CHAPTER II

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1. MUSHROOM PRODUCTION

Mushrooms are fleshy macro fungi. In nature,

mushrooms grow wild in every country from snowy mountains to

sandy deserts on all types of soils and ecosystems. In 1950,

mushrooms were first cultivated in France in caves and in unused

underground quarries, which provided the requisite conditions of

darkness and humidity. A French gardener in 1700 first

developed a method of cultivation of temperate mushrooms

Agaricus bisporus. It was then taken up in England and a few

other European countries and from there it spread to America.

The cultivation of mushroom was introduced into the United

States in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Turnefort, a

Frenchman first published a method for cultivation of mushroom.

Mushrooms have been extensively studied in Western

countries while India so far was relatively less explored. An early

record could be seen from Lt.Col.Kirtikar of Indian Medical

Services who was the first to find out some mushrooms from

Calcutta in 1918. Bose (1921) and Ray Chaudhri (1942) described

23

the possibilities of mushroom industry in India and West Bengal

respectively.

Methods of cultivation remained obscure in India

though the people of other countries were extensively involved in

mushroom cultivation. Bose (1921) was successful in cultivating

two Agaricus on sterilized dung. Su and Seth (1940) described a

procedure for spawn production and cultivation of voluariella - the

paddy straw mushroom. Padwick (1941) has given a concise

account of mushroom cultivation in India. Thomas et al.(1943)

cultivated the paddy straw mushroom at the College of

Agriculture, Coimbatore. Block et al.(1953) cultivated the

mushroom on sawdust.

Indian Council of Agricultural Research and the

Government of Himachal Pradesh jointly started a scheme for

cultivating the mushroom in a laboratory at Solan in 1961. Rath

(1961) conducted a trial on the cultivation of straw mushroom at

Banthra Nursery. Detailed method of cultivation of strav

mushroom in South-east China delineated by Martin and Jazer

(1966). Kaneda and Tokuda (1966) reported the ability of various

edible fungi to lower blood cholesterol. Krishnamurthy and

Lalitha Kumari (1966) reported that the bed size for mushroom

culture should have 3"x3"x2" dimension.

24

Delmas and Poitou (1967) reported on the nitrogen

content and essential aminoacids in cultivated mushrooms and in

composts. Altamura et al.(1967) recorded aminoacids related

compounds and other nitrogenous substances in cultivated

mushrooms Agaricus cczmpertris. Cellulose rich organic wastes

would result in enhanced cellulose production and increased the

yield of mushroom Pleurotus species (Norkans, 1967; Quimio,

1978).

Beach and Rasmussen (1968) had amended small

amount of superphosphate and gypsum for profitable yields of

mushroom. Ramakrishflan et al.(1968) reported that beds covered

with transparent polyethylene sheets gave more yield of Volvariella

diplasia than the beds covered with black polyethylene sheets or

even uncovered substrates. Hayes and Randle (1969)

experimented on the use of molasses as a soluble carbohydrate

supplement for improving productivity of mushroom compost.

Gerrits (1969) suggested that there is a shift from the preferential

utilization of lignin and protein polymers during mycelial growth to

cellulose and hemicellulose utilization when fruiting is initiated.

The climatic conditions prevailing in the plains of

India are quite suitable for large-scale cultivation of the paddy

straw mushroom. It is cultivated throughout the plains in all

25

parts of India except during the winter season (Gupta et al., 1970;

Munjal, 1973). Chang and Yau (1971) studied the effect of light

intensity on fructification of paddy straw mushroom. Zakia (1971)

analysed the essential aminoacid composition of the proteins of a

mushroom. Laborde et al.(1972) described a rapid method of

composting known as the express preparation of substrates for the

cultivation of Volvariella volvacea on rice straw. Kalyal (1972)

reported the importance of mushroom cultivation in India, its

history and economics. More than 2,000 species of fungi are

reported to be edible throughout the world and about 283 of these

are reported to be available in India. Out of these, eight species

have been cultivated so far and in all about 20 mushroom species

have been cultivated for edible purposes in different parts of the

world. Among these, the most suitable species for the Indian

conditions seems to be the oyster mushroom, Pleurotus sajorcaju

that holds immense potential for commercial exploitation.

The mushroom Pleurotus sajorcaju was first collected

from the succulent tissues of Euphorbia rayleans at the foot hills

of Himalayas by Jandaik and Kapoor (1976) and the technology for

its cultivation was perfected in the division of Mycology and plant

pathology of Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.

Their work related to the cultivation of Pleurotus sajorcaju on farm

26

waste products such as banana pseudo stems, paddy or wheat

straw, straw compost and saw dust. Good yields were obtained

with banana pseudo stems and chopped paddy straw. The

addition of nutrients like oatmeal to the substrate gave better

yield. Kandaswamy and Ramaswamy (1976) studied the effect of

organic substrates with different C.N. ratio on the yield of

Pleurotus sajorcaju. Roxon and Jong (1977) studied the sexuality

of Pleurotus sajorcaju. According to Thayumanavan (1977) the

fungus has been found to grow readily on farm wastes and even in

waste paper.

Although mushrooms have far too often been regarded

only as a delicacy, it would be more realistic to look upon them as

food that can compensate protein deficiency in developing

countries. Further the quality of mushroom protein is also far

superior to vegetable proteins (Crisan and Sands, 1978; Bano and

Rajarathnam, 1982; Chang and Miles, 1989). Chang (1978)

reported on the biology and cultivation of edible mushrooms and

stated that the most popular substrates are still paddy straw in

rice producing countries and cotton waste in industrialized areas.

