22

2 : Sustainable Development This chapter discusses the concept of sustainable development and its

understanding with respect to different definitions put forth with

discussions of different principles, pillars and theories of sustainability.

The chapter also gives brief of initiatives taken by international

organisations and governments for achieving sustainability. The brief

historical background of various initiatives taken by United Nations is

also discussed for its better understanding. The definition of

sustainability and concepts like Weak and Strong sustainability is also

discussed for its understanding. Chapter also explores the concept of

sustainable communities and sustainable architecture for its better

understanding at the end chapter discussed different theories,

arguments, barriers and divers of sustainable development. The chapter

is concluded with the summary.

2.1 Introduction to Sustainable Development:

The impact of growing population and our civilization on the environment and

resources of the planet was first identified by a demographer and political economist

of England, Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834), who in an essay on the ‘Principle

of Population’ in 1798 stated that “the world’s population would eventually starve or

at the least, live at a minimal level of subsistence because food production could not

keep pace with the growth of population” (Paul, 2008). He also wrote “Population

when unchecked increases the geometrical ratio and subsistence for man in an

arithmetical ratio” (Rogers Peter, 2008).

With technical advancement, whatever he said then was proven wrong. As Green

revolution which has initiated improvised farming techniques, the invention of new

farming equipments and advances in agricultural science, have resulted in the rapid

production reducing the food prices than it was two hundred years ago, or even fifty

years before, (Baumol William, 2007) but availability of the environmental resources

are still the issue.

23

To address this issue, international and national organizations were/are working on

several levels. As part of this may national and international level initiative were

taken and nations across the globe were invited and motivated to become a force in

itself to become a change which will contribute towards security of our planet. Some

of the initiatives are discussed below,

In the recent history i.e. in 1972, a Stockholm conference on the Human environment

was attended by 113 countries and 11 international representatives from

organisations. This was the first conference which was dedicated to the environmental

issues. This was the first time when all the industrialized and developing nations

together define the rights of human being to a healthy and productive environment.

Many such meetings were followed after the conference with the main emphasis on

“the rights of people to adequate food, sound housing, safe water, means of family

planning etc.” (United Nations, 2011). Stockholm Conference was resulted in the

formation of the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) with a task “to

provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by

inspiring, informing and enabling nations and people to improve their quality of life

without compromising that of future generations.”

The International Union for the Conservation of Natural resources (IUCN) in 1980

publishes the world conservation strategy (WCS) which first introduced the concept

of Sustainable Development. Ten years after the first conference of Environment in

1982 General assembly, the WCS initiative was concluded with the approval of the

World Charter Nature by saying ‘Mankind is a part of nature and life depends on the

uninterrupted functioning of natural systems’. World Commission on Environment

and Development (WCED) was then created in 1983 and a year later it has started

working as a self-regulating body in UN General Assembly. WCED was asked to

prepare ‘A global agenda for change’.

In 1983, after establishment of WCED, UN General Assembly has appointed Mrs.

Gro Harlem Brundtland, (then Prime Minister of Norway & later head of the WHO)

as the chair, which was afterwards known as the Brundtland Commission. The

Brundtland report has a responsibility to investigate the several concerns that had

been raised, such as the negative impact of human activities on nature and planet, and

the pattern of growth and development which would be unsustainable if they are not

controlled. The works which have highlighted this thinking includes Tragedy of

24

commons by Garret Hardin, the blueprint for survival by the Ecologist magazine, and

Limits to growth, reported by club of Rome. (SD-Commission, 2011).

In 1987, the Brundtland Commission published a report (Brundtland Report) ‘Our

Common Future’. It was built upon the achievement of the Stockholm conference and

provided the most politically significant definition of sustainable development -

“sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present

generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own

needs”. (Brundtland Commission, 1987). The definition contains two major

conceptions: firstly, the concept of 'needs', particularly the vital needs of the world's

poor, who were identified to be prioritised; and secondly the idea of restrictions

forced by the state and social organization on the environment's carrying capacity for

present and future needs.

In June 1992, the first UN conference of Rio de Jeneiro on Environment and

Development (UNED) had accepted a schedule for environment & development for

the 21st century. The Rio Declaration, Agenda 21 and the Commission on Sustainable

Development were the key outputs of the conference. The Earth Summit was thus

concluded with the clear and openly accepted concern on sustainable development by

the major global leaders, making this an international agenda for all. Even though

there was a common consensus on working towards Sustainable development

principle, but there was disagreement about its meanings and implications.

The Kyoto conference on Climate Change in 1997 developed a general framework

called ‘Kyoto Protocol’ which talks about cutting of greenhouse gases by developed

countries. The Countries were agreed on the specific targets, which were expected to

be detailed in few years. When European Union said it will cut down emission by

15%, US proposed only to stabilize emissions in September 2000 to achieve

Millennium Development Goals (MDG), most of which are targeted 2015 as a time

frame.

The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), Johannesburg (2002) was

a milestone in making businesses create partnerships between the UN, Governments,

Business and NGO’s to gather resources for addressing global environment health and

poverty challenges. This filled the gap in the ‘Agenda 21’ & MDG, addressed new

issues, like half the global population are without access to basic sanitation, to reduce

the use and production of chemicals by 2020 in such a way that it would not create

any bad effects on persons health and the environment to maintain the run down fish

25

stock which can generate maximum sustainable yield on an urgent basis; and

significant reduction in the loss of biodiversity by 2010. (Nelson, 2007).

There are set of principles which could be followed for effective implementations of

the initiatives discussed till now. These principles are discussed in the next section.

2.2 Principles of Sustainable Development: (Power, 2004)

2.2.1 Putting Sustainable Development at the Centre:

Sustainable development should be identified as an organising principle of all the

societies (democratic nature of the societies is identified as one of the factor to

achieve Sustainable Development effectively) which will act as a platform for all the

other goals, policies and government programmes and processes.

2.2.2 Valuing Nature:

All the Human beings are dependent on nature for their existence and livelihood. Our

economy and social wellbeing is also dependent on the natural resources.

2.2.3 Fair Shares:

‘Fair shares to all’ is a basic principle of sustainable economic development. This will

ensure provision of basic needs for all the population across the world. This will also

ensure the constant improvement in the quality of lives by means of inclusive

development.

2.2.4 Polluter Pays:

Sustainable development requires the control on ‘Pollution and inefficient use of

resources’ by pricing the products responsible for pollution and the inefficient use of

resources. The revenue generated could be invested in restoring the environment.

2.2.5 Good Governance:

As sustainable development requires different strategies for different societies, it

requires effective and participatory system of governance and institutions engaging

the interest, creativity and energy of all the citizens.

26

2.2.6 Adopting a Precautionary Approach:

Genuine sustainable economic growth is the best way to proceed with; scientist,

innovators and wealth creators’ play major role in this. Creativity and technology

needs to be used in such a way that it will not cause serious damage to the

environment and to peoples’ health.

2.3 International Scenario: Sustainable Development:

2.3.1 United Nation on Sustainability:

“Far from being a burden, sustainable development is an exceptional opportunity –

economically, to build markets and create jobs, socially to bring people in from the

margins; and politically, to give every man and woman a voice, and a choice, in

deciding their own future” the strategy adopted by United Nation is well expressed by

UN secretary – General Kofi Annan.

