An introduction to psychology I

D Caroline Piske de A. Mohamed

1. PsychologyObjectives:

• Students should be able to explain and discuss:

a) Definition of psychologyb) Objectives of psychologyc) Current models in psychologyd) Psychology in dentistry

Major Foci Psychology has had several major foci: It began as the science of mental

life. In the 1920s to 1960s, the definition

focused on the science of observable behavior.

In the 1960s, there was a reemphasis on mind and mental processes. It became the science of behavior and mental processes.

The latter part of the 1960s also ushered in the focus on the study of animal behavior and development of animals.

a) Definition of psychology

• Psychology• The word psychology literally

means, "study of the soul“ it is an academic and applied discipline that involves the scientific study of mental functions and behaviors.

b) Objectives of psychology

• Psychology has the immediate goal of understanding individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases, and by many accounts it ultimately aims to benefit society. 1,

2

• Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and neurobiological processes that underlie certain cognitive functions and behaviors.5

Objectives of Psychology

TO STUDY PHENOMENON --to understand behavior or events --to make descriptions --to provide explanations --to make predictions

TO INTERPRET FINDINGS --to modify behavior and mental processes --to develop theories

TO DEVELOP ETHICAL STANDARDS --to monitor ethical standards and a code of conduct --to protect human subjects --to gain subjects' informed consent --to treat animals ethically in research

Goals of Psychology

Describe Explain Predict Change

human behavior and mental processes

Don´t Eat Purple Cantelobe

Roles of Psychologists To conduct or engage in pure (original) research. To discover practical applications to research -- ways to apply findings in real life settings (Applied Research). To conduct counseling and therapy. Consulting and diagnosing occurs in many aspects and sub fields of psychology. Teaching. Observations (occurs in many aspects and sub fields of psychology). Evaluation and Assessment (individual, group, large-scale, national and

international)

c) Current models in psychology

• Biological• Neuroscience• Evolutionary• Behavior Genetics• Cognitive

• Humanistic• Psychoanalytic• Learning• Sociocultural

The Role of Biology• The Biological Perspective ( nervous system,

glands and hormones, genetic factors) • Views behavior from the perspective of its biological

functioning. • For example, how the individual nerve cells are connected,

how we inherit certain characteristics from parents and other ancestors that influence our behavior, and so on.

• Neuroscience. Examines such issues as how the body and brain create

emotions, memories, and sensory experience (Myers, 2007)

Developed tools to study structure and function of nerve cells, roles of various parts of the brain, how genetic and other biological processes contribute to behavior and mental processes

Neuroscience question

• What chemical reactions occur in our brains and bodies as a result of stimulations and what reactions do they cause?

Your right hemisphere tries to say the colour but the left hems insists on reading the word.

The Role of Biology• The Evolutionary Perspective ( Charles Darwin and evolution)

The evolutionary perspective focuses on the evolution of behavior and mental processes.

Evolutionary psychologists suggest that many kinds of behavior patterns are examples of adaptive behavior.

• Behaviorism: Theoretical orientation based on the premise that psychology should study

only observable behavior. Dominated psychology and psychological research for many years. Focuses on the observance of outward behavior rather than the inner workings of mind. Our

understanding of how people learn new behaviors.• We adapt our behavior based on rewards• We learn through experience• Behavior can be changed

The Role of Biology

• Behavior genetics-• is the field of study that examines the role of

genetics in animal (including human) behavior.• Behavioural geneticists study inheritance of

behavioral traits.

The Role of the Mind• The Cognitive Perspective• The cognitive perspective emphasizes the role that thoughts play in determining

behavior. • Investigates how individuals know, understand and think about

the world. • The model has shifted from learning about the structure of the mind, to learning

about how people understand and represent the outside world within

themselves; and, the impact of this understanding on behavior.

• Looks in detail at the human and animal information processing system - how we encode, process, store and retrieve information.

• Studies how we process information through perception, attention, language, memory, and thinking.

• How they influence our thoughts, feelings, behaviors and ability to operate in our world.

• Past experiences make the difference between one person's perception and another's.

