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1Running head: SODIUM BICARBONATE: A ROLE IN SPORTS PERFORMANCE

Sodium Bicarbonate: A Role in Sports Performance

Allison Kliewer

University of the Incarnate Word

September 30, 2011


Introduction

Athletes involved in sports try to compete and train at the best of their abilities. They

have to be able to perform in any condition and at their best in order to excel in a sport.

Athletes that excel in their sport can achieve opportunities, such as institutional scholarships,

endorsements, thousands and even millions of dollars worth of contracts. To the less elite

athlete, being the best at a sport means winning a district game, a high school championship or

breaking a personal record. In any case all athletes strive to be their best and perform using

100% of their abilities.

Many dietary supplements offer consumers, promises. These products can be put into

categories for the casual exerciser, the weekend work-out fanatic, the one-time-a-month gym

member, the parent as well as their little league child, the beginner trainer, the elite, and the

professional athlete. They offer to do such things as better performance, strength, endurance,

and lean muscle mass. There is a billion dollar industry in sport supplements and ergogenic aids.

Rakhee, D. (2008) from BCC research estimated “that the market for sports nutrition products

reached $ 31.2 billion and should reach $91.8 billion by 2013.” These ergogenic aids and dietary

supplements are used to enhance sport performance and many are outlawed by institutions

such as the NCAA and United States Olympic Committee. Coaches and athletes who are looking

to improve performance and training blindly take supplements without knowing the real effects

of the product.


Ergogenic aids and other supplements that are aimed towards athletes are not

regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) therefore can claim to do things not

proven. Some of the most popular sport supplements are creatine, protein or amino acid

complexes, and caffeine. There are regulations for these supplements by some sports

institutions but many supplements have not been regulated. It is important to have regulations

to ensure that every athlete is on the same playing field, and to ensure the safety of the

athlete. Mirasol, F. (2009) reported in a web article that the FDA had issued a public health

advisory, warning consumers to stop using bodybuilding products that are commonly marketed

as dietary supplements. Since the federal government does not regulate such products, the

product is manufactured independently without codes or regulations, putting every consumer

of the product at risk. Most products are taken off the market only after serious health

problems have been reported in association with the supplement. “The FDA has authority to

act only after it has received reports of serious health problems associated with products

already on sale and it is able to prove a serious health hazard” (Singer, N., and Schmidt, M.

2009). It is the role of the dietician, sports nutritionist, and health professional to guide and

inform the athlete, as well as anyone who has influence over the athlete, such as parents and

coaches about proper sports nutrition and what is needed from their diet to enhance and allow

the body to perform at 100% of the athlete’s natural ability.

If a supplement is on the market athletes must be aware of the ergogenic potential, as

well as the health hazards. Also, if a supplement offers an ergogenic benefit, sports institutions

and athletes alike need to know what the benefits are so that a substance can be banned if

need be, and eliminate the possibility of an unfair playing field. Athletes who can pay for the


supplements should not have an edge over those athletes who cannot pay for the supplement

or do not choose to artificially aid themselves in order to perform at a higher level. That is why

it is important to determine whether a product has ergogenic potential so that regulations, if

needed, are made.

Sodium bicarbonate is one of the newest supplementations available on the market.

Although sodium bicarbonate, more commonly known as baking soda, has been a household

item for years, it is new in terms of sport enhancement. It claims to increase endurance,

shorten recovery time, and help increase intensity during exercise. Claims from internet sources

such as bsnonline.net, bodybuilding.com and other supplement shops proclaim that taking

sodium bicarbonate will increase endurance, intensity with resistance training, help with

muscle recovery, and maximize physique and performance impact. There are no regulations

concerning sodium bicarbonate, nor has the supplement been proven as a performance

enhancing ergogenic aid.

Studies have reported conflicting results regarding sodium bicarbonate ingestion in

athletes, and although it is sold as a sport enhancing dietary supplement, ergogenic effects of

sodium bicarbonate have not been elucidated. Conclusive evidence is needed to determine the

role of sodium bicarbonate on sport performance.

Sodium Bicarbonate on Sprint Exercise

Sprint exercise is a predominantly high intensity exercise. Athletes who are involved in

sprint sports are usually interested (in a dietary supplement) for an increase in training

intensity, strength, power, and faster sprint times. Sprint athletes also look for fast recovery


times because many will have to repeat sprints within a game or tournament. Sprint athletes

tend to have greater muscle mass then those involved in endurance sports. Sprinters need a

rapid response from supplementation because sprints are short lived compared to an

endurance athlete who will need the effects of supplementation to last throughout the

duration on their event. The articles following will discuss the effects of sodium bicarbonate

ingestion/supplementation on sprint athletes.

In 2010, Zinner, C., Wahl, P., Achtzehn, S., Sperlich, B., and Mester, J. conducted a

random experimental double blind study on 11 trained male participants between 20 and 32

years of age. According to Zinner (2010), the problem being investigated was concerning the

fact that there was no data regarding oral ingestion of sodium bicarbonate on repeated high

intensity sprint exercise and lactate and hydrogen ion distribution. Oral ingestion of sodium

bicarbonate leads to a higher efflux of lactic acid (La) to the working skeletal muscle. The higher

gradient of La between plasma and the red blood cells would lead to a higher amount of La in

the red blood cells. This influx would alter the ratio between the La and RBCs and between the

plasma which would therefore increase performance, which is what was hypothesized.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the hypothesis and specifically test whether

oral ingestion of sodium bicarbonate will increase the influx of lactate into red blood cells

changing the ratios of red blood cells to plasma, therefore increasing performance during

repeated sprint exercise (Zinner, 2010). High intensity exercise off balances lactate, red blood

cells, and plasma equilibrium which causes fatigue; buffering of the equilibrium will enhance

performance. This knowledge helped to guide the framework of the article.