Zadrazil (1978) reported that the yield of sporophore

depends upon the nature of the substrates used for bedding

material. Leatham (1979) pretreated the barley straw with white

27

rot fungi to improve digestion in the rumen. A variety of

substrates have been used for cultivation of mushroom such as

waste paper, sugarcane bagasse, oil palm pericarp, hulled maize

cob, cotton, sisal hem, water hyacinth, synthetic mushroom

compost, saw dust and wood waste. Hayes and Lim (1979)

produced the mushroom in wheat and rice straw composts. Bano

et al. (1979) cultivated the Pleurotus species in a village model hut

and determined the yield of Pleurotus J7abellatus which grown on

wheat, ragi and rice straw. The highest yields were obtained on

the rice straw (460 g/kg) followed by the wheat straw (324g) and

lowest on the ragi straw (244 g/kg straw dry matter).

Vanderwal (1979) reported that the chemical and

physical treatments of these residues rarely were found to create

useful products. Bioconversion of these unmodified lignocellulosic

residues through mushroom cultivation on the other hand offers

the potential of converting them into protein rich palatable oyster

mushroom Pleurotus sajorcaju. It requires a minimal level of

environmental conditions because of its relatively simple cultivtion

requirements.

Addition of amendments to the bedding material was

known to influence the yield of sporophores. Zadrazil (1980)

studied the influence of Ammonium Nitrate and organic

28

supplements on the yield of Pleuroliis sajorcaju and further

examined the solid-state fermentation of beech wood sawdust,

secd rape and sunflower straw and rice husk. Leong (1980)

utilizcd cotton waste with temperature variations for the

cultivation of oyster mushroom. Sivaprakasam and Kandaswamy

(1980) reported the changes in lignin content of different

substrates while cultivating Pleurotus sajorcaju. They also

reported that the coir waste had high lignin content which

influenced the growth of Pleurotus sajorcaju. Therefore the

contents of lignin and cellulose in the substrates were found to

influence the yield of the sporophores resulting in higher yield.

Nutritive value of sporophore proteins of Pleurotus sajorcczju and

nucleic acid content of the same investigated by Thayumanavan

and Manickam (1980) and by Khanna and Garcha (1982). Various

experts reported that Pleurotus sajorcaju biologically degraded the

cellulosic components such as rice straw (Zafar et al., 1981),

cotton waste (Chang, 1981), aquatic weeds (Jam, 1988), corn

stover (Chahal, 1989) and bagasse (Hoozee, 1990).

Several experts reported proximate composition of

Pleurotus sajorcaju. Lipid composition was analysed by Khanna

and Garcha (1981) and Nair et al.(1989). Sivaprakasam and

Viswanathan (1981) reported the mineral composition. Bano and

29

Rajarathnam (1982) analysed the carbohydrate and vitamin C

content of Pleurotus sajorcaju. Sivaprakasam (1982) pointed out

that Pleurotus sajorcaju is a microbial protein. Chang (1982)

described the prospects of mushroom protein in developing

countries. White (1982) reported that the Pleurotus sajorcczju can

easily degrade the cellulose and can thrive on cellulosic wastes.

Chakravarthy and Sarkar (1982) have reported that oyster

mushroom is a potential nutritive food. It is rich in protein with

quality superior to that of vegetable protein and has a higher

digestive co-efficient. It is low in starch and contains vitamins and

minerals. Thus, it is an ideal protein supplement for vegetarians

and for people suffering from cardiac ailments or even diabetes.

Sivaprakasam and Kandaswamy (1983) reported on the

composition of sporophore of oyster mushroom, a well-known

edible fungus. This communication relates to the crude protein,

sugars and ascorbic acid contents and energy values of

sporophore during different stages of development. Girija and

Tewari (1983) reported on the ascorbic acid content in Pleurotus

sajorcaju and paddy straw mushroom Voluariella diplasia at

different stages of development.

Hong et al.(1984) studied the characteristics of

cellulolytic enzymes produced by Pleurotus sajorcaju. Further he

30

examined the cultural characteristics and obtained the chemical

composition of the same species. The work of Go et al.(1984)

relates to the effect of temperature, pH, carbon and nitrogen on

mycelial growth of Pleurotus sajorcaju and Pleurotus ostreatus.

This communication further reported the selection of Pleurotus

sajorcaju as suitable species for cultivation under summer climatic

condition in Korea. Jiang (1985) studied the biological

characteristics of Pleurotus sajorcaju. Nutritive value of rice straw

was improved by fungal fermentation (Kahlon and Das, 1985).

Muller and Trosch (1986) biologically pretreated the

wheat straw by white rot fungi for biogas production. Apron

(1986) cultivated the oyster mushroom, Pleurotus corriucopiae on

agricultural wastes, such as filter press cake and saw dust

mixture in different ratio.

Kahlon and Arora (1987) utilized waste potato peels to

produce fungal protein. He (1987) carried out outdoor culture of

Pleurotus sajorccJu in rice straw. He (1987) analysed the

electrophoretic components for proteins of edible fungi. Fukuzumi

(1987) reported on the ligninolytic enzymes of the same species.

Lelley (1987) reported on the role of edible mushroom as a weapon

against starvation. Matesscu et al.(1987) described the growing

techniques for two new Pleurotus species. Bourbonnais and Puice

31

(1989) reported on the oxidative enzymes from the lignin degrading

fungus Pleurotus sajorcaju. Supplementing rice straw with certain

protein rich additives such as wheat bran, dried berseen and

soyabean meals on mushroom yield were studied by Katton and

Mahmoud, 1989. Dash and Das (1989) added the Earthworm cast

as a substitute for wheat supplementation while making

observation on the growth of tropical edible mushroom, Pleurotus

sajorcaju.

