1996 Sunstrom Bell Asmus Review

0066-4308/96/0201-0485$08.00 485

Annu.Rev. Psychol. 1996.47:485–512Copyright© 1996by AnnualReviewsInc. All rightsreserved

ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY1989–1994

Eric Sundstrom

Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxvil le, Tennessee37916

Paul A. Bell

Department of Psychology, Colorado StateUniversity, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523

Paul L. Busby

Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxvil le, Tennessee37916

CherylAsmus

Department of Psychology, Colorado StateUniversity, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523

KEY WORDS: architectural research,ecological psychology, environmental design, environ-mental psychology, physicalenvironment

ABSTRACT

A review of research andtheory on transactionsbetweenpeople and physicalenvironments emphasizesnew contributionsto theory andempirical researchpublishedin major journalsof environmental psychology, 1989–1994.Theoriesfocused on arousal, load, stress, privacy-regulation, behavior settings, andtransactional analysis; new theory increasingly incorporated situational andcontextual variables. Empirical research emphasized field settings over thelaboratory and employed increasingly diversemethods,populations,andcul-tures. Environmental design studies integrated scientific and applied goalsthrough post-occupancy evaluation. New findings concerned featuresof resi-dences,workplaces,hospitals,schools,prisons, and larger community environ-

ments. Newstudiesalsoaddressedenvironmental stressors(e.g. temperature,noise); effectsof atti tudesand behaviorson conservation, crime,poll ution,and hazards; and issues for neighborhoods, public places, and naturalenvironments. Directions for the future include integrated theory to guideresearch, moredesign experiments, anddevelopment of conventionsfor casestudies.

CONTENTSINTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................... 486RECENT TRENDS................................................................................................................... 487

Publication........................................................................................................................... 487Research.............................................................................................................................. 488Theory.................................................................................................................................. 489

BUILT ENVIRONMENTS....................................................................................................... 491Residences........................................................................................................................... 491Workplaces.......................................................................................................................... 493Hospitals, Clinics,and Rehabili tationSettings................................................................... 495Schools................................................................................................................................. 495Prisons................................................................................................................................. 496ExtremeLivingEnvironments ............................................................................................. 496

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCESIN THE COMMUNITY .............................................. 497Physical Environmental Stressors....................................................................................... 497Attitudes About the Environment......................................................................................... 498Preservingthe Environment................................................................................................ 499Wayfinding........................................................................................................................... 500Environmentand Crime...................................................................................................... 500CommutingStress................................................................................................................ 501Coping with Disaster........................................................................................................... 501Museums.............................................................................................................................. 501

NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS............................................................................................... 502CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................................................... 502

Advances.............................................................................................................................. 502FutureDirections ................................................................................................................ 503

INTRODUCTION

Environmental psychology examinesrelationshipsbetweenpeopleand theirphysicalenvironments(e.g. Bell et al 1990,Gifford 1994).This review ap-pearslessthanthreedecadesafterpublication of thefirst textbook of environ-mentalpsychology(Proshanskyet al 1970) and less than one decadeafterreleaseof the Handbookof EnvironmentalPsychology(Stokols & Altman1987).Our purposehereis to describeprogressin environmentalpsychologysincethe last review in theAnnualReviewof Psychology(Saegert& Winkel1990).Focusingmainly on researchpublishedfrom 1989 through1994,wereview empiricalstudiesin the field’s major journals,emphasizingnew find-ingsand contributions duringthepastsix years.

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Our first sectiondiscussestrendsin publication, research,andtheory.Sub-sequentsections summarizenew findings about various types of physicalsettings,proceedingfrom smallerto largersize,andfrom individual to social-psychologicalto organizationalandcommunity levelsof analysis.Thesecondsection addresses bui l t envi ronments of relatively smal l size—resi-dences—andthenexaminesbuildingsoccupiedby privateorganizationsandpublic institutions—work places,hospitals, schools,andprisons.A third sec-tion addresseslargercommunity environmentsandreviewsnew researchonenvironmentalstressors,environmentalattitudesandbehaviorssuchasthoserelatedto conservation,andissuesrelatedto neighborhoodsandpublic places.Thefourth sectionexploresnaturalenvironments andrestorativesettings. Weconcludeby summarizingdevelopmentsin the field during thepastsix yearsand suggesting directionsfor thefuture.

RECENTTRENDS

Publication

In the past six years publication in environmental psychology steadilyexpanded. Theempirical researchstreamcontinued toflow in the field’sprimary journals—Environmentand BehaviorandJournal of EnvironmentalPsychology—and in Journal of Architectural and PlanningResearch,Archi-tecture and Behavior, Human Ecology,and Population and Environment.Environmental psychologists published occasionally in social psychologyjournals,suchasJournal of Personalityand SocialPsychology,andin com-munity psychology journalssuchasAmerican Journalof Community Psychol-ogy.

