2 Female Genital system 0histoweb.co.za/blok08/blok08tasks20180410.pdf · 2018. 4. 10. · 2 Female...

Block 8: Pathological conditions and infectious diseases

2 Female Genital system0

Tasks

General tasks: Mammary gland1. Complete a table relating to the histology of the breast. Make relevant connections with

physiology and pathology.

Phase Epithelium Ductal system Connectivetissues

Elaborate

Pre-puberty

Male

Female

Puberty

Male

Female

Pregnancy

Male

Female

Menopause

Male

Female

Slide 57: Mammary gland – this is a section through an active or resting mammary gland.

1. The breast and mammary gland is a modification of skin and sweat glands. Knowledge of the basic structures are essential to understand these modifications.

1. Give a classification of epithelia.

2. Name and describe general connective tissues.

3. Make an annotated line diagram illustrating the main layers of the skin and subdivisions of each layer.

4. Describe the connective tissue found in the dermis.

5. What structures are found in the dermis?

6. What is the connection between the mammary gland (exocrine gland) and the

adenohypophysis?

2. View the slide on low magnification. On this view, you should see purple staining glandular acini separated by pink staining connective tissue. Ducts could also be visible.

1. The breast is a modified sweat gland.

2. What other type of modified sweat glands are present in the skin around the nipple?

3. What type of epithelium are generally associated with ducts in glands?

4. What structure is found directly underneath the epithelium?

5. What contractile element forms an essential component of the ductal system?

3. Identify on low magnification the following:

• Mammary gland lobules

• Interlobular connective tissue

• Mammary ducts

• Adipose tissue

• In the slide you viewed, there are more/less connective tissue than glandular tissue.

• The slide is of a resting/active mammary gland.

4. View the slide at higher magnification. Cellular detail like the nuclei within cells should be visible.

5. Identify the epithelium lining the alveoli and ducts.

1. What type of epithelium is found in lactiferous ducts in deeper parts of the nipple?

2. What type of epithelium is found in lactiferous ducts closer to the orifice of the nipple?

3. Can you find any of these types of epithelium on a slide?

4. What connective tissue cell nucleus is seen between lobules?

5. What is the dividing line between malignant and benign mammary gland carcinoma?

16 Digestive System

ObjectivesYou should be able to:

The purpose of this topic is to practically illustrate the structures, organs and glands of the gastro-intestinal tract. The secretory units which were covered in the session on glandular epithelia, shouldbe reviewed for the salivary glands.

The digestive system can be divided into three parts:1. Upper Digestive Tract (oral cavity, oesophagus and stomach).

Histology of the structures found in and around the mouth, the oesophagus and stomach.

2. Lower Digestive Tract (duodenum to anus).Most digestion and absorption takes place from the duodenum to the ileum. The colon and lower is involved with water balance and excretion.

3. Accessory organs.Those organs whose primary function related to the digestive system. These include the liver, gall bladder and pancreas.

Digestive system in generalYou should be able to:

1. Describe the generic components, organisation and functions common to most of the digestive tract.

2. Describe how the basic organisation of the digestive tract is modified along its course.3. Relate the structure to the function of each section of the digestive tract.4. Describe the morphology and histology of each component of the digestive tract.5. Describe functional variations related to differing functions.6. Relate the morphology with the function of each component of the digestive tract.7. Describe the appearance, organisation and functions of the epithelial cells throughout the

digestive system.8. Discuss the distribution of lymphoid tissue in the digestive system.9. Identify and describe the cells found in the various areas of the digestive tract.10. Describe the specialised functions of cells found in the various areas of the digestive tract.11. Identify and describe the intrinsic glands of the digestive tract.12. Describe the surface topology of the mucosa of the digestive tract.13. Identify the layers of the digestive tract and compare cross and longitudinal appearance.14. Define the cellular composition of the mucosal layers and their function.15. Describe changes in layers in the transitional areas of the digestive tract.

Upper digestive tractYou should be able to:

1. Describe the characteristics of the lip.2. Name and identify the papillae on the tongue.3. Name, identify and compare the salivary glands.4. Identify and describe the structure and function of the salivary glands.5. Describe and identify the histological structures of teeth.6. Identify and describe the oesophagus.7. Identify the regions of the stomach.8. Identify the different types of secreting cells in gastric glands., and the function of each.

Lower digestive tractYou should be able to:

1. Identify the neural tissue in the intestines and the coats in which they are found.2. Distinguish between the various sections of the small and large intestine.

Accessory organsYou should be able to:

1. Describe the organisation of liver tissue.2. Recognise and describe the histological structure and function of liver lobules.3. Explain how blood and bile pass through the liver lobules and relate this to liver function

and pathologies.4. Identify and describe the structure of the gall bladder and bile duct.5. Identify and describe the structure and function of the exocrine and endocrine pancreas.

Slides

Slide name Slide number Stain

Oral cavity

Lip 51

Tooth (longitudinal section) 25

Tooth (cross section) 23

Tooth (ground longitudinal section)

27

Tooth (ground cross section) 16

Tongue (tip) 7

Papilla fungi & filiformes 53

Papilla circumvalata 33

Parotid gland 85

Submandibular gland 35

Sublingual gland 107

Upper digestive track

Esophagus (cross section) 31

Esophagus-stomach junction 101

Fundus 37

Pylorus 38

Stomach-duodenal junction 36

Lower digestive track

Duodenum 40

Ileum 41

Appendix vermiformis 43

Colon 42

Rectum-anal-skin junction 45

Liver

Liver (pig) 68

Liver (human) 46

Liver (injected) 110

Liver (reticular fibres) 48

Accessory organs

Gall bladder 58

Pancreas 50

Tasks

General1. Make a table and list, for each of the slides, the following:

1. Mucosa

• Type of epithelium

• Cell types present in epithelium

• Features of mucosal glands

• Features of lamina propria

• Muscularis mucosae

2. Submucosa

3. Muscularis externa

4. Serosa or Adventitia

If a heading is not applicable, make sure to explicitly state so, and do not just leave the listing empty.

2. Make an annotated diagram of the general structure of the digestive track. Use the following word bank to populate your diagram:

muscle coat, submucosa, mucous membrane, villi, lymphoid nodule, epithelium, lamina propria, muscularis mucosa, serosa, external gland, mesentery, submucosal gland, Meissner's plexus, Auerbach's plexus.

Note: You can add additional terms as well as substitute terms.

3. Name the four layers making up the general structure of the digestive track.

1. Mucosa

• Epithelium: stratified squamous, simple columnar

• Lamina propria: loose connective tissue = blood and lymphatic vessels, lymphoidfollicles.

• muscularis mucosae: smooth muscle

2. Submucosa: loose connective tissue

3. Muscle layer

• Two layers of smooth muscle cells, inner circumferentially, outer longitudinal.

• Separated by nervous tissue, myenteric plexus.

4. Serosa/Adventitia

• Loose connective tissue covered by mesothelium

• Only loose connective tissue.

5. +Glands

• Isolated mucosal secretory cells.

• Lamina propria of mucosa.

• Submucosa

• External connected with ducts.

4. What are the general content of each of the four layers of the digestive track?

5. List the epithelium found in the complete digestive track, starting and ending with keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

6. Describe the general distribution of glands in the digestive track.

7. What structures are found in the submucosa?

8. Give the distribution of the serosa and adventitia throughout the digestive track.

9. Describe the morphology of the serosa seen in the digestive track.

Slide specific tasks

Slide 51: Lip (H/E)1. View the slide at low magnification. At this view, the four zones of the lip should be

visible.

1. What are the four zones visible on the surface of the lip?

Hairy skin, vermilion border, vermilion and oral mucosa.

2. The lip is a mucocutaneous junction. What is a mucocutaneous junction? Give examples of mucocutaneous junctions.

3. Name the epithelium found in each of the four zones of the lip.

4. Name the three main layers of skin, the subdivisions of each and the structures found ineach.

5. What is the difference between the outer and inner surface of the lip?

Outer surface contain the normal structures found in skin, covered with keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. The inner surface is devoid of hair, and covered with stratified squamous epithelium. The dermal papillae of the inner surface of the lip are increased in number and more vascular, but does no dermal appendages are present.

2. View the slide at higher magnification. Cellular arrangements should become visible.

3. Identify the following:

1. The different parts of the surface of the lip.

2. Muscle tissue.

3. Connective tissue.

4. Labial glands.

1. What type of contractile tissue is present in the lip?

Striated muscle running in various directions.

2. How is the contractile tissue arranged?

3. Give the complete classification of the labial glands.

4. What type of connective tissue is present in the lip?

Fibro-elastic connective tissue.

4. Make an annotated line drawing of the histology of the lip. Indicate the structures of thelip, and the functions of each structure.

Slide 16, 23, 25 and 27: ToothSlide 25: Tooth (longitudinal section; H/E)

Slide 23: Tooth (cross section; H/E)

Slide 27: Tooth (ground longitudinal section)

Slide 16: Tooth (ground cross section)

1. You should know the parts of the tooth and be able to recognise the parts of the tooth on a slide.

Structures and cells of and found in association with a tooth: blood vessels, pulp, dentine, enamel, odontoblasts, cementum, periodontal membrane, crown, root, root canal, alveolar bone, pulp chamber, gingiva.