Sporeless strains of Pleurotus species native to

Thailand was reported by Snachai et al.(1990). Voraluck (1990)

studied the use of dried cassava root as a supplement nutrient for

cultivation of oyster mushroom, Pleurotus ostreatus, Phoenix

mushroom, Pleurotus sajorcaju and Abalone mushroom Pleurotus

cystidiosus. Palm pulp for spawning of Pleurotus sajorcaju was

utilized. Para-rubber saw dust and palm pulp were used as a

substrate for cultivation in different ratio. The yield of the

mushroom significantly differed (Kristsaneepaiboon and Bunkong,

1990). Micromorphological and histochemical changes that

occurred in wood decayed by white-rot fungi were examined under

fluorescence microscopy and noticed the activities of the main

enzymes viz., peroxidase, laccase and cellulase involved in wood

degradation (Yoshizawa, 1990).

32

Gerpacio et al.(1990) evaluated the potential of rice

straw based composts from mushroom production namely

Volvaricilci, Pleurotus as poultry feed. Chahal and Hachery (1990)

studied the degradation of hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin by

Pleurotus sajorcaju on corn stalks. Various agriculture wastes

such as corn stalks, sugarcane leaves and straw rice were tested

in pleurotus culture (Buot and Gesta, 1991) Pan et a/.(1991)

observed the changes in activities of laccase, tyrosinase and

cellulase in Lentinus edodes and pleurotus during their growth.

Sanjust (1991) tested olive milling wastewater as a medium for

growth of four pleurotus species. Kumuthakalavalli and

Thilagavathi (1991) studied the utilization of different pulse

powders in raw and sprouted forms mixed in straw substrate and

evaluated the efficiency of Pleurotus sajorcaju to convert them into

protein.

Upgrading of the agricultural waste, and forest wastes

as animal feed by Pleurotus species were also reported (Zadrazil

and Dube, 1992; Maan et al., 1992). Effect of supplementation of

wheat straw liquid medium with various forms and levels of

nitrogen on production of celluloses, hemicelluloses and oxidases

by Pieurotus sajorcaju was studied (Saxena and Rai, 1992). Boyle

et al.(1992) have reported solubilization and mineralization of

33

lignin by white rot fungi. Boria (1992) examined the suitability of

Mangium leaves (Acacia rnangium) as substrate in the production

of three edible fungi namely Pleurotus sajorcaju, Auricularia

auricula and Leritinus edodes. Ijaz and Khan (1992) reported the

Biological efficiency of different strains of lignicolous fungus

pleurotus cultivated on agrowastes. Marimuthu and

Krishnamoorthy (1992) and Marimuthu (1995) studied the

Prospects of oyster mushroom cultivation in Tamil Nadu. Chang

et al.(1992) reported that cultivation of edible mushroom could be

a boost for rural development. A mixture of apple pomace and

sawdust was tested as a feed medium for production of Leritinula

edodes and oyster mushroom, Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus

scijorcaju on synthetic logs (Worrall and Yang 1992).

Sharma and Gupta (1993) outlined the importance,

utility and availability of agrowaste for mushroom production in

India. Reyes et al.(1993) utilized coarse materials such as cotton

waste, rice straw and rice hull and fine materials such as saw dust

and rice bran for cultivation of mushroom. Subhas Chandra et

ai.(1993) carried out laboratory studies on the comparative bio-

degradation of paddy straw with certain bacterial and fungal

treatments on chemical composition. Tong et al.(1993) studied the

34

delignification of palm press fibre by white rot fungi for enzymic

saccharification of cellulose.

Chiu and To (1993) explained that endogenous

glycogen is not a trigger for fruiting in Pleurotus sajorcaju. Sagawa

et al.(1993) investigated electrophoretic comparison of enzymes for

the discrimination of Pleurotus species. According to Moyson and

Verachtert (1993) higher fungi such as Pleurotus species, Lentinus

edodes and Phanerochaete chrysosporium can be grown very well

on lignocellulosic materials and degraded considerable amounts of

lignin. Influence of carbondioxide on lignin degradation and

digestability of lignocellulosic treated with Pleurotus sajorcaju was

reported by Zadrazil and Puniya (1994). Reyes et al.(1994) studied

the use of indigenous materials as alternate culture media for the

same species.

Vats et al.(1994) utilized Lantana camara as a

substrate for cultivation of Pleurotus sajorcaju. Mubiao (1994)

studied the cultivation of Pleurotus sajorcaju in bagasse medium.

Yield of the oyster mushroom was increased by the incorporation

of neem cake (Marimuthu et al., 1994). The differential

biodegradation of phenolic and nonphenolic lignin units in wheat

straw treated with white rot fungi was investigated under solid-

state fermentation. White rot fungi such as Pleurotus pulmonarius,

35

Pleurotus sajorcaju, Lentiunus edodes, Phanero chartce and

chrysosporium were shown to upgrade the wheat straw (Moyson,

1994). Bacetonia and Gabitan (1994) studied interspecific

hydridizatiOfl behaviour of selected isolates of Pleurotus species

using conventional method.

Murugesan et al.(1995) utilized water hyacinth for

oyster mushroom cultivation. Suhaila and Tok (1995) observed

the effect of pretreatments on the characteristics of dried oyster

mushroom, Pleurotus sajorcaju. A study to verify the trace

elements level in Agaricus biosporus and in Pleurotus ostreatus, the

most cultivated mushroom in Italy was carried out (Procida and

Marietta, 1995). Antwi (1995) observed the influence of saw dust

supplemented with farm and industrial wastes on the growth,

yield and mineral composition of Pleurotus ostreatus. Production

of extracellular cellolytic, xylanolytic and ligninolytic enzymes were

studied during submerged cultivation of basidiomycetes on a

medium supplemented with a depleted cotton seed cake

(Akhrnedova, 1995). Sangwan and Saini (1995) utilized wheat

straw, paddy straw, sorghum stalk, bajra stalk, sugarcane bagasse

and waste paper alone as well as in combination for cultivation of

PleurotuS sajorcaJu.

