1. 1. Journal of Managerial Psychology Overall job satisfaction: how good are single versus multiple-item measures? Titus Oshagbemi Article information: To cite this document: Titus Oshagbemi, (1999),"Overall job satisfaction: how good are single versus multiple-item measures?", Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 14 Iss 5 pp. 388 - 403 Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02683949910277148 Downloaded on: 12 June 2015, At: 14:20 (PT) References: this document contains references to 29 other documents. To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 4595 times since 2006* Users who downloaded this article also downloaded: Mark A. Tietjen, Robert M. Myers, (1998),"Motivation and job satisfaction", Management Decision, Vol. 36 Iss 4 pp. 226-231 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00251749810211027 Titus Oshagbemi, (1997),"Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction in higher education", Education + Training, Vol. 39 Iss 9 pp. 354-359 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00400919710192395 Daulatram B. Lund, (2003),"Organizational culture and job satisfaction", Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, Vol. 18 Iss 3 pp. 219-236 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/0885862031047313 Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:273599 [] For Authors If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information. About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and services. Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. *Related content and download information correct at time of download. DownloadedbyUniversitasGadjahMadaAt14:2012June2015(PT)
2. 2. Journal of Managerial Psychology 14,5 388 Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 14 No. 5, 1999, pp. 388-403. # MCB University Press, 0268-3946 Overall job satisfaction: how good are single versus multiple-item measures? Titus Oshagbemi The Queen's University of Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK Keywords Job satisfaction, Measurement, Academic staff, United Kingdom Abstract Managers interested in finding out the overall job satisfaction levels of their workers often face the problem of the appropriate measure of job satisfaction to adopt: single versus multiple-item? This study sets out to compare the results of a single versus a multiple-item measure employed to investigate the job satisfaction of university teachers. The purpose of the study was to ascertain the superiority or otherwise of the measures in ascertaining the overall job satisfaction of workers. The outcome of the study shows that the single-item measure overestimated the percentage of people satisfied with their jobs and grossly underestimated both the percentage of dissatisfied workers and those who show indifference in comparison with the figures of the multiple-item measure. Our conclusion, therefore, is that the results from the single- item measure tend to paint a rosier picture of job satisfaction than the impression conveyed from the multiple-item measure would justify. Introduction As a result of many decades of effort by social scientists, there appears to be a high level of agreement among them on the meaning of the construct of job satisfaction. Typically, job satisfaction is conceptualised as a general attitude toward an object, the job. For example, the definitions given by Lofquist and Dawis (1969, p. 53), Porter et al. (1975, pp. 53-4), Locke and Henne (1986, p. 21) are a few illustrations of several others that are consistent with the general construct stated above. The definitions given by these authors are similar to the one offered by Locke (1976, p. 1300) who defined job satisfaction as ``a pleasurable or positive emotional state, resulting from the appraisal of one's job experiences''. There are, of course, a few but largely unimportant differences to the general construct. These variations were discussed by Wanous and Lawler (1972, pp. 95-105). In general, therefore, job satisfaction refers to an individual's positive emotional reactions to a particular job. It is an affective reaction to a job that results from the person's comparison of actual outcomes with those that are desired, anticipated or deserved. The topic of job satisfaction is an important one because of its relevance to the physical and mental well-being of employees, i.e. job satisfaction has relevance for human health. Work is an important aspect of people's lives and most people spend a large part of their working lives at work. An understanding of the factors involved in job satisfaction is relevant to improving the well being of a significant number of people. While the pursuit of the improvement of satisfaction is of humanitarian value, Smith and others stated that ``trite as it may seem, satisfaction is a legitimate goal in itself'' The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emerald-library.com DownloadedbyUniversitasGadjahMadaAt14:2012June2015(PT)