The sustainable development is looked after by the Division of Sustainable

Development (DSD) which is the part of Department of Economics and Social affairs

of UN. This provides sustainable development, an independent existence through

Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD), which provides scientific

collaboration and capacity – building at the national, international, and regional

levels. CSD reviews the progress, monitors and reports the implementations of

Agenda 21, the Barbadose Programme of action (BPOA) (internationally approved

programme, specific to Small Island Developing States) and the Johannesburg Plan of

Implementation (JPOI) at all levels. The commission meets annually in a two year

cycle for review and policy.

Agenda 21 identifies broad public participation in decision making as a fundamental

prerequisite for the achievement of SD and recognizes specific tasks &

responsibilities for nine main groups of public such as Female, Children and youth,

aboriginal people, labour and trade unions, business and industry, NGOs, Local

authorities, scientific and technical communities and farmers. The CSD supports

involvement and contribution of the key groups into the process and eases their

communication and participation in executive meetings of CSD.

Even though the partnership for sustainable development is voluntary in nature,

WSSD kick off more than 200 partnerships which are still growing.

27

2.3.1.1 Achievements of United Nations:

Table 2-1: The milestone achievements of United Nations:

“Sr. No. Year Particulars

1 1992 The UN Conference on Environment and Development

(UNCED, Earth Summit) (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) establishes

linkages among economic and social development and

environmental protection and adopts Agenda 21 and the Rio

Principles. December 1992 - The UN General Assembly creates

the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) to ensure

effective follow-up to UNCED.

2 1994 The Global Conference on Sustainable Development of Small

Island Developing States (SIDS) (Bridgetown, Barbados) adopts

the BPOA, which sets forth specific actions and measures for

the sustainable development of SIDS.

3 1997 The special session of the General Assembly Earth Summit + 5

(New York) adopts the Programme for the Further

Implementation of Agenda 21, including a programme of work

of CSD for 1998-2002.

4 2002 The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)

(Johannesburg, South Africa) evaluates obstacles to progress

and results achieved since the 1992 Earth Summit. WSSD

adopts the JPOI, which provides for a more focused approach,

with concrete steps and quantifiable and time-bound targets and

goals.

5 2005 At the 10-year review of the Barbados Programme of Action for

the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States

(Port Luis, Mauritius), States adopt the Mauritius Strategy for

the Further Implementation of the BPOA.

6 2004-

2005

Water, sanitation and human settlements.

7 2006-

2007

Energy for sustainable development, industrial development, air

pollution/atmosphere and climate change.

28

“Sr. No. Year Particulars

8 2008-

2009

Agriculture, rural development, land, drought, desertification

and Africa.

9 2010-

2011

Transport, chemicals, waste management, mining and 10-year

framework of programmes on consumption and production

patterns.

10 2012-

2013

Forests, bio-diversity, biotechnology, tourism and mountains.

11 2014-

2015

Oceans and seas, marine resources, small island developing

States, and disaster management and vulnerability.

12 2016-

2017

Overall appraisal of implementation of Agenda 21, the

Programme for the Further Implementation of Agenda 21 and

the JPOI.” Source: (United Nations, 2005)

2.3.1.2 Sustainable Development Goals of United Nations:

Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) are accompanied by the targets and

elaborated through indicators of measureable outcomes which are action oriented,

global in nature and also universally applicable. These SDGs are further extended on

the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) which were agreed by the governments

in 2000 and is due to expire at the end of 2015 (Ford, 2015).

Thus, the post 2015 goals were discussed and proposed in RIO+20 summits in 2012.

The first meeting held in March 2013 with representative of 70 countries and

published the final draft with 17 suggestions in July 2014 and presented them in UN

assembly in September 2014. Along with conversation with 11 thematic and 83

international consultations, a door to door survey was conducted to ask people to

prioritise their areas, which could be addressed in the goals.

They are chosen in a way that they will take into account different national realities,

capacities and levels of development and frames in such a way that it will respect the

national policies and priorities. The goals and targets thus integrate economic, social

and environmental aspects and recognize their inter-linkages in achieving sustainable

development in all its dimensions.

29

“The proposed seventeen sustainable goals are as below:

I. End of Poverty in all its forms.

II. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition & to promote

sustainable agriculture.

III. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all for all age groups.

IV. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning

opportunities for all.

V. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

VI. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.

VII. Ensure availability of affordable, reliable and sustainable modern energy for

all.

VIII. Promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive

employment and decent work for all.

IX. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable

industrialization and foster innovation.

X. Reduce inequality within and among countries.

XI. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.

XII. Ensure sustainable consumption and production pattern.

XIII. Urgent action to fight climate change and its impact (acknowledging that the

UNFCCC is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for

negotiating).

XIV. Conserve the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable use and

development.

XV. Restore and promote sustainable use of global ecosystems, sustainably manage

forests, stop desertification, and reverse land degradation and stop biodiversity

loss.

XVI. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide

access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive

institutions at all levels.

XVII. Strengthen the means of implementation and renew the global partnership for

sustainable development.”

30

Even though many countries are happy with the goals, few countries including Japan

and UK feels the goals are too many, therefore, the goals must be reduced down to 10

to 12, including few NGOs with the same opinion. General consensus accept the need

of 17 goals which include issues like women empowerment, good governance, peace

and security, which otherwise have not identified as achievable and important goals

for good quality life. (Ford, 2015). The finance to achieve these goals is proposed to

be raised through private sector, through tax reforms, and through crackdown on

illegal financial flows and corruption along with public finance and aid from central

support.

2.3.2 World Bank on Sustainability (The World Bank, 2015):

The World Bank (WB) recognizes that the economic growth has raised 660 million

people or more out of poverty in last two decades and has raised the income levels but

has come at the expense of the environment and the poor communities. Sustainable

development recognizes that growth must be inclusive and environmental friendly to

reduce poverty and build prosperity for today’s population with continuation for

future generations for their desires.

The three pillars of SD - Economic growth, ecological stewardship and Social

inclusion should be carried across all the sectors of the development and for urban

areas to rural areas, agriculture to infrastructure water availability to transportation.

The main question faced by the countries, cities, corporations and development

organizations is how to address sustainable development?

2.3.2.1 Strategy:

The WB Group has integrated the principles of sustainable development into its work

with clients across all sectors and regions.

The mission of the statement released in 2013 was;

I. To end extreme poverty and promote prosperity,

II. To be sustainable over time and across generations.

III. To promote environmental, social and fiscal sustainability.

IV. Aimed for social inclusion

V. To limit the size of economic debt inherited by future generations.

Now, the sustainable development goals (SDG) are expected to be launched by UN

assembly to set the goals, targets and indicators that countries will use in next 15

31

years as a framework for designing their agendas and policies. World Bank group is

supporting the design and implementation of the financial solution to meet the future

needs.

The WB’s work in sustainable development of the urban development projects

includes energy efficiency in building and planned development based on low carbon

growth, public transit, social inclusion, and Public services, etc.

Inclusive green growth report of WB has provided an analytical framework and

priority steps for clients to design public policies and encourage investment for the

sustainable development and better living standards in developing countries. The

initiatives like clean air and water, solid waste management, poverty alleviation,

environmental policies to enhance productivity are part of the policies in urban

development. For rural areas, the WB proposes the resource efficiency, climate

friendly and smart agriculture practices and a landscape approach that recognizes the

interdependence of forests, water supplies and food security.