Can you give an example in the dental field to illustrate this?

The Role of the Mind

• The Humanistic Perspective• A perspective that believes that people basically strive for

good. • People are naturally inclined to develop toward higher

levels of maturity and fulfillment, and if given the opportunity, will strive to reach their full potential.

• Also believes that man has free will -- the choice to make decisions about one's own life.

.

The Role of the Mind• The Psychoanalytic Perspective

Views behavior as motivated by inner forces over which the individual has little control. Views behavior as springing from unconscious drives and conflicts.

The Role of the Mind• The Learning Perspective ( environmental influences, learning, observational learning –

John Watson and Behaviorism ) The learning perspective emphasizes the effects of experience on

behavior. Personal experiences and reinforcement guide individual

development.

The Role of Experience

• The Sociocultural Perspective

The sociocultural perspective focuses on the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socio-economic status on behavior and mental processes.

Examines how behavior and thinking

vary across situations and cultures.

Evolution of Definitions of Psychology

• Structuralists & functionalists "The science of mental life"• Behaviorists "The science of observable behavior"• Current definition "The science of behavior and mental

processes"

Major Issues and Questions in Psychology

I. Nature vs. Nurture What is behavior attributable to -- heredity or environment? Nature Genetics / heredity / biology The extent behavior is determined by our genetic endowment Nurture Environment The extent behavior is determined by the environment in which it occurs

"Nurture works on what nature endows, Genetics sets the limits of capability Environment determines where within those limits you will fall” "Rainbow" and "CC"

• Are genes or environment most influential in determining the behavior of individuals and in accounting for differences among people?

• Most scientists now agree that both genes and environment play crucial roles in most human behaviors, and yet we still have much to learn about how nature (our biological makeup) and nurture (the experiences that we have during our lives) work together (Harris, 1998; Pinker, 2002).

• Nature and nurture interact in complex ways, making the question of “Is it nature or is it nurture?” very difficult to answer

II. Conscious vs. Unconscious Determinants of Behavior

• To what extent is behavior attributable to unconscious mind as compared to conscious mind?

• To what extent are we conscious of our own actions and the causes of them, and to what extent are our behaviors caused by influences that we are not aware of?

• Many of the major theories of psychology, ranging from the Freudian psychodynamic theories to contemporary work in cognitive psychology, argue that much of our behavior is determined by variables that we are not aware of. (Wegner, 2002).

Controversy: Is abnormal behavior the result of unconscious factors or

faulty thinking patterns?

III. Observable Behavior vs. Internal Mental Processes.

Should psychology concentrate solely on behavior that can be seen by outside observers, or should unseen thinking processes represent the focus of the field?

V. Individual Differences vs. Universal Principles

• To what extent is behavior a consequence of the unique and special qualities that each possess or universal patterns?

• Do we share similar biological makeup and similar experiences?

• To what extent are we all similar, and to what extent are we different?

• For instance, are there basic psychological and personality differences between

men and women, or are men and women by and large similar? • And what about people from different ethnicities and cultures? Are people

around the world generally the same, or are they influenced by their backgrounds and environments in different ways?

IV. Freedom of Choice vs. Determinism How much of our behavior is a matter of free will, and how much is

subject to determinism?• Determinism: The idea that everything that happens has a cause or

determinant in the observable world.• Free will: The idea that human behavior is caused by a person’s

independent decisions not by external determinants and that this behavior is independent of physics and the chemistry of the body

d) Psychology in dentistry• Dental health care is a two-person endeavor.

• Barriers or resistances to dental care from the healthcare professional ( stress, concerns about fee, time pressure).

• How to reduce professional stress

• Concerns about fee, time, stress in both sides.

• Special systems for conducting effective interviews for differentiating between phobic or anxious patient and for recognizing avoidance behavior.

Importance of psychology in Dentistry: Dentists express their necessities of knowing certain aspects of psychology that could be useful in the relations with their patients. Five areas in consideration are: 1. Psychological management of the dental patient.2. Psychological consequences of the dental disease.3. Dental disease psychogenesis.4. Patient first contact behavior.5. Aspects of work organization.