2. View the tooth slides on low magnification. You should see the enamel and root canal ofthe tooth. In the haematoxillin stained sections, the alveolar bone is also visible.

3. Identify the structures and cells associated with the tooth, on both cross and longitudinal sections.

4. Make an annotated line drawing of a cross and longitudinal section of the tooth, indicating the various parts as identified above.

1. Enamel is analogous to epithelium, covering the surface of the tooth and derived from epithelium.

2. What is characteristic of the pulp?

3. What is the layer of cells found against the dentine called?

4. What is characteristic of cementum?

5. What are the collagen fibres of the periodontal ligament known as?

6. What is characteristic of the gingiva?

7. What is the granular layer of Tomes?

8. What are Retzius lines?

9. Define and describe spindles and tufts?

10. What cells are responsible for the secretion of dentine?

Tongue – a coronal section through the distal part of the tongue (H/E)

1. View the slide at low magnification. The free surface and attached area should be visible. Below the free surface, layers of muscle tissue interspersed with glandular tissue is visible. Blood vessels and scattered fat cells are also present.

2. View the slide at high magnification. Cellular detail should now be discernible.

1. What is secreted by the glands in the tongue?

2. What type of epithelium is present on the dorsal surface of the tongue?

3. What type of epithelium is present on the undersurface of the tongue?

4. Muscles normally have an origin (fixed) and insertion (moving). Muscle fibres run longitudinally between the origin and insertion. In what direction does muscle fibres of the tongue run?

3. Identify the following tissues and structures in the tongue:

1. Papillae

2. Epithelia

3. Muscle fibres

4. Fat cells

5. Glandular tissue.

4. Make an annotated diagram of the tongue, indicating the different layers, tissues and structures.

1. Twist and fold your tongue. Why is the tongue able to perform such complex movements?

2. How is the anterior and posterior parts of the tongue divided?

3. How does the anterior and posterior parts of the tongue differ?

Slide 53: Papillae fungi- and filiformes (H/E)

Slide 33: Papilla circumvalata (H/E)You should be able to identify and differentiate between the three types of papillae seen on thetongue. Papillae are surface structures and as such are covered with epithelium. You should know the type of epithelium covering the papillae and the glands associated with the papillae.

1. View the slides on both low and high magnification. Look at the shape of the papillae and their placement in the epithelium of the tongue.

1. Name the three types of papillae found on the tongue.

2. What is the shape of each of the papillae found on the tongue?

3. How are the papillae distributed on the tongue.

4. Where are the glands found in relation to the papillae?

5. Classify the glands fully.

6. Where are taste buds found in the digestive track?

7. What are the glands of Ebner?

8. What are the functions of the glands found in association with the papillae?

2. Make an annotated diagram of each of the three types of papillae.

3. Make an annotated diagram of the surface of the tongue, indicating the distribution of the papillae and landmark on the surface of the tongue.

Slides 85, 35 and 107: Salivary glands

Slide 85: Parotid gland – a section through the parotid salivary gland (H/E)Slide 35: Submandibular gland – a section through the submandibular salivary gland (H/E)Slide 107: Sublingual gland (H/E)

1. View the slides at both low and high magnification. At low magnification, lobes, ducts and general structure should be visible. At higher magnifications, the acini and cells forming the acini is visible. Epithelia of ducts should also be identifiable.

1. Name the six types of contractile cells.

2. Which contractile cell/s are associated with salivary glands?

3. Where in salivary glands are contractile cells seen?

4. Give the complete classification of glandular tissue.

5. Name the three types of cellular secretion.

6. Which type of cellular secretion is active in salivary glands?

7. Secretory material from salivary glands are contained in zymogen granules.

8. Compare the three salivary glands in a table with regards to the following:

• Type of secretory units.

• Type of secretions.

• Relative frequency of secretory unit types.

• Type of ducts.

• Cells, tissues and structures seen in the gland.

9. Identify the following structures of each of the salivary glands:

1. Connective tissue septae.

2. Blood vessels.

3. Secretory units.

4. Secretory ducts.

5. Zymogen granules.

1. Give a complete classification for each of the three salivary glands.

2. Name the organ most commonly associated with pseudostratified columnar epithelium.

3. Describe the morphology of ducts found in salivary glands and the associated epithelial

progression.

Intercalated ducts – striated ducts – interlobular ducts

Simple cuboidal – simple columnar – tall columnar – pseudostratified columnar – stratified columnar

4. Where does centro-acinar cells occur?

5. Does salivary glands have centro-acinar cells?

10.Make an annotated drawing of the secretory units of each of the salivary glands. Give a clear indication of the relative frequency of the different secretory units.

Slide 31: Oesophagus – Cross section through the oesophagus (H/E)

1. Consider the macroscopic structure and function of the oesophagus and answer the following questions:

1. What is the function of the oesophagus?

Transport ingested food from the oral cavity to the stomach.

2. What transitional areas are seen in the oesophagus?

Epithelium: Stratified squamous (oesophagus) to simple columnar (stomach).

Glands: Oesophageal glands in submucosa higher up; cardiac glands in the mucosa lower down.

Muscle: Skeletal muscle in the upper third; smooth muscle in the lower third, mixedin the middle third of the oesophagus.

3. How are muscle types distributed in the oesophagus?

Smooth muscle in the muscularis mucosa of the lamina propria; mixed in the muscular layer: skeletal muscle in the upper third; smooth muscle in the lower third, mixed in the middle third of the oesophagus.

4. Is the surface of the oesophagus flattened or folded?

Folded.

5. How does the lumen of the oesophagus appear?

Folds.

2. View the oesophagus at low magnification. All layers, from the lumen of the oesophagusto the surrounding adventitia should be visible. Identify the following:

1. Lumen of the oesophagus.

2. Folded epithelium.

3. Glands in the lamina propria.

4. Papillae

5. Glands

6. Adventitia

1. What are the three main layers of the oesophagus?

Mucous membrane, muscle layer, adventitia.

2. What type of epithelium is present in the oesophagus?

Stratified squamous epithelium.

3. What is the function of this epithelium in the oesophagus? How is this different from the rest of the digestive track?

Protective vs absorptive.

4. What type of glands are located in the oesophagus?

Mucous throughout.

5. In which of the three main layers of the oesophagus does the glands occur?

6. What is analogous between the muscle layers and glands of the oesophagus?

7. Describe the contractile components of the oesophagus.

8. What does the adventitia consist of?

3. View the oesophagus at higher magnification. Some cellular detail may be visible.

1. Where are the nerve supply found in the oesophagus?

4. Identify the transitions between the different layers of the oesophagus.

1. Describe the border between the epithelium and the lamina propria.

2. How is the border between the epithelium and the lamina propria similar to the border between the epidermis and dermis of skin?

3. Describe the structure of the muscular layer.

5. Make an annotated line diagram of the oesophagus, showing the layers and contents of each layer and the divisions of each layer. Use the terminology used in the drawing of the general structure of the digestive track as a resource.

Slide 101: Oesophagus-stomach junction (H/E)1. View the slide at low magnification. The mucosa, submucosa and muscular layers

should be visible. The epithelium lining the lumen side (inside) shows a transitional areathat should also be visible. On the outside, the adventitia is sometimes visible, but are often lost during preparation.

1. Name the layers and subdivisions of each layer of the oesophagus.

2. Name the layers and subdivisions of each layer of the stomach.

3. What epithelium is seen in the trachea?

4. Name the epithelium of the oesophagus and stomach, respectively.

2. At low magnification, identify the oesophageal epithelium. Follow the oesophageal epithelium until it changes into stomach epithelium.

1. What is the function of oesophageal epithelium?

2. What is the function of stomach epithelium?

3. View the slide at higher magnifications. Cellular detail like nuclei should become visible.

4. Identify the following, on both low and high magnification:

1. Mucosa

2. Submucosa

3. M. externa

4. Adventitia

5. Two types of epithelia and the junction between them.

1. What is the function of the oesophageal muscular layers?

2. What is the function of the stomach's muscular layers?

5. Make an annotated line diagram of the oesophagus-stomach junction.

1. How does the layers of the oesophagus change in the stomach? Structure your answer in a table, listing the layers and the functions of each.

Slides 37 & 38: Stomach

Slide 37: Stomach – cross section through the fundus of the stomachSlide 38: Stomach – cross section through the pylorus of the stomach

1. View the slides at low magnification. The surface of the stomach as well as the muscle layers should be visible. Also view slides 101 and 36 where transitional areas include portions of the stomach tissue.

1. What are the main functions of the stomach?

2. Which cells, tissues and structures are responsible for each of the respective functions of the stomach?

2. Identify the main layers associated with the digestive track, as seen in the stomach.

3. View the slide at higher magnifications. Cellular arrangement should become visible.

1. Name the four parts of the gastric gland.

2. What epithelium is found in most parts of the conducting sections of the respiratory system?

3. Name the four cells seen in the epithelium of the conducting section of the respiratory system.

4. What epithelium lines the surface of the stomach (excluding the pits)?

5. What is the function of the epithelium lining the surface of the stomach?

4. Identify the following structures:

1. Pits (foveolae)

2. Mucosa

3. Gastric glands

4. Submucosa

5. Muscle layers

6. Serosa

7. Nervous tissue

8. Lymphocyte infiltration

5. Make and annotated line sketch of the stomach. Indicate the layers and structural features. Make a separate line sketch of the gastric gland, and the distribution of cells from the surface (pit) to the base of the gland.