Expansion continued in editedseriesas well. Altman’s HumanBehaviorand the Environmentseriesaddedvolumeson intellectual traditions(Altman& Christensen1990), placeattachment(Altman & Low 1992),and womenandtheenvironment(Altman & Churchman1994).ZubeandMoore’s newerAdvancesin Environment,Behavior,and Designaddedtwo volumes(1989,1991), and anotheris planned.CambridgeUniversity Press’s edited seriesgainedvolumeson humanterritoriality (Taylor 1988),public space(Carret al1992), natural environments (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989), and applications ofenvironment-behavior research(Cherulnik 1993). Other editedvolumesad-dresseddesigninterventions (Prieseret al 1991),environment andcognition(Gärling& Evans1991),housing(Arias 1993),isolatedenvironments(Harri-sonet al 1991),settings for children(Weinstein & David 1990),andtheoriesof environmentalpsychology(Walshet al 1992).

A trendin editedcollectionsfavoredretrospectiveanalyses.Thesefocusedon careersof scholars(Altman & Christensen1990), influential design-re-

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searchprojects(Cherulnik 1993), facility programming (Sanoff 1989), andevaluationof the built environment(Wener1989).Similar retrospectivesap-peared in journals(Barker 1990,Gump1990,Schoggen1990).

Research

Researchin environmental psychologyhas encompassedindividuals,interper-sonal relationships, groups,organizations,communities, and even cultures,andtheir complexrelationships with environmental factors.Empiricalstudiesexaminedenvironmental variablesranging from ambient conditions—tem-perature,sound, lighting, andair quality—to architecturalfeaturesof buildingsand neighborhoods,to built and natural featuresof entire communities andregions.The research emphasizedindividualand interpersonallevels of analy-sis andexaminedattitudesandcognitionsaboutthe environmentmoreoftenthan it incorporateddirect measuresor manipulationsof objective,physicalcharacteristicsof the environment.Examplesof studiesthat usedobjectivemeasuresincludeChristensenet al (1992),Edwardset al (1994),andNovacoet al (1990).

Four trendsappearedin empirical studiescited in this review: 1. Moreresearchwasconductedin field settings thanin laboratories.2. We seeeffortstowardcumulative knowledgein studiesthat replicateor extendearlierwork(e.g.Brown1992,Haggard& Werner1990,Shaw& Gifford 1994).3. Empiri-cal studiesreflecteddiversemethods, settings, and populations. Particularlysalientis thevarietyof culturesrepresented.4. Researchersweremultidiscipli-nary;perhaps onlyhalf werebasedat universities intraditionaldepartmentsofpsychology.

Environmentalpsychology maintainedits dual orientation to researchandapplicationandproceededfurther towardintegrating them(Farbstein& Kan-trowitz 1991,Groat& Despres1991).Researchersconductedhypothesis-test-ing studiesin controlledsettings(e.g. Veitch et al 1991), and practitionersappliedresearchfindingsin facility programming(Sanoff1989), design(Lang1991,Prieseret al 1991),andpost-occupancyevaluation(Prieseret al 1988,Wener1989).The clearestintegrationappearedin environmentaldesignre-search(e.g.Wisneret al 1991),which usesexperimentalor quasi-experimen-tal interventionsin naturalsettingsto improve environmental designand totest scientific hypotheses.A typical projectbegins withabackground analysis,developmentof behavioralgoals,andidentification of environment-behaviorrelationships. In thedesignphasethegoals aretranslatedinto specificenviron-mentalfeatures.The new designis introducedinto part or all of the setting,and measurementsare collectedbefore and after renovationfor post-occu-pancyevaluationandfor testsof hypotheses.Cherulnik (1993)described13classicexamples,including theunpublished,oft-citedquasi-experimentat the

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Seattleand Los AngelesFederalAviation Administration offices by DennisGreen,Walter Kleeman,SamSloan,andRobertSommerthattestedtheeffectsof employees’ participationin the re-designof their offices on subsequentsatisfactionwith features of theirwork environments.

Theory

Environmental psychologists reiteratedthedifficulty of developingtheoryona topic as vast as the physicalenvironment(Ittelson1989,Kaminski 1989).Evenso,theoryadvancedduringthepastsix years.New theoriesincorporateddetailedanalysesof context (Michelson1994, Wicker 1992), using smallerandmoresituation-specificunits (Walshet al 1992).Onenew theoryexam-ined the processof designitself (Lang 1991).Othersintegratedsmall-scale,proximalenvironments with large-scale, distalenvironments (Schoggen 1989)and linked environmental featureswith interpersonalrelationships (Peterson1992) and cultural patterns(Altman et al 1992). Sometheoriesintegratedmultiple processes, suchas themodelby Bell etal (1990)that linkedobjectiveandsubjectiveenvironmental features,perceptions,arousalandstress,copingand adaptation,and aftereffects.