3. 3. Overall job satisfaction 389 (Smith et al., 1969, p. 3). The topic of job satisfaction is also important because of its implications for job related behaviours such as productivity, absenteeism or turnover. Therefore, apart from its humanitarian utility, it appears to make economic sense to consider whether and how job satisfaction can be improved. Measuring the level of job satisfaction is therefore an important task for a researcher. Basically there are two types of job satisfaction measures: single- question versus multiple-item measures. Single-question measures typically ask a question such as, ``On the whole would you say you are satisfied or dissatisfied with the work you do?'', and its variant, ``All in all, would you say you are satisfied or dissatisfied with your job?'' (Quinn, et al., 1974, p. 51). A respondent may then be presented with a scale of measure from satisfaction to dissatisfaction or vice versa. Multiple-item measures, on the other hand, ask respondents to rate various aspects of their job on a scale running from (say) levels of dissatisfaction to levels of satisfaction. The revised job descriptive index (Smith et al., 1985) and Oshagbemi's study of the job satisfaction of university teachers (1996; 1997a; 1997b; 1997c; 1998) provide examples of general-item measures of job satisfaction. While the literature on the topic of job satisfaction is extensive (Oshagbemi, 1996), the results obtained from empirical studies are often a function of the measure of job satisfaction employed. While there are popular single-question and general multiple-item measures of job satisfaction, there are often more specific tailor made multiple measures of ascertaining the job satisfaction of specified workers. Therefore, the choice of what measure to use in ascertaining the job satisfaction of a given occupational group is sometimes problematic in terms of the information desired and the ease of comparability of results with different occupations. This study sets out to compare the results of two research instruments employed to investigate the job satisfaction of university teachers. The study aims to compare the relative effectiveness of the two research instruments in the investigation of the job satisfaction of the workers. Ultimately, we are interested in evaluating the overall superiority, if at all, of one measure of job satisfaction over the other. Towards this end, a widely used general measure to ascertain the job satisfaction of workers was employed and the results from this aspect of the study were compared with the results from a tailor made measure of ascertaining the job satisfaction of university teachers which was designed. The results from the two sets of studies are presented and discussed. Literature review Job satisfaction is a heavily researched area of inquiry. Locke estimated that, as of 1976, about 3,350 articles or dissertations had been written on the topic. Cranny et al. (1992) suggested that more than 5,000 studies of job satisfaction had been published. In a more recent estimate, Oshagbemi (1996) suggested that if a count of relevant articles and dissertations were made, Locke's estimate, made only 20 years earlier, would probably be doubled. DownloadedbyUniversitasGadjahMadaAt14:2012June2015(PT)
4. 4. Journal of Managerial Psychology 14,5 390 However, studies of measures of job satisfaction are relatively very few. A search of relevant articles through the Institute of Scientific Information Social Sciences Database revealed that only seven articles were published between 1981 to 1997, both years inclusive. The search used ``measures of job satisfaction'' as words in title. When the search used ``measures of job satisfaction'' as words in title, key words or abstract, a total of 23 hits were recorded during the search period. This shows that relatively very little had been written on measurement of job satisfaction although there are extensive publications on the subject of job satisfaction itself. The work by Thompson et al. (1997) focused on a synthesis of research findings of job satisfaction carried out within educational organisations. However, their review did not focus on measures of job satisfaction. Rather, it synthesised empirical findings on job satisfaction published in the first 26 volumes of Educational Administration Quarterly. Malinowska-Tabaka (1987) set out to establish a general scale of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction for four professional groups (teachers, doctors, lawyers, engineers) and to discuss the importance of the components of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction scales which differ between them. They found that the general level of job satisfaction among the four professionals is similar, except for teachers, for whom it is slightly lower. There was no presentation of a conceptual scale for the measurement of job satisfaction which is of general applicability. In his own study, Pollard (1996) found that the single-item indicator offered a less comprehensive explanation of job satisfaction than did the four and seven- item indicators. The results of his study underscore that more attention must be paid to measurement issues if a reliable and valid understanding of job satisfaction among various professional workers is anticipated. Scarpello and Campbell (1983), on the other hand, concluded that a single-item measure of overall job satisfaction was preferable to a scale that is based on a sum of specific job facet satisfactions. Since the publication of their article, however, the legitimacy of single-item measures has not increased for a variety of reasons. Among reasons explaining the