1. What are the four main anatomical parts of the stomach?

2. What happens to the mucosa and submucosa of an empty stomach?

3. Proportionally, how deep does the gastric pits extend into the mucosa?

4. How deep do the foveolae extend into the mucosa?

5. Which layers comprise the mucosa?

6. What are the identifying characteristics of the epithelium which lines the foveolae and surface?

7. What is typical of the extent, areas and types of cells of the gastric glands?

8. What is typical of the submucosa?

9. What are the identifying characteristics of the M. externa?

10.What does the serosa comprise of, and how does it differ from the adventitia?

11.Where are the ganglia found, and of what do they form a part of?

12.Where are lymphocytes found, and how are they arranged?

Slide 36: Stomach-duodenal junction H/E

This slide is a longitudinal section through the stomach-duodenal junction.

1. View the slide at low magnification. A purple mucosa layer should be visible, with a change in epithelium type occurring somewhere along the surface. Below this, a layer of glandular and muscle tissue is present.

2. Identify microscopically at low magnification:1. Mucosa2. Submucosa 3. M. externa4. Serosa

3. View the slide at higher magnification. Cell and luminal detail should be visible.4. Make an annotated line drawing of the stomach-duodenal junction.

1. How do the different layers of the stomach change in the duodenum?

Duodenum H/E

This slide is a longitudinal section through the duodenum.

Identify microscopically:1. Mucosa 2. Submucosa3. M. externa4. Serosa

Draw and annotate:A line sketch where the villi and crypts of Lieberkühn as well as glands of Brunner are shown in detail.

Reflection:1. What are the projections and invaginations from the surface of the small intestine called?2. What types of cells cover the luminal surface of the duodenum?3. What types of cells line the crypts?4. What type of gland is the Brunner gland?5. Where do the Brunner glands open?

Slide 41: Ileum – simple squamous epithelium (endothelium) H/E

This specimen serves as an example of endothelium as seen in a section. The specimens that are used are sections through the skin of the palm (slide 93, page 56) or a section through the ileum. The blood vessels can be found in the dermis/hypodermis of the skin or in the submucosa of the ileum.

Identify:A Macroscopic

Hold the slide against a white background and look at it with the naked eye. Identify the three coloured layers seen in the section:

• A dark pink to red scalloped area - the epidermis. • A central light pink area - the dermis.• A thick very light pink area - the hypodermis.

The blood vessels can be found under low magnification in the dermis.B Microscopic• Lumen of the blood vessel• Endothelial cells against the lumen• Nuclei of the endothelial cells• Cytoplasm• Layers of the blood vessel wall

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the blood vessel and endothelial cells.

Questions:1. What is characteristic of the endothelial cells?2. What is characteristic of the cytoplasm of these endothelial cells? And the nuclei?3. What is sometimes seen in the lumen?

Ileum H/E

This slide is a longitudinal section through the ileum.

Identify microscopically:1. Mucosa2. Submucosa3. M. externa4. Serosa5. Lymphocyte infiltration

Draw and annotate:A line drawing of the ileum.

Questions:1. What are the similarities and differences between the ileum and duodenum?

Slide 42: Large intestine – goblet cells and simple tubular glands H/E

This specimen is a longitudinal section through the large intestine.

Identify:A Macroscopic• The longitudinally sectioned colon• The luminal surfaceB Microscopic• Single cell gland or goblet cell (pale staining)• Simple tubular gland. Note that the simple tubular gland is the whole test tube shaped

structure and that it is lined with goblet cells and columnar epithelial cells.

Draw and annotate:A goblet cell as well as a simple tubular gland (with goblet cells and columnar epithelial cells), as seen in longitudinal section.

Questions:1. What are the characteristics of a goblet cell?2. What cells form a simple tubular gland?

Slide 42: Colon – connective tissue cells H/E

This specimen is a section through the colon and is a good example of the different types of connective tissue cells.

Identify:A Macroscopic• (i)A thin dark pink coloured line, the mucosa.• (ii)A central light pink coloured area with fine pink coloured structures, the submucosa. • (iii)An outer pink coloured irregular area, the outer muscle layer.B MicroscopicC In the lamina propria of the mucosa, which comprises an epithelial layer and a loose

connective tissue layer, the lamina propria, the following cells must be identified:• Fibroblasts

• Plasma cells• Macrophages• Mast cells• Eosinophils• Lymphocytes • Smooth muscle fibers

Draw and annotate:The different cell types. List with each cell type, their distinguishing characteristics.

Slide 42: Colon H/E

This slide is a longitudinal section through the colon.

Identify microscopically:1. Mucosa2. Submucosa3. M. externa4. Serosa

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the colon.

Questions:1. What are the distinguishing characteristics of the crypts as far as their structure and

arrangement are concerned?2. What is typical of the outer layer of M. externa?3. What are the similarities and differences between the colon, appendix, vermiformis, ileum

and duodenum?

Slide 43: Appendix vermiformis H/E

This slide is a cross section through the appendix.


Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the appendix vermiformis wherein the typical lymphocyte infiltration is shown.

Questions:1. How are the lymphocytes arranged?2. What is typical of the crypts?

Slide 45: Rectum-anal-skin junction H/E

This slide is a longitudinal section through the rectum-anus-skin junction.

Identify microscopically:1. Mucosa

2. Submucosa3. M. externa4. Serosa and/or adventitia

Draw and annotate:A line drawing of the rectum-anus-skin transition.

Questions:1. What changes are seen at the junction?2. What happens to the submucosa?3. How does the M. externa change, and what types of muscle are found here?4. Presence of a serosa and/or adventitia? Explain.

Slide 46: Liver H/E

This slide is a section through the human liver.

Identify microscopically:1. The fibrous capsule of the liver (capsule of Glisson) 2. Liver lobules3. Liver parenchyma4. Vena centralis5. Portal areas

Draw and annotate:A cross section of a liver lobule of humans:

Questions:1. How does human liver differ from pig liver?

Slide 48: Liver – reticular fibers Silver

This is a section through the liver to demonstrate reticular fibers.

Identify:A Macroscopic• The mass of liver tissueB Microscopic• Reticular fibers• Outlines of liver cells

Draw and annotate:Reticular fibers. Draw the general outline of the liver cells.

Questions:1. What characteristics are used to distinguish reticular fibers?2. How do reticular fibers differ from collagen and elastic fibers?

Slide 48: Liver Silver

This slide is a section through the liver to demonstrate the space of Disse, by means of the reticularfibers.

Identify microscopically:1. Networks of reticular fibers2. The ghost images of the cords of liver cells 3. Position of sinusoids4. Position of the space of Disse

Draw and annotate:The reticular fibers, cords of liver cells and sinusoids.

Questions:1. Where are the reticular fibers specifically found?2. How are the reticular fibers arranged three dimensionally?

Slide 50: Pancreas – Compound tubulo-alveolar gland H/E

This specimen is a section through the pancreas.

Identify:A Macroscopic• The mass of pancreas tissueB Microscopic• The round or elongated secretory units. These are groups of cells arranged around a central

lumen.

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the secretory units in longitudinal, cross, as well as oblique sections. In the line drawing of the cross section also draw the cells forming the unit.

Questions:1. What are the characteristics of these glandular cells?2. Why do the secretory units have different shapes in a section?

Slide 50: Pancreas – islands H/E

This specimen is a section through the pancreas to demonstrate the organization of endocrine glands.

Identify:A Macroscopic• The mass of pancreas tissueB Microscopic• An island among the exocrine glandular tissue

Look at the following slides to see the different ways cells in endocrine glands organize:

Islands Pancreas Slide 50

Groups Hypophysis Slide 52

Cords Adrenal glands Slide 56

Follicles Thyroid Slide 55

Draw and annotate:A few cells of an island. Demonstrate the cellular arrangement in the island clearly. Additionally, draw a few (generic) cells to demonstrate the shape of groups, cords and follicles.

Slide 50: Pancreas (exocrine) H/E

This slide is a section through the pancreas to illustrate the exocrine portion of the gland.

Identify microscopically:1. Exocrine section2. Acini3. Centro-acinar cells4. Lobules and ducts, blood vessels and connective tissue septae 5. Endocrine section. (Also review slide 50 on pages 18, 18 and 19)

Draw and annotate:A lobe in which a part of the exocrine acini are shown in detail.

Questions:1. As what type of gland is the exocrine pancreas classified?2. What zones are found in the cells of an acinus?3. Of which structures of the pancreas are the centro-acinar cells part of?4. What types of secretory ducts are found in the pancreas?

Slide 50: Pancreas (endocrine) H/E

This slide is a section through the pancreas to illustrate the endocrine section of the gland.

Identify microscopically:1. Islets of Langerhans2. Cords of island cells3. Capillaries4. Exocrine section. (Also review slide 50 on pages 18, 18 and 19)

Draw and annotate:A lobe in which a section of the exocrine acini and the endocrine areas are shown in detail.

Questions:1. How are the cells of the endocrine pancreas organized?2. What structures are found in between the endocrine cells?3. What types of cells form an islet?