The total duration of the protocol was 42 minutes consisting of a 10 minute warm up

period at 50% of peak oxygen uptake (VO₂ max) followed by four 30 second bouts of maximal

exercise separated by five minutes passive rest and a recovery period of ten minutes after the

last bout. The power output and oxygen uptake had a technical error measurement of 1.2%

and 2.8%. Repeated measured ANOVA was used to compare variables across the time points.

Blood samples were taken from the earlobe of the participants and used reliable instruments to

measure the data.

The outcomes of the study were as so; the lactate ratio was not affected by sodium

bicarbonate ingestion and the hydrogen ion ratio is not affected by short maximal bouts of

exercise, as that of the lactate ratio. The most significant finding was that there was an increase

in the intensity of the exercise.

The design is appropriate for the study and purpose of the study. The design is

appropriate to answer the stated purpose and questions, however there could have been more

tested. The athletes only reported three times to be tested, whereas the study would have

been more thorough if the athletes had more testing trials so there could be more conclusive

evidence. The design validity is threatened by the limited number of trials. There is a logical link

between the design, sampling method and statistical analysis. The sample size is small and

limited. There is bias because they are only male athletes and only 11 participants which is a

weakness of the study. The evidence would be stronger and more valid if the sample size was

larger and included females. The study also does not state what kind of athletes the

participants were. If there was variation in the sports the participants were involved in, that


might affect the outcome of the study. Mortality, inclusion and exclusion criteria were not

reported on. The instruments were not clearly stated and not all instruments were addressed.

The reliability and strategies are not described sufficiently as are the recording strategies. The

data analysis is thorough. Using the statistical software the outcomes are reliable. The results

were labeled and addressed in an understandable manner and the analysis was interpreted

correctly.

Future studies would include a larger sample size to increase validity; a larger sample

size will also allow the article to be generalized to a larger population. Females would need to

be added to the study. A sound sampling method would help to avoid a weakened study. Data

collection should have been matched to a previous study that way the findings could directly

compare. To compare closely with other studies the protocol could have been very similar or

the same to strengthen the findings. Blood sampling methods also differed from previous

studies causing discrepancy. The insignificant findings concerning the lactate levels could be

due to the small sample size. The different sampling times between blood lactate and the

hydrogen ion concentration could have also caused some discrepancies. Future testing needs to

be done matching protocol and methods to previous studies in order to compare the findings

and be able to draw a conclusion.

Lavender, G., and Bird, S. conducted a similar study in 1989, which is considered old

research now, but still has strong evidence and recent studies to validate their outcomes.

Fatigue that is experienced during intensive short exercise is attributed to lactacidosis.

Lactacidosis inhibits muscular contraction by inhibiting key glycolytic pathways, inhibiting the


releases of calcium ions form the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the binding of these ions to the

protein troponin, and impairing the neural impulse propagation. Based on that framework

many studies have hypothesized and tested to see if an alkaline such as sodium bicarbonate

could act as a buffer against the lactacidosis that happens within the muscle during intense

exercise. Some studies have found that an ingestion of sodium bicarbonate before exercise will

increase performance, while other studies have found no improvement. Prior to Lavender, G.,

and Bird, S. (1989) there had been mixed studies on the effectiveness of sodium bicarbonate on

muscle metabolism and exercise performance; there were also no previous studies that focused

on sprint exercises.

The purpose of the study was to assess the effect of sodium bicarbonate ingestion upon

repeated bouts of intensive short duration exercises. Lavender, G., and Bird, S. (1989)

performed a double-blind random experimental design study. There were 8 female and 15 male

fit and healthy participants between the ages of 18 and 28 who volunteered for the study. The

participants were tested on a cycle ergometer and performance was assessed using a light-

sensitive monitor linked to a BBC microcomputer.

Using analysis of variance test over peak power and average power, there was a

significantly higher average power in the supplement group. The sodium bicarbonate group

also showed a significantly higher peak power value, but was only seen in two of the sprint

repetition tests. The findings also confirm what other tests had found; the duration of the

exercise is important if the enhanced bicarbonate buffer proved to be most effective (Lavender,

G., and Bird, S. 1989). The main findings support previous studies that concluded ingestion of


sodium bicarbonate improves performance of short-duration exercise. Lavender, G., and Bird,

S. also found that bicarbonate ingestion can increase power output during repeated sprints and

the effects of the supplement increase as the number of sprints increase (1989).

The treatment in the design is clearly stated but there is some uncertainty concerning

the subset group. There is only one mention about the subset group which is odd. However, the

design was appropriate and seemed to be valid, as well as linked to the sample method and

statistical analysis. The sample was a good size and although it had more males, females were

included. There is, however discrepancy in the study because it did not say the participants

were athletes, only that they were familiar with maximal effort. The supplementation of sodium

bicarbonate directly applies to athletes, the study is weakened when the participants they

chose may not be athletes. Instruments were a weak part of this article. Some were addressed

but not all instruments were found in the literature. Reliability is questionable considering the

instruments were not given much attention in the article. The findings, however are reliable

because they can compare to previous findings conducted through other studies. The data

analysis was limited and could have been clearer, but was appropriate for the study. The

analysis was interpreted correctly and the tables and charts helped the strength of the analysis.

The blackcurrant ingestion group is not fully discussed in the material and methods

section of the article which raises questions. Also the results of the blackcurrant ingestion group

is mentioned but without much detail and with “small inconsistent differences “reported

(Lavender, G., and Bird, S. 1989). This weakens the study because it raises questions about the

validity and ethical practices performed.


The fact that the findings can be compared to previous studies and find the same

conclusions greatly strengthens the study. The study is over ten years old which shows that

sodium bicarbonate has not been explored much by researchers. There needs to be new

research possibly with the same procedure and method, but with new instrumentation. The

new technology might find alternate outcomes than those Lavender, G., and Bird, S. found 22

years ago.