non-legitimacy of single-item measures is the view often expressed that one cannot estimate the internal consistency of single-item measures, and this alone is believed to be a sufficient reason to limit or avoid their use. Additionally, for psychological constructs, the use of single- item measures is typically discouraged, because they are presumed to have low reliability. Wanous et al. (1997) presented a study in which single-item measures of overall job satisfaction are correlated with scales measuring overall job satisfaction. Their finding appears to bolster their argument that a single-item measure of overall job satisfaction is acceptable. The authors suggested that the measurement of change in overall job satisfaction is one example of a research question suggesting the use of single-item measure. Nevertheless, the authors argue that there are still good reasons for preferring scales to single items and that the appropriateness of either single or multiple-item measures of job satisfaction for a particular piece of research should always be evaluated. DownloadedbyUniversitasGadjahMadaAt14:2012June2015(PT)
5. 5. Overall job satisfaction 391 Research method This research was designed to enable a comparison between a single and a multiple-item measure of job satisfaction. A questionnaire survey was conducted in May 1994. The population for this study comprised teachers from 23 universities in the UK. The universities were selected to include sample institutions from all the regions of the country. Subjects were 566 university teachers who responded to a questionnaire on job satisfaction. These represent 51.4 percent of possible respondents who were randomly selected from the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook (1993). To measure the level of satisfaction of university teachers, respondents were asked to answer four questions concerning job satisfaction. The questions are reproduced in Table I. They have been used frequently in the past as measures of satisfaction. See, for example, Larkin (1990) and Oshagbemi (1995). An aggregate score of 20 on the four questions indicates that one is very satisfied with one's job. An aggregate score of four suggests that an individual is very dissatisfied. See Table I for the interpretation of the scores in terms of an individual's level of job satisfaction. It is the results from this instrument that we designate as ``single measure'' in relation to the second instrument described below. In order to measure the job satisfaction of university teachers on particular aspects of their jobs, sections of the questionnaire comprising eight basic job elements and some demographic questions were introduced. The job elements are: (1) teaching (2) research }nature of the job (3) administration and management (4) present pay; (5) promotions; (6) supervision/supervisor behaviour; (7) co-workers' behaviour; (8) physical conditions/working facilities. Respondents were asked to indicate the level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction which they derived from each of the eight aspects of their jobs. The scale ranged from 1 to 7 representing 1 = ``extremely dissatisfied'', 2 = ``very dissatisfied'', 3 = ``dissatisfied'', 4 = ``indifferent'', 5 = ``satisfied'', 6 = ``very satisfied'', 7 = ``extremely satisfied''. The criteria were equally weighted. The job elements in the study are consistent with findings on the measurement of job satisfaction (Wanous and Lawler, 1972; Giles and Feild, 1978; Kulik et al., 1988; Scarpello and Campbell, 1983; Loher et al., 1985; Schneider and Dachler, 1978; Oshagbemi, 1996; 1997a; 1997b; 1997c; 1998). For example, the elements in our formulation are almost identical with those of the popular job descriptive index (Smith et al., 1969) which has been found to produce highly reliable results. See, for example, Imparato (1972). DownloadedbyUniversitasGadjahMadaAt14:2012June2015(PT)
6. 6. Journal of Managerial Psychology 14,5 392 It is the questionnaire that we regard as a multiple-item measure of job satisfaction. The results of the research instruments (single versus multiple- item measures) form the central discussion in this article. The question is, which of the two research instruments, if any, provides superior results? Towards providing answers to this question, the results of the research questions are evaluated and judgement passed on their comparative value. Background of respondents Table II shows a breakdown of the university teachers who responded to our questionnaire. The table shows the distribution of respondents' age, sex, rank, Table I. Job satisfaction test I. Which one of the following indicates how much of the time you feel satisfied with your job? 1. Never 2. Seldom 3. About half of the time 4. Most of the time 5. All of the time II. Which one of the following statements best describes how you feel about your job? 1. I hate it 2. I dislike it 3. I am indifferent to it 4. I like it 5. I love it III. Which one of the following statements best describes how you feel about changing your current job? 1. I would quit this job at once if I could 2. I would like to change my job soon 3. I am not sure if I would exchange my present job for a similar one 4. I am not eager to change my job, but I would do so if I could get a better job 5. I would not exchange my job for any other IV. Which one of the following statements best describes how you think you compared with other people? 1. No one dislikes his/her job more than I dislike mine 2. I dislike my job more than most people dislike theirs 3. I like my job about as well as most people like theirs 4. I like my job better than most people like theirs 5. No one likes his/her job better than I like mine Your job satisfaction measure: add up your score for the four questions. Match your total score with the appropriate category to find your job satisfaction measure Score Job satisfaction level 20-17 Very satisfied 16-13 Satisfied 12 Indifferent 11-8 Dissatisfied 7-4 Very dissatisfied DownloadedbyUniversitasGadjahMadaAt14:2012June2015(PT)