Identify microscopically:1. Lumen of the gallbladder2. Simple columnar epithelial cells

Draw and annotate:Simple columnar epithelial cells. Also indicate the connective tissue layer that these cells rest on.

Questions:1. How are the lateral borders of the cells determined?

2. Where the nuclei located and what is their shape?3. What is the appearance of the free surface of these cells? What is absent from the free

surface of these cells?

Slide 58: Gall bladder H/E

This slide is a section through the gall bladder.

Identify microscopically:1. Mucosa2. Muscle layer3. Adventitia and/or serosa 4. Aschoff crypts (diverticula)

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the gall bladder.

Questions:1. What type of epithelium lines the gall bladder?2. What layers form the mucosa?3. How are the muscle layers arranged?4. Adventitia and/or serosa? Explain.

Identify microscopically:1. The fibrous capsule of the liver (capsule of Glisson) 2. Liver lobules3. Liver parenchyme 4. Vena centralis5. Portal areas

Draw and annotate:A cross-section of a liver lobule of the pig:

Questions:1. What is the shape of the liver lobules?2. What types of cells are found in the lobules?3. How is the liver parenchyme arranged?4. What comprise the portal areas, and where are they found?5. How are the structures of each portal area distinguished from each other?

Slide 110: Liver Berlin blue

This slide is a section through the liver which has been injected with Berlin blue, to show the blood vessels.

Identify microscopically:1. Portal areas2. Sinusoids3. V. centralis

Draw and annotate:The blood supply of a liver lobule:

Questions:1. Where do the portal areas drain into?2. How are the sinusoids arranged?3. Where do the sinusoids drain into?

Revision Questions1. What is the function of the oesophagus?

2. Explain and relate the histology of the oesophagus to the function of the oesophagus.

• Transport food to the stomach – muscle layers.

• Resist abrasion of food – stratified squamous epithelium & glands.

3. What is the function of the stomach?

4. Explain and relate the histology of the stomach to the function of the stomach.

• Chemical digestion – glands secrete – HCl for digestion, mucous to protect against self-digestion, intrinsic factor for digestion.

• And mechanical digestion – muscle layers.

5. What stimulate secretions by the salivary glands?

• Stimulus by nerve endings in the oral mucosa.

• Olfactory stimuli

• Psychic stimuli.

6. Secretory nerve fibres (efferent) to the salivary glands are derived from two sources. What are the two sources of efferent nerve supply to the salivary glands?

• Cranial outflow – parasympathetic system – thin serous

• Thoracic outflow – sympathetic system – thick mucous

7. What are the role or functions of the nerve supply to the salivary glands?

8. The buccal mucosa of the mouth contains numerous small glands. What does these glands consist of?

Mucous cells.

9. Some research suggest that serous demilunes as seen in mixed acini are artifacts of traditional fixation methods. Explain.

10.Name and discuss the three types of papillae.

11.What cells are responsible for the secretion of dentine?

12.Name the 3 main salivary glands and their secretions.

13.Tabulate the differences in the layers of the oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and colon.

14.Name 7 functions of the liver.

15.Name and discuss the functional structures of the liver.

16.What classifies liver cirrhosis?

17.What layer is absent in the mucosal layer of the gall bladder?

18.What is the capsule of the pancreas composed of?

19.How is ingestion, propulsion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, and defecation controlled?

20.Name the six fundamental activities of the digestive system, giving an example of each.

21.Why does the stomach not digest itself?

22.Describe the mechanical and chemical digestion of food entering the stomach.

23.What are the adaptations of the small intestine wall that increase its absorptive capacity

24.What features are unique to the wall of the large intestine?

25.Describe the contributions of the unique features of the large intestine to its function.

26.What roles does bacterial flora play in functioning of the digestive system?

27. Identify three main features of liver histology that are critical to its function.

Block 8: Pathological conditions and infectious diseases

EXPORT SECTION

2 Female Genital system0

Tasks

General tasks: Mammary gland1. Complete a table relating to the histology of the breast. Make relevant connections with

physiology and pathology.

Phase Epithelium Ductal system Connectivetissues

Elaborate

Pre-puberty

Male

Female

Puberty

Male

Female

Pregnancy

Male

Female

Menopause

Male

Female

Slide 57: Mammary gland – this is a section through an active or resting mammary gland.

1. The breast and mammary gland is a modification of skin and sweat glands. Knowledge of the basic structures are essential to understand these modifications.

1. Give a classification of epithelia.

2. Name and describe general connective tissues.

3. Make an annotated line diagram illustrating the main layers of the skin and subdivisions of each layer.

4. Describe the connective tissue found in the dermis.

5. What structures are found in the dermis?

6. What is the connection between the mammary gland (exocrine gland) and the adenohypophysis?

2. View the slide on low magnification. On this view, you should see purple staining glandular acini separated by pink staining connective tissue. Ducts could also be visible.

1. The breast is a modified sweat gland.

2. What other type of modified sweat glands are present in the skin around the nipple?

3. What type of epithelium are generally associated with ducts in glands?

4. What structure is found directly underneath the epithelium?

5. What contractile element forms an essential component of the ductal system?

3. Identify on low magnification the following:

• Mammary gland lobules

• Interlobular connective tissue

• Mammary ducts

• Adipose tissue

• In the slide you viewed, there are more/less connective tissue than glandular tissue.

• The slide is of a resting/active mammary gland.

4. View the slide at higher magnification. Cellular detail like the nuclei within cells should be visible.

5. Identify the epithelium lining the alveoli and ducts.

1. What type of epithelium is found in lactiferous ducts in deeper parts of the nipple?

2. What type of epithelium is found in lactiferous ducts closer to the orifice of the nipple?

3. Can you find any of these types of epithelium on a slide?

4. What connective tissue cell nucleus is seen between lobules?

5. What is the dividing line between malignant and benign mammary gland carcinoma?

16 Digestive System

Slides

Slide name Slide number Stain

Oral cavity

Lip 51

Tooth (longitudinal section) 25

Tooth (cross section) 23

Tooth (ground longitudinal section)

27

Tooth (ground cross section) 16

Tongue (tip) 7

Papilla fungi & filiformes 53

Papilla circumvalata 33

Parotid gland 85

Submandibular gland 35

Sublingual gland 107

Upper digestive track

Esophagus (cross section) 31

Esophagus-stomach junction 101

Fundus 37

Pylorus 38

Stomach-duodenal junction 36

Lower digestive track

Duodenum 40

Ileum 41

Appendix vermiformis 43

Colon 42

Rectum-anal-skin junction 45

Liver

Liver (pig) 68

Liver (human) 46

Liver (injected) 110

Liver (reticular fibres) 48

Accessory organs

Gall bladder 58

Pancreas 50

Tasks

General1. Make a table and list, for each of the slides, the following:

1. Mucosa

• Type of epithelium

• Cell types present in epithelium

• Features of mucosal glands

• Features of lamina propria

• Muscularis mucosae

2. Submucosa

3. Muscularis externa

4. Serosa or Adventitia

If a heading is not applicable, make sure to explicitly state so, and do not just leave the listing empty.

2. Make an annotated diagram of the general structure of the digestive track. Use the following word bank to populate your diagram:

muscle coat, submucosa, mucous membrane, villi, lymphoid nodule, epithelium, lamina propria, muscularis mucosa, serosa, external gland, mesentery, submucosal gland, Meissner's plexus, Auerbach's plexus.

Note: You can add additional terms as well as substitute terms.

3. Name the four layers making up the general structure of the digestive track.

1. Mucosa

• Epithelium: stratified squamous, simple columnar

• Lamina propria: loose connective tissue = blood and lymphatic vessels, lymphoidfollicles.

• muscularis mucosae: smooth muscle

2. Submucosa: loose connective tissue

3. Muscle layer

• Two layers of smooth muscle cells, inner circumferentially, outer longitudinal.

• Separated by nervous tissue, myenteric plexus.

4. Serosa/Adventitia

• Loose connective tissue covered by mesothelium

• Only loose connective tissue.

5. +Glands

• Isolated mucosal secretory cells.

• Lamina propria of mucosa.

• Submucosa

• External connected with ducts.

4. What are the general content of each of the four layers of the digestive track?

5. List the epithelium found in the complete digestive track, starting and ending with keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

6. Describe the general distribution of glands in the digestive track.

7. What structures are found in the submucosa?

8. Give the distribution of the serosa and adventitia throughout the digestive track.

9. Describe the morphology of the serosa seen in the digestive track.

Nervous systemBy studying this topic, you will find out about the basic structure of nerves, synapses, central and peripheral nervous systems, supporting cells of nervous tissue and the special senses. The followingcontent will be studied in this topic:

Neurons:

1. Cell bodies

1. Multipolar

2. Pseudo-unipolar

2. Processes

1. Myelinated

2. Unmyelinated

3. Nerve endings

1. Central nervous system

1. Synapse

2. Peripheral nervous system

1. Motor units

• Motor muscle end plate

2. Sensory endings

• Pacinian corpuscle

• Meissner's corpuscle

Neuroglia:

1. Astrocytes

2. Ependyma

Nervous system:

1. Ganglia

• Spinal

• Sympathetic

• Parasympathetic

2. Cerebrum

3. Cerebellum

4. Spinal cord

Special sense:

1. Eye

2. Ear

3. Touch

• Pacinian corpuscle

• Meissner’s corpuscle

Nervous tissuesYou should be able to:Describe the major divisions of the nervous system.Describe the functional and structural differences between grey and white matter.Describe the basic structure of a neuron. Identify neurons, neuroglia and neuropil.Identify the different types of neurons.Identify and describe the differences between axons and dendrites.Identify and describe myelinated and nonmyelinated nerve axons. Identify and explain the connective tissue arrangements in nervous tissue.Describe the components and organisation of the central and peripheral nervous systems.Describe and identify the supporting cells in the central and peripheral nervous system.Describe the functions of the various cells and structures of the nervous system.Describe the structure of synapses.