2.3.2.2 Goals of World Bank:

I. The basic goal of WB is sustainable energy for all: achieving global access to

power, repetition the rate of enhancement of energy efficiency and doubling-

up the share of renewable energy by 2030.

II. Change the climate conditions.

III. Promote indicators for monitoring the performance to ensure the successful

efforts towards sustainable development.

IV. To develop greenhouse gas accounting standards and tools, measures for green

growth and national accounting indicators for comprehensive wealth to ensure

sustainable growth in long run.

2.3.2.3 Results:

Sustainable practices help to deal with the climate change. The WB helps countries by

promoting consultancy in urban development, energy, transportation, infrastructure,

agriculture, water, environment, and climate change, and information and

communication technologies. The World Bank helps countries create the policies,

development plans and practices with the foundation of sustainable growth.

32

The WB group helps countries to take action on climate change through Greenhouse,

Gas Protocol and Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) to

decrease emission and increase energy efficiency.

The WB is also financing for power generation, transmission and distribution and

energy policy and regulatory reform. The WB is also providing analytical services

and policy support to launch or scale up renewable energy generation at national, sub-

national and municipal level.

In order to support sustainable urban development and improve the lives of urban

dwellers (Vietnam), there is a need to improve the infrastructure (Bangladesh),

housing, environmental and living conditions for the poor, water supply and waste

disposal (China), public transport, low-carbon growth in cities, and Bus rapid transit

system (Bogota, Mexico city and Lagos).

Through these sectors, the WB group is contributing to the development of a common

vision for sustainability and green growth to achieve sustainable development.

2.3.3 European Union (EU) on Sustainability

The traditional definition of sustainable development: “Development that meets the

needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet

their own needs.” This could be defined as the growth that will not put at risk the

growth possibilities of the future generations and also will not hamper the better

quality of life for present generations. This visualizes the progress to integrate direct

and long-term objectives, local & global act and to analysis social, economic and

environmental issues as indivisible and co-dependent components of individual

growth (European Commission, 2015) and measured equally at the political level. The

strategy is adopted in 2001 and amended in 2005 is complemented by the principle of

integrating environmental concerns with European policies. (Europa, 2012)

The sustainable development covers a wide area and will not be addressed only

through policies, but it will also be taken up by the community or society at large and

talks about choices of the individuals of the society, spending and manufacturing

pattern as well as a big political, economic and social structures.

2.3.3.1 2009 Review of the EU Sustainable Development Strategy (EU SDS)

EU has adopted sustainable development as a broad range of its policies in July 2009

(2009 Review of EU SDS) to take a lead in the fight against the climate change and

33

promoting low carbon economy. The EU confirmed that “Sustainable development

remains a fundamental objective of the EU under Lisbon Treaty, and continue to

provide long term vision and policy framework for policies and strategies”. The issues

identified are;

I. High energy consumption in transportation sector

II. Current loss of biodiversity

III. Loss of natural resources

The review identifies governments’ role for implementing, monitoring and follow up

mechanisms for reinforcing the policies for clearer links for the EU 2020.

2.3.3.2 The EU Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS):

The European Council of 2006 adopted renewed sustainable development strategy.

This sets a single, coherent strategy on how the EU will more effectively adopt the

long-standing assurance to meet challenge of SD. It identifies the unsustainable

spending and manufacturing patterns and move towards an integrated approach to

strategy creation. The overall aim of the EU SDS is to recognize and extend the

activities to facilitate the EU to achieve a continuous long-lasting improvement of the

quality of life by creating sustainable communities to supervise the use of resources

economically, ecological and social innovation potential of the economy to give

prosperity, environmental protection and social cohesion.

2.3.3.3 Strategy:

“The Policy is aimed at providing the:

I. Climate change and clean energy

II. Sustainable transport

III. Sustainable consumption & production

IV. Conservation and management of natural resources

V. Public health

VI. Social inclusion, demography and migration

VII. Global poverty and sustainable development challenges”

The EU SDS proposes the mechanism for improving coordination between the

governments, businesses, NGOs and citizens for their involvement in working

towards sustainable development to implement it for the whole EU. Education,

34

research and community investment are considered as facilitating the transition of

more sustainable production and consumption pattern.

2.3.4 United Kingdom on Sustainability (sd-commission, 2011):

The commonly agreed fact nowadays is human activities are resulting in the

potentially devastating effects, mainly on environment. The global financial crisis has

also raised the issue of sustainable economic development as well. More than 25 years

since Brundtland commissions report on ‘Our common future’, governments are still

struggling to place sustainable development at the core of any development. Many

people have devoted their lives for this cause but it is hard to treat future as important

as present. This is the identified fact in the introduction by the sustainable

development commission of United Kingdom.

2.3.4.1 Sustainable Development Commission (SDC):

The Sustainable Development Commission (SDC) was established in the year 2000,

but yet the governments are not able to structure the limitation of short term political

and budgetary cycles, with limited departmental responsibilities for making long term

decisions for major challenges. As rightly identified by the commission, it is a proven

fact that the politics, the environment and commerce cannot be treated separately, so

the issues should be resolved collectively, as isolation results in the adverse effects on

sustainable development. Sustainable development is all about considering improved

image, as in one of the examples given on the SDC’s website “Improving access to,

and the quality of, green space can improve local infrastructure for active travel,

whilst improving health and well-being across the community, at the same time as

improving the local environment.”

Since 2000, SDC has helped policy makers and consultants locate sustainable

development as a working with choice in the four governments of UK. In the final

report ‘Governing for the future’, commission identifies that the work has started but

is not enough and still in the stage of beginning; the report shares the challenges and

barriers, successes and opportunities experienced during this process.

In the SDC’s Environmental Audit Committee (EAC) in 2010, many new assessments

were proposed to push sustainable development by the governments but this was not

given due importance in the new proposal that is introduced by the coalition in the

year 2011. Even though the recommendation given by the government, the

35

commission also identifies the sustainable development needs involvement from

every part of the society and government alone cannot control the issue. In UK since

last ten years commission has noticed encouraging progress at individual and

grassroots levels, as well as management in each division of industry, academic

institutions and NGOs.

The Big Sustainable summit was held in March 2011, to identify the citizen’s network

across the community and set up sustainability information centre amongst the

important universities across the globe. Many new proposals were discussed in the

summit to encourage sustainable practices. For the effective implementation of the

sustainable approach for any development a strong political consensus is required

across all the parties, so that the political cycles will not affect the initiatives taken by

the earlier government. (Will Day & Andrew Lee, 2011)

2.3.4.2 After SDC, United Kingdom:

The Cameron government in 2011 has abolished the SDC and disagreed with the

advice given in the EAC then. In the policy paper, ‘2010 to 2015 government policy:

sustainable development’, by conservative and Liberal Democrat coalition

government, has redefined sustainable development as “to realise the vision of the

government on the stimulating economic growth and tackling the deficit, maximising

the wellbeing and protecting the environment, without affecting the ability of the

future generation to do the same thing”.

The sustainable development will be seen as a development of the policies, run its

buildings and buy its goods and services by the government. All the departments were

made responsible for making their own policies and activities to ensure sustainable

development; the ‘Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA)’

has given a role to administer the sustainable development across the central

government. Every department is expected to review their progress annually.