Conclusion of Sodium Bicarbonate on Sprint Exercise

Based on the two articles exploring sodium bicarbonate ingestion on sprints and

repeated sprint exercise, we can conclude that sodium bicarbonate does have a beneficial

effect on sprint athletes. They now need to investigate how long the sodium bicarbonate will

work as a buffer against lactate in the muscle and find if there are limits to the positive effect.

Sodium Bicarbonate on Endurance Exercise

Endurance athletes are known for their ability to keep moderate to high intensity

throughout a long period of time during an event. Compared to the physical characteristics of a

sprint athlete, endurance athletes tend to have a lower muscle mass and a low body fat

percentage. Endurance athletes need to be able to perform with intensity and skill ability

throughout a long event. These athletes look for a way to keep up their endurance and fight the

effect of fatigue. In a supplement they would look for something to delay the onset of fatigue

and help keep up the energy. Sodium bicarbonate offers to delay the onset of fatigue so the

potential benefits of NaHCO could affect the endurance athlete if they choose to use the


supplement. The following article investigates the effects of sodium bicarbonate on endurance

athletes.

Another out dated study was conducted by McLaughton, L., Dalton, B., and Palmer, G. in

1999. Although the article is not recent the results of this study are still reliable. Sodium

bicarbonate has been used as a buffering agent to improve performance during continuous

short term high intensity work. There have been time improvements documented for

performance ranges from 30 seconds to 6 minutes. This base knowledge is what guided the

framework of the study. Prior to the present study there have not been conclusive results

pertaining to the use of sodium bicarbonate as a buffer substance in aerobic performance. Due

to the lack of information, the purpose of the study is to determine whether sodium

bicarbonate given in a 300 mg/kg body mass dose, could improve competitive cycle ergometer

performance of 60 minute duration, in well trained endurance athletes riding in a competitive

situation.

There were 10 male volunteers that all had very similar anthropometric characteristics.

All cyclists were currently training and were familiar with physiological laboratory testing and

time trials in a competitive situation. Mortality, inclusion, and exclusion criteria were not

reported on. They performed the test on an air-braked cycle ergometer. The performance data

was analyzed using a one way analysis of variance ANOVA. The blood gas and lactate data was

analyzed with a two way ANOVA with repeated measures.

There was a positive benefit during the 60 minute competitive cycle with a 14% higher

average power output compared with an older study. This could be due to a difference in


protocol, as well as a difference in substances used for testing. McLaughton, L., Dalton, B., and

Palmer, G. used sodium bicarbonate as the testing solution, and the previous study used

sodium citrate (1999). The ergogenic effects are clear and most likely due to the maintenance

of pH levels in the blood.

The design is clear and appropriate for the purpose of the study. Design is valid and

could only be strengthened by more tests or a more specific test, but the test run were

appropriate for the purpose of the study. There is a logical link between design, sample and

statistical analysis. The sample size is low and has potential biases. There are no females

included in the study; also the participants have already been used in laboratories and other

studies, which might open room for bias. Also, there was not much variation in the

characteristics of the subjects, which can limit the strength of the study design. One strength of

the study is that the subjects are all cyclists and cycling was the exercise used for testing. The

instruments were no t clearly addressed or explained. Specific instruments were given but with

unclear understanding of how they were used. Accuracy, precision and error control was not

recorded. However, the data analysis was very in depth and appropriate for the study.

Conclusion of Sodium Bicarbonate on Endurance Exercise

Future studies should test other endurance sports and compare findings. The

McLaughton, L., Dalton, B., and Palmer, G. showed that there is a benefit on high intensity

cycling events lasting 60 minutes, but other endurance sports might have different results.

There also needs to be other similar studies conducted so that the results form McLaughton

can be verified and strengthened.


Sodium Bicarbonate on Resistance Training

Resistance training requires energy demand and a high level of anaerobic metabolism.

Most athletes do not compete in resistance training; rather they use resistance training to

condition and strengthen their bodies to be able to perform at a higher level. Since sodium

bicarbonate is associated with such effects as increasing blood lactate and bicarbonate levels,

decreasing perceived exertion, increasing the exercise time to exhaustion, and improving

performance in high intensity strength training, an athlete who is involved with resistance

training would possibly benefit from the sodium bicarbonate supplementation. The next article

explores the effects sodium bicarbonate has on resistance training.

Wollner, M., Sanos, E., Jerfferson, D. and Novaes, S. state that acidosis is the major

cause of fatigue (2008). The increase hydrogen ion concentration causes a drop in the muscular

and blood pH, slows glycolosis, interferes with calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

and calcium ion binding, and increases perception of fatigue. Sodium bicarbonate has been

found to induce alkalosis when ingested in humans, therefore could delay acidosis and allow a

higher blood lactate concentrations during exercise. Metabolic alkalosis through ingestion or

infusion of sodium bicarbonate has been shown to enhance performance for short duration

high intensity exercise, but the mechanisms have not been fully elucidated (Wollner, M., Sanos,

E., Jerfferson, D. and Novaes, S. 2008). Therefore, the purpose of the study was to examine the

acute ergogenic effect of sodium bicarbonate on muscular strength.

Subjects were randomly selected from gym academies in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. There

were 11 males ranging from the age of 19 to 39 years. The study was designed as a cross-


sectional, community based survey. The subjects were tested on bench press and pull press

exercises with the two groups either with or without the sodium bicarbonate supplement.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria were not mentioned, but one participant did not complete the

study due to an injury.

Wollner, M., Sanos, E., Jerfferson, D. and Novaes, S. found that there was no ergogenic

effect of sodium bicarbonate ingestion on muscular strength (2008). Former strength studies

found conflicting evidence and concluded sodium bicarbonate as an ergogenic aid. The

conflicting results could be caused by many different things. One reason could be to the fact

that the present study did not take blood samples, therefore the pH and H ion distribution

cannot be analyzed. The pH and H ion concentration levels are the reasoning behind the

ergogenic benefits: if that data is not collected, results of the findings will be a mystery. The

variables studied are difficult to test, and the participants might have had trouble following the

lifting protocol. There were also differences in dosage taken between the studies. Based off the

Cameron, S.,Cooke, R., Brown, R., and Faibairn, K. (n. d.) study, people with larger stature

ingested a larger dosage due to their physical characteristics. It could be possible that the

participants in the present study did not take a high enough dosage.