Nervous systemYou should be able to:Distinguish cerebellum from cerebrum in histological sections. Identify the layers of the grey matter in the cerebellum and their constituent cells.Describe and explain the organization and structure of the spinal cord in cross-section. Distinguish and explain the differences between ganglia and nerves.

Sensory systemYou should be able to:Describe different types of sensory receptorsIdentify different encapsulated sensory receptors.Describe the structures involved in the special senses of taste, smell, hearing, balance, and vision.Describe the means of mechano-reception for hearing and balance.

EyeYou should be able to:Describe the overall organization of the eye.Describe the structural organization and functions of the components of the eyelid and conjunctiva.Describe the components of the three layers of the eye.Explain the relation between structure and function of the layers in the eye.Recognize and describe the retina, fovea, optic disk, and layout of blood vessels in the retina.Recognize and describe the structures of the cornea, iris, lens, vitreous body and ciliary body.Understand the relationship among the choroid and the pigmented and sensory layers of the retina.Understand and describe the sensory cells of the retina and the rest of the optical sensory pathway.

EarYou should be able to:Describe the overall organisation of the ear, middle ear and inner ear.Recognise the ear drum, cochlea and its components.Describe and explain the functions of the components of the ear.

Slides: Nervous tissues and systems

Side name Slide number Stain

Nervous tissues

Neuron: Cell bodies

Multi-polar: spinal cord 26 & 82 H/E and silver

Multi-polar: cerebellum 60 Silver

Pseudo-unipolar: spinal ganglion

26 H/E

Neuron: fibres

Myelinated: peripheral nerve 32 H/E

Myelinated: myelin sheath 59 Osmium

Nerve endings

Central nervous system

Synapse 82 Sliver

Peripheral nervous system

Motor endings

Motor end plate 44 Gold

Sensory endings

Pacinian corpuscles 93 H/E

Meissner's corpuscles 24 Silver

Neuroglia

Astrocytes: cerebrum 61 Silver

Ependyma: choroid plexus 98 H/E

Nervous system

Ganglia: Spinal 26 & 82 H/E and silver

Ganglia: Sympathetic 103 H/E

Ganglia: Parasympathetic 37, 41, or 42 H/E

Cerebrum 61 Silver

Cerebellum 60 Silver

Spinal cord 26 H/E

Neuromuscular bundle 69 H/E

Eye

Eyelid 96 H/E

Lacrimal gland 99 H/E

Eye 29 H/E

Optic nerve 105 H/E

Ear

Pinna 87 H/E

Eardrum H/E

Auditory tube 39 H/E

Cochlea H/E

Meissner's corpuscle Silver

This is a section through skin from the palm, illustrating sensory nerve endings of the peripheral nervous system.

Identify:A Macroscopic• Orientate yourself with regard to the three layers of the skin. Look for Meissner's corpuscles

in the papillary layer of the dermis.B Microscopic• Stratified squamous keratinising epithelium• Loose connective tissue• Meissner's corpuscles

Draw and annotate a Meissner's corpuscle.

Questions:1. Describe a Meissner's corpuscle.2. What is the difference between a Meissner's and Pacinian corpuscle?

Spinal cord – multipolar neurons H/E

This is a cross section through the spinal cord and spinal ganglion. The spinal cord serves as an example of multipolar neuron cell bodies.

Identify:A Macroscopic• The orientation of the spinal cord, identifying the H-shaped grey matter, the white matter

and the spinal ganglion.B Microscopic• The multipolar neuron cell bodies found in the grey matter. (i) Cell body.• Nucleus• Nissl-substance• Axon hillock• Nuclei of the neuroglia

Draw and annotate a multipolar neuron cell body. Indicate the components of the neuron in detail.

Questions:1. What characteristic of the cell bodies is used in the identification of multipolar neurons?2. What is characteristic of the nuclei of the neurons?3. How does the Nissl-substance appear and what is it in reality?4. What is characteristic of the axon hillock?

Spinal cord – multipolar neurons H/E

This is a cross section through the spinal cord and spinal ganglion. The spinal cord serves as an example of multipolar neuron cell bodies.

Identify:A Macroscopic• The orientation of the spinal cord, identifying the H-shaped grey matter, the white matter

and the spinal ganglion.B Microscopic• The multipolar neuron cell bodies found in the grey matter. (i) Cell body.• Nucleus• Nissl-substance• Axon hillock• Nuclei of the neuroglia

Draw and annotate:A multipolar neuron cell body. Indicate the components of the neuron in detail.

Question:1. What characteristic of the cell bodies is used in the identification of multipolar neurons?2. What is characteristic of the nuclei of the neurons?3. How does the Nissl-substance appear and what is it in reality?4. What is characteristic of the axon hillock?

Spinal cord – pseudo-unipolar neurons H/E

This is a cross section through the spinal cord and spinal ganglion. The spinal ganglion is used as an example to demonstrate pseudo-unipolar neuron cell bodies.

Identify:A Macroscopic• The orientation of the spinal ganglion identifying the spinal ganglion next to the spinal cord.

The pseudo-unipolar neurons are found in the spinal ganglion.B Microscopic• Cell bodies• Nuclei• Nissl-substance

Draw and annotate:A pseudo-unipolar neuron.

Question:1. What is characteristic of the shape of a pseudo-unipolar neuron in comparison to that of

multipolar neurons?2. How do the granules of the Nissl-substance of pseudo-unipolar neurons differ from those of

the multipolar neurons?

Eye – thin stratified squamous unkeratinizing epithelium H/E

This specimen is a section through the eye. The thin stratified squamous unkeratinizing epitheliumis found on the outside of the cornea. Stratified epithelia occur where there are high levels of friction.

Identify:A Macroscopic• The eyeball and the cornea situated anteriorly.B Microscopic• The different layers comprising the epithelium.• The shape of the cells in the different layers.

Draw and annotate:A few epithelial cells of each layer showing the different cell shapes.

Questions:1. How many cell layers form this epithelium and how thick is each one of these layers in

relation to one another?2. How does the shape of the cells in each layer change?3. What is characteristic of the junction between this epithelium and the underlying support

structures (connective tissue)? Are papillae present?

Eye H/E

This is a sagittal section through the eye. The lens may or may not be present.

Identify:A Orientate yourself macroscopically with respect to the eye by identifying the following

structures: • Cornea• Limbus• Sclera• Choroid• Ciliary body• Iris - anterior and small posterior chambers• Lens [if present]• Retina• Large posterior chamber and vitreous body• Optic nerve [if present]B Microscopic(a) The cornea

◦ The different layers of the cornea(b) The Limbus

◦ The different layers of this area◦ The Canal of Schlemm◦ Pectineal ligament

(c) The Sclera(d) The conjunctiva

◦ Epithelium◦ Connective tissue

(e) The Choroid◦ The different layers of the choroid

(f) The Ciliary Body◦ The different structures of the ciliary body

(g) The Iris◦ The different layers of the iris

(h) The Retina◦ The different layers of the retina◦ The ora serrata

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the eye, including detail of a small part of each of the different elements that make up the eye.

Questions:1. What types of epithelium are found in the cornea?2. What membranes and types of support tissue are connected to the cornea?3. How do the layers of the limbus of the cornea differ from those of the sclera and

conjunctiva?4. What type of epithelium forms the Canal of Schlemm?5. What are the characteristic features of the ciliary zonule of lens?6. What type of support tissue is associated with the sclera?7. What type of epithelium covers the conjunctiva?8. What type of support tissue is associated with the conjunctiva?

9. What are the layers of the choroid?10. What is the membrane of Bruch and what cells make up this membrane?11. What structures does the ciliary body consist of?12. What is characteristic of the epithelium of the ciliary body?13. What types of muscle forms the iris?14. How is the ora serrata identified?15. What are the layers of the fovea?16. What structures connect to the optic disk?

Peripheral nerve – myelinated fibers H/E

This is a cross section through a peripheral nerve.

Identify microscopically:1. Epi-, peri- and endoneurium2. Axon3. Neurilemma4. Schwann cell nuclei

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the nerve in which the connective tissue components and nerve bundles are indicated. Draw a few cross sectional axons with their sheaths.

Questions:1. How do the axons appear?2. How do the myelin sheaths appear?3. How does one distinguish between Schwann cell and fibroblast nuclei?4. How do unmyelinated fibers appear?

Stomach – fundus H/E

This slide is a cross section through the fundus of the stomach.

Identify:A Macroscopic• The rugae with the naked eye.B Microscopic• Foveolae• Mucosa• Gastric glands• Submucosa • M. externa • Serosa• Ganglia

Draw and annotate:A line sketch of the stomach where the detail of a number of foveolae and gastric glands are shown.