Despiteprogressin development of theory, environmental psychologistsremainedfar from consensuson a unified theoreticalapproach,and insteadtook a variety of approaches.Among theoriesthat guidedresearch,six ap-peared mostinfluential:

AROUSAL Psychophysiological arousalis well establishedas a processthatmediatesinfluencesof environmentalfeaturessuchassoundandtemperature.Thearousalhypothesispredictsoptimum performanceandsatisfactionunderconditionsof moderatearousal,dependingontaskcomplexity andotherfactors(Thayer 1989). Biner et al (1989) found students’ preferencesfor lightingscenariosconsistentwith predictionsof thearousalhypothesis. Extensionsofthe hypothesissuggestthat througharousal,high temperatureincreasesthelikelihood of violence,thoughthenatureof therelationship remainsin debate(Anderson 1989,Bell 1992).

ENVIRONMENTAL LOAD Theoverloadhypothesisassumesthathumanshaveafinite capacityfor processingstimuli andinformationandpredictsthatwecopewith sensoryor informationoverloadthrough(amongotherresponses)selectiveattentionand ignoring low-priority inputs.Consistent with the hypothesis, alaboratoryexperimentby Smith (1991) showedthat 78dB(A) noise led toreducedperformanceby collegestudentsin a letter writing taskbut not in aletter-searchtask.Loewen& Suedfeld(1992)foundthatmaskingsoundmiti-gatedthe performancedeficit producedby office noisebut addedto arousal.


Veitch (1990) extendedthe arousalhypothesisto individual differencesandreportedbetterreadingcomprehensionin noisyconditionsby individualswithinternallocusof control,andbetterreadingcomprehensionin quietconditionsby individualswith external locusof control.

STRESSAND ADAPTATION Previousresearchandtheoryassociatedextremesof temperature,sound,andotherenvironmentalvariableswith physiologicalandpsychologicalstressandwith copingandadaptivebehaviorsthatreduce stressor its impact. Environmental stressresearchof the last six yearsexaminedprolongedexposures(e.g.Hedge1989)andpost-traumatic outcomes(Rubonis& Bickman1991)includingchronicillnessandpsychologicalimpairment.Suchfindings reinforce the needfor theoreticaldistinction of acuteand chronicenvironmentalstress(e.g.Baumet al 1990,Baum& Fleming1993,Hobfoll1991).

PRIVACY-REGULATION Researchon privacy,spatialbehavior,crowding,andterritoriality togethersuggestsa humantendency to seekoptimum social inter-action,partly throughuse of the physical environment(Altman 1993).Privacyregulationtheorysuggeststhat whena personfails to achievethesubjective,optimumlevel of socialcontactfor thesituation,theresultingstressmotivatescopingbehavior,whichmayrely onthephysicalsetting(Brown1992).Consis-tent with the theory, Haggard &Werner (1990) found that students whotemporarilyoccupieda laboratorysettingrejectedintrusionsmoreoftenwhenthechair arrangementdelineatedtheirwork areathanwhenit did not. Block&Garnett(1989)reportedhighersatisfactionamongcollegestudentswhoworkedon complextasksin privaterather than nonprivatesettings.

ECOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR SETTING THEORY Theclassicthe-orybyRogerBarkerandcolleaguesanalyzesenvironmentsin termsof behaviorsettings:“small scalesocialsystemscomposedof peopleandphysicalobjectsconfigured in such a way as to carry out a routinized program of activitieswith specifiabletime andplaceboundaries”(Wicker 1992,p. 166).The July1990 issueof Environmentand Behavior reviews the history of ecologicalpsychology.Analysisof a recentworker surveysupportedthe predictionsofbehaviorsettingtheory(Wicker& August1995).Extensionsof thetheoryhavefocused onspecific settings(Schoggen1989), such asgas stations(Sommer&Wicker 1991), and on what Wicker (1992) cal led a “ sense-making”model—basedonnaturalisticresearchthataddressesoccupants’ understandingsof the context.

TRANSACTIONAL APPROACH In a substantial extensionof privacy regulationtheory,Altman(1993)andcolleagues(e.g.Brownetal1992,Werneretal1992)

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elaboratedtheir transactionalapproach, which treatsthe physical environmentasapotential contextfor socialinteraction thatcansupport,constrain,symbol-ize, and confer meaningupon various aspectsof social relationships. Thisholistic,systems-orientedanalysisincorporatesmultiple levelsandfacets,vari-ation over time, and cyclical processes.It describessocial relationships andphysicalsettingsin termsof dialectics,ortensionsbetweenopposinginfluences.(Dialecticsarealsocentral toLawrence’s 1989 theory.) Related, cross-culturalresearchexaminedsuchpracticesascourtshipandweddings(Altmanetal1992,Werner etal 1993).