(GOV.UK, 2015)

2.3.4.3 Greening Government Commitments:

Greening government commitments are targets of central government departments

and their agencies to reduce waste, water usage and carbon emission by 2015, making

procurement more sustainable. These are aimed at reducing the impact on the

environment (Ex reducing paper will reduce cutting of trees) and to improve

36

operational efficiency (Ex: reduction in carbon emission reduce the taxpayers’ fuel

bills). The sustainability in procurement will be achieved through buying power to

encourage suppliers to make their products and services and contractors carry out

works in a way which are more sustainable. (GOV.UK, 2015)

2.3.4.4 Sustainability Indicators:

Government has developed new sustainability indicators (SDIs) to measure national

progress on key issues which are important economically, socially and

environmentally in the long term. Economy indicators include Gross Domestic

Product (GDP), Median income and poverty. Social indicators include healthy life

expectancy, fuel poverty and housing provisions. Environmental indicators include

green house gas emission, renewable energy consumption, and bird populations.

The vision on the sustainable development was launched by the government in Feb,

2011, where government has quoted, “we want to make sustainable development,

central to the way we make policy, run our buildings and purchase goods and

services’. To achieve this, the government is working with EAC and National Audit

Office (NAO). The EAC reviews the governments” progress towards sustainable

development. (GOV.UK, 2015)

2.3.5 The United States:

In the press statement released by Bureau of Ocean and international environmental

and scientific affairs, New York City, on November 1, 2011, US gave its vision on

sustainable development for next twenty years. In this, US has quoted that the

sustainable development is not a luxury but a necessity of every country at all stages

of development. Obama Government’s Global Development Policy identified

sustainable development to offer long-term promises, inclusive, and enduring growth

that builds on accountability, effectiveness, efficiency, coordination, and innovation.

It also highlighted the transparent and accessible governments, engaging society and

networks across all the divisions of the society along with the role of women and

youth for sustainable future. Also to state the commitment to encourage development

in science and innovation through the use of incentive systems, investment in

education, the work force, basic research promoting innovative, open and competitive

markets, protection of intellectual rights and transparent, science-based, regulatory

approaches and standards. (U. S. Department of States, 2011).

37

2.3.5.1 American States on Sustainable Development (USOAS, 2015):

The Organization of American States (OAS) is helping member states since last 25

years to incorporate environmental considerations in their development projects. One

of the biggest initiatives came at the 1996 Summit of the Americas on Sustainable

Development, held in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. The declaration signed and Plan of action

proposed has authorised OAS to coordinate the development across the member

states.

The U. S. Mission works with OAS department of sustainable development (DSD),

which helps states to design and implement the policies, projects and programmes of

sustainable development. The DSD works on five general thematic area of sustainable

development such as;

I. Energy and climate change

II. Natural hazard risk management

III. Integrated water resource management

IV. Biological diversity and

V. Environmental law and policy.

2.3.5.2 Current Activities of OAS (USOAS, 2015):

2.3.5.2.1 Bio-fuels:

The U.S.-Brazil Bio-fuels cooperation (2007) with the assistance of DSD is closely

working to undertake the development assistance to develop local bio-fuel industry

for domestic consumption. The development activities range from technical assistance

to the feasibility studies, capacity building for human as well as institutions. The U.S.

Mission and U.S. Government have provided significant funding for the project.

2.3.5.2.2 Regional Workshops:

In OAS General Assembly in Panama 2007, organization issued the Declaration of

Panama: Energy for Sustainable Development. To support this declaration, regional

energy workshops were arranged in the area of energy and the climate change by the

U. S. The workshop talks about the sustainable energy development suitable for the

different regions and facilitates the replace of best practices.

38

2.3.5.2.3 Supporting Agreements:

The U. S. Mission is also assisting the Environmental Cooperation Agreement, 2005.

OAS Department of Sustainable Development (DSD) is implementing monitoring and

evaluation of cooperation activities under the agreement’s work plan.

2.3.5.2.4 Disaster Relief & American Biodiversity:

US – OAS collaboration on the regional implementation of the strategies and

framework for natural disaster risk relief, such as ‘Regional Platform for Disaster risk

Reduction of the Hyogo Framework for Action’. The U. S. Mission facilitates the U.

S. Geological Survey’s involvement with the Inter-American Biodiversity

Information Network, a hosted by DSD for information exchange.

2.3.5.2.5 Inter-Agency Cooperation:

U.S. Mission collaborates with different U.S. law-making agencies, which includes

U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of State’s Bureau of Oceans, Environment,

& Science, and other organizations involved in policy discussions of environmental

and sustainable development.

2.3.5.3 U.S. on Sustainable Development Initiative (The White House,

2010):

A 21st century development policy, President Obama has signed a Presidential Policy

Directive on Global Development. The directive identifies the development as an

important to U.S. national security and is a planned, economic, and ethical necessity

for the United States. This gives clear policy guidelines to all the U. S. government

agencies and enumerates the objectives, operational model and the modern

architecture to implement the policy.

“The approach of the policy is to address the global development through the three pillars such as,

I. A Policy that focuses on sustainable development and outcomes a premium on broad based economic growth, democratic governance, game changing innovations and sustainable systems for meeting basic human needs;

II. A new operation model that positions the U.S. to be a more effective partner and to leverage our leadership; and

39

III. A modern architecture that elevates development and harnesses development capabilities spread across government in support of common objectives.”

2.3.5.4 The Global Climate Change Initiative (The White House, 2010) :

As per Development policy and Global climate change initiative by President

Obama, U.S. is set to incorporate climate change into appropriate overseas aid

through bilateral, multilateral and private mechanism. It promotes the low-carbon

growth, sustainable and flexible societies reduce emissions due to deforestation & soil

degradation. The government administration with country owned plans and

determined to reach the focused measurable results through climate efficient, effective

and innovative financing. As a part of Copenhagen commitment, U.S. is also helping

partners to meet the adaption and mitigation needs of a developing country and

promoting technology of clean and clear energy.

2.3.5.5 Investment in Clean Energy:

To trim down emission of greenhouse gases from energy generation and energy use,

there is a need to promote technology of clean energies, policies and practices. The

policy proposes the willingness of U. S. to deliver its aid for encouraging clean

technology during multilateral trust funds. The administration has focused on four

different areas such as “sustainable clean energy development, energy efficiency, low

carbon energy, and clean transport” to achieve this target.

2.3.5.6 Supporting Climate Change Resilience and Adaptation:

The U. S. administration has identified and focused adaption investment on improving

the distribution of knowledge to identify climate change vulnerabilities, creating

inclusive, transparent and responsive (to the needs) governance systems, which

implements the solutions for climate as locally appropriate and empower the

population to overcome from the challenges of climate change.

2.3.6 India:

India is recognized as one of the emerging economic superpowers in the world. After

identifying its role to address the accumulation of greenhouse gases in environment,

anthropologically generated through long term and exhaustive industrial growth and

elevated consumption lifestyle in the developing country, India is working

40

collectively and cooperatively with the international organisations. India has

established its first ever ‘National Action Plan on the Climate change’

India which is mainly dependent on the natural weather for its agriculture, water and

forestry, the climate change is a major threat to the country. The development in India

therefore needs economic and social development, eradication of poverty and the

maintenance of the ecological balance, and India’s adherence to its civilization

legacy.