Questions:1. How deep do the foveolae extend into the mucosa?2. Which layers comprise the mucosa?3. What are the identifying characteristics of the epithelium which lines the foveolae and

surface?4. What is typical of the extent, areas and types of cells of the gastric glands?5. What is typical of the submucosa?6. What are the identifying characteristics of the M. externa?7. What does the serosa comprise of, and how does it differ from the adventitia?8. Where are the ganglia found, and of what do they form a part of?

Pharyngeal tube – secretory units H/E

The pharyngeal tube or the tip of the tongue (slide 7) is used as examples to study serous, mucinous and mixed secretory units.

Identify:A Macroscopic• Identify with the naked eye the J-shaped cartilage of the pharyngeal tube. The glandular

tissue can be found on the inside of the J-shaped cartilage. The glandular tissue of the tongue can be found between the bundles of muscle fibers.

B Microscopic• Serous units• Mucinous units• Mixed units - serous demilunes

Draw and annotate:The three types of units. Clearly indicate the differences in morphology.

Questions:1. Tabulate the differences between mucinous and serous units.

Mucinous Serous

Shape of unit

Staining of cells in unit

Shape of nucleus

Lumen

2. Where do the secretions of the serous demilunes go?

Pharyngeal tube (Eustachian) H/E

This slide is a section through the auditory tube.

Identify:A Macroscopic• Orientate yourself with respect to the J-shaped cartilage.B Microscopic• The lumen of the auditory tube• The epithelium that lines the tube • The laminal propria with mixed glands • Muscle

Draw and annotate:A diagram of the auditory tube and its surrounding tissue:

Questions:1. What is the shape of the lumen?2. What type of epithelium is found here?3. What type of cartilage is found here?4. What is characteristic of the glands?5. What type of muscle is found here, and what is the anatomical name of this muscle?

Ileum – simple squamous epithelium (endothelium) H/E

This specimen serves as an example of endothelium as seen in a section. The specimens that are used are sections through the skin of the palm or a section through the ileum. The blood vessels can be found in the dermis/hypodermis of the skin or in the submucosa of the ileum.




The blood vessels can be found under low magnification in the dermis.

B Microscopic• Lumen of the blood vessel• Endothelial cells against the lumen• Nuclei of the endothelial cells• Cytoplasm• Layers of the blood vessel wall

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the blood vessel and endothelial cells.


Ileum H/E

This slide is a longitudinal section through the ileum.

Identify microscopically:1. Mucosa2. Submucosa3. M. externa4. Serosa5. Lymphocyte infiltration

Draw and annotate:A line drawing of the ileum.

Questions:1. What are the similarities and differences between the ileum and duodenum?

Large intestine – goblet cells and simple tubular glands H/E

This specimen is a longitudinal section through the large intestine.

Identify:A Macroscopic• The longitudinally sectioned colon• The luminal surfaceB Microscopic• Single cell gland or goblet cell (pale staining)• Simple tubular gland. Note that the simple tubular gland is the whole test tube shaped

structure and that it is lined with goblet cells and columnar epithelial cells.

Draw and annotate:A goblet cell as well as a simple tubular gland (with goblet cells and columnar epithelial cells), as seen in longitudinal section.

Questions:1. What are the characteristics of a goblet cell?2. What cells form a simple tubular gland?

Colon – connective tissue cells H/E

This specimen is a section through the colon and is a good example of the different types of connective tissue cells.

Identify:A Macroscopic• (i)A thin dark pink coloured line, the mucosa.• (ii)A central light pink coloured area with fine pink coloured structures, the submucosa. • (iii)An outer pink coloured irregular area, the outer muscle layer.B MicroscopicC In the lamina propria of the mucosa, which comprises an epithelial layer and a loose

connective tissue layer, the lamina propria, the following cells must be identified:• Fibroblasts• Plasma cells• Macrophages• Mast cells• Eosinophils• Lymphocytes • Smooth muscle fibers

Draw and annotate:The different cell types. List with each cell type, their distinguishing characteristics.

Colon H/E

This slide is a longitudinal section through the colon.


Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the colon.

Questions:1. What are the distinguishing characteristics of the crypts as far as their structure and

arrangement are concerned?2. What is typical of the outer layer of M. externa?3. What are the similarities and differences between the colon, appendix, vermiformis, ileum

and duodenum?

Muscle fibers – motor end plates Gold

This is a slide of separated skeletal muscle fibers illustrating the motor end plates of the peripheral nervous system.

Identify microscopically:1. (i) Separated skeletal muscle fibers2. (ii) Nerve fibers3. (iii) Motor end plates

Draw and annotate:A motor end plate.

Questions:1. What is the difference between an end plate and a motor end plate?2. What is a motor unit?

Peripheral nerve: myelinated fibers Osmium

This is a cross-section through a peripheral nerve that has been stained for myelin.

Identify microscopically:1. Myelin sheath 2. Axon

Draw and annotate:A number of myelin sheaths in detail.

Questions:1. Are all the axons and myelin sheaths sectioned the same?2. Why can't the structure of the axons be seen?

Cerebellum Silver

This slide is a sagittal section through the cerebellum.

Identify:A Macroscopic• The grey and white matterB Microscopic• The different layers of the cerebellar cortex • White matter

Draw and annotate:The neurons of the different layers of the cerebellar cortex.

Questions:1. What type of neurons are seen in the grey matter?

Cerebrum – astrocytes Silver

This is a section through the cerebrum illustrating neuroglia of the central nervous system.

Identify microscopically:1. Astrocytes2. Blood vessels

Draw and annotate:An astrocyte in detail.

Questions:1. What type of astrocyte is visible in this slide, and with which structure are they in contact?2. Where are these astrocytes found?3. What is distinctive of astrocytes?4. Describe the perivascular feet?

Cerebrum Silver

This slide is a section through the cerebrum.

Identify:A Macroscopic• The white and grey matterB Microscopic• The different layers of the cerebral cortex. • White matter

Draw and annotate:The different types of neurons found in the different layers of the cerebrum.

Questions:1. What types of neuron are seen here?2. What other structures are also visible in this slide?

Muscular artery and medium vein H/E

This slide is a cross-section through a medium artery and vein.

Identify microscopically:1. The three layers of the vessels, and their subdivisions

Draw and annotate:A diagram of the artery and vein showing a portion of detail of each layer.

Questions:1. What is the relative thickness of the three layers of the artery and vein with respect to each

other?2. What is characteristic of each layer seen in the artery and the vein?3. What are the identifying features of the artery and the vein. Tabulate the differences and

similarities of these arteries and veins.

Multipolar neurons Silver

This is a cross section through the spinal cord and spinal ganglion. The spinal cord is used as an example of multipolar neuron cell bodies.

Identify microscopically:1. Cell bodies2. Nuclei3. Neurofibrils4. Meshwork5. Nuclei of neuroglia

Draw and annotate: A multipolar neuron.

Questions1. Is the neuron nuclei visible?2. How do the neurofibrils appear and what are they in reality?3. What is the meshwork surrounding the cell bodies in reality?

Spinal cord: synapse Silver

This is a cross-section through the spinal cord showing the nerve ends (synapses) of the central nervous system, which are situated on the neuron cell bodies of the large anterior horn of the spinalcord.

Identify microscopically:1. Neuron bodies 2. End plates

Draw and annotate:A neuron cell body with end plates included.

Questions:1. How are the end plates presented under the light microscope?

Pinna (auricle) H/E

This slide is a longitudinal section through the pinna of the ear.

Identify microscopically:1. The different layers of the pinna

Draw and annotate:A diagram of the pinna showing the different components:

Questions:1. What type of cartilage is found in the pinna?2. How can one distinguish between the lateral and medial surfaces of the pinna?

Skin: simple squamous epithelium (endothelium) H/E

This specimen serves as an example of endothelium as seen in a section. The specimens that are used are sections through the skin of the palm or a section through the ileum (slide 41) can also be used. The blood vessels can be found in the dermis/hypodermis of the skin or in the submucosa of the ileum.




The blood vessels can be found under low magnification in the dermis.B Microscopic• Lumen of the blood vessel• Endothelial cells against the lumen• Nuclei of the endothelial cells• Cytoplasm• Layers of the blood vessel wall

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the bloodvessel and endothelial cells.


Skin: stratified squamous keratinizing epithelium H/E

This specimen is a section through the skin of the palm of the hand.


Hold the slide against a white background and look at it with the naked eye. Identify three coloured layers seen in the section:

• A dark pink to red scalloped area – the epidermis• A central light pink area – the dermis• A thick very light pin area – the hypodermisB Microscopic• The different layers of the epithelium which form the epidermis• The shape of the cells in the different layers

Draw and annotate:A few epithelial cells of each layer to show the different cell shapes.

Questions:1. How many cell layers are present?2. How does the shape of the cells in each layer change?3. How does the junction between this epithelium and the underlying support structures

(connective tissue) appear?

Fatty connective tissue H/E

This is a section through the hypodermis of thick skin to demonstrate fatty connective tissue.

Identify:A Macroscopic• The different textures and intensity of stained layers of thick skin.B Microscopic• Fat cells• Connective tissue septa.

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of a few lobules of fatty tissue. In one of the lobules draw fat cells as well as the surrounding connective tissue septa.