BUILT ENVIRONMENTS

Residences

RESIDENTIAL PREFERENCE AND SATISFACTION Previousresearchconsistentlyfound the housing type most preferred,especiallyin North America, is asingle-familyhomeaway from a centralcity. RecentsurveysalsoexaminedpopulationsoutsideNorthAmerica.Amerigo& Aragones(1990)foundprefer-encesamongwomenwho lived in council housingin Madrid, Spain,closelytied to their attachmentto theneighborhood andto thenatureof their relation-shipswith neighbors.Kaitill a(1993)foundresidentsof publichousingin WestTaraka,PapuaNewGuinea,dissatisfiedwith thesmallsizeof theirhousingunitsandwith designsof kitchen,toilet, andbath.Kaitilla (1994)studiedtheBumbusquattersettlementof PapuaNew Guineaand observedthat availability ofdesirablebuilding materialswas important in constructionof dwellings andsatisfactionwith them.HousingpreferenceandsatisfactionwerealsostudiedinVenezuela(Wiesenfeld1992),Australia (Purcell1991,Smith 1994),Turkey(Imamo�lu & Imamo�lu 1992),Sweden(Lindbergetal1992),Canada(Cooper& Rodman1994), theUnitedStates (Anthonyetal 1990),and England(Shoul1993).Themesapparentin the researchincludedthe importanceof adequatespace,convenientlocationfor services,senseof securityassociatedwith dis-tancefrom innercities,attachmentto neighborhoodandpeople,andenviron-mentalsupportfor changingwork andfamily roles.

Among individualswith disabilities, Cooper& Rodman(1994)found thatcontrol over socialaspectsof housingwasmore importantthancontrol overphysicalaspectsin predicting satisfaction. Components importantin thehome,suchasprotectionandself-identity, arealsoimportantto thehomeless(Bun-ston& Breton1992).Researchershaveconductedpreference/satisfactionsur-veysacrossagespans.Devlin (1994)found that US childrenpreferredranchandcolonialstyle houses aswell asmobile homes, Quonsethuts, andgeodesicdomes;adultspreferredfarm,Tudor,Neo-French,andsplit-levelstyles.Lind-bergetal (1992)foundthat preferencesacrossthelife spanwereinfluencedby


comfort, freedom, well-being, and togetherness. Structural adequacy andmaintenance qualitywerefound to bethebestpredictors ofsatisfaction amonga sampleof elderlyresidents(Christensenet al1992).AmongTurkish elderly,Imamo�lu & Imamo�lu (1992) found residentialsatisfactioncorrelatedwithproximity to towns and metropolises, for reasonsrelatedto attachmenttodwellings and people(including extendedfamily), preferencesfor same-ageinteractions,andattitudestowardinstitutionalliving. For teenagechildrenandadults,havinga disabledelderlyrelativelive in thesamehomewasassociatedwith decreasedsatisfaction (Pruchno et al1993).

Othertrendsin research onresidencesconcernthechangingroleof womenandthe rise of single parenting.Hasell& Peatross(1990)discussedcorrela-tions betweenchanginggenderrole patterns(e.g.morewomenworking out-sidethehome,morementakingon domestic chores)andchangesin housingbetween1945and1985in theUnitedStates,which includeda doublingof thesizeof themasterbedroom(from 162to 332squarefeet)andanincreasein theratio of masterbedroom/bath to total spacefrom 15.5% to 22.8%. Smith(1994)alsostudiedgenderrolesin relationto housingconfigurations; amongthe major findingswas that women placed heavier emphasis onpersonalcontrol thandid men.Ahrentzenet al (1989)foundthatfully employedmoth-ersspentmoretime thanfathersin roomswith otherfamily members.Peoplewho work at homemay makeadjustments amongrolesandspaceto manageconflict (Ahrentzen1990).James(1989) found evaluationsof housingnega-tively correlated withsalienceof maritalrole for women,not for men.

A majorpreference-satisfactionstudyby Pauluset al (1991)comparedUSArmy families in apartmentandmobile homeparks.Satisfactionwashigh inboth settingsbecauseof perceivedchoice,expectationof improved futureconditions, andcontrastwith pasthousing.Thosesatisfiedwith mobilehomesespeciallyemphasizedlow noiselevels, low perceivedcrime risk, moredis-tancebetweenunits,moreprivacy,andcompatibility of housingwith raisingchildren.Thosesatisfiedwith apartmentscitedattractiveness,otherpeopleinthe complex,convenienceof services,fire and weathersafety (e.g. feelingsaferin case of a tornado),and adequacy ofrecreation facilities.

