree protected area

Katherine Scott Department of Anthropology McGill University Introduction My research focuses on the interactions of plants, animals, people and the physical landscape in a framework of dynamic transformations on the east coast of James Bay. The Cree Nation of Wemindji, Quebec, is creating a protected area with the intention of keeping the land healthy by protecting it from high impact development and ensuring that the land remains an essential component of cultural identity and strength for future generations. This project has provided opportunities for the community’s partners, an interdisciplinary team based at McGill University, to learn about Cree land values and forest use, as well as ecological and social interactions related to the dynamics of disturbance and change. My study takes the opportunity to examine post-fire ecology. I ask how Cree knowledge, based in long experience with fire-related ecological processes, can contribute to a better understanding of the role of fire in this protected area. The research is anchored in a dialogue between western scientific understandings of sub-arctic plant relationships and wild fire and Cree understandings of the same phenomena. By actively creating knowledge-building partnerships with community members, this work, together with others, seeks to illuminate and inform human-environmental relationships in eastern James Bay. Research Site Wemindji, a town of about 1500 people, is located on the eastern coast of James Bay in northern Quebec. The proposed protected area lies to the southwest of Wemindji and includes the watersheds of three rivers, shoreline and the coastal islands making up a total area of about 4,750 km

2. In this sub-arctic environment the winters are cold,

winds are strong and the air is fairly dry. Wildfires occur often and in years with particularly low rainfall, fires have sometimes burned over areas of more than 5000 km

2.

Research questions, research setting and methods What impacts do fires have on the lives of people who live close to the land? How do fire and succession processes affect plant communities and, in turn, animal populations? Are fires viewed as beneficial, necessary for forest plant and animal cycles of renewal and regeneration? Alternatively, since fires destroy forests and change animal population dynamics, are they viewed as catastrophic events? Would protection, in a protected area, include protection from forest fire, or should fire run its natural course? Answers to these questions were sought during my field work in the summer of 2006 in the town of Wemindji, and on the land, in places where fires had occurred within recent memory. I also sought to situate relationships between people, plants, and wildfire within the Cree socio-environmental ethic of respect and reciprocity, identified by the elders of Wemindji as being of central importance for the community.

Preliminary Discussion and Results The structure of the boreal forest east of James Bay is largely shaped by the wild fires that recur in cycles of approximately 50-100 years. Wemindji territory lies north of the 52

nd parallel. The dominant forest type, open lichen

woodland, is known as taiga. Leaf litter and detritus decompose very slowly in these acidic soils; burning releases nutrients from the organic layers and permits forest regeneration. In drier years, fires occur more often and they may spread through huge tracts of forest. In areas where large stands of trees are completely burnt, new growth often resembles a forest plantation, where all the trees are of the same age and species. Overall, the landscape develops a characteristic patchiness, each patch the result of variation in length of time since the last burn and the intensity of that burn, as well as topography, exposure, soil type, drainage and type of vegetation before the burn. Most of the land proposed for protection was affected by the very large stand-killing wildfires that swept through the territory in the summers of 1989, 1990 and 1991. Large portions of the hunting territories of most people I spoke with had burned at some time in the past 20 years. Fire on a trap line causes considerable hardship. Cabins, tools and equipment are burned, trails are lost, hunting is impeded as travel over tangled fallen trees is arduous, and camping is difficult. Although cabins and equipment can now be insured through the Cree Trappers Association, families express the hope that long-used campsites in old growth forest remain untouched by fire. Bear skulls hung in trees at camps as a mark of respect, are said sometimes to protect those trees and even the adjoining structures. After a burn, animal populations return slowly; beavers, for example, take years (as many as 8 or 9) to re-establish their



lodges. People hunt in new locations until the plants and animals are well established again in the areas that were burned. Fish growth is affected and fish are said to be skinny, have soft flesh, and an unpleasant taste for up to 10 years because of the large amounts of ash washed into lakes. In times past, people used to say that big fires occurred when the land was weeping for all the elders who had passed away. Lightning is the primary cause of forest fire in northern Quebec, though fires are also caused through the carelessness of sports hunters, prospectors and construction workers. In many parts of North America, fire was used by aboriginal people as an aid in tending the land and encouraging the growth of valued plants. In Wemindji territory however, no evidence points to the use of fire for forest management. Many people told me they had never heard of such a practice from the old people; that once ignited in these forests, fire cannot be controlled. With the post-fire establishment of willows, other shrubs and small trees, rabbits and later the larger animals like moose and caribou return and may be more plentiful than they were previously. There are other positive outcomes; berries are abundant for years after a burn and the charred trees trunks remain an abundant source of accessible firewood. Fire is one among many forces of disturbance that influence fluctuations of animal and plant populations. “The earth was made with fire as a part of it”, I was told, “Just look around you – there was fire here 50 years ago, now look at how big the trees are, they are beautiful.” Cree knowledge, based in long experience with fire-related processes, will determine the way that fire is managed (or not) and will contribute to a better understanding of the role of fire in a healthy and functional protected area. 3. Ecology of northern-white cedar (Thuja occidentalis L.) stands at their limit of

distribution in Manitoba, Canada. Derrick Ko Heinrichs Centre for Forest Interdisciplinary Research (C-FIR), University of Winnipeg Jacques Tardif Centre for Forest Interdisciplinary Research (C-FIR), University of Winnipeg, Department of Biology/ Environmental Studies Introduction Northern white-cedar (Thuja occidentalis L.) reaches its northwesterly continuous range limit in southeastern Manitoba, but disjunct populations can be found nearly 400 km northwest, in the Grand Rapids/Cedar Lake region of central Manitoba. Northern white-cedar stands provide unique habitat, often being associated with rare orchids and other plants, which has been recognized by the creation of the Brokenhead Wetlands Ecological Reserve, Long Point Ecological Reserve, and the proposed Manitoba Lowlands National Park. Specifically, the new Brokenhead Wetland Ecological Reserve includes 23 provincially rare or uncommon plants, 28 of the Province’s 36 orchids, and 8 of Manitoba’s 10 insectivorous plants. Northern white-cedar can grow quite old in Manitoba. In the Cedar Lake area some trees date back as far as 1334 and lived for as much as 450 years (preliminary results of the current study). These may very well represent some of Manitoba’s oldest forests. Northern white-cedar is considered a late-successional species, and in northwestern Quebec it has been found that on mesic and hydric sites, the forest cover converged to a dominance of northern white-cedar and balsam fir, while xeric sites were dominated by northern white-cedar and black spruce (Bergeron and Dubuc 1989). This is considered to be the result of high shade tolerance, the ability to reproduce vegetatively, and this species’ longevity (Bergeron 2000). The distribution of northern white-cedar here in Manitoba is thought to be controlled by fire regime and/or habitat availability (Tardif & Stevenson 2001), and perhaps for the disjunct population, the surrounding three large lakes minimize the fire frequency, size, and/or intensity in the region, thus preventing the exclusion of this fire sensitive species. The creation of the Manitoba Lowlands National Park would be a valuable addition to the area, increasing the conservation of northern white-cedar habitat.

The objective of this study was to characterize northern white-cedar habitat at its northwestern limit of distribution, and to compare forest stand composition, structure, associated vegetation, and abiotic conditions among and between disjunct northern white-cedar stands and stands from the continuous range in Manitoba. This study will contribute to the overall knowledge on northern white-cedar at its distribution limit in Manitoba, including detailed characterization of stands of this long lived species at already established ecological reserves of both regions, and in the proposed Manitoba Lowlands National Park. Furthermore, as more is understood about the ecology of a species



at their limit of distribution, the modeling of forest dynamics with respect to climate change will be improved (Meilleur et al. 1997; Sutton et al. 2002; Tardif et al. 2006).

Methods Two regions of Manitoba were considered for this study of northern white-cedar: 1) the southeastern corner of the province at the northwestern limit of the continuous range, including marginal stands near Grand Beach Provincial Park, and 2) the Cedar Lake area in west-central Manitoba. The latter area is disjunct from the continuous range of northern white-cedar while the few stands near Grand Beach Provincial Park are the fringe of the continuous range. The northern white-cedar of the Cedar Lake area is about 400 kilometres northwest of the limit of the continuous range.

To compare the different areas, numerous northern white-cedar stands were visited: 29 sites from the Cedar Lake area, and 37 from the continuous range in southeastern Manitoba, five of which were from the Grand Beach area. Sites were selected to represent xeric, mesic, and hydric moisture regimes, and for accessibility. At each of the 66 sites, a general site description was taken, including UTM coordinates, elevation, estimated canopy closure, presence of coarse woody debris, general soil type, moisture regime, slope, and aspect. The biotic components described in each stand included the dominant tree species, other tree species present, regenerating tree species (seedlings and saplings), approximate relative abundance of northern white-cedar, a list of understory species present in the area, and representative trees were also cored for stand age determination. Data Analysis Classification and ordination were applied to the data collected. Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN; Hill 1979) was used to cluster the sites into groups from a vegetation presence/absence data matrix. Correspondence Analysis (CA) was applied to the compositional data and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was conducted to relate the environmental variables to the site/species data. Both CA and CCA were calculated using CANOCO version 4.5 (ter Braak & Smilauer 1998). Preliminary Results and Discussion The 66 sites were clustered into three vegetation groups or community types. The Cedar Dominated Mixedwood community stands (n=26) commonly included white birch, balsam fir, trembling aspen, white spruce, but also black spruce and balsam poplar. Regeneration was dominated in this group by northern white-cedar (77% of sites), balsam fir and balsam poplar. The Tamarack/Black Spruce Dominated community (n=15) also included white birch and balsam fir as frequent non-dominant species. Regeneration was dominated here by northern white-cedar and balsam fir. The Black Spruce Dominated community type (n=25) contained jack pine in about one third of the sites, and regeneration was dominated by black spruce, northern white-cedar, and tamarack. The frequency of northern white-cedar regeneration was very high for each group: it was found in 77%, 93% & 88% of sites from the three community types, respectively. This indicates, at least, that at its northwestern limit of distribution, this species is successful at regeneration and appears not to be limited in this way.

The first two community types (Cedar Dominated Mixedwood and Tamarack/Black Spruce Dominated) were mostly from the continuous range (six disjunct stands were included here), while the Black Spruce Dominated community type was comprised of primarily disjunct northern white-cedar stands (only two sites from the continuous range). The CA shows these three groups were sequentially distributed from left to right along the first axis, and also indicates a compositional difference between the disjunct and continuous range stands (Fig. 1). When the environmental variables were included, the CCA suggested that the first two community types (primarily stands of the continuous range) were more similar to each other than to the third community type (mostly disjunct stands) (Fig. 2). This regional separation was primarily a factor of the latitude and longitude variables; however, canopy closure was strongly correlated to the first axis, which explains the most variation among sites. Both the disjunct and continuous range stands were well distributed along the second axis, which corresponds to gradients of soil moisture regime, understory species richness, and slope. We can see, for example that the wettest sites from Cedar Lake region also have high understory species richness, little/no slope, and have the most open canopy. Furthermore, the oldest site so far is among these sites. The non-significant environmental variables are not shown in Figure 2; however, lower tree species richness and lower altitude were more characteristic of the Cedar Lake stands compared to the continuous range stands. It was also noted that northern white-cedar in the Cedar Lake region could occasionally be found on xeric conditions with substrates of gravel and rock, co-occurring with jack pine, but this combination was not seen in the continuous range. Zoladeski et al. (1995) however, reported the existence of northern white-cedar in the two white pine vegetation types (V11, V22) in southeastern Manitoba, but these were not found in the present study. The disjunct stands are more equitably distributed among hydric, mesic, and xeric site conditions than in the continuous range. Another notable difference between the two regions was the maximum age of the trees. Old



northern white-cedar was not uncommon in the Cedar Lake area, and the most exceptional tree so far was over 450 years old, originating in 1518, with another snag dating back to 1334. One living tree in this region was found to reach back nearly 400 years. In the continuous range, northern white-cedar dated back as far as 1669. Additionally, northern white-cedar stands in both regions were found to frequently provide habitat for orchids, including some rare species.