The variables are linked to the framework and the concepts. They are defined and are

logical and consistent. The sample size was small and there was a wide age range. The small

sample size weakened the study and the study outcomes cannot apply to the larger population

nor can it be generalized. The instruments were not very well explained and some were unclear

in their usage. There were only a few that were reported. We can only assume the other


instruments used were reliable and valid. More tests would have to be run with a more detailed

instrumentation report in order to validate the study. The study is weak in the instrumentation

area. The data analysis is appropriate for the study and thorough. Even though many of the

findings were insignificant, they were still reported. Charts and graphs helped interpret data.

Conclusions of Sodium Bicarbonate on Resistance Training

Conclusions cannot be drawn from one study. The study was not valid, so therefore no

assumptions can be made based off the results. However, future studies should test strength in

a very controlled environment to avoid human error that might negatively affect the study.

Strength tests must be very controlled from procedure to the sampling method used. The next

study must be very well organized.

Sodium Bicarbonate on Chronic Ingestion

Many studies that have been conducted are based on the acute effects of sodium

bicarbonate. Most likely an athlete, if proven to benefit performance, will use the supplement

more than once. They would possibly use the supplement for everyday training to enhance the

work done during a workout and better their endurance, strength, and speed skills when in

competition. The following articles look into the effects of sodium bicarbonate and chronic

ingestion.

McNaughton , L., Backx., L., Plamer, G., and Strange, N. (1999) conduct another study

based on sodium bicarbonate. We can infer that since the author has already conducted one

valid study on the same supplement, even though it is an older article, he is familiar with the


subject and is reliable. The rapid use of glycogen as an energy store during high intensity

maximal effort results in an increased concentration of hydrogen ions in the muscle and blood.

Sodium bicarbonate may be beneficial to combat the rise of hydrogen ion in the muscle and

blood, and therefore delay the onset of fatigue. The time delay of sodium bicarbonate ingestion

prior to exercise has not been determined. McNaughton , L., Backx., L., Plamer, G., and Strange,

N. therefore evaluated whether sodium bicarbonate, when taken chronically over a period of 5

days, could alter resting plasma pH and improve anaerobic exercise performance of 60 second

duration (1999).

Eight male subjects around the age of 25 volunteered for the study. They were tested on

an electronically braked ergometer. Work and power data were downloaded to an on-line PC. It

was a crossover experimental design. The control was taken one month after the initial test.

The results show that ingestion of sodium bicarbonate over a period of 5 days can

improve short term high intensity exercise performance (McNaughton , L., Backx., L., Plamer,

G., and Strange, N. 1999). This suggest that the body stores extra bicarbonate and can use the

extra as a buffer to improve performance. The present study’s findings are similar to those of

other studies, resulting in improved performance on short-term high-intensity exercise. The

mechanism for improved performance is thought to be the greater buffering capacity for the H

ions caused by ingestion of sodium bicarbonate.

The outcomes of the study are strong and consistent with the results from other studies.

The size of the sample greatly weakens the study. Eight subjects are not enough to generalize

or validate the results. Mortality, inclusion, an exclusion criteria are not reported in the


literature. The sampling method is not mentioned either. The knowledge gap reveals that the

mechanism causing an ergogenic effect is not well known. McLaughton, L., uses the word

“probably” to describe why sodium bicarbonate improves performance. More research

investigating the mechanism of sodium bicarbonate ingestion is needed.

The design was appropriate but did not go into great detail. It was appropriate to

answer the study questions. The variables were clear and applied to the study. There is a logical

link between the design, sample and statistical analysis. Instrumentation was stated with

specific names yet not explained. Accuracy and error control were not stated. The information

given on the instruments was limited and weakened the study. The analysis was also not very

well explained but appropriate for the study. Tables and charts helped to visually show the data

analysis. Both instrument reporting and data analysis could have been stronger and therefore

weakened the study.

Edge, J., Bishop, D., and Goodman, C. (2006) conducted a study that investigates chronic

bicarbonate ingestion. Accumulation of hydrogen ions that cause fatigue affect oxidative

phosphorylation, enzyme activity, and ion regulation. Intra and extracellular buffer systems

work to reduce the buildup of hydrogen ions. An increase in the muscle buffering capacity, by

taking sodium bicarbonate may improve performance. There is limited research that does not

show how much sodium bicarbonate should be ingested. Some studies have shown

improvements in buffer capacity after intense interval training while others have not. The

purpose of the study was to determine effects of chronic ingestion of sodium bicarbonate

before training on the muscle buffer capacity.


Performance test were conducted on 16 female students between the age of 18 and 20

who were moderately trained in a variety of club level sports. Food diaries were kept so that

the subjects can recreate what they ate every time they tested. On the day of the test a muscle

biopsy was taken from the vastus lateralis immediately after exercise. It was a pre- and post-

test experimental design that was performed on a mechanically braked cycle ergometer.

In contrast to what was hypothesized, the results indicated H ion accumulation during

training is not an important factor in improving muscle buffer capacity. Edge, J., Bishop, D., and

Goodman, C. (2006) found that ph is not significantly altered during the beginning of intense

exercise, but towards the middle or end of the training session. There might also be changes in

intracellular level of proteins involved in ion regulation and mitochondrial respiration.

The sample did not include males and the subjects were not well trained, which

weakened the study. The sample size was small compared to the data they were testing. The

variables were hard to distinguish because they were testing so many different variables. It was

hard to decipher which ones were the most important to the study. Instruments were given

without an explanation which weakened the article. Validity has to be assumed with the little

information given about the instruments. Accuracy, precision and error control was not

addressed. Analysis techniques are clearly described. Analysis was correct and appropriate for

the article. The analysis procedure was appropriate for the study and the data collected. Tables

and charts were key very helpful in understanding the data analysis. The threats to validity are

the small sample size and the moderately trained subjects. These threats weaken the study and

therefore the results cannot be generalized to the athletic population.