7. 7. Overall job satisfaction 393 length of service in present university/higher education, areas of academic discipline, and their leadership or management responsibilities. The information in Table II shows that the academic backgrounds of the respondents were very wide and cover most subject areas in the universities. The distribution of the length of service spent in higher education shows that respondents included relative newcomers who had spent less than five years (about 15 percent) to workers who had spent more than 30 years in the university system (about 6 percent). As would be expected, perhaps, a large percentage of workers (almost 80 percent) fall in between the newcomers and the workers whose service had been for a much longer period. Table II. Background of respondents Percentage Age Less than 35 years 14.3 35-44 35.0 45-54 36.7 55+ 14.0 100.0 Rank Lecturer 54.9 Senior lecturer 31.2 Reader 4.3 Professor 8.5 Other 1.1 100.0 Sex Male 60.8 Female 39.2 100.0 Length of service in higher education/present university (years) 0-5 14.9 28.5 6-10 21.0 20.8 11-20 32.3 27.1 21-30 25.9 20.2 31+ 5.9 3.4 100.0 100.0 Area of academic discipline Medicine/pharmacy/dentistry/nursing 11.9 Engineering/computing/architecture/archaeology/building 17.9 Arts/law/education 23.3 Social sciences/management/accountancy 21.7 Natural sciences/agriculture/mathematics 23.9 Others 1.3 100.0 Leadership or management responsibility Head, director, dean, provost, etc. 12.2 Not currently in charge of an academic unit or group 61.3 Holding other management posts 26.5 100.0 DownloadedbyUniversitasGadjahMadaAt14:2012June2015(PT)
8. 8. Journal of Managerial Psychology 14,5 394 It was useful to find that almost 30 percent of the respondents had not worked for more than five years in their present universities. This percentage is about double the corresponding percentage of respondents who had worked in higher education during the same period. The comparison suggests some rates of staff turnover, retirement, or new recruitment, necessitated perhaps because of expansion of universities, which makes about one-third of the academic staff relatively new in their present institutions. In fact, almost 50 percent of the respondents had worked for only ten years or less in their present universities. The corresponding figure for those who had worked in higher education during the same period is 36 percent. It is possible, however, that these figures would compare favourably with similar figures of the length of service of workers within other employment sectors, especially workers within other public sector organisations. Table II also shows that the majority of the respondents were lecturers (about 55 percent) while a significant percentage were of senior lecturer rank. The relatively few readers and professors appear to be representative of the percentage of these top officers in the academic population. Only about 39 percent of the respondents were females. However, considering the estimated proportion of females in the total population, the percentage of those who responded to our questionnaire can certainly not be considered low. It was observed from the results of the data analyses that only one respondent was less than 25 years of age. One is not sure whether this finding suggests an ageing academic population or whether the average age of academics tends to be higher than the average age of workers in other employment sectors. It was further observed that the percentage of respondents who were less than 35 years old was about the same as those who were older than 55 years. Over 70 percent of the respondents were in the 35-54 age bracket. About 12 percent of the respondents held managerial posts as head of department or division, director of school, dean of faculty, provost or head of a unit e.g. an institute or centre. The percentage of those who held other management posts, such as year tutor, chairperson of a research group, project co-ordinator, director of undergraduate programmes, etc. was about double the figure of 12 percent. Clearly, the majority of the respondents were not currently in charge of an academic unit or group. However, it does not follow that this group did not have some administrative assignments, at least on an occasional, if not on a regular, basis. General measure of job satisfaction Table III is a summary of an analysis of the responses to the job satisfaction test which was used to estimate the level of general job satisfaction of university teachers. From Table III, it can be seen that slightly more than 50 percent of the respondents were satisfied with their jobs most of the time or all of the time, while about 90 percent of the respondents were satisfied with their jobs about DownloadedbyUniversitasGadjahMadaAt14:2012June2015(PT)