2.3.6.1 Principles of Sustainable development (Governmnet of India,

2007):

Improvising living standards of majority of population is a prime aim of Indian

government, which requires maintaining high economic growth rate, reducing its

impact on climate change. In order to achieve this National Action Plan for Climate

Change (NAPCC) is guided by the following principles:

I. Protection of the poor and vulnerable society through inclusive & sustainable

development strategies, along with sensitivity towards climate change.

II. Nationwide growth through qualitative transformation to enhance ecological

sustainability and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

III. Demand Side Management through efficient and cost effective planning.

IV. Set up ‘appropriate technologies’ to revise & improve the greenhouse gases

emission.

V. New and innovative forms of market, regulatory and voluntary mechanisms

are to be established to promote sustainable development.

VI. Unique linkages for the effecting implementation of programmes through

public-private partnership between civil society and local government.

VII. Providing additional funding through international cooperation for research

development, sharing and transfer of expertise under the United Nations

Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

2.3.6.2 Approach to Sustainable Development:

NAPCC identifies the measures that will promote the development objectives along

with benefits of the addressing the climate change effectively. It delineates process to

lead India’s development and climate change simultaneously. NAPCC has proposed

the use of new technologies. The implementation plans through appropriate

41

institutional mechanism for effective delivery is suggested for each objective and

proposes public-private partnership and civil society action. The focus is on

promoting understanding of climate change, adaption, mitigation, energy efficiency

and natural resource conservation.

To achieve this, eight national missions are proposed for integrated strategies and

long term plans. As some of the programmes are currently in action, needs change in

direction of implementation to address the issue of climate change.

2.3.6.2.1 National Solar Mission:

National Solar Mission (NSM) is set with the objectives to increase the share of solar

energy in the total energy produced in the country, and to increase the option of

renewable and non-fossile such as wind energy, nuclear energy and biomass.

Photovoltic cells become cheaper with the new technlogy; there is a reflactor based

technology which could be used in bigger solar panel power plants across the country.

Again introduction of R & D programme in solar energy with the help of internation

cooperations is proposed as a step forward.

2.3.6.2.2 National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency:

Through ‘Energy conservation Act 2001’ Government has set to implement energy

efficiency through institutional mechanism of Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)

There are four new initiatives proposed to encourage energy efficiency;

I. Energy saving certificates for large industries and facilities.

II. Encouraging new measures to make energy efficient appliances inexpensive.

III. Formation of mechanism to assist finance demand side management by

capturing energy saving in all sectors.

IV. Providing financial mechanism to promote energy efficiency.

2.3.6.2.3 National Mission on Sustainable Habitat:

Mission launched with the intention of improving the energy efficiency in built mass,

by managing solid waste and shifting to public transport. Energy efficiency will be

promoted as an important part of the urban planning and urban renewal through

initiatives like,

I. Energy conservation building code

II. Recycling the material and urban waste.

42

III. Improved urban planning & urban transport

Apart from this the mission will address the resilience of infrastructure for future

climate change, community based disaster management and improvement in the

extreme weather warning systems.

2.3.6.2.4 National Water Mission:

This will lead to the efforts to conserve water, minimize wastage, and ensure more

equitable distribution of integrated water resource management. The usage of water

will be achieved by regulatory mechanism with differential entitlement and pricing.

The water conservation will be achieved through water level management of ground

water by rain water harvesting and ground water recharge and encouraging sprinkler

system, drip, ridge and furrow irrigation.

2.3.6.2.5 National Commission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem:

The Mission is launched to safeguard and protect the ecology of the Himalayan

glaciers and mountain ecosystem. Himalayas a source of major perennial rivers, it is

important to identify the solutions to address the problem of recessed glaciers. The

information could be shared with the other neighbouring countries along Himalayan

ecology. Assess to freshwater resources and the health of ecosystem can be ensured

through observational and monitoring network.

2.3.6.2.6 National Mission for Green India:

The mission aimed at enhancing ecosystem from carbon sink. Preservation of forests

through biodiversity and ecological balance and deforestation is already announced on

six million hectors of land.

2.3.6.2.7 National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture:

This mission is focused to make Indian agriculture, climate change resilient. This will

include identification of new varieties of crops, alternative cropping patterns, to

withstand extreme weather conditions like long dry seasons, flooding and variable

moisture availability. Integrate the traditional knowledge and practice systems

through new system.

43

2.3.6.2.8 National Mission on Strategic Knowledge on Climate Change:

The international communities involved in research and technology development will

be collaborated through mechanism of open platform for knowledge sharing for the

strategic knowledge mission. This will identify the disputes related to climate change

and also responses to those challenges. This will ensure high quality and focused

research onto climate change.

2.3.6.3 Implementation of Mission:

The Institutionalized structure of ministries through formation of the sectoral groups

including experts from industry, academia and civil society will implement these

missions. This structure may be modified as per requirement, where specific

objectives will be assigned to each mission with targeted time frame.

The detailed objectives, strategies, Plan of action, timelines and monitoring and

evaluation criteria will be given in the mission document, which then will be

submitted to the Prime Minister’s council, which is the review the progress. For the

public awareness, National portal will be prepared; media engagements, involvement

of civil society, curricula reforms, recognition and awards etc. will be adopted.

2.4 Theories and arguments of sustainable development

As a concept the sustainability and sustainable development is a vast subject with lot

of opinions, definitions, arguments, acceptances, rejections. Originally the concept

was emerged out of political and administrative processes and not scientific one. And

now it has become more evident with the facts like, The Greenhouse effect

transforming global and local weather patterns, 100 year floods become frequent

events, as do the frequency of powerful hurricanes, continental forest fires, and other

disasters; etc. (Burns, 2012).

The need of sustainability was felt way before; the first accepted definition is given by

Brundtland Commission in 1987 where sustainable development is defined as

‘Development that meets the need of present without compromising the ability of the

future government to meet their own needs.’ (Brundtland, 1987) In achieving social

and economic goals the commission recognised that ecosystems, which must be

safeguarded and the diminution of natural resources should be minimized (Grierson

D., 2011). Many people do not accept this definition and argue that the ethical role of

44

human is not specified in the definition along with welcoming the valuable

participation of other constituents of the ecosystem. (Kim J. J., 1998).

Dresner in 2002 and Purvise and Grainger in 2004, had elaborate the definition put

forth by Brundtland as a necessary political compromise between the management of

global environment and protectionism aim of north and human health and

development needs of the south (Dresner, 2002) (Purvise & Grainger, 2004). This

concept incorporates the environment and inter-generational dimensions in neo

classical economic development theory by accepting the current approaches of

economic development (Purvise & Grainger, 2004). This fundamentally accepts the

improvement in human conditions of developing countries with the growth in

economy considering the environmental capacities and need of future generations.

There is lot of confusion and non clarity on sustainability in which the policy makers,

academicians and practitioners are working currently. They have accepted principle’s

of sustainable development as a framework as they approves their moral and practical

intentions.

The attempt was also made in early nineties to price the environment by internalising

all the external cost to the economy in terms of pollution, human health and depletion

of natural resources, but it was unsure how to price depleting and irreplaceable natural

resources, fair distribution issue and intergenerational demand (Dresner, 2002). The

economic tax reforms to address the issue have resulted in more government funds to

invest in the technology which would be helpful in environmental improvements.