Conclusion of the Chronic Effects of Sodium Bicarbonate

Based on the two articles regarding chronic sodium bicarbonate ingestion it can be

concluded that chronic ingestion can benefit sport performance. What needs to be investigated

next is the effect of chronic sodium bicarbonate ingestion on transport proteins and improved

potassium regulation. Research needs to be conducted regarding the other effects of sodium

bicarbonate. Chronic ingestion might not be healthy for the body. Research needs to be

conducted to find the limits of sodium bicarbonate benefits on the body. There might be an

adverse effect from chronic bicarbonate ingestion.

Sodium Bicarbonate with Specific Instrumentation

The instrumentation used to measure the effects of sodium bicarbonate on

performance is important. The more detailed the instrument is, the more detailed the data and

in result the analysis is detailed and has a greater validity. The instrumentation can strengthen

or weaken a study. The following articles use specific instrumentation to assess the effects of

sodium bicarbonate. The instrumentation used has an impact on the validity of the two studies.

Verbitsky, O., Mizrahi, J., Levin, M., and Isakov, E. (1997) begin their article with stating

that an accumulation of hydrogen ions in the muscle cell causes fatigue. To reduce hydrogen

ion concentration, lactic acid in the cell must also be reduced. Sodium bicarbonate facilitates an

efflux of hydrogen ions and lactic acid from the cell. Two components of fatigue have been

reported. One is due to intracellular acidosis, and another is due to changes in the excitation-

contraction coupling process. Most studies have focused on performance or maximum power

as a measurement, rather than muscle fatigue. Effect of sodium bicarbonate on process of


progressive muscle fatigue and recovery had not been studied. The purpose of the study was to

evaluate the effect of ingestion of sodium bicarbonate on muscle progressive fatigue as induced

by functional electrical stimulation and on muscle recovery after intensive cycling exercise.

There were six healthy and active male subjects that took part in the cross sectional

study. The procedure is where the importance of the instrument use is shown to be important.

Each subject performed three different tests. Each test started with 2 minutes of functional

electrical stimulation (FES) of the right quadriceps femoris muscle. The FES ensured that the

muscle was fatigued and preloaded before the cycling was tested. The knee torque was

continuously monitored using a specially designed testing apparatus. The subjects sat on a

specially designed chair while the transcutaneous electrical stimulation was applied through a

pair of rubber electrodes. The torque of the knee is a result of activation of the quadriceps

femoris by the electrodes.

Higher peak and residual torques resulted from supramaximal load combined with acute

ingestion of sodium bicarbonate. Due to the special instrumentation, “that acute ingestion fo

NAHCO is an effective means for increasing the torques in isometric contraction, thus reducing

muscle fatigue an enhancing recovery ”Verbitsky, O., Mizrahi, J., Levin, M., and Isakov, E.

(1997).

Procedure was very detailed and linked to the purpose of the study. The procedure was

difficult to follow in the reading but it did apply to the concepts and framework. The design

was linked to the purpose of the study and applied to the concepts and framework. The study

sample did not have much information given about it. It was very small and the age was high


compared to most athletes who are involved in sports and use supplements such as sodium

bicarbonate, therefore making the study hard to generalize. The variables were hard to define

but did relate to the purpose of the study. The instrument used in the study was given very

specifically. The “specially constructed testing apparatus” was given much detail in an

understandable way. Precision, sensitivity, accuracy and error control was also given along with

how the data was recorded. Further studies are needed with the same instrumentation to

verify the validity of the instrument. The data analysis was appropriate yet unclear even with

the use of tables and charts. The data analysis was hard to understand and displayed an unclear

meaning.

Induced alkalosis leads to enhanced muscle glycolitic adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

which may increase glycogen utilization and allow a greater capacity for high intensity exercise

(Raymer, G., Marsh, G., Kowalchuk, T., and Thompson, R. 2004). This suggests that sodium

bicarbonate ingestion would result in a greater contribution of anaerobic energy production

during exercise. Muscle biopsy can provide clear understanding of what is taking place inside

the muscle cell. There are inherent limitations of frequent sampling and poor time resolution

associated with muscle biopsy analysis. The mechanism for sodium bicarbonate to enhance

intense exercise is not clearly elucidated. The purpose of the study was to clarify changes

occurring in intracellular metabolism with exercise during induced alkalosis. Raymer, G., Marsh,

G., Kowalchuk, T., and Thompson, R. used phosphorus-31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy (P-

MRS) and venous blood sampling to study the effects of sodium bicarbonate ingestion on the

metabolic and acid-base response to incremental forearm wrist flexion exercise (1997).


Six healthy moderately active males volunteered for the quasi-experimental crossover

study design. The subjects were studied twice; once under control and again with NaHCO

supplementation. Exercise protocol was identical for each test which consisted of progressive

time to fatigue and peak power output during ramp exercise to fatigue in the P-MRS and blood

sampling exercise series was significant between the control and induced alkalosis group. None

of the subjects were trained in specific sports.

The alkaline group was significantly different from the control group in forearm muscle

intracellular pH during incremental wrist flexion exercise to fatigue. There was a significant

difference between the alkaline and control group in the plasma lactate threshold in the initial

phase. Forearm venous plasma pH during incremental wrist flexion exercise to fatigue was

significantly different between control and alkaline group. Forearm muscle to venous H ion

gradient during incremental wrist flexion exercise to fatigue is significantly different from

control to alkaline group wrist flexion exercise to volitional fatigue.

The design was appropriate for the study purpose and to answer the study questions.