9. 9. Overall job satisfaction 395 half, or more, of the time. About eight out of every ten respondents liked or loved their jobs, while about 70 percent of the university teachers were either not eager to change their job or would not exchange their job for any other. About 35 percent of university teachers felt that they liked their job at about the same level as others liked their job, while about 60 percent of the academics believe that they liked their job better. In essence, about 95 percent of university teachers reckon that they like their job as much as others or better. For general comparative purposes, and perhaps for a better overall picture of the university teachers' general satisfaction levels, the statistics at the bottom of Table III were prepared from the general analysis presented at the top of the page. The information at the bottom of the table represents a summary of responses to the job satisfaction test. It shows the percentage of the respondents who were satisfied, dissatisfied or indifferent. It can be seen from the table that 19 percent were very satisfied while 64 percent were satisfied, Table III. An analysis of responses to the job satisfaction test (1) The time you feel satisfied with your job (3) Your feelings about changing your current job Percent Percent Never 0.9 Would quit at once if I could 8.6 Seldom 10.0 Would like to change job soon 9.5 About half of the time 37.3 Not sure/undecided 13.2 Most of the time All of the time 49.5 2.4 Not eager to change job Would not exchange job for anything 49.5 19.2 100.0 100.0 (2) Statements describing how you feel about your job (4) How you think your feelings compare with others Percent Percent I hate it I dislike it I am indifferent to it I like it I love it 0.9 7.8 8.9 66.3 16.0 No one dislikes his/her job more than I dislike mine I dislike my job more than most people dislike theirs I like my job as well as most people like theirs 0.0 5.0 34.5 I like my job better than most people like theirs 59.6 No one likes his/her job better than I like mine 0.9 100.0 100.0 A summary of responses to the job satisfaction test Score Percentage Job satisfaction level 20-17 19 Very satisfied 16-13 64 Satisfied 12 3 Indifferent 11-8 11 Dissatisfied 7-4 3 Very dissatisfied All responses 100 DownloadedbyUniversitasGadjahMadaAt14:2012June2015(PT)
10. 10. Journal of Managerial Psychology 14,5 396 giving a total of 83 percent of the respondents who were at least satisfied with their job. Similarly, 3 percent of the respondents were very dissatisfied while 11 percent were dissatisfied giving a total of 14 percent who were at least dissatisfied. About 3 percent of the respondents were indifferent in terms of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their job. Compared with accountants which Larkin investigated (Larkin, 1990, pp. 20-4), university teachers appeared to possess a higher level of job satisfaction 83 percent versus 72 percent. Even compared with the series of surveys on job satisfaction which was conducted in the USA between 1954 and 1973 (Quinn et al., 1974), where the level of the workers' job satisfaction ranged between 81-92 percent, the picture conveyed by the results of the job satisfaction of university teachers is satisfactory. It should be noted, however, that similar general measures of job satisfaction were used in these studies and also partly in our own survey. Specific measure of job satisfaction Tables IV and V present a summary of the responses to the job satisfaction questionnaire on particular aspects of the university teachers' job. The questionnaire was developed and administered together with the job satisfaction test. Table IV reports the average rating, and the variability of Table IV. Average rating of respondents on the satisfaction or dissatisfaction derived from aspects of their jobs Aspect of job Mean score Modal score Median score Standard deviation Teaching 5.09 5 5 1.20 Research 4.66 5 5 1.58 Administration and management 3.93 5 4 1.40 Present pay 3.44 3 3 1.46 Promotions 3.42 3 3 1.50 Head of unit's supervision 4.18 5 5 1.73 Co-workers' behaviour 4.81 5 5 1.23 Physical conditions/working facilities 4.33 5 5 1.51 Table V. Percentages of respondents who were satisfied, dissatisfied with or indifferent to aspects of their jobs Aspect of job Satisfieda Dissatisfiedb Indifferent Teaching 79.5 12.8 7.7 Research 64.8 26.6 8.6 Administration and management 40.2 36.8 23.0 Present pay 29.9 54.3 15.8 Promotions 26.4 50.1 23.5 Head of unit's supervision 52.4 34.3 13.3 Co-workers' behaviour 69.7 17.0 13.3 Physical conditions/working facilities 56.9 30.9 12.2 Notes: a incorporating respondents who were satisfied, very satisfied and extremely satisfied; b incorporating respondents who were dissatisfied, very dissatisfied and extremely dissatisfied DownloadedbyUniversitasGadjahMadaAt14:2012June2015(PT)