ET1

Mallika Srinivasan (1996) delineated the benefits of

Pleurotus species. Five different species of Pleurotus namely

P.sczjorcaju, P.citrinopileatus, P.Jlorida, P.platypus and P.ostrealus

were evaluated for their yield performance on paddy straw and

rubber wood sawdust. Grains of sorghum, wheat, paddy, half

filled paddy and paddy chaff were the substrates compared to

produce the spawn of five speices of Pleurotus (Mathew et al.,

1996). Five white rot basidiomycetes were evaluated for their

potential to improve ruminal degradation of wheat straw (Jalc et

al., 1996). Jung et al.(1996) focused the attention towards the

production of Pleurot'us species mycelium using rancid frying oils.

Park et al.(1996) studied the use of beet pulp and defatted cotton

seed flour as the bottle substrates of Pleurotus ostreatus. Maruthi

Kalaiselvi and Vijayalakshmi (1996) estimated Ascorbic acid

content in three different fungi Pleurotus species from cotton

waste. Kathe et al.(1996) developed spawn preparation of oyster

mushroom on cotton stalks and cotton stalks also proved good

substrate for cultivation of Pleurotus sajorcaju and 3% soyabean

supplementation improved the yield. Maruthi Kalaiselvi and

Vijayalakshmi (1997) utilized waste cotton and paddy straw for the

production of mushroom, biogas and vermicompost. Patrabansh

and Madan (1997) studied the cultivation, biological efficiency and

37

chemical analysis of Pleurotus sajorcaju (Fr.) Singer. on different

wastes. Patrabansh and Madan (1999) estimated the mineral

content of fruiting bodies of Pleurotus sajorcaju cultivated on

different kinds of biomass. Maruthi Kalaiselvi and Vijayalakshmi

(1998) also observed the effect of temperature on the fructification

of oyster mushroom.

Uma and Vijayalakshmi (2000) made a comparative

study of the biodegradation of paddy straw and tea waste by

cultivating the mushroom Pleurotus sarjocaju.

2.2. BIOGAS

Mushroom cultivation can be regarded as a unitary

integrated system wherein the input after serving as base material

for cultivating mushrooms becomes converted into value added

waste. Though the widespread use of crop residues for cultivation

of mushrooms is well known, the reuse of resultant spent

mycosubstrateS is a new concept. After harvesting mushrooms, as

these mycosubstrates are often discarded on to land it causes

environmental pollution, therefore, it was thought that the

mycosubstrates if used for biogas production as feedstock will not

only help to keep the environment clean but also will enhance gas

production, thus yielding twin benefits.

38

In 1776, AlessendrO Volta was the first person to

observe a combustible gas produced by decaying vegetation found

in lakes and ponds in the vicinity of Como in Northern Italy. In

1806 William Henry found that Voltas gas was identical with

methane gas. Humphrey Davy in the early 1800's observed that

the emission of methane from farmyard manure piles. In 1869

Bechamp reported that methane was formed from carbon

compounds by the action of microorganisms. During 1882-84,

Tappeiner studied the microbial production of methane. In 1900,

in India the first biogas plant was installed in a leper asylum. In

1914 in Indonesia a biogas plant was erected in which straw waste

was used as feedstock.

The scientific approach in biogas production reached a

peak at the beginning of 2 nd world war. In 1902, Omeliansky

(Wakesman, 1932) pointed out that when a cellulosic filterpaper

was inoculated with horse dung or river mud along with mineral

salt solutions and kept under anaerobic conditions, evolution of

gas took place, which consisted of mainly methane and to a

certain level of hydrogen.

Acharya (1935a) described the anaerobic digestion of

rice straw during when the organic acids formed were found to be

acetic acid, butyric acid and the gases formed were CO2 and

39

methane. Anaerobic decomposition of various wastes such as

wheat, bareley straw, leaf litter and rape seed cake also studied. A

good proportion of the total decomposition could be brought aboutZD

by digesting the materials without the additions of N2 under the

conditions of optimum temperature and pH. Desai and Biswas

(1945) pointed out that all the organic materials were liable for

decomposition with possible production of fuel gas. Desai (1951)

revealed that there was practically no gas production below 30C.

Mishra (1954) studied the decomposition and quantity of gas

produced by anaerobic decomposition of potato slice, maize seed,

gur, filter paper, Sugarcane, bogasse, sawdust, ground nut seed,

peptone, blood meal, gram pulse, sun hemp and bullock dung.

According to McCarty (1964) the maximum gas

generation occurred at pH 6.7 and 7.4. Bryant et ai.(1968)

developed a method for mass culture of hydrogen oxidizing

methane bacteria. The culture of methanobacillus omelianskii

was grown in a liquid medium, which was aerated with gas

mixture of hydrogen and carbondioxide, yielded 50 to 60 gm of

cells per 12 to 14 litres.

Rubbein et al.(1972) observed that the application of

cowdungSlurlY with straw increased the yield of maize andpotato

crops. Laura and Idnani (1972) reported that sundried slurry was

40

superior to farmyard manure and compost. Chawla (1973)

observed that addition of 1% wheat straw and finely powdered

bajra leaves in combination with urea and dung at fortnightly

intervals increased gas production to the extent of 30-50% during

winter months. Singh (1974) pointed out that the amendements of

50% dry weight of vegetable waste with cowdung enhanced gas

production.

Pfeffer (1973) and Singh (1974) stated that the overall

digestion by the bacteria occurred at temperature ranging from

32°F to 156°F. However, the production of gas decreased rapidly

below 60°F and practically stopped at 50°F despite the fact that

digestion continued.

Bhavani (1976) observed that the gas production was

maximum during summer months and low during winter months.