The exploration of Manitoba’s northern white-cedar habitat has revealed regional differences in stand characteristics, some similarities, and seemingly two types of communities within the continuous range. As the preliminary sampling was based on presence-absence data and a general qualitative site description, more detailed quantitative information has been gathered in the summer of 2006. Multidimensional analysis will be used to improve the characterization and comparisons among sites, communities, and regions. Northern white-cedar is an important late-successional and old-growth species that provides unique habitat, and the disjunct populations in the Cedar Lake region stand out as compositionally different, making conservation efforts that much more important.

Figure 1. Correspondence analysis (CA) of sites based on composition of trees, regeneration, and understory vegetation (presence/absence). Disjunct northern white-cedar stands are represented by squares and the continuous range stands by circles. Sites were also placed into three groups using TWINSPAN, represented by empty symbols (Cedar Dominated Mixedwood), grey symbols (Tamarack/Black Spruce Dominated), and black symbols (Black Spruce Dominated). The first axis explains 18.4% of the variance, and with the second axis, 25.3% is explained.



Figure 2. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) of sites and environmental variables significant at P < 0.05. Disjunct northern white-cedar stands are represented by squares and the continuous range by circles. Sites were also placed into three groups using TWINSPAN, represented by empty symbols (Cedar Dominated Mixedwood), grey symbols (Tamarack/Black Spruce Dominated), and black symbols (Black Spruce Dominated). The first axis explains 32.7% of the species-environment variance, and with the second axis, 43.1% is explained. References Bergeron, Y. 2000. Species and stand dynamics in the mixed woods of Quebec’s southern boreal forest. Ecology, 81: 1500–1516. Bergeron, Y. & Dubuc, M. 1989. Succession in the southern part of the Canadian boreal forest. Vegetatio, 79: 51–63. Hill, M.O. 1979. Twinspan, a Fortran program for arranging multivariate data in a ordered two-way table by classification of the individuals and attributes. Department of Ecology and Systematics, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. p. 49. Meilleur, A., Brisson, J., & Bouchard, A. 1997. Ecological analyses of the northernmost population of pitch pine (Pinus rigida). Can. J. For. Res. 27: 1342–1350. Sutton, A., Staniforth, R.J., & Tardif, J. 2002. Reproductive ecology and allometry of red pine (Pinus resinosa) at the northwestern limit of its distribution range in Manitoba, Canada. Can. J. Bot. 80: 482–493. Tardif, J., & Stevenson, D. 2001. Radial growth-climate association of Thuja occidentalis L. at the northwestern limit of its distribution, Manitoba, Canada. Dendrochronologia, 19: 179–187. Tardif, J., Conciatori, F., Nantel, P. and Gagnon, D. 2006. Radial growth of white oak (Quercus alba) and northern red oak (Quercus rubra) growing at the north-eastern distribution limit of white oak, southwestern Quebec, Canada. J. Biogeogr. 33: 1657–1669. ter Braak, C.J.F., & Smilauer, P. 1998. CANOCO Reference manual and user’s guide to Canoco for Windows: software for canonical community ordination (version 4.5). Microcomputer Power, Ithaca, N.Y. p. 345. Zoladeski, C.A, Wickware, G.M., Delorme, R.J., Sims, R.A., & Corns, I.G.W. 1995. Forest ecosystem classification for Manitoba: field guide. Special Report 2. Canadian Forest Service, UBC Press, University of British Columbia.



4. Variability, change and continuity in lived landscapes: insights from a Cree-led protected area project in James Bay, Quebec

Claude Peloquin Natural Resources Institute University of Manitoba Introduction The Cree Nation of Wemindji, in Northern Quebec, is in the process of turning a portion of their territory into a protected area of their own design, as part of a broader project of balancing environment and development. Such an endeavour presents opportunities for learning about ways in which protected areas are perceived and implemented, especially so as the project involves a knowledge exchange partnership with an interdisciplinary team based at McGill University. This research explores the interplay between variability, change, and continuity in a subsistence hunt in northern Canada, focusing on the Canada goose (Branta canadensis) hunt of the Wemindji Cree in James Bay. Cree hunting practices have implications from the standpoint of resilience theory, which holds that environmental management (including the design of protected areas) should be flexible and adaptive to ecosystem shifts as well as to social change at both spatial and temporal scales. For instance, the traditional practices of James Bay Cree hunters involve shifting no-take zones created by spatial and temporal rotation of harvesting areas (Scott, 1996; Elmqvist et al., 2004). I analyze the linkages between these practices and external drivers of change at different levels. This research thus contributes to the understanding of social-ecological processes in sub-arctic environments that are undergoing biophysical as well as social-cultural change at multiple scales, and raises questions on the role of protected areas in a changing world. Study Area and Methods The research takes place in Wemindji, Quebec (see Figure 1), an indigenous community of about 1500 people, most of whom engage in subsistence hunting and fishing for at least parts of the year. The projected protected area focuses on a portion of this territory that contains the Old Factory River (Paakumshumawwau) and Poplar River (Maatuskaau) watersheds and the adjacent coastal marine area and offshore islands, and aims to enhance Cree customary land use and access, protecting a place of special importance from extractive development while ensuring the continuity of customary resource use. Fig. 1. Study Area

From June to October 2006, I interviewed Cree hunters, elders, and community leaders, and accompanied hunters to their hunting territories. I carried out a combination of informal and semi-structured interviews totalling to 101 interviews with 39 participants, and a total of 10 trips ranging from one to eight days. These inquiries focused on how Cree hunters read and adapt to the environmental variability that is characteristic of sub-arctic ecosystems. I analyze some key ecological variables, providing a preliminary model of how change occurs in a dynamic but resilient setting; a ‘map’ of the web of variation and change. Preliminary Results



The endogenous processes characterizing small-scale ecological variability and unpredictability in the goose hunt include: wind, temperature, tide cycle, goose population dynamics and migration patterns, ice thickness, and berry abundance. These variables are mediated by local management strategies in which goose-hunting areas may shift in space and time. These strategies traditionally involve rotation of hunting sites, minimizing of some disturbances, and minor physical modifications (bush clearing etc.) to the landscape. Whereas these strategies are still practiced, fine-tuning local arrangements to local environmental conditions, they are (to some extent) overwhelmed by change occurring at larger scales (Figure 2). Some of these external drivers are related to climate change and anthropogenic disturbances, others are related to social-cultural change that influence resource-use patterns, and these findings are largely consistent with what has been reported elsewhere (McDonald et al., 1997). Figure 2. A web of variabiliy and changes

Increase in town-based employment

Rigid schedules Road access

Faster transportation

Changes in values, self-image

Shorter spring, earlier and faster

ice break up makes travel dangerous

Noise due to increase use of helicopter and snowmobiles

Some hunters not following rules to

minimize disturbances

Ponds drying up due to coastal

uplift. ‘Goose food ‘ overgrown by woody plants overgrowth

Geese flying higher Geese fly inland

Geese fly at night Geese not stopping Interspecies mixing Change in fly-way

Wind

Temperature Tides

Goose pop. and migration patterns

Endogenous variability

Social-cultural

Climate change related Goose behavior

Bio-physical changes Disturbances



In order to adapt to these changes, the Cree are adopting a number of strategies (see table 1). These strategies often act as feedbacks to the processes, both positive and negative. For instance, helicopter transport is used to access goose hunting sites, in response to unreliability of the sea-ice and more rigid schedules, associated with increased wage-employment. Helicopters are seen as a disturbance scaring the geese away and contributing to their change in behavior. At the same time, the newly built access road to the community allows hunters to drive to new goose hunting sites inland, where the geese are increasingly found. Road travel is also less vulnerable to weather, and allows people to follow less flexible schedules, and as a result more hunting camps are built inland. This results in a shift to the spatial organization of the goose hunt, with consequences on social and ecological factors. Table 1. Some attempted or suggested adaptation strategies.

Strategy Description

Helicopter transport Reduce risk caused by unsafe ice

Goose-hunting inland Use road access - less vulnerable to weather

Corn to attract geese to a specific site

Goose landing less predictable inland

Snow-covered gravel pits as 'ponds'

Closer to the road

Plowing vegetation (suggested)

Disturbance to reduce woody plants in ponds

Sanctuaries (suggested) Leaving the coastal sites to 'rest' for a few years

Discussion The practices of James Bay Cree hunters appear to be highly adapted to ecological dynamics. Cree knowledge, values and practices allow their hunting system to cope with change, and much can be learned from these practices. This study points out, however, that the unpredictability and variability endemic to this system are increasing, causing the nature of the goose hunt to change, due to additional factors beyond local control. In such a view of dynamic social-ecological system, what is the role of a protected area? The Cree Nation of Wemindji is using the concept of protected areas as part of a strategy to enhance aboriginal cultural survival and to protect certain areas from high impact extractive development. In what ways can such a strategy improve the adaptiveness of Cree way of life? References Berkes, F., C. Folke, & Colding, J. (Eds). (2003). Navigating Social-Ecological System : Building Resilience for Complexity and Change. Cambridge, U.K.; New York: Cambridge University Press. Elmqvist, T., Berkes, F, Folke, C., Angelstam, P, Crépin, A.-S. & Niemelä, J. (2004). The dynamics of ecosystems, biodiversity management and social institutions at high northern latitudes. Ambio 33(6): 350-355. McDonald, M., Arragutainaq, L. & Novalinga, Z. (Eds). (1997). Voices from the Bay: Traditional Ecological of Inuit and Cree in the Hudson Bay Bioregion. Ottawa: CARC/Environmental Committee of Municipality of Sanikiluaq. Scott, C. H. (1996). Science for the west, myth for the rest? The case of James Bay Cree knowledge construction. Naked science. L. Nader. New York, Routledge: 69-86. Acknowledgements I thank the people from the Cree Nation of Wemindji for their hospitality, teaching and guidance; most especially Fred and Dorothy Stewart, and Leonard Asquabaneskum. This study benefited from the help and support of Fikret Berkes, Katherine B. Scott, and Colin H. Scott. The Wemindji-Paakumshumwaau Protected Area research project is supported by a Community-University Research Alliance (CURA) grant to C. H. Scott from SSHRC. Peloquin’s research is also supported by SSHRC and by NSTP.