11. 11. Overall job satisfaction 397 these ratings, of respondents on the satisfaction or dissatisfaction derived from aspects of their job. Table V presents the percentages of respondents who were satisfied, dissatisfied with or indifferent to aspects of their job. The finding from the job satisfaction questionnaire was compared with the findings from the job satisfaction test to generate the figures presented on Table VI, to be discussed later. One finding from Table IV is that the respondents rated the satisfaction which they derived from teaching, research and their colleagues' behaviour highly. This positive rating is shown in the mean scores recorded for these aspects of their jobs and the variability of the ratings. It is perhaps useful to note that the variability of the responses was particularly low on teaching and on interaction with colleagues. This indicates a consistent and a reassuring positive response from the university teachers on these aspects of their jobs. On research, however, the variability of the ratings was rather high with standard deviation of almost 1.6 (see Table IV). It shows that while many academics enjoy research activities a lot, some of them do not appear to enjoy research functions at all. Alternatively, it may be that some academics tend to be more successful than others in the rate of their research output, for example, in publications and/or, in the attraction of external funding for their research projects. Obviously, it would be difficult for an individual to enjoy a task which he or she is not very successful at performing. The ratings of the respondents on the satisfaction derived from their head of units' behaviour, as well as of the physical conditions and working facilities in their universities, was rather lower. However, the modal and median ratings of these tasks are as high as those for teaching and research. There is a rather wide variability of the respondents' rating of the latter tasks, especially with the rating of the satisfaction derived from the head of unit's behaviour. This means that in the case of satisfaction derived from the head of unit's supervision, for example, while some respondents were very satisfied with their head's behaviour, a significant number were seriously dissatisfied. The mean ratings of the satisfaction derived from the university teachers' administrative and managerial functions, their present pay and their promotions, were low. Mean ratings of less than four were obtained in each of the latter three considerations and suggest dissatisfaction with these aspects of their job. The dissatisfaction with the university teachers' promotion and present salaries was serious, with the mode and median ratings of only three in each of these two aspects of their job. The interpretation from these statistics is that the majority of respondents were clearly dissatisfied with these aspects of their jobs. Table V supplements the information provided in Table IV. Table V was presented to show the percentage of respondents who were satisfied, dissatisfied with or indifferent to aspects of their jobs. It shows that less than 30 percent of the respondents were satisfied with their promotions while only DownloadedbyUniversitasGadjahMadaAt14:2012June2015(PT)
12. 12. Journal of Managerial Psychology 14,5 398 about 30 percent were satisfied with their present pay. At the same time, more than 50 percent of the respondents were dissatisfied with both their present pay and their promotions (see Table V). The survey results are difficult to summarise in terms of the overall feelings of the respondents. While the respondents appeared to be very satisfied with their main tasks, i.e. teaching and research, they were clearly dissatisfied with some aspects of their job. A moderately high level of job satisfaction by the university teachers may, in general, represent the feelings of most workers. However, to get the true average situation of the satisfaction of workers in all tasks, we take the mean of the average figures of each aspect of their job. It is the mean figures obtained from Table V that form the input to the multiple- item measure in Table VI. Evaluation of the methodological alternatives In order to discuss and appraise the methodological alternatives of single versus multiple-item measures, Table VI is presented. The table was prepared with the assumption that the multiple-item measure of job satisfaction is closer to reality than the single-item measure, i.e. we take the multiple-item measure as the ``standard'' from where deviations were recorded. Given this assumption, it can be seen from Table VI that the single-item measure overestimates the percentage of people satisfied with their jobs by a wide margin of 31 percent of the sample. Consequently, both the percentages of dissatisfied or ``indifferent'' academics were grossly underestimated (see Table VI). Thus there are clear differences between the results obtained from the two measures used for the same study. From the figures on Table VI, only about 52 percent of the academics in UK universities are satisfied with their job overall while as many as 33 percent are dissatisfied. The remaining 15 percent of staff show indifference. This means that the percentage of academics who are dissatisfied and the proportion of them who are indifferent are about equal to the percentage of academics who were satisfied with their jobs (48 percent versus 52 percent). The interpretation is that while academics are very satisfied with some tasks, overall, their satisfaction is only moderately high. It can be improved. The figures from the table show that single-item measures tend to exaggerate the results obtained for satisfaction while they underestimate results obtained for dissatisfied Table VI. Comparison of the results of the single versus multiple-item measure of job satisfaction Percentage satisfied Percentage dissatisfied Percentage indifferent Single-item measure 83 14 3 Multiple-item measure 52 33 15 Differencea +31 19 12 Result Overestimation Underestimation Underestimation Notes: a Assumes that the multiple-item measure is closer to reality than the single-item measure, i.e. we take the multiple-item measure as the ``standard'' DownloadedbyUniversitasGadjahMadaAt14:2012June2015(PT)