Vanden Berg et al.(1976) reported that the maximum gas

production occurred at temperatures 40°C to 50°C at a pH of 6.5

to 7.1 and adversely affected by exposure to air.Desai (1976)

highlighted the use of rural wastes for methane generation

through anaerobic digestion. Bansel et al.(1977) studied the

production of biogas from solid excreta of cattle, goat, pig and

poultry litter. Khan and Gupta (1977) reported that

supplementation of Water Hyacinth speeded up the reaction and

41

increased methane gas production. Biswas (1977) remarked that

the residual slurry could be utilized in various ways either by

applying to the farmland directly or through terhgation i.e. by

mixing with irrigation water. Further Singh and Miglani (1977)

pointed out that the anaerobically digested cowdung was rich in

humus.

Arokiasamy (1978) had reported that sheep and

poultry wastes, fish wastes, algae, weeds and vegetable wastes

were properly digested in biogas plant. The biogas comprised of

58% methane, 28% CO2 and 14% of other constituents like CO2,

oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen (Neelakantan et al., 1978). Solid

wastes like fibres, fuels, food products, bagassae, stalks and skins

could serve as potential agents in the generation of energy (Carlos,

1978). Spolestra (1978) isolated and enumerated the

methanogens from piggery wastes.

The feasibility of producing methane by anaerobic

digestion of various crop materials such as grasses and corn

stalks was demonstrated by Clausen et al.(1979).

Desphande et al.(1979) reported that water hyacinth

with fermenting slurry could profitably be used as effective

additives in the gobar gas plant. Different plant wastes containing

digestable volatile solids mixed with dung and subjected to

42

anaerobic digestion enhanced the methane output (Ghosh et al.,

1979).

Bryant (1979) described that three metabolic groups of

bacteria were involved in methane fermentation. Rajasekaran and

Nagarajan (1979) studied the distribution of microorganisms and

their influence on the biogas generation of various agricultural

wastes incorporated treatment. Andrew (1979) discussed the role

of methanogenic anaerobic and methanogenic facultative

anaerobic bacteria in relation to gas generation from cellulosic and

hemicellulosic wastes. Hills (1979) studied the effect of C:N ratio

on anaerobic digestion and stated that the greatest methane

production unit occurred when the C:N ratio of feed was 25:1

Chawla (1979) indicated that total nitrogen of the residue

increased due to anaerobic digestion. Singh et al.(1980)

investigated the assimilation rate of acetate and production of

methane by cattle waste slurry. Summers and Bousefield (1980)

utilized piggery waste for anaerobic digestion. Hashimoto (1980)

studied the agricultural residues supplementation with cowdung

for biogas production.

Kasturi Bai (1983) tested the various wastes viz., saw

dust, deadsilkworm pupae, grass, bagassae and dungs of various

animals for biogas production. The digested cowdung slurry after

43

suitable dilution with freshwater was utilized for fish culture

(Vijayalakshmi, 1983). Bisaria et al.(1983) studied the production

of biogas from residues of mushroom cultivation. Effect of liquid-

solids separation on biogas production from dairy manure was

investigated by Liao et al.(1984). Zauner and Kuntzel (1986)

recorded the methane yield from anaerobically digested maize, red

canary grass and perennial rye grass.

Muller and Trosch (1986) reported that the straw

pretreated by Pleurotus florida was fermented anaerobically. The

gas yield from the mycostraw was twice the amount when

compared to the amount from untreated straw. Thakre et

ai.(1987) generated biogas from some organic waste. Thangavelu

(1987) used silkworm litter along with cowdung in gobar gas plant

and observed copious amounts of gas production. Mixture of

eucalyptus leaves and cattle dung was utilized for biogas

production (Ali et al., 1988).

Sarada and Nand (1989) achieved the methane

generation using tomato-processing wastes. Studies on biogas

production from urban domestic wastes through anaerobic

digestion and utilization of fermentation residues have been

carried out at the Research Center of Biotechnology, Wuchen

University. With the use of decayed vegetables and kitchen waste

44

as raw material, gas production rate was 0.456 m 3 per cubic

meter/day. The raw material was conducted on the quantitative

changes of the functional bacterial groups in biogas fermentation

of the mushroom residues (Tangrong et al., 1989).

Eight common aquatic weeds Saluinia rnolesta,

1-lyd ri/la verhcillata, Nyrnphaea stellata, Azolla pirinata,

Ceratopteris species, Cyperus speices and Ut ri cu/aria reticulata

were digested anaerobically to produce methane (Abbasi et al.,

1990).

Madhavaswamy and Venkataraman (1990) developed

an integrated system for biogas production from mango processing

wastes and utilization of biogas effluent for the production of

major carp, Rohu and common carp. Jianan and Youcheng (1990)

explained that the biogas digester was useful not only for night soil

digestion but also for organic substrates such as straw, grass etc.

Wong (1990) carried out anaerobic digestion of pigmanure mixed

with sewage sludge. Kalia and Kanwar (1990) reported the

anaerobic fermentation of Ageratum for biogas production. Raju

(1991) studied the influence of trace elements on biogas

production from mango processing wastes.

Viswanath et al.(1992) studied the effect of feeding

different fruit and vegetable wastes such as mango, pineapple,

45

tomato, jack fruit, banana and orange for biogas production.

Madhukara et al.(1993) generated methane from mangowaste.

Supplementation of guar gum seed in the mangopeel enhanced he

production of biogas than control (Babu and Nand, 1993). Srinath

and Nand (1993) reported the anaerobic fixed film reactor for

methanation of Ensiled mango peel.

Sumitra Devi and Nand (1993) pretreated the fruit and

vegetable processed wastes with selected strains of fungi, viz.,

sportotrichum, aspergillus, pencillium and Trichoderma for

enhanced methane production. Tirumale and Nand (1994)

reported that inoculation of anaerobic celluloloytic consortia such

as buried cotton and digester effluent with mango peel for

methane generation. Anaerobic digestion removes some of the

cellulose, hernicellu lose, starch, proteins and other carbohydrates

and fats from animal excreta (Kasthuri Bai. 1994).