Figure 1: Location of the ASF www.ultimateungulate.com

5. Channelling eco-tourism profits to community members surrounding Kenya’s Arabuko-Sokoke Forest: Community attitudes towards conservation, behaviour change and learning

Susan A. Collins Natural Resources Institute University of Manitoba Introduction Although protected areas are seen as important tools for conserving biodiversity and species habitat the relationship between communities and such areas is often contentious, especially in Africa. It is being increasingly recognized that, if conservation is to be successful, it should have the support of local residents. Studies have shown that support for conservation by residents is related to the level of benefit they derive from it (e.g. Infield, 1988), and that this link is strongest when the benefits are more tangible (Gadd, 2005). As such, there has been a concerted effort by conservationists to bring communities “on side,” with a community conservation approach that attempts to involve residents in conservation in return for economic or other benefits (Hackel, 1999). ASSETS (Arabuko-Sokoke Schools and Eco-Tourism Scheme), is one such project. Situated in communities surrounding Kenya’s Arabuko-Sokoke Forest (ASF) (Figure 1), ASSETS attempts to reduce dependence on forest resources and foster a more positive attitude towards conservation by channelling eco-tourism profits from the forest to community members in the form of secondary school bursaries. This abstract presents preliminary results on the impact of ASSETS in Kaembeni, Kilifi, focusing on participant learning through involvement in the program and new action on environmental issues, both in the forest and in the day-to-day lives of participants. The implications of this research for forest management and conservation are briefly discussed. The Arabuko-Sokoke Forest The coastal forests of eastern Africa are an area of international conservation concern; classified as one of the top 25 biodiversity hotspots worldwide (Myers et al., 2000). This forest once spanned 30,000 km

2 from Somalia to

Mozambique, but only 2000 km2 remains today (Myers et al., 2000), of which the 400 km

2 ASF is the largest remnant

(ASFMT, 2002). The ASF contains over 200 species of birds, is ranked as the second most important forest for bird conservation in mainland Africa, and is also home to a number of site-specific endemic species, including the golden-rumped elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon chrysopygus), a small mammal (ASFMT, 2002). The ASF was designated as a Crown Forest in 1932, and subsequently a Forest Reserve in 1944. As a forest reserve, the ASF is managed in accordance with Kenya’s forest policy, which requires forest preservation for watershed protection, forest products, and conservation purposes. However, an indefinite ban on timber harvesting within government forests has been in effect since March 2000, so there are few legitimate forest product industries in Kenya. A portion of the forest is an IUCN (World Conservation Union) Category II National Park, though this has little bearing on the day-to-day management of the forest. The area surrounding the forest is home to approximately 104,000 people – predominantly small-scale farmers and among the poorest in the country (ASFMT, 2002). Many residents rely on forest resources for income and to meet their basic needs, and illegal extraction, including firewood, small mammals, wood for building (poles), timber, charcoal, and wood for the carving industry, is a considered a threat in the ASF (ASFMT 2002). Evidence of illegal logging and charcoal burning is obvious within the forest. Notwithstanding a recent move towards participatory forest management in the ASF, there is a long history of conflict between forest adjacent residents and the forest conservation movement. Crop raiding by forest animals, especially elephants and wild pigs, is a major concern among forest adjacent communities; in some areas, damages from raiding forest animals resulted in a reduction of 26.4 to 81.8% of farmers’ income (Maundu, 1993). A 1993 study



found that nearly 60% of residents surrounding the forest would be happier if the forest were not there at all and over 80% of residents supported clearing the forest for farming (Maundu, 1993). This is of concern to conservationists, as the Kenyan government has been known to excise portions of forest reserves for political or personal gain. Changing community attitudes towards the forest is therefore seen as essential. A number of conservation projects have been undertaken in the forest in recent years, with funding from the European Union, USAID, and an assortment of non-governmental organizations. The general approach to conservation in the area has been to “make conservation pay;” to promote a more positive view of the forest and give residents a stake in the forests’ future by providing them with tangible benefits from it. These projects have taken a number of forms: a bursary scheme; construction of schools and boreholes in forest adjacent communities; and non-timber forest product businesses that community members can join (including mushroom farming, butterfly farming, silkworm farming, beekeeping, and community-owned tourism facilities). The ASSETS Program Forest adjacent communities have identified secondary school (high school) accessibility as a major concern, as tuition costs at least $350 (CND) a year. Secondary school education is, therefore, beyond the means of most residents. In response to this concern, the conservation organization A Rocha Kenya initiated the ASSETS bursary scheme in 2001. The program has provided secondary school bursaries for 123 students graduating from five different primary schools, with plans to expand to all 36 schools within five km of the forest by 2015. Students apply through their primary school, and recipients are chosen based on academic performance and need. ASSETS beneficiary students and guardians attended regular environmental education seminars, and were also given seedlings to start their own woodlot, in the hope of lessening their need to go to the forest for resources in the future. The bursaries range in size, but are generally no more than one third of the students’ tuition. The bursaries are generated from tourist entrance fees at the Mida Creek Bird Hide, as well as donations from abroad. Research Methods This research used a qualitative, case-study approach, focusing on the ASSETS program in Kaembeni, on the western edge of the forest. Nineteen ASSETS households participated in this research, representing 27 recipient students. Fourteen non-recipients also participated. Three ASSETS recipients from Mida, on the eastern edge of the forest also participated. Research was conducted between May-August 2006, and participation was voluntary. This research focused on the parents and guardians of ASSETS recipients, rather than the students, as it is the adults who use forest resources and exert pressure on local politicians for forest clearance. Methods relied primarily on semi-structured interviews. When possible, interviews were conducted with that person who had attended the ASSETS parents meeting. However, adults sometimes leave rural areas for months at a time in search of work; it was therefore not always possible to meet with the person who had attended the ASSETS meetings. In that case, the interview was conducted with the remaining parent at the home. Interviews were generally with only one person, though some were conducted simultaneously with both parents, if that was their preference. Interviews were also conducted with a number of key informants, including: local government officials; A Rocha staff members; the forest warden; district forest officer; representatives from other conservation organizations active in the area; and a representative from the residents’ association. Learning through ASSETS Transformative learning, a theory of adult education, describes the process by which people construct more dependable interpretations of life, through a process of assessing the context of their beliefs and opinions, seeking informed or negotiated agreement, and making decisions based on the insight they have gained (Mezirow, 2000). Data analysis is still in the preliminary stages, but involvement in ASSETS appears to have contributed to instrumental and communicative learning, as discussed below. Instrumental Learning Instrumental learning, is task oriented or skills-based learning, and includes learning new information, learning to deduce cause-effect relationships, and learning to share ideas and dialogue (Mezirow, 2000).



ASSETS participants acquired a range of new information about the forest and species within, for example:

“We heard that the forest has 273 species of birds and that some are only found in the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest… The forest attracts migratory birds and they are being identified by rings.”

“Through research that was done in all the other forests, they found that the elephant shrew was only found in this forest.”

In terms of task-oriented learning, ASSETS participants learned about tree planting on their farm, such as how to space trees when you plant them, how often to water trees, and how to protect young trees from farm animals. Although tree planting is not a major component of the ASSETS program, it is encouraged, as it provides farmers with extra income and lessens their need to go to the forest for wood products. Prior to their involvement in ASSETS, many participants had not realized it was possible to grow trees and sell them for money. Said one participant:

“I learned that a tree is like an asset, you can sell it for income, or use it yourself [for firewood or building]”

The most frequent example of instrumental learning was the cause-effect relationship between deforestation and aridity. Trees are a critical component of the water cycle, and the importance of trees in attracting rain is also rooted in traditional Kenyan beliefs. When asked about the benefit of the forest, nearly all of the ASSETS recipients mentioned the “attraction of rain.” Most of the recipients had “always known this,” or had learnt it long ago in school. However, a number of participants indicated that, although they had heard trees attract rain from other sources, ASSETS provided the “emphasis,” and they had not fully believed it until participating in the program. The introduction of the ASSETS program in Kaembeni happened to correspond with a severe drought in the region. When the ASSETS program officers explained the link between deforestation and aridity, their message seemed to have special significance to the participants, given the environmental conditions they were currently experiencing. Many participants engaged in a process of critical thinking, examining the current environmental conditions in their area in the context of deforestation, for example:

Researcher: “How do you know the forest brings rain? Participant: I was told, and initially I didn’t know it was true, but I proved it to myself – the number of trees has reduced and the rains are not as good as they used to be when there were more trees.

Other participants made a similar conclusion based on the history of harvests and deforestation:

Researcher: “Do you believe it’s true, that trees attract rain? Participant: I can’t understand how [this works], but during the past years we used to harvest a lot and now our harvest is poor, but we used to have more trees … I see there is a difference in the weather conditions. I connect the poor harvests with the trees, but I don’t know [the scientific details of this].”

Another resident:

“During the olden times, there were so many trees and closed forests; we had good harvests. There were less people and less cutting of trees. We used to receive a lot of rain … now, the harvests are very poor.”

Learning to share ideas and dialogue within and between the ASSETS parents was not a major learning outcome. However, some participants had begun telling others in the community about forest conservation. Observes one participant:

“Due to the ASSETS program, parents of this community have learned about the destruction of the forest and they now see it as their responsibility to protect the forest and teach others about it – to tell others that what they’re doing [destroying the forest] is wrong.”

As the act of confronting another community member about their activities in the forest, is not generally culturally acceptable, the action of speaking out on conservation could also be classified as communicative learning, as it involves cultural and normative values.



Communicative Learning As opposed to instrumental learning, where competency is measured in terms of being able to complete a given task, communicative competence “refers to the ability of the learner to negotiate his or her own purposes, values, feelings, and meanings rather than to simply act on those of others” (Mezirow, 2000, p. 10). Communicative learning involves understanding, questioning, and negotiating cultural and normative values. Although those community members heavily involved in illegal extraction from the forest are known to the community, the issue is highly sensitive and confronting another person about their use of the forest is uncommon. Community members surrounding the ASF who openly support conservation have been known to receive death threats from neighbours (Gordon & Ayiemba, 2003). However, some ASSETS participants have begun telling others about the forest, and confronting those people they know to be involved in illegal extraction:

“Before I joined ASSETS, I would see people coming out of the forest with poles or logs for carvings and I wouldn’t pay any attention to them. But, after joining ASSETS I have the confidence to tell people coming out of the forest about the importance of the forest and about conserving it, and I’m doing it…I normally tell them that if we destroy the forest we’ll be missing some benefits from organizations like A Rocha that help us, and if we destroy the forest it will be gone forever and future generations will be told, ‘there used to be a forest here.’”

This participant visited a number of people he knew who were undertaking illegal activities within the forest, telling them about the importance of it and warning them of the consequences of being caught. By his account, a number of them had changed their behaviour as a result of his intervention. A mother of two ASSETS recipients took similar action:

“Before I joined ASSETS I would see people cutting trees for poles and I would think it’s alright. But after I attended the meetings with A Rocha I can tell people about the importance of trees… I explain the benefits people can get and the destruction they can cause by cutting trees.”

According to this woman, the three people she was confronting about their illegal pole cutting in the forest had stopped, and were looking for alternative work to earn an income. Implications for forest conservation and management Changed attitudes and values Many ASSETS participants expressed a new or enthusiastic appreciation for the forest, for example, as evidenced by their response to the question, “would you be happier if the forest were not there?”

“No… initially I knew it was a forest, but now, I know the importance and value it. I wouldn’t have received that help the forest is giving me [if it were not there]… I never used to take my kids to secondary school… it’s through ASSETS that I was able to take my kids to secondary.”

Another mother, whose husband recently passed away, responded to the same question:

“My son is performing well in school, his father passes away [removing any hope she had of sending him to secondary] and then comes ASSETS. Don’t you think I would praise that forest? I’m praising it now and forever.”