In another approach to sustainability, which talks about the ‘Environmental space

utilization’ introduced in 1982 by Siebert and enhanced by Opschoor, reflects the

limits to the amount of pressure, the ecosystem can withstand without irreplaceable

loss by determining the operational boundaries to the environmental space to be

utilized. This is similar to conceptual principles of ecological footprint (Opschoor,

1987). Pearce claims the reduction of resource consumption in North will not improve

the wellbeing of people of south. He suggested the flexible pricing (across the world)

to allow developing countries to consume more on the similar price of developed

countries (with limited consumption) (Pearce, Markandya, & Barbier, 1989).

The theories of sustainability have limitations when it is applied to spatial planning, as

existing theories talk about specific geographical level (Purvise & Grainger, 2004),

whether locally, regionally or internationally but, ignores the spatial relations amongst

them. This needs analytical approach to deliver sustainable development with human

45

geography which can be measured with ecology and social scale. Here Purvise and

Grainger also emphasis the use of ‘participatory paradigm’ within sustainable

development policy, which can be as effective as other policies based on legal, policy

and institutional framework for the successful grassroots level activity. They also

argue that the current working framework is like a tokenism by nations, states and

global level.

2.5 Theoretical approaches of Sustainability

Ayre and Callaway in 2005 had pointed out that the academic literature still in the

process of hunting for the different sets of policy goals to achieve sustainability at

international level, (Figueroa Küpcü, 2005). The established literatures, concepts and

arguments were still elaborating the Northern approach focusing more on

environmental protection (e.g. climate change, biodiversity, protection of species and

Habitats), while south still struggling for the human health and economic growth for

its development. This has led to the conceptual development of sophisticated

understanding if the term sustainability. This was elaborated by Elkington in 1997,

when he defined sustainability, through the three pillars of sustainability such as

Social (People - quality of life), Economy (Profit - enhancing wealth) and

Environment (Planet - impact on natural environment) and therefore, called as triple

bottom line (Elkington, 1997), which is explained through venn diagram shown in

figure 2-1.

Figure 2-1: Three Pillar of Sustainability. Source: (MMU, 2015)

Figure 2-2: Triple Bottom Line for sustainability. Source: (Thulesius, 2012)

46

There are many more definitions of sustainability given by researchers, academicians,

politicians, policy makers, sociologist, economist and environmentalist but all the

definitions have accepted the three pillars of sustainability. Similarly these three

elements or pillars have also introduced potential complications to the original simple

definitions as the goals expressed are multi-dimensional and requires knowledge of

how to balance objectives and how to judge success and failure. (Harris, June 2000).

This was further elaborated in Russian Doll diagram or embedded model of

understanding by O’Riordan, 1998 where he elaborate the principal that all the

economic activities should be focused towards the social progress of the community,

which should be achieved within the environmental limits (O'Riordan & Voisey,

1998). The concept has suggested a slight shift away from weak sustainability

concept, and accepts the eco-essential development as elaborated by Brundtland. This

concept is argued to be unattainable due to it’s over simplicity.

Figure 2-3: Russian Doll Explanation. Source: (O'Riordan & Voisey, 1998)

With these three pillars as a base, few researchers identify culture (Enhancing quality

of life and quality of place) (Kingston, 2015) as the fourth pillar of sustainability

whereas some identify Politics (Democracy) as the fourth element of sustainability.

2.5.1 The Economic Perspective:

The neo classical theory says that sustainability can be defined as ‘maximization of

welfare over the time’; this welfare is assumed as human welfare, as non human will

be considered as an ecological perspective. Human welfare is further defined in terms

of availability of food, clothing, housing, transportation, health and education

services. In economics, the sustainability appears to mean the effective management

47

of the resources or efficient allocation of resources which is no different than the

standard economic theory, but then what would happen to the future, remains the

question as the resources reduced with the use. Thus to achieve the intergenerational

equity, the low discount rate should be imposed (Cline, 1992) or there should be some

regulations regarding the resource used and the environmental impact as economist

provides no upper limits.

2.5.2 The Ecological Perspective:

Unlike economist, ecologists adapted the idea of limits i.e. sustainability must

emphasize limits on population and consumption levels. As per the calculations

provided by Ecologist, Paul Ehrlich and his colleagues, it shows that humans are now

consuming 40% of the basic energy supplied for all the territorial animals; increasing

the population further will still decrease the basic energy supply for other species on

the planet (Ehrlich, 1986). The simple theory of limits do not really give the picture of

economist perspective as there are possibilities of genetic diversity and the resultant

processes of evolution and change in species and ecosystem (Holling, 1994).

The Economist thus defines sustainability in terms of maintaining the ecosystem

which is different from human centric definition of WCED and Consumption based

principle of economist. (Harris, June 2000).

The importance of the ecological perspective is becoming increasingly evident

through failure of ecology, climate change, climate volatility, flooding, melting

glaciers, raising sea level, increasing heat, etc. This requires integration between

Environment and Economy in the development which could be achieved through the

conscious social actions.

2.5.3 The Social Perspective:

Sustainable development recognizes the social component as an essential part of the

new concept. Basic needs and equity which are identified through economic theory

are emphasizing the issue of Human Development. Human development index which

is measured by success of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National product

(GNP), also focuses on the aspects like democratic governance, gender equality,

poverty and also combines the life expectancy, adult literacy, and school enrolment

ratios, etc. Thus the concept of sustainable development also raises the issue of

whether present life styles are acceptable and can it be passed on to the next

48

generation as inter and intra generational equity should go hand in hand as

development patterns that continue today’s inequities are neither sustainable nor

worth sustaining. (UNDP, 1994). In addition to the above, world bank has introduced

Genuine Savings as a measure (ex. Expenditure in education or Expenditure in

enhancing natural resources etc.). The measure is influenced by both social and

environmental factors. (Harris, June 2000).

The social development could be enhanced through the cultural perspective of

sustainable development.

2.5.4 The Cultural Perspective:

The word culture is a complex and contextual word that has different understandings

and meanings. The literature still finds two interrelated definitions for the word

(Hawkes, 2001).

I. “The culture is a social production and transmission of identity, meanings, knowledge, beliefs, values, aspirations, memories, purposes, attitudes and understanding.

II. The culture is a ‘way of life’ of a particular set of humans: customs, faith and conventions, code of manners, dress, cuisine, language, arts, science, technology, religion and rituals, norms and regulations of behaviour, traditions and institutions.”

Figure 2-4: Culture as fourth pillar of sustainability. Source: (Sustainable Antigonish, 2015)

Now the current definition of the sustainable development says, ‘The lack of

resources and unregulated exploitation of these will cause degradation and depletion;

it needs careful planning and controlled as material wealth or prosperity will result in

the poverty and ecological disaster in long run’ whereas well-being says, even though

society is more materially prosperous than ever before, many of its members feel

49

excluded, unhappy, powerless, so whatever is good for the economy may not be good

for the society. (Hawkes, 2001). So, some people argue that the cultural components

become vital in making the communities sustainable in the process of sustainable

development.

2.5.5 The Political Perspective (UNESCO, 2010):

Few thinkers consider Political systems as

a fourth component of sustainable

development. Political system is a social

power exercised to make policies and

decisions on economics and environment

and is also indentified as a democracy

which provides voice to people for fair and

equal say in managing the social, economic

and environmental development of the

society.