The design is valid; the only percievedproblem would be in recreating the study because the

instruments used were all custom made. It would be hard to oppose the finding from another

study without the same instruments, therefore weakening the study. The sample size was small

and none of the subjects were athletes. This will also weaken the study because the use of

sodium bicarbonate is ergogenic for athletes, so athletes should be the ones tested. Also there

are no females in the study. The variables are appropriated for the study design and purpose;

they are defined and consistent. Instrumentation used in the study was very clear and


thorough. Although the ergometer was custom built, enough detail was given to ensure the

reliability of the instrument. Very specific details were addressed so that the instrumentation

was understood, as well as precision and accuracy protocols. More tests should be done

however, to truly make sure the custom built ergometer is valid. The data analysis was

appropriate and interpreted correctly. All results were reported and tables and charts were also

given.

Conclusion of instrumentation

Instrumentation use proved to be beneficial while studying the effects of sodium

bicarbonate ingestion. The specific tools used in the previous articles helped with research and

might have had a big impact on the results. Even though the results that come from a study

with specific instrumentation are difficult to compare, new instrumentation is important in

advancing knowledge and technology.

Sodium Bicarbonate and Specific Sports:

As discussed earlier, sodium bicarbonate might be a useful ergogenic aid. If the claims

are true, athletes might turn to sodium bicarbonate to accelerate their performance in

competition. Not all athletes train and perform at the same level. A professional power lifter

will not have the same conditioning regime as that of a cross country runner. The power lifter

will focus on explosiveness, strength, and power while a cross country runner will focus on

keeping pace and endurance. The same is true with the supplements an athlete chooses to

take. An endurance athlete will not take a supplement that claims to aid in power and strength,

rather they would take a supplement that will aid in endurance and a delayed time to fatigue.


That is why it is important to test potential ergogenic aids on specific sports. An aid might find

to be useful to a certain athlete and useless to another athlete of a different sport. The

following articles investigate sodium bicarbonate and its role as a supplement with specific

sports.

Zajac, A., Cholewa, J., Poprzecki, S Waskiewicz,Z., and Langfort, J. studied sodium

bicarbonate on youth swimmers (2009). Sprint athletes rely on anaerobic glycolysis as the

primary source of fuel. The total capacity of the glycolytic pathway is limited by the

concentration of hydrogen ions which accumulates in the muscle due to intense exercise. The

accumulation of hydrogen ions in the cell causes the muscle cells to become acidic; acidity

limits the muscles contractibility and in result decreases the intensity of work done by the

muscle. The body’s first line of defense against the hydrogen ion accumulation is naturally

occurring bicarbonates. Sodium bicarbonate as a supplement is thought to help with the body’s

natural defense and work as a buffer. The increased bicarbonate reserve will allow the

hydrogen ions to leave the muscle cells at a faster rate and therefore the accumulation of

hydrogen ions that cause fatigue will take longer to build up in the cell and delay the onset of

fatigue during anaerobic exercise. Prior studies that tested that hypothesis have been

conducted with untrained athletes. No studies prior have focused on young athletes and the

sport of swimming starts early in the athlete’s life. Swimmers begin intensive training as early

as 7 and 8 years old. The young swimmers usually take part in the same training regime as do

adult and professional swimmers, that is why it is important for research to be conducted on a

younger population of athletes. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effect of oral


administration of sodium bicarbonate on swim performance in competitive youth male

swimmers.

Eight competitive youth male swimmers, all of whom were around 15 years of age, took

part in the double-blind experiment. Each subject completed two test trials of 4x50 meter

freestyle swim with one minute rest between each sprint. Swim times, plasma lactate, standard

bicarbonate, bases excess, and the effect of the sodium bicarbonate were variables tested.

Blood samples were drawn from finger three times during the trial; upon arrival, 60 minutes

after ingestion, and during the first minute after the time trial.

Intake of sodium bicarbonate in youth swimmers can significantly increase work

capacity during short intensive interval training. It can also improve sprint performance at the

50 meter freestyle swim (Zajac, A., Cholewa, J., Poprzecki, S Waskiewicz,Z., & Langfort, J. 2009).

The study was narrow in scope and was not trivial. The problem is very relevant to

sports nutrition and any dietitian working with athletes. The purpose statement is very specific

and easily guides the reader. The statement is to the point and very clearly states purpose and

the population as to whom the study will relate. The statement was good and very strong. The

problem statement is not as clearly stated, but is very easy to find in the literature. It is a big

problem; therefore it takes more than a statement to explain to the reader. This was a very

researchable problem due to the fact that swimming is already based off of measurement of

time. The framework is not clearly stated but does help to define the concepts of interest in

the study. The framework is directly linked to the purpose. There is no visual of the framework

but it is linked to variables in the study. The concepts are faster speed in the water; increased


ph, increased lost exercise plasma lactate concentration, and increased blood concentration of

HCO₃. The framework is related to any athlete and therefore those who care after the athlete

are also related. The knowledge is growing but athletes will try the anything that promises

results so a sports dietitian needs to have the latest information on a supplement, especially

ergogenic supplements. The hypothesis was unclear but questions that were raised were

directly linked to the purpose of the study as well as the framework and concepts of the study.

Study design was appropriate and was appropriate to answer the stated purpose. The validity

was strong and no major threats were discovered. The sample size was small and weakens the

study but the participants were great subjects for the study. They did not study female athletes

which show bias. The variables were directly related to the purpose and appropriate for the

study. The article gave specific instrumentation, yet did not clearly state the way the

instruments were being used which weakened the article. The analysis was clear and

appropriate for the study. Significant and insignificant findings were included in the analysis.

Tables and charts accompanied the analysis and strengthened the article. The analysis was

interpreted correctly and the analysis techniques were clearly described.

As shown in some research, alkalosis has been shown to cause a special effect in

predominantly upper limb exercises (Artioli, G., Coelho, Benatti, F., Gailey, A., Guallno, B., &

Lancha Jr., A. 2006). Although there is no consensus in the literature concerning the use of

alkaline substances as an ergogenic aid on anaerobic exercise, it is thought that an increase in

blood pH will provide delayed fatigue and improve exercise. Since judo is a predominantly

upper limb sport, it is important for the sport of judo to determine whether or not sodium

bicarbonate can be used as a reliable ergogenic aid and benefit the athlete by improving


performance in fights (Artioli, G., Coelho, Benatti, F., Gailey, A., Guallno, B., and Lancha Jr., A.