Environmental activities outside the forest Other ASSETS participants adopted new and less destructive resource uses. For example, one participant had stopped making charcoal from indigenous, hardwood trees. A number of participants had begun planting trees on their own property, some were planting simply to reforest the area, others were planting for sale, and a number were planting so that, should they need timber or wood products in the future, they can get them from their woodlot, rather than the forest. A handful of participants had even started their own tree nursery. Resource use within the forest Due to the sensitive nature of the topic it is difficult to assess the impact of ASSETS on resource use within the forest. As conviction for an offence in the forest can result in a jail sentence, participants were understandably uncomfortable discussing the issue with a researcher, and unlikely to admit to involvement in any illegal activity. The



one participant who was clearly involved in illegal activities in the forest was unrepentant. The strength of the ASSETS program lies in its ability to change attitudes and values, but when someone is heavily reliant on forest resources, the monetary value of the bursary alone was not substantial enough to lessen their need to partake in these activities. Non-participant perspective The difference between ASSESTS participants and non-participants with regards to their view of the forest was striking. Whereas none of the ASSETS participants said they would be happier if the forest were not there, and none of them supported converting the forest to farm land, nearly half of the non-participants said they would be happier if the forest were not there, and more than half of the non-participants supported converting the ASF to farm land. Non-participants mentioned fewer benefits from the forest, such as the attraction of rain, and were less likely to have planted trees on their farms. Bursaries vs. other forms of forest benefits Kaembeni provides an interesting case study, as in 2003 the German conservation organization NABU financed extensive construction and renovation of the area primary school. These renovations were done in the name of forest conservation – to provide the community with a benefit from the forest to help offset some of these negative aspects associated with living near the forest. Research participants were given a number of opportunities to list the benefits of the forest, but only a handful of participants listed the school construction as a forest benefit, despite the fact that the renovations were extensive and all of the participants had children attending the school at the time. In contrast, all ASSETS participants listed the bursaries as a forest benefit. This suggests that the construction of the school, though undertaken for conservation purposes, was perceived by the community as an aid project, whereas ASSETS made a clear link between the bursary and forest. Although some ASSETS recipients felt that the goal of the program was to further education, they nonetheless understood that the bursary money was generated from the forest. Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. Thank you to participants and forest officials for their time and assistance with this work. References ASFMT (Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Management Team) (2002). Arabuko-Sokoke Strategic Forest Management Plan 2002-2027. Gadd, M. E. (2005). Conservation outside of parks: attitudes of local people in Laikipia, Kenya. Environmental Conservation, 32(1), 50-63. Gordon, I., & Ayiemba, W. (2003). Harnessing Butterfly Biodiversity for Improving Livelihoods and Forest Conservation: The Kipepeo Project. The Journal of Environment & Development, 12(1), 82-98. Hackel, J. D. (1999). Community Conservation and the Future of Africa's Wildlife. Conservation Biology, 13(4), 726-734. Infield, M. (1988). Attitudes of a rural community towards conservation and a local conservation area in Natal, South Africa. Biological Conservation, 45, 21-46. Maundu, P. (1993). Socio-economic survey and forest attitude report of the community bordering Arabuko-Sokoke Forest and Game Reserve. Nairobi, Kenya: Unpublished report of the Kipepeo Project. Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning to think like an adult: core concepts of transformation theory. In J. A. Mezirow (Ed.), Learning as Transformation: Critical Perspectives on a Theory in Progress (pp. 3-33). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., da Fonseca, G. A. B., & Kent, J. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature, 403(6772), 853-858.



6. The Perceptions of Stakeholders with an Interpretation Accreditation System in a Nature-Based Guiding Community

Rosanna Maunder Masters of Environmental Studies Candidate School of Outdoor Recreation Parks and Tourism Lakehead University Dr. Norm McIntyre School of Outdoor Recreation Parks and Tourism Lakehead University Introduction The sun is shining as two visitors to the National Park step onto the brightly coloured bus. They are welcomed to the tour by the smiling guide and find a comfortable seat with the hope that they have spent their money wisely and that they will see a grizzly or a bull elk on the two hour animal safari tour. The young man waits in front of the information centre, looking down the street in anticipation for his tour to arrive. He has been looking forward to hiking in the Canadian Rockies for some time now, and in the brochure hiking to see Stanley Glacier sounded like a unique experience. The family watches the rafting guide check everyone’s life jackets. The orange raft is reflected off the emerald waters, the guide stretches his arm and points out an osprey soaring above. What each visitor to the park will learn, how much fun they will have, and what they will take away from the experience, is yet to be decided. From an organized bus tour, to hiking on a trail or floating down a river a key element of a visitor’s experience involves the capabilities of their guide. Interpretation - the ability to communicate effectively and to engage any audience - lies at the heart of a memorable as compared to an ordinary or mediocre tour. Park managers, private business owners and tourism agencies all have a stake in effective interpretation in a national park setting. However, effective guiding and interpretation depends fundamentally on the skills and knowledge of the guide. How are guides trained in interpretation in nature-based settings? How is the quality of interpretation assessed? Professional associations and professional accreditation have recently been developed (in countries such as Australia, United States and Canada) as a tool to enhance quality assurance for nature-based tour guides. It has been noted that professional associations have the potential to be the most comprehensive mechanism in addressing the range of roles associated with tour guiding (Black and Weiler, 2005).Yet little research has been conducted in regards to the stakeholders and the guiding communities involved with these methods of quality assurance. Using the Mountain Parks Heritage Interpretation Association (MPHIA) located in Banff National Park as a case study the intent of this research is to discover how a professional association and the concept of accreditation are being accepted by a guiding community. By understanding the perceptions of all stakeholders (guides, operations owners, Parks Canada, and MPHIA’s management) in regards to an accreditation program this research aims to enhance the overall programs and services offered by a professional guiding association and to gain a larger understanding of professional associations and professional certification that are being developed in the nature-based guiding industry. With this in mind the central research question for this research is “what are the perceptions of stakeholders with an interpretation accreditation system in a nature-based guiding community?” Literature Review A challenge in regards to tourism in parks and protected areas in the 21

st Century is connecting visitors to the natural

landscape so that their actions and behaviour in these landscapes will not only improve their own experience but help facilitate an understanding and appreciation of ecological integrity. Interpretation programs have the ability to enhance the connection between visitors and the natural landscape and therefore are a worthy area for continued empirical research. Interpretation programs have the potential to create visitor awareness of acceptable behavior in park settings by promoting prosocial behavior (Schwartz, 1977) and creating an attachment to place (Stewart, Hayward, Devlin and Kirby, 1998). Developing effective interpreters in park settings therefore is essential in helping provide visitor satisfaction, delivering key environmental messages and sustaining the tourism resource. Tour guides are the essential interface between the host destination and its visitors. They are the front-line employees who are responsible for the overall impression and satisfaction with tourism services delivered at a destination (Ap and Wong, 2000). Only limited research has been conducted into the role of the tour guide in the context of nature-based tourism/ecotourism (see Christie & Mason, 2003; Haig & McIntyre, 2002; Weiler & Crabtree, 1998; Weiler& Davis,



1993). Most recently Black and Weiler (2005) have looked at codes of conduct, professional associations, awards of excellence, training and professional certification as methods being implemented for quality assurance and as regulatory mechanisms in the tour guiding industry. Professional Associations’ influence is generally dependent on the enthusiasm and interests of its members and the relationship that the professional associations have with all stakeholders involved with the guiding industry (Black and Weiler, 2005). However up until this point research has not focused on exploring the dynamic relationship between the stakeholders (guides, private business owners, park management) and the operational association. It has been noted that empirical studies that monitor and actually assess and compare the outcomes and effectiveness of professional associations and professional certification with respect to the tour guiding industry and tour guide performance will be a fruitful avenue for further research (Black and Weiler, 2005). “Notably lacking (in regards to tour guide certification) …are stakeholder’s views on certification” (Black &Ham, 2005, p. 194). In order to examine interpretive guiding in regards to professional associations and accreditation in nature-based settings this study adopted a qualitative, descriptive case study, phenomenological approach. The examination of stakeholders perceptions of the MPHIA accreditation system is case-based and exploratory in nature and therefore it has been deemed appropriate to use a qualitative methodology (Cresswell, 2003). The fourteen members of the Banff Guiding Community who were interviewed in the summer of 2006 allowed for the exploration of in depth issues and concerns, and the benefits and drawbacks that have arisen from the experience of those who have been designing, working with the results of, and undertaking MPHIA’s training programs.

MPHIA is an educational not-for-profit organization that was established in 1997 after Parks Canada and local tour operators agreed that standards for interpretive guide training needed to be established and administered by an accrediting organization (Verhurst, 2005). The present goals of MPHIA are:

• To encourage excellence in the interpretation of nature, history and culture in Canada's Rocky Mountain National parks and surrounding areas.

• To improve the effectiveness and appeal of natural and cultural heritage programming in the mountain national parks and surrounding areas.

• To develop a common commitment within the tourism community to the enhancement of the training of those charged with the responsibility of sharing heritage information and values with park visitors.

• To disseminate, for educational or scientific value, information about the natural and human heritage of Canada's Rocky Mountain National Parks and surrounding areas.

• To exchange information of educational or scientific value about natural and human heritage and any other matters of interest with other heritage organisations in the world with similar objectives and goals (MPHIA, 2004).

Developing a professional level of interpreters in the rocky mountain parks is the one of the main objectives for MPHIA. So what is interpretation and what is its importance in parks and protected areas? Interpretation was first established as a subject in its own right by the United States National Parks Service. Freeman Tilden (1957), who was involved in the early interpretation work of the US Forest Service, and who wrote the first book in English on the subject, described it as “an educational activity aimed at revealing meanings and relationships to people about the places they visit and the things they see and do there” (p. 40). Since that time, the term interpretation has continued to develop in meaning. Beck and Cable (1988) describe interpretation as an educational activity that aims to reveal meanings about cultural and natural resources. Interpretation has the potential to enhance visitors understanding and appreciation, of historic sites and natural wonders. The National Association for Interpretation believes interpretation is a communication process that can forge emotional and intellectual connections between the interests of the audience and the meanings inherent in the resource. It is through the emotional connection that interpretation has the ability to enhance the learning process (NAI, 2005). Tilden’s belief that emotions are as important as information has encouraged interpreters to use emotions to engage their audience. Much recent research (Sylwester, 2000; Cable, & Ernst, 2003) has led to the understanding of the important role that emotional input has in making meaningful, memorable and exciting learning experiences. Sylwester (2000) explains that emotions can overrule logic making them often the most important factor in influencing behavior. While interpreters cannot mandate or force specific emotional responses, they can sow seeds of feelings



and cultivate them (Cable, & Ernst, 2003). Interpreters have the ability to create awareness, foster appreciation and potentially impact behavior. The nature tourism industry is largely based in parks and protected areas (PPA). Most nature-based tourism has educational components that address forest history, park management, flora and fauna sightings, and similar interpretive materials (Buckley, 2000). The benefit of interpretive programs is the outcome of an environmental-educational strategy that may reduce occurrences of inappropriate behavior by visitors while encouraging voluntary behaviour change (Orams, 1996). Visitor management in PPAs aims to eliminate inappropriate visitor behavior while enhancing the visitor experience and their understanding of the destination. Interpretive messages can aid visitors in a park setting to gain an appreciation of place. Stewart, Hayward, Devlin and Kirby (1998) studied the aspect of place attachment gained through interpretation in Mount Cook National Park in New Zealand. A critical finding from their qualitative study was that people who have short stay experiences in PPA’s can develop an undifferentiated space into a meaningful sense of place (Stewart et al. 1998). The overriding message from this study to interpretive providers and researchers is that if the development of care for a sense of place can be enhanced for visitors by interpretation, then interpretation, if executed, well can help develop empathy for conservation, heritage, culture and landscape (Stewart et al. 1998). In order to have effective interpreters working in Banff National Park the Mountain Park Heritage Interpretation Association has established training courses for guides who are presently working or intending to work, in the park. These courses offer a base level of knowledge that is deemed appropriate and necessary for guides working in specific capacities in the park. Courses cover information on natural landscapes (such as geology and ecology) as well as the heritage and human history of the Rocky Mountain Parks. MPHIA’s courses also cover instruction on interpretation and communication techniques to engage one’s audience. MPHIA’s interpretation accreditation programs are divided into four main categories. The different tiers of course also reflect the certification standards that Parks Canada has determined are needed for guides to acquire in order to work in the rocky mountain national park system. The type of activity guided (for example: horseback riding guide, rafting guide, day hiking guide, ski guide) determines the level of accreditation needed. The first accreditation level is classified as the basic interpreter followed by standard/ apprentice interpreter, and professional interpreter. The last category of MPHIA’s accreditation programs is labelled the master interpreter. As of August 2005, 255 guides had been accredited as professional interpreters, 104 completed the standard/apprentice course and 198 completed the basic course. The majority of the accredited guides operate out of Banff National Park (Verhurst, 2005). Methods In order to gain a strong understanding of the guiding community’s perception of the Mountain Parks Heritage Interpretation Association, those interviewed were chosen through purposive sampling. Purposive sampling is considered one of the most important kinds of non-probability sampling (Welman & Kruger, 1999). The logic of purposive sampling lies at selecting information-rich participants for the study. This allows for in-depth understanding rather than empirical generalizations (Patton, 2002). The strategy of using maximum variation in purposive sampling aims at capturing and describing central themes that emerge over a diverse sample. Data-triangulation also involves diversifying the characteristics of participants in a research sample to allow for differences and commonalities to emerge in opinions (Patton, 2002). In this way, by selecting a small sample using maximum variation the analysis aims to reveal high-quality detailed descriptions of each stakeholder which will be useful for noting uniqueness and for comparing patterns that emerge over the whole sample. Of the fourteen members of the guiding community that were interviewed, seven were individual guides (representing hiking guides, scenic tour guides, Japanese tour guides, angling guides, horse guides and Parks Canada Interpreters), four of those interviewed represented business owners and managers of private guiding businesses operating in the park, and three of those interviewed represented either MPHIA or Parks Canada’s management (please see appendix A for a more complete breakdown of those interviewed). The interviews were conducted from a semi-structured approach. Standardizing the interviews to some degree allowed for comparability across the interviews. A checklist of possible questions was prepared to draw out commonalities and differences of the essence(s) of opinion in the phenomenon being studied. The questions aimed to gain background information on the participant, to document his/her involvement with the guiding industry prior to taking up their current activity, to learn of his/her perceptions of the role of interpretation in guiding training, and to learn of his/her perceptions of the Mountain Parks Heritage Interpretation Association.