Questions:1. How does the appearance of these fat cells differ from those that were stained with Sudan

IV?

Skin: Pacinian corpuscle H/E

This is a section through skin from the palm, illustrating sensory nerve endings of the peripheral nervous system.

Identify:A Macroscopic• Orientate yourself with regard to the three visible primary layers of the skin of the palm.

Look for the Pacinian corpuscles which are found in the subcutaneous fat tissue.B Microscopic• Adipose tissue• Pacinian corpuscles

Draw and annotate:A Pacinian corpuscle.

Questions:1. Describe the Pacinian corpuscle.2. What is the capsule made from?

Thick skin H/E

This slide is a section through the skin of the palm of the hand.

Identify:A Macroscopic• Orientate yourself with respect to the two layers of the skin, as well as the subcutaneous

tissue.B Microscopic• The two layers of the skin • The subcutaneous tissue • Sweat glands

Draw and annotate:The layers of the skin, including the subcutaneous tissue and sweat glands.

Questions:1. What type of epithelium is seen here?2. What are the different layers of the dermis, and what type of support tissue is found here?3. What is characteristic of the subcutis (hypodermis)?4. What is characteristic of the ducts of the sweat glands?5. How does one distinguish between the secretory part and the tubular part of sweat glands?

Eyelid H/E

This slide is a sagittal section through the eyelid.

Identify:A Macroscopic• Orientate yourself with regard to inner and outer surfaces of the eyelid.B Microscopic• The different layers that make up the eyelid • The different structures seen in the eyelid

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the eyelid, including details of the conjunctiva and Meibomian glands.

Questions:1. How can one distinguish between the inner and outer surfaces of the eye?2. What type of connective tissue forms the tarsal plates?3. What type of gland is the Meibomian gland?4. What is the anatomical name of the muscle seen, and what type of muscle is it?5. What are the glands of Moll and Zeiss otherwise known as?

Ependyma H/E

This is a section through the choroid plexus illustrating neuroglia of the central nervous system.

Identify microscopically:1. Ependyma2. Connective tissue and blood vessels

Draw and annotate:A few ependymal cells, including the underlying blood vessels and connective tissue.

Questions:1. Where is the choroid plexus located?2. What is the difference between ependyma and simple cuboidal epithelium?

Lacrimal gland H/E

This slide is a section through the lacrimal gland.

Identify microscopically:1. Acini (secretory unit)2. Ducts, connective tissue and blood vessels

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the lacrimal gland, including details of a number of secretory units, ducts and connective tissue:

Questions:1. What are the characteristics of the lacrimal gland?2. What type of epithelium are the ducts lined with?3. What type of gland is the lacrimal gland classified as?

Optic Nerve H/E

This slide is a cross section through the optic nerve.

Identify microscopically:1. The connective tissue 2. Nerve fibers

Draw and annotate:A diagram of the connective tissue layers and the nerve fibers:

Questions:1. What layers of support tissue surround the optic nerve?2. What types of cells are found between the nerve fibers?3. Is this a myelinated nerve or not? Explain.4. How can one differentiate between the optic nerve and a peripheral nerve?

Revision Questions

What are the 3 layers of the sclera?Name and discuss the 5 layers of the cornea.Name the 4 layers of the iris.What determines eye colour?Name the 8 layers of the retina and what forms them.What is the lens composed of?Name the 3 chambers of the eye.Explain the histological basis of glaucoma.Describe the flow of liquid in the posterior and anterior chambers of the eye.What separates the external and middle ear?Name the three auditory ossicles.What type of joint articulates the ossicles?How is movement detected in the inner ear?How is sound detected in the inner ear?What is the organ of Corti composed of?Name 3 types of neurons.What is a synapse?Name the types of cells which form myelin in the CNS & PNS.Name the 4 specialized support cells of the central nervous system.Name and define the 3 meningeal layers.What is the function of the choroid plexus?Name the 4 components of a peripheral nerve.Where are the endoneurium, perineurium and epineurium located?Which autoimmune disease attacks the myelin of the CNS?

Blok 11: Genital and Urinary Tract Diseases

18 Urinary System

19 Male Genital System

20 Female Genital System

8 Urinary system1You should be able to:

1. Describe the structures and associated functions of the components of the urinary system.2. Identify the structures of the urinary system.3. Describe the function of each part of the urinary system.4. Draw and annotate the structures of the urinary system.5. Describe and trace the flow of blood and filtrates through the urinary system.6. Recognise and describe the segments of the nephron based on histology and location.7. Describe the histological differences between the renal cortex and medulla.8. Identify and describe the structures of the glomerulus.9. Describe the filtration membrane and how this relates to its function.10. Identify and describe the structures of the juxtaglomerular apparatus.11. Recognise and describe the ureter, bladder and urethra.12. Describe the cells found throughout the urinary system.

9 Male reproductive system1The male reproductive system consists of the testis, genital ducts, accessory sex glands and penis. The main functions of the male reproductive system is to produce spermatozoa and sex hormones.

You should be able to:1. Describe the structures and functions of the components of the male reproductive system.2. Identify the main structures of the male reproductive system.3. Recognise and describe the cells in the male reproductive system.4. Recognise and describe the glands associated with the male reproductive system.5. Describe and compare the main stages of spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis.6. Describe the structure and function of a sperm.

2 Female reproductive system0You should be able to:

1. Describe the structures and functions of the components of the female reproductive system.2. Identify the main structures of the female reproductive system.3. Describe the histology of an oocyte.4. Recognise and describe the cyclical changes in the histology of the endometrium.5. Recognise and describe the cyclical changes in the histology of breast tissue.6. Recognise and describe the components of the ovary.7. Recognise and describe the developmental stages of ovarian follicles.8. Correlate the various structural cycles in the female reproductive system, both histological,

physiological and hormonal.9. Describe and compare the steps of oogenesis, spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis.10. Describe the structure and function of an oocyte.11. Describe the histology of the lactating breast.

Slides

Urinary System

Slide Name Slide number Stain

Kidney 76 H/E

Kidney (Injected) 28 Berlin blue

Ureter 78 H/E

Urinary bladder 79 H/E

Male Genital System


Testis 84 H/E

Epididymus 84 H/E

Ductus deferens 84 H/E

Vesicula seminalis 81 H/E

Prostate 80 H/E

Penis 83 H/E

Female Genital System


Ovaries 89 and 106 H/E

Ovary and corpus luteum 91 H/E

Tuba uterina 97 H/E

Uterus 88 H/E

Vagina 90 H/E

Mammary gland 57 H/E

Nipple 15 H/E

Nipple H/E

This slide is a section through the nipple.

Identify microscopically:(i) Skin(ii) Lactiferous ducts

Draw and annotate:A line drawing of the nipple.

Questions:1. What is typical of the skin of the nipple?2. How are the lactiferous ducts identified?3. What types of tissue are found in the vicinity of the sinuses and ductuli lactiferi?

Kidney Berlin blue

This slide is a section through an injected kidney to illustrate the blood vessels.

Identify microscopically:1. Aa. arcuatae2. Aa. Interlobulares3. Afferent arterioles4. Efferent arterioles5. Vasa recta

Draw and annotate:The blood vessels of the kidney:

Questions:1. Where are the aa. and vv. arcuatae of the kidney found?2. In what part of the kidney are the interlobular vessels found?3. Into which vessels do the afferent arteriole branch?4. What is the further course of the efferent arteriole?5. In what part of the kidney are the vasa recta found?

Identify microscopically:1. Glandular lobules 2. Glandular alveoli3. Fibrocollagenous tissue4. Secretory ducts

Draw and annotate:A glandular lobule in which a number of alveoli as well as surrounding tissue is drawn in detail.

Questions:1. As what type of gland is the mammary gland classified?2. What is typical of the glandular alveoli?3. What types of connective tissue are found, and where?4. What types of secretory ducts are found and what is typical of them?5. What is the difference between an active and a resting mammary gland?

Identify:A Macroscopic• The mass of tissue forming the kidney.• The cortical and medullary areas of the kidney.B Microscopic• Simple cuboidal epithelium that lines certain of the tubules. These cells are as wide as they

are high.

Draw and annotate:A few simple cuboidal epithelial cells lining the tubules. Also, indicate the connective tissue that these cells rest on.

Questions:1. Describe the shape of these cells.2. Are the cell borders of these cells visible?

3. How is the width of these cells determined?4. Why does the simple cuboidal epithelium appear stratified in certain places?

Kidney H/E

This slide is a longitudinal section through the kidney.

Identify microscopically:1. Cortex and medulla2. Renal body3. Proximal and distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts 4. Macula densa5. Medullary rays6. Excretory ducts7. Renal papillae

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the different parts of the kidney, and in detail of the renal body, proximal and distal convoluted tubules and the loop of Henle.

Questions:1. What structures of the renal body can be distinguished?2. What are the identifying characteristics of the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, and

how does one distinguish between them?3. How does the macula densa appear, and where are these cells situated?4. What are the distinguishing characteristics of the loop of Henle?5. Where are the different sections of the nephron found in the kidney?6. What does the epithelium of the secretory tubules of the kidney look like?7. What type of epithelium lines the renal papilla?

Identify:A Macroscopic• The circular ureter• The lumenB Microscopic• The different layers of the epithelium• The shape of the cells in the different layers

Draw and annotate:A few epithelial cells to show the different cell shapes.