HOUSING DESIGN FEATURES In one study on attitudes toward windows,studentsat a US universitysawskylightsasdesirablein family rooms,livingrooms,andkitchensbutnotasdesirableaswindowsin thesametypesof rooms(Butler & Biner 1990).Building materials(brick, concreteblock, weatheredwood,stucco,flagstone,woodenshingles)wereassociatedwith perceivedsocialidentity of homeowners(Sadalla& Sheets1993).Anotherstudyin theUnitedStatesfoundfarmandTudorstylesratedmostdesirableandMediterraneanandsaltboxstylesas leastdesirable(Nasar1989).Kent (1991) reportedcultural

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variationin partitioningof space;Kent(1990)revieweduseof spaceanddesignfeatures.

RESIDENTIAL CROWDING A study in Bangkok, where population density isfour timesgreaterthanin comparableWesterncities, found a nonlinearrela-tionshipbetweenhouseholddensityandcrowding(experienceof stressin highdensityconditions), indicatinga ceiling effect: Increasinghouseholddensitywasassociatedwith incrementsin crowdingonly up to a point (Edwardset al1994). High density and crowding correlatedwith dissatisfaction in Italianhomes(Bonneset al 1991).Studiesof crowdedhomesin IndiaandtheUnitedStatesfoundsocialhasslesassociatedwith psychologicalsymptomsof distressandill health(Evanset al 1989,Leporeet al 1991a)andfoundthatperceivedcontrol andsocial support mediatedtheselinks (Evans& Lepore1993; Leporeetal1991b,1992).Whileseekingprivacymaybeacommonresponsetodistress(Newell1994),satisfactionwith privacyappeareddistinctfromsatisfactionwithspace(Oseland& Donald1993).Ontheotherhand,astudyof groupresidencesalsofoundsolitudeanaversiveexperience,for reasonsunrelatedtoenvironment(Brown1992).In Japan,Omata(1992)describedhowpeoplecopewith limitedspace by notentertainingat home.

PLACE ATTACHMENT Research increasingly focused on psychological at-tachment to places, often in the context of home and neighborhood (Altman& Low 1992). Residential satisfactionwas often tied to place attachment.Studiesexaminedattachmentover time as peoplemovedfrom one placetoanother (Bih1992,Burt 1993,Feldman1990,Lucca-Irizarry& Pacheco1992,Michelson 1992). Mazumdar & Mazumdar (1993) reported how religiousrituals canenhanceplaceattachment.In Berne,Switzerland,Fuhrer& Kaiser(1993)found lower mobility associatedwith higherattachmentto homesandvehicles.Brown & Perkins(1992) analyzed cases ofdisruptedattachment.

Workplaces

Emerging issues forresearchin theworkplaceincluded stressandhealthin theworkplace(Evanset al 1994,Hedge1989),physicalsettingsfor work groups(Sundstrom & Altman 1989) andcollaboration (Becker1991),electroniccom-munications in groups(Fulk 1993),andtherole of computersin collaborativework (Olson1989)andorganizations(Becker1988).Anotheremergingtopicconcernedhome-basedwork, particularly amongwomen (Ahrentzen1989,Christensen1988). Ahrentzen(1990, 1992) identified conflicts inherent inhome-basedwork. Caseexamples(Christensen1989, 1993) suggestedthatsuccessful homework requires physicalspace arranged compatibly with homeworkers’ managementof time, social relations,self-identity,and potentiallyconflictingdemands(Christensen 1994).


Researchalsoaddressedambientconditionssuchaslighting andsound.Asimulation studyby Katzev(1992)found no adverseeffectsof a 50% reduc-tion in illuminationonclericalworkers’ moodor performance.A field studyofoffice workers found higher satisfaction, better environmental control, andfewer complaints in offices with under-floor ventilation than conventionalsystems(Hedgeetal 1993).In a fieldstudyof office workers atmultiple sites,Sundstromet al (1994) found more than half disturbedby noiseand founddisturbancecorrelatedwith dissatisfaction with the environmentandjob, butnot self- or supervisor-ratedperformance.Quasi-experimental analysisafterrelocationor renovationrevealeddecliningenvironmentalandjob satisfactionconcurrentwith increasingnoise,and increasingenvironmental satisfactionconcurrent withdecreasing noise.

WINDOWS A laboratoryexperimentbriefly placedoffice workersin variouscombinationsof window sizeand amount of sunlightandfoundnodifferencesin preferenceor satisfactionbut foundself-ratedtensionhighestin conditionsof mostandleastsunlight(Boubekriet al 1991).Butler & Biner (1989)foundanunexpectedpreferenceamongstudentsfor nowindowsor smallwindowsinsome places, such ascomputer workrooms. Researchon indoor windowsbetweenroomsrevealedfavorableattitudesanddifferingperceptions:Secretar-iesexpectedlossof privacy;studentssawpotentialfor socialinteraction(Bineret al 1991).Biner et al (1993)found secretariesunwilling to tradeitemslikeplantsor picturesfor indoorwindows.