Preliminary Findings An initial thematic coding was developed in the field by listening to and making notes from the interviews. The initial coding was used to develop emergent themes which were used to further explore the phenomenon as the interviews progressed. The interviews were sequenced from guides, to employers and managers, then to Parks Canada and finally to MPHIA personnel. The initial coding at each level provided a basis for developing interview themes to be used at the next. In this way, perceptions at one level were able to be cross-referenced with those at succeeding levels in the training hierarchy. This initial coding was also used as a basis for checking back with participants to provide validation of themes and as a means of stimulating further conversations. These fourteen in-depth interviews will continue to be analyzed, to identify the perceptions of MPHIA’s training and accreditation programs. However the initial essences or themes that have emerged from conducting and listening to the interviews include:

• A lack of identity of the MPHIA organization. A strong variance in community members understanding of what MPHIA is and role it has in Banff National Park. It is seen as a regulatory agency, as one and the same as Parks Canada, and by others as an educational non-profit organization.

• A lack of promotion of MPHIA through Parks Canada and the tourism sector. • A lack of belief that professional interpretation accreditation is beneficial to the individual guide or business

owner. • The development of a community of practice. An appreciation by individual guides of the initial establishment

of a guiding community. A concern of a quiet membership by MPHIA management. • To move the concept of accreditation or acceptable knowledge standards beyond hiking guides to the larger

tour operators. • Business Operators feeling the strain of compliance and finding it significantly challenging to operate

business with the present Parks Canada accreditation standards.

This research is at the beginning stages of analysis and is expected to be completed by early summer of 2007. The final component of this research will involve completing a thesis to be submitted to Lakehead University, a public defense of the research, and a presentation to be delivered and presented to the Mountain Parks Heritage Interpretation Association and to interested members of the Banff guiding community. The research study however has begun to provide an overall view on the concept of professional associations and professional certification for interpretative guides in a nature-based setting. The research has begun to display variances and commonalities of the Banff guiding community’s perception of the Mountain Parks Heritage Interpretation Association. This research aims to benefit not only nature-based guiding communities but to also play an important role in understanding the interpretive guiding community that is presently working in a national park setting. Guided interpretation in nature-based environments certainly must be considered as having the potential to help combat the tourism challenges being faced by parks and protected areas in the 21

st Century, thus continued

research in this area must be encouraged. References Ap, J., & Wong, K.K.F. (2001). Case study on tour guiding: Professionalism, issues and problems. Tourism Management, 22, 551-563. Beck, L. and Cable, T. (1998) Interpretation for the 21st Century. Champaign, IL: Sagamore Publishing. Black, R., & Ham,. (2005). Improving the quality of tour guiding: Towards a model for tour guide certification, Journal of Ecotourism,4 (3) 178-195 Black, R., & Weiler, B. (2005). Quality Assurance and Regulatory Mechanisms in the Tour Guiding Industry: A systematic review. Journal of Tourism Studies, 16(1), 24-37. Buckley, R (2000). Neat trends in nature, eco-adventure tourism, International Journal of Tourism Research, 2(6), 437-444. Cable, T.,& Ernst, T. (2003). Interpreting Rightly in a left-brain world. Legacy, 14(4), 22-29. Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (2

nd ed.). Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Christie, M.F., & Mason, P.A. (2003). Transformative tour guiding: Training tour guides to critically reflective practitioners. Journal of Ecotourism, 2(1), 1-16. Haig, I & McIntyre, N. (2002) Viewing Nature: the role of the tour guide and the advantages of participating in commercial ecotourism. The Journal of Tourism Studies. 13(1), 39-48.



National Association for Interpretation (2005).What is interpretation? Retrieved November 18, 2005, from http://www.interpnet.com/ Mountain Parks Heritage Interpretation Association (MPHIA). (2004). Professional Interpreter’s Course Book. Banff, AB, Canada Orams, M. (1995). Using interpretation to manage nature-based tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism (4) 2, 81–94. Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods (3rd

ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Schwartz, S. H. (1977). Normative influences on altruism. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 10, 221-79. Stewart, E.J., Hayward, B.M., Devlin, P.J. & Kirby, V.G. (1998) The place of interpretation: A new approach to the evaluation of interpretation. Tourism Management, 19 (3), 257–266. Sylwester, R. (2000).Unconscious emotions, conscious feelings. Educational Leadership, 58, (3), 20–24. Tilden, F. (1957). Interpreting Our Heritage. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. Weiler, B., & Crabtree, A.(1998). Developing competent ecotour guides. Unpublished report, National Center for Vocational Education Research, Adelaide, South Australia. Weiler, B., & Davis, D. (1993) An exploratory investigation into the roles of nature-based tour leader. Tourism Management. 14(2), 91-98. Welman, J. C., & Kruger, S. J. (1999). Research methodology for the business and administrative sciences. Johannesburg, South Africa: International Thompson Verhurst, D. (2005, June). Keeping stories alive: the mountain parks heritage interpretation association. Governance and decision-making in mountain areas. Symposium conducted at the meeting of mountain communities conference series 2001-2005, Banff, Alberta.



Appendix A Descriptions of Stakeholders of MPHIA Interviewed in the Summer of 2006

Stakeholder Current

Position Years in BNP

Education Background

Related Work Experience

Involvement with MPHIA

Level of MPHIA Accreditation Obtained

Individual Guides

Frasier Scenic Tour & Hiking Guide

3 Technical Forestry College Program ACMG Certifications

Forestry Skiing, and climbing instructor

Member of MPHIA

Standard Accreditation

Hank Angling Guide 15 High school Hospitality Guest Service

Little to No Involvement with MPHIA

No Accreditation

Ingrid Parks Canada Interpreter

8 University degree in Philosophy Drama and French

Information Centers/ Guest Service

Member of MPHIA

Professional Accreditation

Jim Japanese Hiking and Scenic tour guide

10 High school Outward Bound

Dog sledding, Backpacking & Hiking Guide

Member of MPHIA Participated in MPHIA organized outings


Gary Scenic Tour & Hiking Guide

3 International Business & Ecotourism College programs

Dog sledding, Backpacking, Canoeing Guide

Member of MPHIA Little Involvement with MPHIA’s On- Going Programs

Standard Accreditation

Kevin Horse Guide 7 Agriculture Technology & Advanced Farrier College Programs

Cattle Farms Horse Ranch

No Involvement No Accreditation

Andy Multi-day Scenic Tour Guide

25 Masters in Environmental Studies

Interpretive Tour Guiding both Public and Private Sectors

Teaches courses for MPHIA actively involved with programming

Master Level Accreditation

All names have been altered to ensure anonymity and confidentiality



Descriptions of Stakeholders of MPHIA Interviewed in the Summer of 2006

Stakeholder Current Position Years in BNP

Education Background

Related Work Experience

Involvement with MPHIA

Level of MPHIA Accreditation Obtained

Operation Managers & Owners of Guiding Operations

Bill Owns Scenic Tour and Hiking Company

15 University Business Management and Science Degrees

Ski Industry Little to no personal involvement

No Accreditation

Denise Operation Manager for Japanese-based tour company

10 Unknown Guide for Japanese- based tour company

Little to no personal involvement

No Accreditation

Calvin Operation Manager for Scenic Tour and Hiking Company

25 Unknown Japanese Tour Market

MPHIA Member Evaluator for Oral Component of the Standard and Professional Accreditation


Mike Owner of Horse Guiding Company

30 Unknown Horse Guiding

Little to no personal involvement

No Accreditation

Management & Board Members of MPHIA

Elaine Parks Canada Communication Officer for the Banff Field Unit

8 University degree in History

Interpreter and Guide in both Public and Private Sectors

Board Member for MPHIA, Instructor for Interpretive Component for Standard Course


Leslie Destination Management Consultant

20 Unknown Guide for Japanese- Based Tours

Board Member for MPHIA, Instructor for Japanese Basic and Standard Courses


Nathan MPHIA’s Executive Director

5 Masters in Recreation Management

Interpretive Guiding and Programming in Both Public and Private Sectors

Executive Director of MPHIA for the past 2 years


All names have been altered to ensure anonymity and confidentiality



7. Assessing Potential Tourism Development Areas in Wapusk National Park of Canada Wanli Wu, Cam Elliott, Melissa A Gibbons, Kelsey Eliason, and Donna MacKinnon Wapusk National Park of Canada & Manitoba North National Historic Sites of Canada Emma J Stewart Department of Geography University of Calgary Introduction The Canada National Parks Act ensures that parklands are left unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations and dedicates national parks to the people of Canada. This mandate requires that activities in national parks minimize disturbance to culturally and environmentally sensitive areas; but allows for the development of sustainable tourism opportunities. The establishment of Wapusk National Park of Canada (WNP) in 1996 created new potential for such opportunities in northern Manitoba. Commercial tourism activities and the presence of healthy ecosystems in the park have been identified as indicators and targets for maintaining ecological integrity in WNP. Before developing visitor activities in WNP however, an assessment of potential sites for tourism must be conducted.

This poster presents results from multi-disciplinary research, which began in 2004 in WNP. The goal of the research is to assess the potential for tourism development in WNP. The following research questions have been addressed: i) what can people see and do in the proposed tourism areas; ii) what are the educational opportunities inherent at the site; iii) is environmental change having an impact on tourism activity; iv) what are the challenges from a national park's management perspective; and v) how can input from the local community of Churchill be incorporated into developing new tourism areas. The objective of this on-going research is to assess the potential of four selected areas in WNP for tourism development.

Methodology The following research methods were used to evaluate potential areas for tourism development in the park: i) land use zoning; ii) field surveys (based on Parks Canada Agency’s vision for visitor experience); iii) community consultation; iv) tourism impact assessments; and v) reports and feedback from visitors and researchers. Areas assessed were: Nester 1 to Cape Churchill in June and August 2004, 2005, and 2006; Lower Broad River in June 2004; Fletcher Lake/Wat’ Chee Lodge area in June 2005; and Lower Owl River in June 2006. Our analysis incorporates comments and data from consultation on the park’s management plan and management board, and draws on an independent research project conducted in the community of Churchill (2005-06).

Multiple criteria are used in the assessments. Pre-selected parameters include onsite natural and cultural resources that enhance visitor experience, safety, and service capacity, as well as infrastructure requirements, activity routes and limitations, access, and environmental and cultural resource impacts and mitigation.

The fieldwork was conducted by experienced park staff including wardens, heritage presenters and communicators. Each team documented their experience with ‘reconnaissance’ sheets and handheld GPS units. Information collected included observations and evaluations on site conditions, natural and human activities, team recommendations, as well as photographs and maps. Field observations included vegetation, wildlife, weather conditions, soil/land cover types, safety considerations, site access and cultural resources. Evaluating areas involved defining measurements for several criteria and determining suitability based on these measurements.