Kumaresan et al., (1998) studied that utilization of

various waste plants as supplemental feedstock for biogas

production. Locally available ten plant wastes namely Cassia

siarfl.eU (Vagi), Ricirtus comrnunis (castor), Dcztura strarnortium

(Datura), Sida rhorrufolia, Arnaranthiis species, Lethsemia

aggregate, Triaritherna species, Cassia nigrican, Sida cordifolia and

crotons Pavisito domus were utilized for biogas production. The

46

market wastes consisting of different vegetables and fruits mainly

carrot, beans, tomatoes, brinjal, onion, potatoes, cauliflower

leaves, cabbage leaves, raddish leaves, cucurbit vegetables, apple,

citrus fruits, guava, pomegranate were pretreated individually by

five percent Ammonium chloride, Calcium hydroxide, Sodium

hydrogen carbonate, Sodium hydroxide, Zinc chloride for 24 hours

and then mixed with cowdung and their gas output was studied by

Amathussalam and Abu backer (1999).

2.3. VERMICOMPOSTING TECHNOLOGY

Development of an appropriate technology for recovery

of resources from non-conventional sources like mycosubstrates

for production of biogas results in the generation of mycoslurry is

a societal necessity rather than optimal undertaking in recent

days in the prevailing energy crisis and environmental

degradation. Though the role of earthworms in improving soil

fertility is well-known vermicomposing technology insitu i.e. use of

earthworms for composing organic residues is of recent origin.

Eventhough there is mounting literature on vermiculture and

vermicomposting, very few studies have been made relating to

integrated waste management involving mushroom, biogas and

earthworms.

47

As early as 1954 Joshi and Kelkar studied the role of

earthworms in soil fertility. The influence of earthworms on the

physical properties of red brown earth was investigated by Barley

(1959). Pane (1963a; 1963b) studied the microorganism in the

intestine of earthworm and casts. Nielson (1965) pointed out the

presence of plant growth substances in vermicasts. Van Rhee

(1965) observed the earthworm activity and plant growth in

artificial cultures. Abrahamsen (1971) reported the influence of

temperature and soil moisture on the population density of

earthworm culture with homogenized raw humus. Vimmerstedt

and Finney (1973) studied the impact of earthworm introduction

on litter burial and nutrient distribution in Ohio stripmine banks.

Harwood (1976) carried out an experiment on the protein recovery

from poultry waste by Earthworms. Van Rhee (1977) studied the

effect of earthworm on orchard productivity. The gut contents of

some lumbricid worms were analysed by Piearce (1978). A

progress report on the potential use of earthworms in the sludge

management was published by Hartenstein et al.(1979a). Schwen

and Dance (1979) reported the earthworm cocoon as a drift

component in a Southern Ontario stream.

Abbot and Parker (1980) and Mitchell et al.(1980)

published an article on decomposition of sewage sludge in drying

48

beds and on the potential role of earthworm, Eiseniafoetida. Graff

(1981) carried out preliminary experiments on vermicomposting of

different waste materials using Eudrilus eugeniae. The role of

earthworms for recycling of organic wastes and for stabilization of

sewage sludge for abating pollution as well as for production of

high quality fertilizer delineated by Hartenstein (1981). Prince et

a/.(1981) substantiated on vermicomposting of municipal wastes.

Kale et al.(1982) studied about the enrichment of soil fertility by

the activity of earthworm Perionyx excavatus.

Biodegradable waste materials were converted into

vermicompost through vermiculture for soil improvement

(Krishnarnoorthy, 1983). Satchell (1983) pointed out the increased

occurrence of microorganism in earthworm's gut. Wallwork (1983)

pointed out that the earthworm bioreactors efficiently maintained

the highly nonlinear parameter like pH at constant level. The

active calciferous glands in the earthworms contained large

quantities of carbonic anhydrase, which catalysed the fixation of

carbondioxide in the form of calcium carbonate, preventing the fall

in the pH of the body fluid. Bano et al.(1984) assessed the

efficiency of worm cast as biofertilizer. Dash et al.(1986) observed

the gut load, transit time, gut microflora and turnover of soil, plant

and fungal material by some tropical earthworms. Haimi and

49

Huhta (1986) evaluated the capacity of various organic residues to

support adequate earthworm biomass for composting.

Bano and Kale (1987) reported that Periortyx

excaucitus and Eudrilus eugeniae worms were recognized for rural

technology and these worms actively fed on mineral and organic

matter, the muscular digestive tract acting as a pulveriser that

aids in breaking up the large particles into liner ones. Five

percent of ingested matter is assimilated and the rest is thrown

out as worm cast. Earthworm cultivation and culturing

techniques for production of "vee comp 83 E UAS" an organic

fertilizer and "vee meal 83 PUAS" an animal protein were also

evolved by Kale and Bano (1988).

Edwards and Fletcher (1988) established the

interaction between earthworms and microorganisms in organic

matter breakdown. Tomati et al.(1988) noticed the hormonal

effects of earthworm casts on plant growth. The role played by

earthworms in soil biology by serving as versatile natural

bioreactors to effectively harness the beneficial soil microflora and

destroy soil pathogens, thus converting organic wastes into

valuable products such as biofertlizers, biopesticides, vitamins,

enzymes, antibiotics, growth hormones and proteinous worm

biomass.