ENCLOSUREAND PRIVACY Oldham(1988)reportedincreasedratingsof pri-vacy and office satisfactionanddecreasedcrowding associated with decreaseddensity and increasedenclosure;individual stimulus screeningability wasrelatedto perceptionsof crowding. Oldham et al (1991) found that officeemployeeswho scoredhigh on stimulus screeningand did complexjobs inlow-densityareasshowed greatest productivity andsatisfaction. Amongsecre-taries, Duvall-Early& Benedict(1992)found acloseable door and“co-workernotvisible” associatedwith perceivedprivacy,whichin turncorrelatedwith jobsatisfaction.

FACETSOF WORK ENVIRONMENTS Couch & Nimran (1989) asked managersto name features oftheir office environmentsthat facilitated or inhibitedperformance;facilitatorsincludedsupportivesocial interaction,inhibitors in-cludeddistractions,andambientsoundandtemperaturewerenamedin bothcategories.Carlopio & Gardner(1992) found bank employees’ satisfactionassociatedwith havinga personalcomputerandan ergonomicchair, among

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other factors.Mazumdar(1992) recountedanecdotalcasesof environmental“deprivation”after office renovation,which elicitedreactionsby workerssuchas shame,social withdrawal, and filing of lawsuits.Ornstein(1992) foundstudentsable to infer from photosof receptionrooms messagesabout theorganizations’ considerationandcontrol.In a post-occupancyevaluationof anoffice renovation, Spreckelmeyer(1993) found workers’ satisfactionrelatedtoparticipationin designing the renovations.

Hospitals, Clinics,andRehabilitation SettingsDespite increasing complexity of hospitals and calls for research (Shu-maker & Pequegnat 1989), few studies of health-care settings appeared inthepastsix years.Onestudyfocusedonpracticesof secludingpatients(Morri-son1990).Amongcritical-carenurses,Topf (1989)foundresistanceto noise-inducedstressgreatestby thosewith low noisesensitivity andhigh commit-ment.Casestudiesexaminedtreatmentcenterdesign(Gifford & Martin 1991)and entryway and access variables (Cherulnik 1993). Design interventionsin residential settings for mental patients demonstrated that interactionamong patientsincreasedfollowing partitioning of sleepingroomsandintro-ductionof sociopetalarrangements,in which chairsaregroupedwithin com-fortableconversationdistancefacingtowardoneanother(Cherulnik1993).Adesignintervention by Devlin (1992) in psychiatricwardscreatedhome-likeconditions that were associated with decreased stereotypy (e.g. head bang-ing) but not the increasedinteraction often found afteradding sociopetalseating.

SchoolsIn a 1-year study of the effects of elementary school lighting, Kuller &Lindsten(1992)foundwindowlessclassroomswith fluorescentlighting asso-ciated with undesirablebiochemicalchangesnot found in classroomswithnatural lighting. A laboratorystudy found no differencesbetweenconven-tional andfull-spectrumfluorescentlighting on collegestudents’ performanceand mood (Boray et al 1989).Cohen& Trostle (1990) reportedthat amongschoolchildren,girls preferredmoreintensecolor arrangements,moremulti-dimensional shapes,brighterlighting, andmorecomplexscenicarrangementsthan did boys. Weinstein & Pinciotti (1988) evaluateda playgrounddesignintendedto promoteconstructive play and reportedincreasesin active andpretendplay and decreasesin organizedgames,uninvolved behavior,androughhousing.

Reinforcingthewell-establishedassociationof classroomperformanceandseatingamongcollegestudents,Brooks& Rebeta(1991)foundthat comparedwith men,womensatcloserto the instructor,madebettergrades,andmissedfewer classes;distancefrom the front correlatedpositively with absenceandinversely with grades. Hillmann et al (1991) reported higher self-esteem


amongcollegestudentsseatedin thefront third of a classroom;thesestudentsreceivedbettergrades,participatedmore, missedfewer classes,and scoredhigheron anachievementtestthanthosein thebackof theroom.Wonget al(1992)evaluatedSommer’s (1974) “soft classroom,”which wasdesignedtopromoteinteractionthroughcarpet-coveredbenchseatingarrangedin a semi-circle.As before,observations revealedmorevoluntary participation andmorestudent-to-studentinteractionin the“soft” classroomthanin traditionalclass-roomsof similarsize.

In a study of transitions by new collegestudentsto new schoolenviron-ments,Lakey(1989)foundperceivedsocialsupporthigherin suite-stylethanin corridorstyledormitories,wherestudentsfelt moreanxiousandsawothersaslesslikely to help.Yamamotoetal (1992)reportedthatafterleavingcollegefor new jobs,studentsreplacedsomesocialcontactsbut continuedto rely onfamily networks.