The independent research project involved interviews with community members (n = 62) using a semi-structured interview in conjunction with a simple mapping exercise. Although the research did not focus specifically on WNP, respondents commented broadly on their attitudes toward current and future visitor activity in the park. During the interview, a satellite image of the area was used to stimulate discussion regarding areas of interest and concern, and areas of relevance to future tourism development. The image was placed into a plastic poly-pocket and respondents were asked to identify places where they thought current tourism development was appropriate/inappropriate, and places where future development would be appropriate/ inappropriate. Results and discussion Suitability and feasibility of the areas studied were evaluated and recommendations were made with regards to how Parks Canada should proceed with tourism development in the park. Considerations for public safety, environmental/cultural resource impact, trail difficulty and interpretive/educational potential were placed as highest priority.



Field reconnaissance in the Fletcher Lake/Wat’Chee Lodge area, west of the Wapusk National Park border, suggested feasible ways to access the area in multiple seasons. Excursions from the Lodge provided opportunities to gather information on the landscape, wildlife, and potential hiking trails in the surrounding area. In developing this type of tour, consideration must be given to protecting flora and fauna; sensitive wildlife areas could be significantly affected by increased human presence. Areas in WNP utilized for tourism should be those with the least risk to the natural environment.

The Nester 1, Broad River and Owl River areas along the coast of Hudson Bay have tremendous potential for ‘science-based’ tourism development. However, weather, wildlife and transportation present significant challenges to this development. These factors continue to present a challenge to any tourism within the park. Visitor preparedness, including fitness and backcountry capabilities, must be assessed prior to entering the park. Parks Canada must provide a high level of planning and logistical support for all excursions, with a primary focus on visitor safety.

Visitor safety was identified as a concern in all areas investigated. At a minimum, the management of risks to safety requires construction of rudimentary infrastructure, notably bear-proof enclosures. Visitor activities should be developed to minimise the probability of encountering polar bears while in the park, but given the unpredictable nature of bear encounters at most times of the year, physical safety structures are needed. Throughout any development, care should be taken to maintain each site’s ecological and cultural integrity. The results of the independent research project reveal similar numbers of respondents who noted concern about current activities in the park (especially the tundra vehicle trails), as those who felt current activities were acceptable. It is interesting to note that when asked the same question about future development, considerably more respondents expressed concern about future development in the park in comparison to those who felt further development was acceptable. Perhaps this is the case because residents feel unable to do anything about the current situation and are resigned to the fact that certain areas have been “taken by tourism”. Of those respondents that supported future tourism activities in WNP, their preference was for low-impact activities and facilities, as proposed by Parks Canada.

Tourism is positioned to play an important role in the future development of WNP, but development must proceed at a pace and style acceptable to local people and appropriate to the environment. Current community attitudes and future aspirations need to be articulated, respected and acted upon. Input from the local community and researchers currently utilizing the park should be an integral part of planning for future tourism development in WNP. Acknowledgement

Authors acknowledge the staff of Wapusk National Park who have been involved in the field work for the tourism assessments: K. Burke Jr., C. Daudet, K. Eliasson, C. Foster, M. A Gibbons, R. Girardin, A. Lundie, G. Lundie, B. Reside, J. Schollie, D. Sinclair. We also thank B. Burgoyne, D. Hayden, and T. Bekolay from the Young Canada Works Program, who participated in the fieldwork in summer, 2004. Emma Stewart would like to thank the Churchill Northern Studies Centre and the Pierre Elliot Trudeau Foundation for funding the independent research project referred to in this poster. We thank M. Taylor for reviewing the draft of this poster.



CClloossiinngg KKeeyynnoottee Tourism and Research in Protected Areas - There goes the Neighbourhood Dr. Robert E. Wrigley Zoo Curator Assiniboine Park Zoo With a theme of "Tourism and Research in Protected Areas -- Opportunities and Challenges in an Era of Global Change”, I was hard-pressed to come up with a story line, since I cannot say I am knowledgeable about tourism, beyond frequently being a keen tourist, and working at several facilities that depend on tourist attendance and dollars. On the other hand, Cathy Shaluk convinced me that I should be able to talk about research and conservation in protected areas, because I have been studying various forms of animal life in Manitoba natural areas since 1970. I thought it would be enlightening to look at what might be termed 'the big picture'-- to take a broad and long-term approach in examining tourism and other uses of Manitoba's protected areas. I include under protected areas all types of designations, both private and public, from multiple-use wildlife management areas to highly protected ecological reserves. I also interpret tourists in the broadest sense, visitors from out of province, citizens who live here and draw resources, business corporations such as forestry, mining and fisheries, and researchers. All of us are here to exploit and enjoy Manitoba's resources and natural areas. We come and we go, either short term or long term. The challenge is how much we can use the landscape and ecosystems without disrupting their integrity and damaging them beyond repair. This is the problem we face as citizens, business people, tourist promoters, wildlife managers, and researchers. This conference also examined climate change, so I thought it would be useful to refer to some effects of the last major global change in the late Pleistocene, called the Wisconsinan, which started about 70,000 ya and ended 10,000 ya. It was the latest of over a dozen glacial ages in the 1.8 million years of the Pleistocene. During this period, the Northern Great Plains supported what we might naively call a complete set of unspoiled natural landscapes and their wildlife components. The region supported a fauna as rich as that of historic Africa. However, within this Rancholabrean Land Mammal Age, over 73% of mammals weighing over 100 kg became extinct near the end of this ice age - a greatly increased rate of extinction than in any of the other glacial ages of the Pleistocene. A number of large birds, including condors, giant teratorns, eagles and hawks, mainly dependant on scavenging large animal carcasses, also vanished. The causes of this massive extinction event are under active investigation, and will likely always remain controversial. Most of this fauna succeeded in surviving through one or more earlier glacial and interglacial periods. While there is mounting evidence of major ecosystem alterations, there is only one unique factor known to have appeared on the scene, about 15,000 years ago - tourists, in the form of prehistoric hunters immigrating into North America from Siberia via the Beringian Land Bridge. They came to research and exploit the New World's and Manitoba's natural resources, and appear to have contributed to the annihilation of the local megafauna. Some, like the American Mastodon and Columbian and Woolly Mammoths were hunted to extinction as recently as 10,000-8,000 years ago. The Pygmy Woolly Mammoth, found from California to Wrangel Island, died out only 3,000 ago. Similar dramatic rates of extinctions occurred on other continents and islands as soon as people arrived. With the immigration of these tourists, there went the neighbourhood. During the 1600s, 1700s and 1800s, European tourists -- explorers, traders and settlers -- arrived on the scene, to harvest the resources of Hudson Bay and Manitoba's forests and prairies. Additional animals, such as Walrus, Bowhead Whale, Pronghorn, Swift Fox, Prairie Wolf, and Plains Grizzly were lost to the local fauna. With astonishing speed, the Tall-grass Prairie ecosystem in Manitoba and the USA was annihilated. Over the centuries, thousands of exotic plants, fungi, and animals were introduced, which competed with native biota, or introduced foreign diseases. Again, there went the neighbourhood. During the last century, large regions of Manitoba's wild places have been affected by developing resource-based industries. Wetland drainage, soil erosion, and accumulating pollutants are mounting concerns, with no recovery plans in sight. Manitoba's and regional populations have grown to the point where pollution of the air, land and water has become a serious problem. Again, there goes the neighbourhood.



In our rush to develop the economy and to pursue a high-quality of life, native members of our fauna and flora continue to slip away, often without our even knowing what we are losing. In cases like the Burrowing Owl, we are helpless to reverse the process of elimination. The point I am making is that Manitoba has been exposed to continual use by humans for over 225 generations, whose cumulative footprint on the landscape, environment and biota has been dramatic. Starting slowly with only a few nomadic families, we now have the population and technology to generate massive impacts on both local and global scales. We naturally tend to think of only the present and near future in our resource planning -- how we can use natural resources sustainably and conserve them by setting aside protected lands and applying wildlife and environmental legislation and enforcement. On first glance, it seems like we have a relatively complete biota in Manitoba. However, in reality, we are at the present time dealing with a highly impoverished fauna, a modified flora, and a degraded environment. There is every reason to believe this process of species depletion and resource confiscation by our species will continue indefinitely. It appears that the old adage of 'Use it or lose it." was hot-wired into our rapidly enlarging cerebral hemispheres several million years ago. One person's conserved heritage is another person's subsistence base, economic opportunity, or recreational playground. Even with looming ecological disasters, such as rapid global warming, we appear incapable of fully grasping a problem's significance, accepting responsibility, and mounting significant remedies; it remains business as usual. When our species evolved from Homo erectus 100,000 years ago, it is estimated there were only a couple of thousand individuals on the African savannas. Around 20,000 years ago, during the Stone Age, there was an estimated world population of three million. The year I was born, there were 2.2 billion people on the planet, and in the following 60 years, this number tripled to 6.6 billion. If we live to see the year 2042, population growth will reach nine billion. The world's damaged ecosystems cannot sustain this many desperate souls and present biodiversity. Even in the late 1700s, cleric and economist Thomas Malthus understood that geometric population growth cannot be maintained for long. And of course, with overpopulation comes escalating demands on resources and landscapes, and the accumulation of waste products. Why do we think we can implement sustainable-development policies and practices when the earth's carrying capacity for humanity, as measured by a reasonable quality of life while still ensuring survival of biodiversity, has already been exceeded by a factor of two or three? We are maintaining the long-standing pattern of both geometric population growth and escalating resource development. I had the great pleasure of visiting the cottages of two friends this summer, and the experiences were absolutely magical. The majority of people visiting natural areas, whether tourists or locals, desires recreational opportunities (using a variety of high-tech toys) and many comforts of home - roads, gas stations, cottages, motels, grocery stores, docks, air strips -- the list goes on. Of course, all these come at a cost to habitat and environmental quality. Manitoba has such a cottage-getaway tradition, it seems there will always be great pressure on parks administrators to open up new natural areas. However, attempting to balance public demands and conserving natural values is almost always a losing battle for natural areas in the long term. Again, there are cumulative consequences for escalating patterns of development and use. For example, few people are aware that two endangered species -- the Woodland Caribou and Lake Sturgeon -- have been largely extirpated from southeastern Manitoba. Wildlife species are disenfranchised, so it is our responsibility to leave them large and undisturbed regions in every biological community to assist their survival. From different perspectives, there are several major objectives in managing Manitoba's wild lands: -to exploit natural resources from terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, without causing significant damage, to provide economic opportunities, employment, and to improve the quality of life for Manitobans, -to provide recreational and interpretive opportunities for Manitobans and tourists, -to encourage research, which provides managers of parks, wildlife, and environment with basic information on water, land, and biota, and which offers educational projects to scientists and students, again hopefully without causing significant ecological problems. Pressing challenges facing existing natural areas in Manitoba include: -Rising business and public demands for opening new areas to development, including resource industries, towns and cottage sites. -Demands for using protected areas for crops and grazing, especially during years of poor weather. -Conflicting interests among government branches and corporations, such as Hydro, Forestry, Mining and Parks. Administrators frequently refuse to give up their expectations of resource use on proposed protected areas. This has been a major obstacle in designating protected areas such ecological reserves. Dozens of sites