50

Knight (1989) confirmed Darwin's ideas about

earthworm's role in enhancement of fertility of soil. Microbial

populations, enzyme activities and nitrogen, phosphorus -

potassium enrichment in earthworm casts and in surrounding soil

of a pineapple plantation was studied by Tiwari et al.(1989). The

Earthworm Eudrilus eugertiae was cultured in plastic pots

containing ground Paspalum digitatum grass. The grass medium

was toxic to earthworms, if not fermentable. Biomass and casting

production was observed higher with both juveniles and

hatchlings when the earthworms were fed and grown on the

fermented-aerated grass (Mba, 1989). Bhawalkar (1989) reported

that the earthworms play a key role in soil biology and serves as a

promising source of biofertilizers. Hamilton and Dindal (1989)

studied the impact of land spread sewage sludge and the activity

of earthworms on soil structure.

Puskas et al.(1990) estimated the fertility of

earthworm cocoons Eisenia foetida. Zajonc and Sidor (1990)

compared the variety of non-standard materials for vermicompost

preparation. The greatest weight increase of earthworm was

observed with fifty gram soil mixed with 150gram cellulose waste.

The earthworm did not reproduce when the soil mixed with Rabbit

dung, this waste was lethal to the earthworm. Zajonc and Sidor

51

(1990) and Reinecke and Vilijoen (1990) also studied the use of

some wastes for vermicompost preparation and their influence on

growth and reproduction of the earthworm, Eisenia foetida. Galli

et al.(1990) studied the effect of earthworm casts on protein

synthesis in Agciricus bisporus. Haimi and Huhta (1990) studied

the effect of earthworms on decomposition processes in raw

humus forest soil. Bhawadkar (1991) pointed out that the

earthworm plays a key role in conversion of organic wastes as

valuable raw materials for soil biotechnological process. This also

has a potential for reducing the pollution arising from wastes

emanating from the intensive animal husbandary operations.

Daniel (1991) analysed leaf litter consumption and assimilation by

juveniles of Lumbricus terrestris under different environmental

conditions. Transmission of infective Frankia propagules in casts

of the endogenic earthworm, Pontoscolex corethrurus was studied

by Reddell and Spain (1991).

The composition, biomass and association of

earthworms were observed in two cropping systems of differing

intensity over a five year period in Germany (Bauchhenss, 1991).

Daniel and Anderson (1992) investigated that rates of CO2

production, bacterial plate counts, moisture content and

concentration of soluble organic carbon were greater in casts when

52

the earthworms ingested the soils with light fraction organic

matter than in the standardized soils.

Gestel et aL(1992) observed the fecundity rate when

the earthworm Eiseriia andrei was cultured in an artificial soil

substrate. They observed that cocoon production appeared to be

negatively correlated with earthworm growth and positively

correlated with initial worm masses. McCredie et al.(1992)

reported the population dynamics of the earthworm in a western

Australian pasture soil.

The mineralisation of three different C-14-labelled

lignin substrates was investigated in four microcornpartments,

consisting of white-rotted beech wood, brown-rotted beach wood,

the earthworm Coctolasion lacteurn faecal particles mixed with

white-rotted beech wood, and with brown-rotted beech wood,

incubated at 10°C for 193 days. Lignin degradation was more

pronounced in earthworm faeces mixed with woodmaterials and

overall carbon mineralization ranged between 4.4% and 6.3% of

the initial carbon content (Scheu, 1992). Senesi et aL(1992)

isolated humic acid like components by conventional procedures

from various organic wastes, including animal manures, a

municipal solid refuse and a sewage sludge, that were composLed

for 2-3 months with the earthworms, Eiseniafoetida.

53

A novel experiment to bring about evergreen

revolution without using any chemical fertilizers produced

astonishing results in western Maharashtra. The experirncnt

involves breeding a large number of earthworms in specially

constructed containers and then using their vermicompost to

fertilize the soil. The technology is cost effective that just 2,000

earthworms could produce an equivalent of one tonne of fertilizers

per month (Anon, 1993).

Butt (1993) studied the reproduction and growth of

three deep borrowing earthworms (Lumbricidae) in laboratory

culture in order to assess production for soil restoration.

Biohumus produced by Eisenia foetida from farmyard manure,

wastes from meat, processing plants, sludges from sewage

purification plants and a mixture of wastes with saw dust were

studied for their Nitrogen and Carbon contents (Kalembasa et al.,

1993).

Moreira et al.(1993) did preliminary experiment of

vermicomposting of husks of sugarcane mixed with cow manure

using the earthworm Eisenia foetida. The efficiency of three

species of earthworms Phretima posthuma, Eisenia species and

Perionyx excataus in the degradation of vegetable waste was

assessed and laboratory tests showed that Perionyx excavatus was

54

able to withstand greater ranges of moisture and temperature than

other species and thus is most suited for vermicomposting.

Zharikov et ai.(1993) utilized the wastes of microbiology

enterprises such as sewage sludge, husks, biogrist and low quality

bacterial preparations for vermicompoSt. Tiwari (!993) studied the

effects of organic manure and NPK fertilization on earthworm

activity in an oxisol. Zhang and Schrader (1993) analysed the

physical and chemical properties of one to two millimeter

aggregates obtained from casts and the burrow wall material of

earthworm species Lumbricus terrestris, Apporrectodea longa and

Apporrectodea caliginosa. Shanthi et al.(1993) composted the

vegetable waste. A number of selected gram negative and total

bacteria in the intestinal tract was studied by Pedersen and

Hendriksen (1993). Butt (1993) utilized the solid paper-mill

sludge and spent brewery yeast as a feed for soil-dwelling

earthworms.

Aquino et al.(1994) conducted experiments to evaluate

the reproductivity of adult earthworms by using the substrate

sugar-cane bagasse. Douhe et al.(1994) published an article

entitled "On interactions between earthworms, beneficial soil

microorganisms and root pathogens". Hindell et al.(1994) brought

out the relationship between casts of geophagous earthworms and

55

matric potential. Kaushal et al.(1994) studied the effect of diet on

cast production by megascolecid earthworm, AmyntS alexand.