Questions:1. How many layers can be identified?2. How does the shape of the cells in each layer change? What is characteristic of the luminal

layer? Why?

Ureter H/E

This slide is a cross section of the ureter.

Identify microscopically:1. Lumen2. Mucosa3. M. externa4. Adventitia

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the different layers of the ureter.

Questions:1. What is typical of the lumen?2. What type of epithelium lines the ureter?3. How many layers of muscle are found along the length of the ureter?4. How are these muscular layers arranged?

Bladder H/E

This slide is a cross section through the kidney.

Identify microscopically:1. Lumen2. Mucosa3. M. externa4. Adventitia and/or serosa

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the different layers of the bladder.

Questions:1. What type of epithelium lines the bladder, and how does this epithelium compare to that of

the ureter?2. How many muscle layers are found in the bladder, and in which directions are they

arranged?3. Presence of an adventitia and/or serosa? - Explain.

Identify microscopically:1. Lumen2. Glandular epithelium3. Concretions4. Smooth muscle5. Supporting stroma6. Fibrocollagenous capsule

Draw and annotate:A line drawing of the prostate in which a section of the epithelium and the concretions are drawn in detail.

Questions:1. As what type of gland is the prostate classified?2. What is typical of the lumens of the secretory units?3. What type of epithelium lines the secretory units, and what does it look like?4. In what way does the prostate differ from other compound glands such as the parotid,

pancreas, etc?5. How is the smooth muscle of the prostate arranged?

Vesicula seminalis H/E

This slide is a section through the vesicula seminalis.

Identify microscopically:1. Lumen2. Mucosa3. Smooth muscle4. Connective tissue

Draw and annotate:A line drawing of the vesicula seminalis. A section of the epithelium must be drawn in detail.

Questions:1. What is obvious about the lumen of this organ?2. What is typical of the shape of the mucosa, and what type of epithelium is found?3. How many layers of smooth muscle occur, and how are they arranged?

Identify:A Macroscopic• Skin and fascia of the penis • Corpus cavernosum penis• Corpus spongiosum • UrethraB Microscopic• Skin and fascia of the penis• Tunica albuginea• Erectile tissue• Urethra• Urethral glands

Draw and annotate:A line drawing of the penis.

Questions:1. What other type of tissue, except support tissue, is found in the fascia?2. What type of support tissue is the tunica albuginea?3. What is the general architecture of the erectile tissue, and what are the components of this

tissue?4. What characteristics would you use to identify the blood spaces (blood sinuses or cavernae)?5. What type of epithelium lines the urethra?6. Where are the urethral glands found?

Testis H/E

This slide is a section through the testis.

Identify microscopically:1. Tunica albuginea2. Mediastinum testis and rete testis3. Fibrous septae4. Tubuli seminiferi, smooth muscle cells, spermatogonia, primary spermatocytes,5. spermatids, spermatozoa and Sertoli cells6. Interstitial support tissue7. Leydig cells

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the testis. The structures of the tubuli seminiferi and recti, as well as the Leydig cells must be shown in detail.

Questions:1. Of what type of support tissue does the tunica albuginea, mediastinum testis and the septa

consist of?2. What is typical of the structure, especially the nuclei, of the developing reproductive cells?3. What are the distinguishing characteristics of Sertoli cells, as seen in this section?4. What are the identifying characteristics of the Leydig cells?

Epididymis H/E

This slide is a section through the epididymis to illustrate the ductus epididymis.

Identify microscopically:1. Lumen2. Epithelium3. Smooth muscle4. Support tissue

Draw and annotate:A line drawing of the ductus epididymis in which a section of the epithelium is drawn in detail.

Questions:1. What is found in the lumen of the duct?2. What type of epithelium lines the duct, and what is typical of the surface of these cells?3. In what direction is the smooth muscle orientated?4. In what way does the morphology of this tube differ from the general morphology of tubular

organs?

Vas deferens H/E

This slide is a cross section through the vas deferens.

Identify microscopically:1. Lumen2. Mucosa3. Smooth muscle 4. Support tissue

Draw and annotate:A line drawing of the vas deferens.

Questions:1. What shape does the mucosa take on, and which epithelium lines it?2. How many layers of smooth muscle are found in this duct, and how are they arranged?


Orientate yourself by distinguishing between the different layers with the naked eye.B Microscopic• Perimetrium • Myometrium• Endometrium

Draw and annotate:A line drawing of the different layers of the uterus. Also draw the other phases of the uterus.

Questions:1. What does the perimetrium comprise of?2. How many layers are found in the myometrium?3. What characteristic structure is found in one of the layers of the myometrium?4. What does the endometrium comprise of?5. In what sections can the endometrium be divided?6. How does the epithelium of the luminal surface differ from those of the glands?7. In what phase is this uterus?8. What is the structure of the glands of the endometrium, and how do these glands look in the

different phases?

Ovary H/E

This slide is a section through the ovary. Also see slide 106.

Identify:A Macroscopic• Cortex• Medulla• Ovarian folliclesB Microscopic• Germinative epithelium• Tunica albuginea• Stroma of cortex• The different stages of developing ovarian follicles

(a) Primary follicle(b) Secondary follicle(c) Graafian follicle

• Medulla

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the ovary in which the different stages of developing ovarian follicles are drawn in detail.

Questions:1. What is the other name for germinal epithelium?2. What are the components of the tunica albuginea?3. What is typical of the stroma of the cortex?4. How does a primary follicle differ from a secondary follicle?5. What are the characteristics of Graafian follicles?6. n what stages of cell division are the oocyte of a primary follicle and a Graafian follicle?7. What different structures are found in the medulla?

Vagina H/E

This slide is a section through the vagina.

Identify microscopically:1. Mucosa2. M. externa3. Adventitia

Draw and annotate:A line drawing of the vagina.

Questions:1. What are the layers of the mucosa?2. What is typical of the lamina propria?

Corpus luteum H/E

This slide is a section through the ovary to illustrate the corpus luteum.

Identify:A Macroscopic• Identify with the naked eye the extent of the corpus luteum.B Microscopic• Theca lutein cells• Granulosa lutein cells• Corpus hemorrhagicum

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the corpus luteum in which a number of the different cell types are drawn in detail.

Questions:1. What are the distinguishing characteristics of the teca lutein cells?2. What is characteristic of the granulosa lutein cells?3. What additional tissue is found in the corpus luteum [excluding the corpus hemorrhagicum]?

Identify microscopically:1. Lumen of the tuba uterine2. Ciliated as well as non-ciliated columnar epithelial cells

Draw and annotate:A few simple ciliated columnar epithelial cells. Indicate the cilia and basal bodies clearly, as well as the connective tissue that these cells rest on.

Questions:1. What is present on the free surface of these cells?2. How do the cilia and basal bodies appear microscopically?3. How does the shape of these columnar epithelial cells compare to those of the gallbladder?

Fallopian tube H/E

This slide is a cross section through the fallopian tube.

Identify microscopically:1. Mucosa2. M. externa3. Serosa

Draw and annotate:A line drawing of the fallopian tube.

Questions:1. What is characteristic of the lumen?2. What is characteristic of the epithelium?

Identify:A Macroscopic• Cortex• Medulla• Ovarian folliclesB Microscopic• Germinative epithelium• Tunica albuginea• Stroma of cortex• The different stages of developing ovarian follicles

(a) Primary follicle(b) Secondary follicle(c) Graafian follicle

• Medulla

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the ovary in which the different stages of developing ovarian follicles are drawn in detail.

Questions:1. What is the other name for germinal epithelium?2. What are the components of the tunica albuginea?3. What is typical of the stroma of the cortex?4. How does a primary follicle differ from a secondary follicle?5. What are the characteristics of Graafian follicles?6. In what stages of cell division are the oocyte of a primary follicle and a Graafian follicle?7. What different structures are found in the medulla?

Review Questions

Urinary systemName the two main components of the nephron.Name the three zones of the glomerular basement membrane.What is nephrotic syndrome?

Name the three components of the juxtaglomerular apparatus.Name the type of epithelium which lines the lower urinary tract.What is the difference between a distended and contracted bladder?Shortly describe how the kidneys assist in maintaining acid–base balance.Compare and contrast male and female urethras.Name the histological structures found in the cortex and medulla of the kidney.What is the function of the juxtaglomerular apparatus?Describe the interaction between the kidney and other systems, including the skin, gastrointestinal tract, bone marrow and cardiovascular system.

Male reproductive systemWhat is cryptorchidism?Name the four phases of spermiogenesis.Name the two types of epithelial cells found in the prostate gland.What type of epithelium lines the penile urethra?What is the structure and role of the blood-testis barrier?What events during spermatogenesis produce haploid sperm from diploid cells?Describe the life cycle of a sperm cell up to and including fertilisation of an oocyte.

Female reproductive systemName the four layers of the vagina.What epithelium lines the ecto- and endocervix respectively?What are the major functions of the ovaries?Name the three components of the ovary?Name three examples of endometrial disorders.Explain the events in the ovary prior to ovulation.Describe the life cycle of an oocyte up to and including fertilisation by a sperm.Explain capacitation and its importance in fertilization.Summarize the events that occur as a sperm fertilizes an oocyte.

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