2006).

There were seven male judo fighters chosen to participate in the study. The inclusion criteria

included to be between the age of 18 and 30 years of age, be dedicated to judo training for at

least 6 weekly hours, a minimum brown belt graduation, and regularly compete in regional or

higher championships. There was one case of mortality due to an injury. The participants were

involved in two tests; each test consisted of three, five minute fights with a fifteen minute

recovery time between each fight. The participants fought the same competitor each time and

the competitor was within 10% of the participant’s body weight. Blood collections occurred in

rest after ingestion of substance, after warm up, after each fight and 3, 5, 7, 10 and 15 minutes

after each fight. The study adopted a counterbalanced double-blind model.

The variables are linked to the concepts of the framework. The treatment is clearly specified

and is appropriate to the study purpose. The design is appropriate to answer the purpose and

questions. The design was valid and very well thought through; there was not much room for

bias. There was a logical link between design and sampling method. The sampling size was very

small and weakened the study. There was also somewhat variability in the selection criteria. A

generalization of the results cannot be made, and the sample size does not represent the whole

population. The instrumentation was explained but not very understandable. The instruments

measure the variables of the study. The variables and methods of collection are described. The

recording strategies’ were briefly stated. Analysis techniques are described and appropriate to

answer each question. The presentations of the results are somewhat understandable and use


table sand charts to help visually. The analyses were interpreted correctly and both insignificant

and significant results were addressed.

Wu, C., Shih, M., Yang, C., Huang, M., Chang, C., researched sodium bicarbonate ingestion on

tennis performance (2010). Tennis consists of short bouts of high energy followed my times of

recovery between points and games. Repetitive short-term high-intensity efforts throughout a

tennis match can result in significant neuromuscular fatigue. The neuromuscular fatigue is what

is thought to contribute to decreased stroke accuracy and velocity. Sodium bicarbonate has

been previously shown to aid in the performance of short-term high-intensity exercise, single

bout high-intensity exercise, 1 hour competitive cycling, and 30 minutes of various ball games.

Several studies have failed to find ergogenic effect of sodium bicarbonate supplementation on

exhaustive resistance exercise. Recent findings have suggested that sodium bicarbonate might

help in alleviating exercise-induced impairment in the neural functions. Wu, C., Shih, M., Yang,

C., Huang, M., Chang, C., hypothesized that sodium bicarbonate supplementation may prevent

the fatigue- induced decline in skilled tennis performance (2010). The purpose of the study was

to investigate the effect of NAHCO supplementation on skilled tennis performance after a

simulated match.

There were 9 male Division I college tennis players who were recruited and participated in

the randomized cross-over, placebo-controlled, double-blind design study. There were two

experimental trails that alternated the subjects with placebo or bicarbonate. Subjects

consumed the same exact diet two days before each trial. The Loughborough Tennis Skill Test

was used to assess the subject’s accuracy, consistency of service, forehand stroke to both sides


of the court, and backhand ground stroke to both sides of the court. A simulated match lasting

approximately 50 minutes consisted of 12 games, receiving and returning, and the ball was fed

by a ball serving machine. Heart rate was monitored throughout the study period by a short

ranged telemeter. The rate of perceived exertion was recorded using a Borg scale. Blood

samples were taken from a forearm vein by a trained nurse and an autoanalyzer and blood gas

analyzer was used to measure lactate, pH, hemoglobin, and base excess.

The results show that NaHCO supplementation can prevent the decline in skilled tennis

performance (Wu, C., Shih, M., Yang, C., Huang, M., Chang, C., 2010).The treatment is clearly

specified and is appropriate for the study. The design is appropriate to answer the purpose and

question. The design is logically linked between the design, sampling method and statistical

analyses. The sample size is very limited. It is appropriate for the study problem and purpose,

yet is too small which weakens the study. More tests would have to be run with a larger sample

size to validate the study outcome. The instrumentation was not explained. Specific names

were given, but they were not well addressed; therefore weakening the study. The instruments’

reliability has to be assumed. Recruitment method no t reported on.

Future testing should test other tennis skills with measurement of stroke velocity and

running speed. Research should also investigate neuromuscular functions and psychological

variables such as reactive, anticipatory, and decision-making capacities (Wu, C., Shih, M., Yang,

C., Huang, M., Chang, C., 2010).

Sodium bicarbonate on Gastrointestinal Discomfort


Even if proven to be an ergogenic aid, sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO), might not be a

good supplement for athletes to take due to its side effects. If ingested, sodium bicarbonate can

cause gastrointestinal (GI) discomfort. If an athlete chooses to take NaHCO as a supplement to

better their performance, but experiences GI discomfort, instead of the performance enhancing

affect they predicted, their performance might be negatively altered. Depending on how strong

the symptoms are, the athlete might perform better without the use of the supplement. GI

comfort is important to the athlete’s performance, and if a supplement causes GI stress the

athlete might perform better without the added benefits of the ergogenic aid. The athlete must

weigh the benefits of the supplement and decide what would be better for them as an

individual and their overall performance in their sport.

While sodium bicarbonate is in the middle of discussion related to its ergogenic effects

on sports, there are other issues to be noted. Sodium bicarbonate ingestion has been

associated with mild gastrointestinal discomfort with reported symptoms including belching,

stomach cramping, bowel urgency, flatulence, diarrhea, bloating, stomach ache and vomiting

Cameron, S., Cooke, R., Brown, R., & Fairbairn, K.2010). Prior to Cameron, S., Cooke, R., Brown,

R., & Fairbairn, K. there had been only two studies investigating incidences of GI discomfort

associated with bicarbonate ingestion, both studies had been on athletes of low to medium

body mass. Rugby players tend to be larger in statue then the general athlete, and due to their

large stature they would need to ingest larger amounts of sodium bicarbonate to meet the

recommended dosage. The purpose of Cameron et al. study is to investigate physiological

responses, GI tolerability, and ergogenic effect of 0.3 g.kg body weight (BW) of NaHCO on

repeated sprint ability (RSA) in well trained rugby players.