Elvira (1995) studied the use of vermicompOstmg to break down

wastes from paper pulp mills. The earthworm biomass response

to soil management in semi-arid tropical alfisoil agro ecosystem

was studied by Vikram Reddy et al.(1995). Utilization of sulphur

waste residue in agriculture through vrmicomp0Sting and its

effect on the population structure of earthworm, Eudr1US eugeniae

was studied by Gandadhar et al.(1995). Heijnefl and MarinisSen

(1995) reported on the survival of bacteria introduced into soil by

means of transfer by LumbriCuS rubellus. Ismail and Thampan

(1995) studied the role of earthworms in soil fertility management.

Ranganathan and Christopher (1996) suggested that the

vermicomPoSt not only helps to improve and protect fertility of

topsoil but also helps to boost productivity by 40% at 20 to 60%

lower nutrient inputs. vijayalakshmi (1996) utilized biogas plant

slurry as a growth medium for Eisenia foetida and produced

vermicompoSt. Fraser et al.(1996) identified earthworm species,

population size and biomass under different cropping systems

across Canterbury plains in NewZealand. KalembaSa (1996)

utilized organic waste for vermicOmPOst production and analysed

the nitrogen content. Kulkarni et al.(1996) studied the effect of

56

vermicomPOSt and vermiculture on the growth and yield of China

aster, CcillistephlJS chinerisis Nees. Ravignanam and

Gunathilagarai (1996) assessed the effect of earthworm on growth

and biochemical characters of mulberry.

Predation of fungi by Lampito mauriti reared on

different substrates was studied by Parthasarathi et al.(1997a).

Fungal flora of gut and cast in Eudrilus eugeniae with various

rearing media was also reported by Parthasarathi et al.(1997b).

Vijayalakshm i et al.(1997) reported on the use of vermiculture for

sustainable environment and pointed out that vermicomPoSt, a

repository of macro and micronutrientS, growth hormones and

vermiwash, easy to transport nutrient rich liquid manure and

vermimeal, a protein rich food for livestock and fish will not only

pave way for sustainable ecosystem but has tremendous potential

in terms of savings on imported feed and fertilizer. Muthumani et

al.(1997) did a biological waste treatment with integrated rural

farming using Drawida matthai. Edwards and Sobha (1997)

utilized the mixture of coconut husk, highly protenaceOuS algae,

waste lettuce and vegetable waste with dry cowdung for

vermicompoSt production.

Lakshmibai and Vijayalakshm i (1997) utilized press

mud - a sugar factory waste for vermiculture and compost

57

making. Senthil Kumari and Vijayalaksh mi (1997) recycled the

sugar industry and paper industry effluents using vermicultUre.

Rajesh Banu (1997) conducted preliminary field experiments in

the summr crop of paddy variety IR-20 by using vermicompOSt and

chemical fertilizer. Ramalingarn and Ranganathan (1997) recycled

the organic wastes through vermic Omposting and analysed the

vermicomposting using Eucirilus eugerliae. Role of earthworm

Iximpito inauritii on the organic wastes and the dynamics of plant

nutrients in the soil was studied by Subathra and Jacob (1997).

Logakanthi (1997) recycled the market green waste with elephant

dung. Deepa (1998) utilized dried leaves, coconut husk, dried

cowdung, newspaper, computer printouts or combination of these

was used as bedding material for vermicomPoSt. Syed Anwarulla

(1998) explained the unbelievable power of turning the garbage

into gold by culturing of earthworms. Lampito mauritii, Eudrilus

eugeniae, Perionyx excavatuS and Eisenia fotida were utilized for

mono and polyculture composting of pressmud (Parthasarathi et

al.,., 1999). Comparative study on the biodegradative impact of

oyster mushroom TrichoderrflQ species and neem cake Aavaram

and Kozhingi leaves along with earthworms Lampito rnauritii and

Eiseriia foetida was studied by Vijayalakshmi (2000).

MahalakShrni and KrishnaVeni (2000) reported that the fruit

58

wastes such as citrus rinds and pomegranate peels were utilized

for the preparation of compost by using Eisenia fotida and the

compost was utilized for the growth of the medicinal plant

SolaTuim rLigrurn. Sugar factory filter press mud also converted

into value added product of vermicompoSt (VijayalakshlTfli, 2000).

Gardeners, farmers, foresters and soil scientists all love the

earthworm because of the good they do for flowers, crops, and

plants and animals of the forest. Earthworms are active animals

and feed by bringing organic debris into their burrows from the

surface and by eating their way through the soil. The leaf litter

(dead leaves and animals) they digest contains nutrients made by

plants during photosynthesis and includes calcium, nitrogen,

potassium and phosphorus, and organic minerals and nutrients

from dead animals (Leslie, 2000). Ingham's (2001) reported that

earthworm is probably much like a small version of a cow. Worms

ingest sand, silt, clay, dead plant material, bacteria, fungi,

protozoa, nematodes, the odd insect larva, microarthropod, and so

forth. Indisde the gut of the worm, conditions are perfect (good

moisture, and well-aerated) for the bacteria and fungi to speed up

their growth processes and decompose more of the organic matter.

The worm mixes all these things in their gut, increasing bacterial

growth considerably. The worm takes it's tax" by enzymatically

59

digesting some of the organisms that grew while they were in the

worms gut, and poops out the rest of the material, with greatly

altered sets of organic matter, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and

nematodes. Reddy and Reddy (2001) reported that integrated use

of organic manures such as vermicompOSts, poultry manure,

biogas slurry and farmyard manure with inorganic fertilizer

Nitrogen, were evaluated for soil health and yield in maize

soyabean cropping system through field experiments for two years

in Alfisols of Hyderabad, India.

ZI

Map 3.1 .1: Agro-Industrial wastes collected Area in Tamil Nadu.