proposed by the Ecological Reserves Advisory Committee have been held up for a decade or more due to bureaucratic possessiveness and an inefficient process of proposal review and decision-making. Major development projects, involving vast regions of the province, can be approved for a company within a year, but dozens of small Ecological Reserves proposals sit in limbo. -Wildlife-management activities and enforcement of protective regulations have been in decline for many years, as budgets for staff and programs have been reduced. My colleagues in the Wildlife and Parks branches inform me that they are often overwhelmed by the amount of work requiring attention. -In the field of research, there are a number of organizations that are or potentially could be conducting research in protected areas. Traditionally, government departments (provincial and federal), the three universities and those farther afield, the Manitoba Museum, Ducks Unlimited, and a few other agencies have been significant players in this area. However, with staff cuts and ever-diminishing budgets in many organizations in recent decades, research and publishing have often been demoted to the bottom of the priority list. For example, the Manitoba Museum formerly supported a natural-history research staff of seven and a healthy travel budget. There was an active field-research and publication program producing dozens of articles and books on wildflowers, butterflies, birds, reptiles and amphibians, mammals, palaeontology, and archaeology. Most of the information for these projects came from basic research in protected and other natural areas of Manitoba. In the 1970s my colleagues and I pursued a comprehensive survey of small mammals across the province, sampling over 1000 biotic communities from the prairies and forests to the tundra, by means of traplines and intensive trapping on 30 two-hectare quadrates. We felt like we were conducting pioneering research, with so many new discoveries of plants and animals, such as the first record of the Arctic Ground Squirrel for Manitoba, at Seal River on the coast of Hudson Bay, and numerous species' range extensions of hundreds of kilometres. This meant flying into remote areas and living in tents for weeks at a time. The diversity of species in protected areas like Spruce Woods Provincial Park was in dramatic contrast to nearby disturbed areas in agro-Manitoba. Transects from marsh and riparian forest up hillsides through various plant communities to the top of bare sand dunes recorded a remarkable 63 species of mammals. Other fascinating animals that exist here as isolated glacial relicts are the Water Shrew, Western Hognose Snake, Northern Prairie Skink, and Ghost Tiger Beetle. For many years, the Parks Branch has approved permits for me to study insects in the Carberry Sandhills. Here as well, the great diversity of arthropods is staggering. There must be over 1000 species of insects and spiders in that area. Most of Manitoba's 19 species of tiger beetles occur in the Sandhills, and on several occasions, I have been able to find eight species in one afternoon, each in its own specific habitat. This is evidence that the local environment is relatively intact, since tiger beetles are an excellent indicator of ecological health of a site. The larvae develop over one or two years in burrows in the ground, and are therefore easily destroyed by human disturbance. The Hairy-necked Tiger Beetle formerly occurred only at a few sandy beaches in Manitoba and is now endangered from foot and vehicle traffic; it had been reported along the shores of the Assiniboine River in Spruce Woods Park, but it has not been detected for many years. The only-known surviving population was found last year by an amateur entomologist on Elk Island, near Victoria Beach, not coincidently, where few people visit. Another fascinating species found here is the rare, gold and ivory-coloured Ghost Tiger Beetle, which is found in the province only in a small area of barren sand dunes of Spruce Woods. It too, could easily be extirpated by disturbance. The information gained from these investigations and in other natural areas is being incorporated into a book on the tiger beetles of Manitoba by Bill Preston and Bob Wrigley. I and other naturalists have also collected hundreds of dragonflies and damselflies here and at other locations for the reference collection leading to a book on the dragonflies of Manitoba, by Jim Duncan and his colleagues. Discovering such rich pockets of biodiversity is like stepping back in time before settlement. It is a marvellous experience to sit on the high dunes overlooking the Assiniboine River and imagine the wonderful panoramas of faunal assemblages that occurred on this very spot over the ages. Most writers on biodiversity, such as E.O. Wilson and Jared Diamond, are optimistic about how we as a society can all work together and use our intelligence to protect the environment, conserve wildlife, and utilize natural resources in a sustainable manner. I see little evidence for such optimism. I just read a report about the closure of the National Volcano Park in Rwanda - the home of a remnant population of 380 gorillas. Between poaching for bushmeat and habitat encroachment by desperate local farmers, the park's ecological integrity and the gorilla population are being decimated. Sadly, all the well-intentioned educational and cooperative wildlife-management programs have been swept away. Just as in prehistoric times, when excessive numbers of people need food and shelter, natural communities will suffer impoverishment. Researchers just confirmed that the natural reservoir of HIV is the Chimpanzee, so imagine trying to manage



Cameroon National Park to conserve one of the few surviving populations of Chimpanzees, aware that they are carrying this deadly disease, and that people are still trying to kill and eat them, and are cutting down their forest home for wood and to plant crops. In Manitoba, it makes black bear attacks, visitor accidents, rowdy parties, poison ivy, biting flies, caterpillar outbreaks, and the deadly fungus Blastomycosis seem like minor challenges for park managers. And if we believe that such massive wildlife losses are only occurring in far-away places, they have and are occurring in our own backyard, with the almost entire loss of tall-grass and mixed-grass prairie ecosystems, the deteriorating health of our polar bear population through bioaccumulation of toxic wastes and shortened feeding season, and the recent extirpation of freshwater fauna such as mollusks in the Red and Assiniboine rivers and major lakes. We still treat our waterways as sewers, just like our ancestors did for millennia. It is fair to say we have little knowledge how current human activities are affecting our biota and environment. Imagine how difficult and expensive it will be to clean up Manitoba's Great Lakes. There are likely over 1000 exotic species, hybrids and genetically modified varieties thriving in Manitoba, including within natural areas. These are food crops, weeds, disease organisms, and a great variety of life forms, which arrived here accidentally or were released on purpose by individuals and agencies, often with the best intentions. For example, there are ten species of fish and two hybrids that have been introduced to our waterways, and exotic insects are being broadcast for biological control of other exotic pests. The negative repercussions of these actions are not often realized until years later. The practice of introducing any exotic is ethically and biologically suspect, especially so considering that current risk-assessment methodology remains in its infancy. I and several other colleagues sit on the Manitoba Ecological Reserves Advisory Committee, and were discussing the possibility of incorporating the Nelson and Seal river estuaries into proposed Ecological Reserves. However, the Federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans is responsible for marine waters, so our secretary Helios Hernandez of the Parks Branch invited a knowledgeable scientist from DFO to review Marine Conservation Areas and legislation. From the current names of various marine protected areas, one could easily conclude that marine wildlife and habitat were being protected, but I was shocked to learn that these conservation areas are all multi-use areas, similar to Manitoba's wildlife management areas. There was not a single marine natural area in Canada's three oceans that protected wildlife from harvesting, commercial shipping, and recreational boating. The establishment of true marine protected areas is far behind those on land, in spite of highly degraded water quality, disease problems, devastating over-harvesting of many fish, whale, and invertebrate stocks, and high probability of toxic spills. It seems little can be done to fully protect marine environments because of traditional use, national and international demands, political pressure, and over-whelming technical and budgetary challenges. This means that five million sq km of Canadian marine habitat and 243,000 km of coastline are available, for quote, "sustainable use." It is sad to witness the continual deterioration of natural ecosystems. I used to present talks on this subject, and actually wrote a paper entitled: Overpopulation, Wildlife Extinction and Poverty, which was published in an international zoo journal. Unfortunately, people do not wish to hear or think about this bad news. We believe we are relatively sophisticated in Canada in terms of a public conservation ethic, a system of protected areas, and wildlife-management legislation. But Canada's list of at-risk species has climbed annually to the current 529, and there is every reason to believe it will surpass 1000 in a few years, as other groups of plants and animals are evaluated by COSEWIC. Federal politicians make the decisions on what species will receive a recovery plan and budget, not research biologists. And most politicians are not particularly knowledgeable about, or sensitive to, ecological and environmental issues. Manitoba's Endangered Species Advisory Committee has been in hibernation for years, due to staff and budgetary cuts in Manitoba Conservation, after barely making a start on generating an inventory of species at risk. We have an Endangered Species Act, but only 30 species are currently listed under the Act, while the federal Endangered Species committee, called COSEWIC, lists 56 Manitoba species. In reality, there are likely over 300 species currently at risk in the province that should be designated and conserved. My belief is that once a species' numbers and/or range have been reduced by over 80%, it should be automatically classified as endangered. The Woodland race of Caribou is a case in point. It is now extirpated from most of its historical range and its numbers have been reduced to less than 2000 individuals (estimates range from 1800-3150), separated into 10 isolated subpopulations. A zoo population biologist would recognize this situation as high risk for reproductive problems and likelihood of populations dying out. Twelve years after I and my colleagues on the Endangered Species Advisory Committee strongly recommended an endangered status to the Minister of Natural Resources, the Provincial Government finally approved this year a lesser designation of Threatened. I congratulate Conservation Minister Stan Struthers for achieving a designation, after four other Ministers failed to act. Manitoba is far behind many other jurisdictions in North America in designating at-risk species and funding recovery plans.



On a worldwide scale, all higher taxa of wildlife are in serious trouble. An estimated 100 species per day are now being driven into extinction. All this needless loss of biodiversity and habitat because of human desperation, ignorance, and greed. We remain a primitive, domineering race, still relying on a hunter-gatherer culture – hunting for new ways of resource exploitation, and gathering wealth, no matter what the costs to nature. I have had to conclude that it is a sad time to be a biologist. When people, especially students, ask me what they can do to help wildlife conservation, I now respond with: "The only significant action a person can contribute is to have two or fewer children." We do not teach our citizens that in the natural world, parents of other species leave behind on average only two surviving offspring. In a draft document, entitled "Conserving Wildlife Species and Recovering Species at Risk in Canada," prepared by Environment Canada for the upcoming Federal/Provincial Ministers Round Table, several important principles are emphasized - a holistic ecosystem approach, and the application of socio-economic analysis and strategies. Notably absent is any reference to a strategy of stabilizing Canada's population through family-planning and immigration policies. Compared to the USA's population of 300 million, Canada's is 32.3 million, with a net gain of one person every 100 seconds. Manitoba's population is 1.2 million, crowded into a small southern region where its effects on the environment are increasingly problematic. We fail to acknowledge the obvious - that lowering human impacts on nature through family planning will help preserve biodiversity and environmental quality, not reliance on restrictive legislation and expensive recovery plans. The World Wildlife Fund has rated Canada the fourth worst, among 150 countries, in the magnitude of ecological and environmental impact. Canadians are using natural resources faster than they can be renewed, our production of greenhouse gases from fossil-fuel combustion is among the highest per capita, and our high standard of living is unsustainable. Current approaches beg the question – How serious is conservation for Canadians? Not only did we fail to meet our Kyoto commitment of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, we actually increased them by 27%. Higher annual temperatures in the Arctic are already affecting food webs in Manitoba's Hudson Bay marine ecosystem. Ecological studies in natural areas are already demonstrating significant changes in species' life histories, such as a two-week longer reproductive period and later onset of hibernation in the pitcher plant mosquito, which lives in the impounded water of the plant's leaves. We can expect rougher and more-unpredictable weather province-wide, which will have enormous implications for Manitoba's wildlife. Entire biotas, such as an aquatic life of the Mississippi River drainage system, pests like termites, and serious human and wildlife diseases are poised to expand their ranges into Manitoba, coming closer with each modest rise in annual temperature. There are a number of positive factors to Manitoba's credit: -There are 4.3 million hectares of protected natural lands and another 1.2 million on term protection, totalling 8.4% of the province. Additional lands are being added slowly. We have almost 80 Provincial Parks and two National Parks within our borders. The Parks and Natural Areas Branch is making a heroic effort to increase Manitoba's natural areas, but it is in severe competition with other departments and business interests for control over landscapes. Certain organizations like the Nature Conservancy of Canada, Manitoba Habitat Heritage Corporation, and Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society are literally 'clawing back' lands for wildlife conservation through purchase and easements. Many of these lands should have been set aside originally for conservation by earlier governments, but there has been a policy, for over a century, to put all possible land into useful production. Such lack of foresight has made reclaiming habitat a costly and hectare-by-hectare challenge. -There are hundreds of dedicated research biologists, naturalists and environmentalists at our universities, in Manitoba Conservation, organizations like the Naturalists Society and Ducks Unlimited, and independent members of the public that are aware of conservation issues. It is likely that public support for conservation will increase as challenges like climate change and other environmental issues hit closer to home and impact personally on most individuals. -We have in our province a remarkable variety of conservation-education organizations like the Manitoba Museum, Fort Whyte Alive, Nature Conservancy of Canada, Oak Hammock Marsh Interpretive Centre, the City of Winnipeg's Naturalist Services Branch and the Assiniboine Park Zoo, and the Manitoba Forestry Association, which support research and strive to educate students and the general public about conservation. Manitobans and tourists are encouraged to experience the natural world first-hand by visiting natural areas.