Dentistry and Health

• A question…..• Why is psychology important in

dentistry? ???

1st • oral self-care and other routine care is critical to the

maintenance of oral health, and to general health as well.

• Psychology as the science of behavior gives us insight into how we can help people develop and maintain those skills.

2nd • Dental students must have excellent communications skills

and be able to develop rapport rapidly. • 10% to 30% of the population worldwide has dental fears or

anxiety. • For both items, psychology offers knowledge and techniques

for enhancing the care of patients.

Eitner et al., 2006Lahti et al., 2007

3 rd

– We sometimes think that dentistry is all about removing short-term pain, but we forget about the 10% to 15% of the population who experience chronic temporomandibular disorders, other facial pains, or neuralgias.

– Oral parafunctional behaviors like clenching and grinding may be

strongly associated with chronic pain and are interesting behaviors in their own right.

– Psychology offers techniques for managing pain and parafunctional behaviors.

Drangsholt & LeResche, 1999; Glaros et al., 2005

4th

• Special needs populations• Individuals with special needs also need oral care, and

communities benefit from public health interventions.

• Geriatric populations are most likely to need dentures, and depression is a major risk factor in patient dissatisfaction with dentures.

• Psychological knowledge can be used to provide high levels of services to these individuals and communities.

– Mentally challenged

– Chronically ill

– Geriatrics

• Public health

– Community interventions

5th

• Quality of life• Dentistry is also about quality of life. • The ability to eat foods and the social context of eating, smiling

and talking has a major impact on quality of life, whether we’re discussing an infant with a craniofacial anomaly or an elderly person has lost all his or her teeth. – Craniofacial abnormalities– Edentualism

Gordon et al., 2004; Lee et al., 2007

6th

• Esthetic dentistry• And finally, esthetic dentistry is clearly on the rise.

• Esthetic dentistry deals with the psychological issues of self-perception, self-esteem, and beauty.

– Orthodontics

– Crowns, veneers

– Reconstruction

• Have I convinced you that psychology can play an important role in dental education?

• I hope so.

• Let´s remember…• What are the primary skills that dental

students need that draw heavily on psychology?

Psychology Skills Useful for Dental Students• Communication• Fear/anxiety management• Management of disruptive child• Patient interventions to enhance self-care

– Motivational interviewing Pain management

• How we treat our patients is as important as our level of technical ability.

• Is a must to establishing a rapport with patients-fully discussing their treatment (and their fears) whilst building a stronger patient-dentist relationship.

• Rather than rushing the treatment, we should allow our patients to fully relax before explaining the procedure in detail,

• explain the implications of the treatment, • how he or she will feel and how and why they should feel

confident, relaxed and in very safe hands.

References• 1 ."How does the APA define "psychology"?". Retrieved 15 November

2011.• 2."Definition of "Psychology (APA's Index Page)"". Retrieved 20 December

2011.• O'Neil, H.F.; cited in Coon, D.; Mitterer, J.O. (2008).

Introduction to psychology: Gateways to mind and behavior (12th ed., pp. 15–16). Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.

• Sarah J. Erickson, PhD; Melissa Gerstle, BA; Sarah W. Feldstein, MS Brief Interventions and Motivational Interviewing With Children,

Adolescents, and Their Parents in Pediatric Health Care SettingsA Review Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2005;159(12):1173-1180. doi:10.1001/archpedi.159.12.1173.

Highly recommended

• Brief Interventions and Motivational Interviewing With Children, Adolescents, and Their Parents in Pediatric Health Care SettingsA Review . Sarah J. Erickson, PhD; Melissa Gerstle, BA; Sarah W. Feldstein, MSArch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2005;159(12):1173-1180. doi:10.1001/archpedi.159.12.1173.

Activity

Homework Make a 1 page research about

how memory affects behaviour.

References

• Introduction to Psychology• Charles Stangor Saylor.org• In. Saylor URL:• http://www.saylor.org/books/2• Following articles copies available at the copy

office.• Brush up in communication• Contemporary perspectives• Free will vs determinism

Thanks