13. 13. Overall job satisfaction 399 workers and those who show indifference. This shows single-item measures to be less reliable estimators of job satisfaction when compared with multiple measures of the same phenomenon. A single-item measure of job satisfaction, such as the one used in this study, has some advantages. Perhaps the greatest of these is the simplicity of the measure and its applicability to miscellaneous occupations. Thus, whether one is investigating the job satisfaction of pilots, fishermen, solicitors or managers, the single-item measure of job satisfaction may be administered. This feature of simplicity, in turn, outlines its use in comparative studies, especially when the intention is to compare the job satisfaction of workers of one occupation with those of another. It also renders the measure of value when comparing the job satisfaction of workers in one country with those from a different country. Applicability of the single-item measure, at different time span, is also one of the several advantages that recommend its wide use. Against these advantages are some drawbacks of using a single-item measure of job satisfaction. This can be summarised in the brevity of information obtained from a single-item measure. The statistics obtained measure overall satisfaction in general terms without an opportunity to record satisfaction or dissatisfaction levels on particular aspects of the same job. In essence, only the ``average'' job satisfaction level is revealed, without any opportunity to know the composition of the average statistics. Single-item derived job satisfaction levels are often of little value to managers who are interested in taking some action towards improving the level of job satisfaction of workers in their organisations. This is because single-item measures of job satisfaction do not reveal areas of strength or weakness of an organisation in terms of aspects of its operations which workers enjoy or do not enjoy. In essence, therefore, the single-item statistics of job satisfaction fail to give a report card describing the success and/or failures of its managers in ensuring that the job satisfaction of its workers remains reasonably high. Wanous et al. (1997) suggested that the appropriateness of single-item measures for a particular piece of research should always be evaluated. The authors further suggest that if neither the research question nor the research situation suggest the use of a single-item job satisfaction measure, then choosing a well constructed scale makes sense. There are some common problems with single-question measures of overall job satisfaction. First, there are some problems of measurement. This has to do with the fact that different job satisfaction measures have different points at which discontent begins to register, the ``threshold of discontent''. While thresholds of discontent depend on a number of factors, they lead to one important conclusion, namely, that the most frequently used subjective measures of job satisfaction, such as ``All in all, would you say you are satisfied or dissatisfied with your job?'', tend to produce the highest estimate of satisfied workers (Quinn et al., 1974, pp. 51-2). Second, there tends to be defensive reactions of workers to questions about job satisfaction. For example, workers may feel that being dissatisfied is their DownloadedbyUniversitasGadjahMadaAt14:2012June2015(PT)
14. 14. Journal of Managerial Psychology 14,5 400 own fault because of having chosen the wrong job or not bothering to do anything to get another one, or a variety of other reasons. They may, for example, view their reports of job satisfaction as reflecting poorly on their own decision-making abilities. Third, workers' reactions to job satisfaction questions may indicate an attempt to rationalise the problems they may face at work, especially if they are not able or willing to change their job. Thus, they may, for example, demand less of their job, if they find a prolonged state of chronic dissatisfaction uncomfortable. The consequence is that such workers may report that they are satisfied with their present work when in fact they may not be! In addition to these problems of measuring job satisfaction, there are some problems of interpretation. Absolute levels of job satisfaction are much more difficult to determine than relative ones. While researchers continue the search for an acceptable international measure of job satisfaction (Misener et al., 1996), the three problems of measurement discussed heretofore suggest that no sure way has yet been devised for determining absolute levels of job satisfaction. However, while existing measures of job satisfaction