-There are cooperative organizations such as the Manitoba Model Forest in SE Manitoba, whose research aim is to manage forestry activities in as sustainable a way as possible, reducing negative impacts on biodiversity and environmental quality in both boreal forest and aquatic communities. -There is an interesting program across Canada called a Bio-Blitz, in which researchers are organized to spend a couple of days of intensive study in their areas of specialty within a natural area. The resulting discoveries and inventories are then made available to participants and park managers. I enjoyed attending one in 2005 at the Criddle-Vane Homestead Provincial Heritage Park at Aweme, and another is scheduled at Riding Mountain Park in 2007. -The Wildlife and Ecosystem Protection Branch maintains an official inventory of wildlife and biotic communities in the Manitoba Conservation Data Centre. The Manitoba Museum and local universities maintain extensive research collections, numbering in the hundreds of thousands of specimens. -Internet resources have made vast stores of natural-history information available to students and the public, better educating them on the needs to conserve species and environments. Examples are the NatureServe network and Doug Collicutt's NatureNorth Zine. -In recent years there have appeared several great contributions to the natural history of Manitoba, such as The Birds of Manitoba, by the Manitoba Avian Research Committee of the Manitoba Naturalists Society (2003), and Stewart and Watkinson's Freshwater Fishes of Manitoba (2005). A few others, like the Moths of Manitoba by Richard Westwood, are nearing publication. Much of the data for these publications came from research in natural areas. We owe a great debt of gratitude to a number of individuals who have contributed a lifetime of work to generate this needed information on our flora and fauna. And I am greatly pleased to announce the publication in 2007 of a 900-page Encyclopaedia of Manitoba, by Great Plains Publishing, which will present, for the very first time, a comprehensive survey of wildlife in the province - terrestrial, aquatic and marine, and all biota from viruses and bacteria to the higher vertebrates and vascular plants. Few jurisdictions in North America have anything comparable. Did you know our marine waters are home to the 1-tonne, 6-metre-long Greenland shark that feeds on seals, and also to the world's largest jellyfish, the Lion's Mane Jelly, reaching a weight of 100 kg and a bell diameter of over two metres? Or that we have 700 species of spiders and 10,000 species of insects? When micro-organisms are included, I believe we may host over one million species in Manitoba. All five kingdoms of life are represented here - Bacteria, Protoctista, Fungi, Plants and Animals. Manitoba is home to a remarkable 28 of the world's 33 animal phyla, and the 17 phyla of Bacteria, 27 phyla of Protoctistans, 5 phyla of Fungi, and 10 phyla of plants are also well represented within our borders. The occurrence of this great diversity of the world's life forms in Manitoba is all the more astonishing when one considers this region was under about two km of glacier only 12,000 ya. This book will also point out just how little we know about all life forms in the province, and hopefully it will stimulate further study by amateurs and professionals. Parks and other natural areas will continue to play a prominent role in these investigations, because their ecosystems tend to be the least modified. Hopefully, park managers and legislators will continue to encourage this basic research. In many jurisdictions, over-zealous government officials have greatly restricted research activities, especially the collecting of specimens, believing that they are protecting wildlife, while other departments issue permits for massive habitat alteration - which we all realize is by far the most-important factor in degrading ecosystems and their biodiversity. Research of ecosystems, communities and species is still in its infancy, and new tools and techniques, such as molecular-DNA studies, will facilitate exciting discoveries and open up unexplored avenues of investigation. For example, bacteria have recently been discovered, living anaerobically, dozens of metres below the surface, and our prairie soil has been found to be many times richer in bacterial biodiversity than that of the Amazon Basin. We have such a wonderful natural heritage in our own backyard. It remains an exciting time to be a biologist. We cannot resurrect extinct species, but we can protect what biota we have left, and this means setting aside in perpetuity and managing large tracts of habitat in every biome in the province. Generating a biological inventory is essential in managing these ecosystems intelligently. No one in North America wants to experience the terrible plight of third-world countries, with their social upheaval, degenerating quality of life, and loss of biodiversity. Realistic change in attitudes and policies are needed to prevent these scourges from happening here in the future. We must adapt more prudent ways of living with Nature, in the face of public resistance, and of environmental



change on both the local and global stages. I realize I have rambled on here, attempting to integrate natural areas, global warming, research and tourism, but I hope I have provided some useful ideas to ponder.

22000066 PPaarrkkss aanndd PPrrootteecctteedd AArreeaass RReesseeaarrcchh FFoorruumm ooff MMaanniittoobbaa DDeelleeggaattee LLiisstt Last Name First Name Title Organization Name Email Address

Bachewich Kevin Communications Officer Riding Mountain National Park, Parks Canada [email protected],

Beaubien Yvonne Manager, Protected Areas

Initiative

Manitoba Conservation [email protected],

Bissell Laura Student Health, Leisure & Human Performance RI, University of

Manitoba

[email protected]

Bonnetta Maggie Landscape Designer Manitoba Parks and Natural Areas [email protected]

Borkowsky Christie Student Department of Entomology, University of Manitoba [email protected],

Bowman Tracy Social Science Specialist Western & Northern Service Centre, Parks Canada [email protected],

Boychuk Sharla Student Brandon University [email protected]

Boyd Marie-

France

Student Brandon University [email protected]

Brook Ryan Student University of Manitoba [email protected],

Burlando Catie Student University of Manitoba [email protected],

Caldwell Frank Manager - Assiniboine Park Assiniboine Park Enterprise, City of Winnipeg [email protected]

Campbell Michael Associate Professor University of Manitoba [email protected],

Collins Susan Student Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba [email protected]

Cooley Rachel Social Science Researcher Western & Northern Service Centre, Parks Canada [email protected],

Coon Andrew Tourism Coordinator Cree Nation of Mistissini [email protected]

Creed Wendy Business Systems Specialist Manitoba Parks and Natural Areas [email protected]

Davin Jenny Beach Safety Coordinator Manitoba Conservation

Demski Allyson Student Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba [email protected]

Dransfield Andrea Student Brandon University [email protected]

Durnin Kim Communications Officer Riding Mountain National Park, Parks Canada [email protected],

Elbourne Tracy Head, Outdoor Recreation

Programs

Manitoba Parks [email protected]

Epp Brock Student Centre for Forest Interdisciplinary Research, University of

Winnipeg

[email protected]

Forrestall Kristy Environmental Assessment

Scientist

Parks Canada [email protected],

Fortney Gene Director of Land Protection Nature Conservancy of Canada-Manitoba Region gene.fortney@natureconserva

cy.ca

Gardiner Phillip Director and CRC Health, Leisure & Human Performance RI, University of

Manitoba

[email protected],

Gibbons Melissa Park Warden Parks Canada [email protected]

Gill Cara Assistant Park Planner Manitoba Parks and Natural Areas

Gillespie Murray Provincial Game Bird

Manager

Manitoba Conservation [email protected]

Greenall Jason Coordinator Manitoba Conservation Data Centre [email protected]

Griffith Jodi Student University of Winnipeg [email protected]

Gunner Willy Cree Nation of Mistissini Cree Nation of Mistissini

Henderson Vicki Environment Officer Manitoba Conservation [email protected],

Hernandez Helios Protected Areas Specialist Manitoba Conservation [email protected],

Hiebert Jocelyn Environmental Scientist TetrES Consultants Inc. [email protected]

Hinam Heather Hecla Oasis Resort/ University of Alberta [email protected]

Hood Thomas Student Brandon University [email protected]

Hoole Arthur Hilderman Thomas Frank Cram [email protected],

Hummelt Cathy Park Planner, Park and Nature

Branch


Hurst Rick Head of Design and Manitoba Parks [email protected],




Development

Irwin John Manager, Planning and

Development

Manitoba Parks and Natural Areas [email protected]

Jichuk Melanie Graphic Designer Manitoba Conservation [email protected]

Jones Brenda Chief Social Scientist Social Sciences Branch, Parks Canada [email protected],

Kingdon Ken Riding Mountain National Park, Parks Canada [email protected],

Ko

Heinrichs

Derrick Student Centre for Forest Interdisciplinary Research, University of

Winnipeg

[email protected]

Lamont Don Manager, Product and

Market Development

Travel Manitoba [email protected]

Larkin Melissa Student Brandon University [email protected]

Larkin Jill Student Brandon University [email protected]

Lastra Rod Department of Botany University of Manitoba [email protected],

Leonard Richard Manager, Ecosystem Services Western & Northern Service Centre, Parks Canada [email protected],

Liang Haidong Student Health, Leisure & Human Performance RI, University of

Manitoba

[email protected]

Luchak Orysia Director Western Canada Service Centre, Parks Canada [email protected]

Lui Tat Planning Engineer Manitoba Water Stewardship [email protected]

MacKay Kelly Professor Health, Leisure & Human Performance RI, University of

Manitoba

[email protected],

Malcolm Christopher Assistant Professor Brandon University [email protected],

Marr Ruth President Marr Consulting Services [email protected]

Maunder Rosanna Student Lakehead University [email protected]

McFadyen Rod Park Manager Manitoba Conservation [email protected],

McVetty Dave Manager, Social Science Unit Western and Northern Service Centre, Parks Canada [email protected],

Peloquin Claude Student Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba [email protected]

Peniuk Maureen Planning Coordinator Western and Northern Service Centre, Parks Canada [email protected],

Perrett Cheryl Student University of Manitoba [email protected]

Poff Allison Habitat Stewardship

Coordinator

Critical Wildlife Habitat Program [email protected]

Porteous Ken Head, Interpretation and

Heritage Properties

Manitoba Parks and Natural Areas [email protected],

Reside Bob Senior Park Warden Riding Mountain National Park, Parks Canada [email protected]

Richmond Kelly-Anne Protected Areas Specialist Manitoba Conservation [email protected],

Riewe Rick Professor Zoology Department, University of Manitoba [email protected],

Roberge Elvira Protected Areas Technical

Assistant


Scaife Barbara Bio-economist Manitoba Water Stewardship - Fisheries Branch [email protected]

Schmidt Glenn Park Warden Riding Mountain National Park, Parks Canada [email protected],

Schykulski Ken Head of Management

Planning


Scott Daniel Canada Research Chair in

Global Change and Tourism

Department of Geography, University of Waterloo [email protected],

Scott Katherine Student McGill University [email protected]

Shaluk Cathy Education Coordinator Nature Conservancy of Canada-Manitoba Region Cathy.shaluk@natureconserva

cy.ca

Smid Borden Parks Canada [email protected],

Sullivan Patti Chief Operating Officer Assiniboine Park Enterprise, City of Winnipeg [email protected],

Tardif Jacques Canada Research Chair in

Dendrochronology

University of Winnipeg [email protected],

Thiessen Ron Executive Director Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society [email protected],

Vik Stronen Astrid University of New Brunswick University of New Brunswick [email protected],

Walker David University of Manitoba [email protected],




Wall Carl Executive Director Manitoba Lodges and Outfitters Association [email protected],

Whaley Kent Regional Wildlife Manager Manitoba Conservation [email protected]

Wilson Rick Head, Park System Planning Manitoba Parks and Natural Areas [email protected]

Woodley Dr. Stephen Chief Scientist Ecological Integrity Branch, Parks Canada [email protected],

Wootton Kathleen Deputy Chief Cree Nation of Mistissini [email protected]

Wrigley Dr. Robert Curator Assiniboine Park Zoo [email protected],

Young Joey Student Lakehead University [email protected]

2006 Proceedings - University of Manitoba · 2007-02-08 · Manitoba, Brandon University, Centre...

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