Prisons

Prisonresearchexaminedinmates’ perceptionsof theenvironment (Ajdukovic1990) but focusedmainly on population densityandhousingdesign.Physi-ologicalsignsof stresswerefoundlower amonginmatesliving in singlecellsthan in dormitories(Ostfeldet al 1987,Schaefferet al 1988).Adversereac-tionsby inmates correlatedwith thenumberof inmatesperhousing unit; feweradversereactionsoccurredin subdividedthanunsubdivideddormitories(Pau-lus 1988).Wener& Keys (1988) found prison densityassociatedwith per-ceivedcrowdingandfoundhigherratesof sick call amongprisonersexposedpreviously tohighdensity conditions thanamongprisonerswhohadresidedinlowerdensity conditions.In aprison redesignprojectthatappliedlessonsfromresearch(Farbstein1986), decentralizedsuites were associated with morepositive outcomes than were conventionalarrangements(Weneret al 1985,also inCherulnik1993).

ExtremeLiving Environments

Recentstudiesexaminedhumanadaptations to extremeliving conditionssuchasouterspaceandAntarctica(reviewedby Harrisonetal 1991,Suedfeld1991,Ursin et al 1991).Somestudiesdescribedhow nativeandnonnativepeoplesadapt.For example,Inuit settlements nearNome,Alaska,wereusuallyfoundcloseto roadsand water and far from hills (Burger & Gochfeld1991),andmuch upheavaloccurredas the Inuit of Canadaadaptedto modernchanges(Goehring & Stager1991). Visitors to polarregions facerisks to their physicalandmentalhealthbecauseof isolation, leadingresearchersto call themICE(IsolatedandConfinedEnvironments). Carrere& Evans(1994)observedfourtrends inan Antarctic ICE. 1.Individualschose to spendmuch timealone, anddesign featuresthat helpedto increaseor decreasesocial interactionwere

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valued.2. Designflexibil ity to providea varietyof work andleisureactivitieswasdesired.3. Individual andgrouppersonalizationwasprevalent.4. Evalu-ation of the quality of the environmentremainedneutral.Othersnoted theimportanceof comfort with group interactionsfor coping in ICEs (Kahn &Leon 1994, Koschyevet al 1994, Leon 1991, Leon et al 1991). Successfulcopingwith environmentalextremesmayhavelong-termbenefitsin theformof reduced physicalhealthrisks(Palinkas 1991).

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCESIN THE COMMUNITY

PhysicalEnvironmental Stressors

NOISE Studiesfoundnoiseamajorsourceof annoyancein avarietyof settings.Levy-Leboyer& Naturel(1991)reportedneighborhoodnoiseespeciallytrou-blesomeif it occurredat night andcouldhavebeenavoided;evidencethattheperpetratorof theintrusivenoiseis unconcernedmadeit moreannoying,asdidperceivedlossof control.Hopkins(1994)foundnoise a significant probleminshoppingmalls.

AIR POLLUTION Pastresearchfoundlower socioeconomicgroupsmostlikelyto live in areaswith high air pollution (Mukherjee1993).However,Napton&Day(1992)foundpredominantlymiddle-classresidentsin highlypollutedareasin Texas,mostly affiliated with petrochemicalindustries,where choice ofneighborhoodwaslargely dictatedby proximity to work. Evenlow levelsofSO2 were associatedwith slower reactiontime, reducedconcentration,andlower psychological well-being in Bavaria (Bullinger 1989). Other studiesfoundpeoplewith emotion-orientedcopingstyleslessannoyedby foul odorsthan were peoplewith problem-orientedcoping styles (Cavalini et al 1991,Steinheider& Winneke1993).In contrast,a laboratorystudyby Baron (1990)found beneficialeffectsof pleasantscents.Studentsexposedto perfume,co-logne,andair freshenerpreviously foundto elicit positive attitudessethighergoals,adoptedmoreefficientstrategiesin clericalwork,mademoreconcessionsduringnegotiations, andshowedlessinclination to avoidconflict or usecom-petitivestrategiesfor dealingwith futureconflict thandid membersof acontrolgroup.Malesexposedto pleasantscenthadhigherself-efficacythanthosenotexposed tothescents.