provide questionable estimates of absolute levels of satisfaction, they prove very useful for comparing the satisfaction of workers in different occupations, at different times, in different demographic groups, and at different levels of hierarchy. In evaluating multiple-item measures of job satisfaction, one should bear in mind that these are often tailor-made questionnaires appropriate to particular jobs. Thus, in evaluating the job satisfaction of university teachers, we designed a measure to record their satisfaction levels on important aspects of their job, their pay, promotions, supervision, co-workers' behaviour and physical conditions or working facilities obtainable from their job. One advantage of such measures is that they are relevant and they often reveal differences in the job satisfaction levels derived from performing different tasks of the same job. A picture of the overall satisfaction level from all tasks can also be ascertained by computing an average of the individual average figures of the identified tasks. Thus, the average statistics of one worker can be compared with those of another to find out the worker who, on the whole, is more satisfied with his or her job. When multiple-item job satisfaction measures are used, the information generated can provide managers with data with which to initiate action aimed at improving the overall job satisfaction of their workers. It also serves to inform managers on aspects of their operations which workers enjoy and which should be sustained as much as possible. In essence, it helps managers to improve on their human and organisational management. There are no disadvantages of the multiple-item measures of job satisfaction as such except that the specifics may sometimes make a general perception of workers' job satisfaction level difficult to ascertain. As a research tool, however, multiple-item measures of job satisfaction are also more difficult to conceptualise and formulate and therefore tend to be more costly to produce when compared with single-item measures. Since single-item measures are DownloadedbyUniversitasGadjahMadaAt14:2012June2015(PT)
15. 15. Overall job satisfaction 401 relatively simple and short, perhaps they should accompany most multiple- item measures of job satisfaction studies. In this way, meaningful comparisons of job satisfaction studies are greatly enhanced. Even then, factors responsible for job satisfaction or dissatisfaction may differ from one study to another although the same or different satisfaction levels may be reported. In essence, therefore, a thorough understanding and description of the job satisfaction of an occupational group would also deal with the need to explain or interpret resulting job satisfaction statistics. While researchers continue to investigate the possibility of a uniform international measure of job satisfaction (Misener et al., 1996; Mueller and McCloskey, 1990), differences in organisational culture and levels of economic and social development which exist in various countries make the adoption of a universal measure of job satisfaction unlikely. Summary and conclusions This study aims to compare the effectiveness of two research instruments used to measure the job satisfaction of university teachers. In the single-item measure, respondents were asked simple questions about satisfaction with their job, namely: how often they feel satisfied with their jobs, their feelings about changing their current job, statements such as ``hate'' or ``love'' describing how they feel about their job and how they think their feelings compare with others (see Table III). In the multiple-item measure, the respondents were asked questions not only on their satisfaction with teaching, research and administration and management, but also on satisfaction with their pay, promotions, co-workers' behaviour, supervisor behaviour and physical conditions or working facilities which exist in their organisations. The respondents' answers were then analysed and compared for comprehensive information and consistency of opinions. The results of the study show that the multiple-item measure of job satisfaction was more detailed in terms of aspects of the respondents' job where information was available. In addition, the measure was useful in comparing tasks or aspects of the same job. However, if a comparison of the job satisfaction of workers in different occupations were desired, a single-item job satisfaction measure would be preferable as it tends to eliminate the specifics and the peculiarities of jobs. It was, therefore, suggested that, where possible, both single as well as multiple-item measures of job satisfaction should be used in the same study. In discussing the results, the complementary nature of the two measures of job satisfaction was apparent. It was, therefore, felt that both measures are superior to either of them used alone. If a choice of only one method must be made, the choice of which method to use would depend largely on the objectives of a research. In comparative studies, the single-item measure has obvious advantages, while in organisational or occupational studies, tailor- made multiple-item measures tend to provide more comprehensive information. DownloadedbyUniversitasGadjahMadaAt14:2012June2015(PT)
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