There were 25 male rugby players recruited from Otago Sevens, Otago Focus Squad and

Otago Rugby Academy in Dunedin, New Zealand who participated in the randomized, double-

blind, placebo controlled, crossover trial. Participants were randomly assigned to consume

NaHCO or placebo for initial testing followed by a 7 day washout period. The testing was

replicated in opposite conditions under a crossover design so that each participant was each

owns control. Participants completed GI discomfort questionnaires at baseline, 60, 90, and 120

minutes post ingestion. Each participant followed a rugby-specific warm up and a nine minute

exercise simulating rugby game play followed by a five minute rugby specific repeated sprint

test (RSST). Immediately following the RSST blood was collected from the participants and the

individual participants rated their perceived exertion on a modified 10 point Borg scale. The

participants then had 24 hours to complete a chronic GI discomfort symptom questionnaire.

The Average age of participants was 21.6 years, the average height was 1.82 meters and

the average weight was 95 kilograms. There were no significant differences on performance

outcomes between the placebo and NaHCO conditions. NaHCO supplementation did increase

bicarbonate concentration and maintain pH during the high intensity exercise. There was

however a significantly higher incidence rate of belching, stomach ache, diarrhea, stomach

bloating and nausea in the NaHCO group compared to placebo. Also the severity of stomach

cramps, belching, stomach ache, bowel urgency, vomiting, stomach bloating, diarrhea and

flatulence reported in the NaHCO group was significantly worse after ingestion compared to

placebo.


The important findings of the study show that due to the higher incidence and severity

of GI discomfort after the consumption of NaHCO, physical performance of some individuals

might be negatively impacted. The study also shows that performance is not enhanced in well

trained rugby players, rather the NaHCO acts as a buffer against lactate buildup within the cell,

not necessarily an ergogenic affect. Therefore, individual athletes must decide what is more

important to their performance. Large athletes with higher body weight must take into

consideration the negative effects of sodium bicarbonate on the GI tract because large athletes

must consume larger amounts of NaHCO to meet the recommended dosage (Cameron, S.,

Cooke, R., Brown, R., & Fairbairn, K. 2010).

The problem statement was clearly made and related to the purpose of the study,

although the purpose investigated more than what the problem statement and the background

literature discussed. The background and framework should directly apply to the problem and

purpose statement, and cover the information needed for the research. In the Cameron et al.

study, the background literature discussed both the potential NaHCO ingestion benefits on the

rugby player’s performance, and the negative GI effects of NaHCO ingestion. However, the

problem statement only addressed the GI tolerability of ingested NaHCO, not the ergogenic

potential. The literature was very easy to understand and every section was clearly labeled to

avoid confusion. Although the study was a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled

crossover trial, there were still weaknesses. Based on the rule of thumb and the number of

variables being tested, the sample size is small. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were not given.

The sample size does not allow for the findings to be generalized. Even though the article and

problem was sport specific and would not necessarily relate to other sports, the small sample


size has limited generalization even for rugby players. The anthropometrical and body

composition measures were very similar with a small standard deviation, so that the findings of

the study could only be generalized to male rugby players who happen to have the same

physical characteristics. The Experimental testing protocol was clearly outlined in a figure within

the literature and helped with the understandability of the study. The visual aid of the protocol

strengthened and showed the organization of the study. The experimental testing protocol was

the strength of the study, however the findings would be stronger and more valid if the tests

were repeated. An increased number of repeated tests would allow for a larger collection of

data and the analysis would be strengthened by the quantity of data collected. The outcomes of

the analysis would be more reliable if there was a larger data pool to begin with. The GI

discomfort was measured on a Borg scale. This limits the results and reliability of the

questionnaire and therefore the study in general. The perceived exertion was also measured on

a 10 point Borg scale. A 10 point Borg scale, although easier for the participant to complete,

does not give the participant a true voice nor does it give the researcher strong ground to stand

on concerning the questionnaire. This will in turn limit the validity of the data collected and the

importance of the findings.

Conclusion

The research articles have shown that there is still much research to be conducted on

sodium bicarbonate ingestion as an ergogenic aid. All twelve of the articles had a very low

sample size. This was one of the biggest problems, because even if the evidence from three

studies showed the same results, each study still had questionable validity due to the sample


size. Many of the studies did not report on sample recruitment methods. They also did not

report on mortality or inclusion and exclusion criteria. The samples and the information given

about them was a weak point for all twelve of the articles. Future studies should focus on a

valid sample sizes so that the evidence can be strong and validity of results will not be

questioned.

More study’s need to be done on trained athletes. If the research purpose is to test a

potential ergogenic aid, test should be done on samples that are athletes and likely to use

ergogenic aids. This will also limit human error in exercise tests. When athletes are used for

testing, the procedure is sounder because it eliminates the possibility of human error due to a

subject’s lack of experience with exercise or competitive, high intensity situations. Untrained

subjects might react differently under testing conditions compared to an athlete who should be

use to high stress environments.

More studies need to be done on similar subjects and sports so that comparisons can be

drawn between the studies. It is hard to compare results between a tennis player and a

swimmer. The results might conclude the same thing, but the sports are very different and the

body will be performing differently which will affect the results. Comparison studies will also

help validate certain studies because another study will show similar results.

Based of the articles, sodium bicarbonate does benefit sport performance in high

intensity short exercises as well as longer moderate intensity exercise. The ergogenic effects are

moderate and do not dramatically improve performance, rather it helps athletes stay at a high

intensity for a longer period of time due to the muscle buffering capacity.


References

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