Figure 2-5: Politics as a fourth element of

sustainability. Source: (UNESCO, 2010)

Here the power to choose, participate and contribute is most vital and needs support

system at local, regional, national and international levels. The efforts to encourage

democracy needs,

I. Development of democratic institutions around the world

II. Capacity building for NGOs, Professional associations and other elements of

vibrant society;

III. Eradication of corruption in government and business; and

IV. Decentralization of decision making at local levels.

This encourages long term sustainable development through public participation in

every aspect of sustainability.

2.5.6 Human Development Index and Sustainability

UNDP has launched Human Development Index (HDI) in 1990 with a goal to focus

attention away from income or economy towards measure of human development.

But even if it did not deny the per capita income as one of the main determinant of

country’s level of human development, it proposed to treat it as one of the main

determinants amongst three (e.g. life expectancy at birth and adult literacy)

50

(Neumayer, 2001). The concept of HDI and environmental degradation was first

discussed by Meghanad Desai in 1995, in which he suggest that the poor HDI means

lower environmental degradation and vice a versa (Desai, 1995). Neumayer and

Qizilbash in 2001, had done extensive research in this area to accept the suggestion

put forth by Desai in 1995 to integrate resource exploitation and environmental

degradation into the HDI (Neumayer, 2001) (Scottish Executive, 2006) There are still

many arguments on how to define human development as it is calculated based on

Knowledge (Education index), Long and healthy life (life expectancy) and a decent

standard of living (GNI-Gross National Income) (UNDP, 2015), and as emphasised

by Amartya Sen, the greed to earn more and more wealth results in the deep suffering

of humanity. These sufferings as categorised for its reasons are Natural calamities,

Greed for wealth and Bad governance or social injustice. This does not get sufficient

place in the HDI along with the ethics and spiritual development as elaborated in

ancient Indian literature. (Basu, 2005).

2.5.7 Institutional and governance dimension

The Institutional dimensions are discussed for effective implementation of

environmental decisions. Environmental governance looks at the distribution of power

for environmental decision making within the established set up. It deals with civil

and political rights keeping people’s quality of life at the centre, by expecting the

inclusion of the most vulnerable in the decision making. (Scottish Executive, 2006).

Figure 2-6: Multi-dimensional understanding of sustainable development as elaborated in Irlend Technical Document, 2004 (Scottish Executive, 2006)

51

Ireland technical document had demonstrated a multi dimensional understanding of

sustainable development in figure 2-6. In this it is elaborated that institution set up

strengthens participation by safeguarding the social cohesion, improving

competitiveness in economy and environment control by limit throughput.

2.6 Barriers and Drivers of change for Sustainable development

(Scottish Executive, 2006)

2.6.1 Barriers of change:

Sustainable development has accepted as an important issue which need to be

addressed urgently across the world. Even after more than 30 years since the

acceptance of the need of sustainable development, the efforts seen in these regards

are meagre. Now participation, as identified as a tool to address sustainable

development effectively, it becomes vital to understand the barriers to change, so as to

deal with it at grassroot level. Knowing the barriers will help the implementation of

the environmental policies across the world. It becomes important to see the reasons

behind this scenario to address the issue.

1. The basic reason is there is no willingness to act on the policies of sustainable

development. This is happening as there is reluctance or refusal to change, as

this change demand moral and ethical way of life of every individual, this

limits need of individual and government to basic need of live by avoiding

luxuries in life. This is a difficult proposition to leave luxuries life to accept

moderate life so that somebody else would avail basic facilities in life.

2. The behaviour which reflects the individual’s personality tends to change with

the availability infrastructure which will provide physical comfort. Status in

the society also plays its role in the behaviour. It is important to undertake

conscious efforts with due awareness about the outcome of our actions or our

behaviours.

3. To achieve this behavioural change people need to freeze their habits and

make necessary changes with will facilitate the sustainable development

through day today activities.

4. The behavioural change is also not acceptable as the change takes away the

convenience in life.

52

5. In commercial world unsustainable products available on cheap rates whereas

the products which are manufactured with more sustainable options are

costlier. This also becomes a constraint in selecting sustainably manufactured

products.

6. The psychological fear, apathy for change also affects the behaviour and

restraint people from accepting the change in their lives.

7. Other important obstacle of change is lack of belief in ownself; considering

one’s own behaviour cannot make a different at large.

8. The next barrier of change is the term ‘Sustainable Development’; many

people have either not heard about this term or they do not know the meaning

or understanding of sustainable development.

9. Behaviour in society is seen as a collective action as it is interrelated into

patterns or cluster and not always relate to individual behaviour, creates

confusion amongst the people.

2.6.2 Drivers of Change

To motivate people to accept sustainable development in their everyday life; it

becomes important to set up a framework which will act as a driving force for people

to adopt the change.

1. Making norms is one of the drivers of sustainable development. These norms

could be voluntary or judiciary in nature.

2. Engaging influencing people and role models from the society to persuade

community to adopt particular behaviour.

3. Some groups or voluntary organization, trusted by community could be

engaged to play important role to support adopt behaviours for sustainability.

Some groups could be treated differently to imbibe a change in their

behaviour.

4. Putting up most important physical infrastructure make people change their

behaviour.

5. Financial incentives can be effective in driving community behaviour change

for sustainability; ex taxed on use of plastic bags, concession in taxes for using

electric cars.

6. By controlling cost and quality can be one of the drivers for behavioural

change of the community.

53

7. Giving factual information is vital element but need to be well targeted and

coordinated with other measures.

8. The role of government and trust of community on the government also drives

the change in behaviour of the community.

2.7 Weak sustainability v/s Strong Sustainability

The sustainable development with little disagreement but with an ultimate aim of

‘development that lasts’, has been accepted widely without a single, accepted

interpretation. Everyone has their own perspective (perspective on capitals like Social,

Economic, Environmental, Cultural, Political, etc.,) to look at sustainable

development. Now, which perspective is more important and could be replaced by

other is a choice between Weak Sustainability (WS) and Strong Sustainability (SS)

(Dietz S. , 2007).

2.7.1 Weak Sustainability:

The Economic perspective or approach to sustainability outlines the issues of human

wellbeing (utility), with an intergenerational rule (not to decline per capita utility for

infinity). The perspectives or approaches or capitals would give different ways to lead

to sustainability. The Weak Sustainability concept was generated in 1970s when it

was suggested to consider the optimal use of income generated from extraction of non

renewable resources to define consumption for present and investment for future

consumption. So the use of Natural capital to create produced capital is accepted in

WS. In the simple term, one resource could be replaced by other resource is called as

WS. In other words weak sustainability proposes that the human made capital i. e.

technology; can substitute natural resources, so it can be run down with the precaution

that the minimum level is maintained. This is a willingness to pay approach of

development.

2.7.2 Strong Sustainability:

The strong sustainability argues that Natural capital to its lesser or greater extent

cannot be substituted. The natural capital provides;

I. Raw materials required for production and consumption, Ex. food, timber,

fossil fuels,

54

II. It adds in the waste products of production and consumption,

III. It provides pleasing landscapes creating an amenity space, and

IV. It provides basic life support functions on which human life depends.

The other reason is that the Natural capital or Environment or Ecology also controls

the global carbon and biogeochemical cycle and so disturbing it would result in

putting the future generation in risk including the present generations. So, it is argued

in the SS that Natural capital cannot be altered by any other capital.

2.8 Sustainable Communities:

As the cultural perspective emphasizes the need of efforts to result in the sustainable

community, it becomes important to know the definition of the sustainable

communities which can be stated as ‘A sustainable community is one that is

economically, environmentally and socially healthy and resilient. It meets challenges

through integrated solutions rather than fragmented approach and takes long-term

perspective that focuses on both present and future. (Institute for sustainable

Communities, 2015)

Figure 2-7: Components and sub-components of Sustainable Communities source: (Egan, 2004)

55

John Egan’s Review on Skills for sustainable communities initiated by Deputy Prime

Minister of UK is the first document to give insights of the clear definitions and

common goals to achieve the sustainable communities. The definition to provide a

common goal was proposed as “Sustainable communities’ meet the diverse needs of

existing and future residents, their children and other users, contributing to a high

quality of life and provide opportunity and choice. They achieve this in ways that

make effective use of natural resources, enhance the environment, promote social

cohesion and inclusion and strengthen economic prosperity.” (Egan, 2004)

The definition identifies seven components and connected sub components, together

to compose the ‘common goals’.

The Sustainable Community strategies identify the infrastructural

requirements to support the development opportunities and growth and also identify

local authorities who have best visionary to proceed with the work.

Initially the focus was on profession built environment skills, but after setting up the

common goal, clarified responsibility and outline of the process of improvements

gave insights to larger range of skills like ability of creating vision, leadership,

communication, team working, project management, process re-engineering,

understanding sustainable development, effective financial management,

understanding the economics of development and the development of the local

democracy, etc., which are required to deliver sustainable communities. (Egan, John,

2004,)

Sustainable communities are encouraged to enhance the life of the community

through (Institute for sustainable Communities, 2015) :

I. A better quality of life

II. A better quality of life without compromising the wellbeing of the other

communities

III. Healthy ecosystems

IV. Effective governance supported by meaningful and broad based citizen

participation and

V. Economic security

The sustainable communities concept is identified as a best tool to address rural

communities which are scattered and majority of the governments have actually failed

to address the issue of development of such areas. There are several efforts taken

56

worldwide to address the issue by making policies to strengthen rural communities to

make them sustainable communities which will be self confident in resolving the

current issues by working together with the governments.

Community involvement or participation (www.csd-i.org, 2008) is acclaimed as one

of the important aspect to achieve the sustainable rural development across the world.

2.9 Sustainability in Architecture

Sustainable Architecture was expressed as Environmental Design in 1970s, Green

Design in 1980s, Ecological design in late 1980s and 1990s and now called as

Sustainable Architecture after mid 1990. (Kultur, 2012). This is evident that the

building oriented architecture was concerned for its nature responsiveness till mid

1990s.

Mr. Guy and Farmer classified sustainable architecture under six different categories

based on the main logic and methods as: eco-technic (energy-sufficient architecture

placing importance to the development of technology) , eco-centric (use of natural

materials and has zero ecological footprint), eco-aesthetic (Sensuous, stylish and

creative qualities of architecture to make it green architecture), eco-cultural

(architecture that preserves and conserves, the variety of the existing cultural

archetypes for cultural continuity) , eco-medical (architecture that creates “healing

environment” and supports the healthy lifestyle for people) and eco-social

(architecture that embodies the spirit of the society, freedom and togetherness as

sustainable). (Guy, 2001)

Recent trends show the focus shift of sustainable architecture towards the energy and

environmental performance of the buildings with the specific intention to reduce the

associative carbon emissions and energy costs. Identifying appropriate construction

techniques will minimize the waste generated and building materials extracted or

manufactured through non-polluting, everlasting sources that are considered as vital

aspects of sustainable building design. The adaptability, durability and flexibility in

term of climate responsiveness, the long life buildings are considered as a part of

sustainable architecture.

Different Assessment tools for the recognized building strategies and practices across

the globe such as LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) which is

basically from US but now operates across the globe; BREEAM (is the design and

57

assessment method for sustainable building adopted for UK); GRIHA (Green Rating

for Integrated Habitat Assessment for India); GBCA (Green Building Council of

Australia); BEAM (Hong Kong); Greenmark (Singapore); GBTool (South Africa) are

resulting in the awareness to address the issue of energy conservation and

environmental design in architecture

Architecture design is a multifaceted performance related phenomenon, where

sustainability had added complexity even more to force an architect to design a

holistic proposal. The building which is designed to fulfil the requirement of

‘environmental sustainably’ built needs functionality, durability and the aesthetics,

which are the core requirements of any design built. This has demanded a

comprehensive understanding of all facets of sustainability to be incorporated within

the conventional design and implementation or within the wide range of disciplines

and specialisations for an architect. (Grierson D, 2011)

There are many theories like Ecological Design, Green Architecture, One Planet and

Adapting buildings for climate change have put forth many parameters which could

be used in the building to make it more environment friendly such as Preservation of

existing ecology of the site, Design with Nature/climate, Preserving subsoil ground

water tables, Minimising use of Natural resources, Increase use of renewable

materials, Increase use of reused and recycled materials, Passive & Active design

techniques, Zero Carbon, Zero Energy, Zero waste, Rain water Harvesting, Materials

with Low embodied energy, need for Sky Gardens to grow food, Car club, Use of

locally available material to reduce transportation cost, Building envelops, Roofing

details, External Skins.

These parameters can be accommodated during the process of construction like

clientele Interface, Pre design, concept design and design development, design

implementation and completion to facilitate the execution of sustainable buildings.

2.10 Summary

In this chapter, various initiatives of sustainable development which carried out across

the globe elaborated in detail to indentify the understanding of sustainable

development. The most accepted definition of sustainable development, which is

given by Brundtland commission, is discussed for understanding the attributes which

will govern the sustainable development. Chapter further explores the brief history of

58

sustainable development. UN’s initiatives are discussed in depth as it is accepted by

many countries unanimously. The nationwide initiatives are also discussed to see the

strategies and goals established by countries like UK, EU & US to achieve

sustainability. Principles of sustainable development, strategies of World Bank and

Strategies Indian government has prepared are discussed in depth to give insights of

what is happening in the country. This section is followed by the discussion on

concepts of sustainable development put forth by the scholars working in the field.

The theories, argument, barriers and drivers of sustainable development are discussed

in detail for having overview of current understandings and their arguments. Triple

bottom like which talks about economy, environment and society as three pillars is

discussed. The concepts which propose culture, politics and institutions as fourth

pillar of sustainability also discussed to explore the views of people working in the

field of sustainability. The concept of sustainable communities, introduced in UK is

mainly discussed in detail with its components. Sustainable architecture is discussed

to understand the concept and the current practices in architecture. This literature

survey is again provides base of analysing the existing development of Ralegan

Siddhi model in Chapter 8. The next chapter gives insights of the concepts of

decentralized planning, development, community participation. The chapter further

discusses the current status of rural India and rural Maharashtra, Governments

initiatives or schemes and NGOs working in rural areas in Maharashtra. The chapter

concludes with the discussions on few success stories where in community has itself

initiated the development to improve their economic, social and environmental

surroundings.