HEAT AND VIOLENCE Debatecontinuedovertherelationship betweenambienttemperatureandincidenceof humanviolence,includingwhetherarelationshipexists(Rotton 1993a,b),and whetherviolenceincreaseslinearly with risingtemperature(Anderson1989,Anderson& DeNeve1992)or increasestoapointof moderatediscomfortandthendecreaseswith extremediscomfortat higher


temperatures(thenegativeaffect-escapemodelof aggression;Bell 1992).Dataanalysistechniquesandcontrolof extraneousvariablesremainedissuesin thedebate(Cohn 1990,1993,Simpson &Perry1990). Reifmanetal (1991)foundprofessionalbaseballplayersmorelikely tobehit bywild pitchesastemperatureincreased.Ruback& Pandey(1992)foundpassengersonIndianrickshawslessbotheredby heat when given information about its sensoryand emotionaleffects,which increasedtheir perceivedcontrol. Rotton et al (1990) studiedwalking speedasa function of ambienttemperatureandfound that pacewassometimesmorerapid in cool settingsandat othertimesmorerapid in warmsettings.

AttitudesAbout theEnvironment

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN Studiesdemonstrating concernabout environ-mentalissuesaccompaniedgrowth of the environmental movement(Krause1993).Lyons& Breakwell(1994)found thatknowledgeof sciencepredictedenvironmentalconcern,but othersfound litt le relationshipof environmentalconcernwith environmentalknowledge(Arcury 1990) or sociodemographicvariables (Samdahl& Robertson1989,Scott& Wil lits 1994,Syme &Nancar-row 1992). Among predictors of environmental concern,authoritarianismshoweda strong,inverserelationship(Schultz& Stone1994).Otherstudiesfoundwomenhigherthanmenon environmentalconcernbut foundmen morelikely to be environmentalactivists(Baldassare& Katz 1992,Mohai 1991,Schahn& Holzer 1990,Sternet al 1993). Inconsistent findings appearedonracialdifferencesin environmentalconcern(Adeloa1994,Taylor 1989).Eco-centricvs anthropocentricvalueorientationspredictedenvironmentalconcernandbehaviorin onestudy(Thompson & Barton1994),but attemptsto predictenvironmentalbehaviorfrom environmentalattitudescontinueto yield disap-pointingresults(Oskampet al 1991).

PERCEIVED ENVIRONMENTAL RISK Environmentalpsychologists showedin-creasing interestin perceptionof risk fromtoxic exposure, natural andhuman-causeddisaster,ozonedepletionandglobal warming,andinjury in built andnaturalsettings (Slovic1987,alsoEwert1994,Vaughan1993).Perceivedriskwasstronglyassociatedwith reducedneighborhoodsatisfaction(Baba& Austin1989,Gärling & Gärling 1990).In a studyby Grieshop& Stiles(1989)over25% of California respondentssaid they had sufferedillness from pesticideexposure, yetmanyof thosewho perceived therisk still used pesticides. Muchwork examines perceived risk associated with nuclear power (Earle &Cvetkovich1990, MacGill 1989, Maharik & Fischhoff 1993, Reicheret al1993). Perceivednuclearrisk increasedfollowing the 1986 accidentat theChernobylreactor(Drottz-Sjoberg& Sjoberg1990, Midden & Verplanken1990,Peters et al 1990,Renn1990,van der Pligt& Midden1990, Verplanken

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1989).A new tool—the EnvironmentalAppraisalInventory(EAI)—assessesperceivedthreat to self, threat to environment, and perceivedcontrol overenvironmentalhazards (Fridgen 1994,Schmidt& Gifford 1989).

Preserving theEnvironment

COMMONS DILEMMA Hardin’s (1968) description of self-interested abuseof a shared environment spawned many laboratory simulations of the com-mons dilemma in which individuals harvest from a shared resource (Fuscoet al 1991,Gifford & Wells 1991).Thedilemmais thatshort-termself-interest(making large harvests from the shared resource) is harmful to long-termgroup interest,becausecollective short-termself-interestdestroysthe com-mons.Researchhassoughtsolutions that encourageindividual conservativeharveststo preservethecommonsin thelongrun.Recentresultsconfirmedandextendedpastresearch.Trustingothersto conserveemergedasan extremelyimportantfactorin willin gnesstoconserve(Mosler1993,Parks1994).Rewardsfor cooperativebehaviorand punishmentsfor selfish behaviorwere foundbeneficial in preservingthe commons(Bell et al 1989, Birjulin et al 1993,Harveyet al 1993).Division of the commonsinto individual territories—theprivatizationstrategy—alsohelpedpreservethecommonsin laboratorysimu-lations.Sucha territorial/privatizationsolutioneliminatesthecommonsandisimpractical for someresources,but it also eliminates the needfor intricatesystemsof rewardand punishment (Martichuski & Bell 1991). Outsidethelaboratory,privatization showedpromisefor preservinglow-income housing(Leavitt & Saegert1989).Debatecontinueson privatization andgrouprules(Feenyetal 1990).

CONSERVATION BEHAVIOR Strategiesfor promoting recycling,energyconser-vation, andanti-littering behaviorcontinued to draw researchinterest,as re-viewedin theMarch1995issueof EnvironmentandBehavior(alsoDeYoung1993).Wastesourcereduction—notproducingwastein thefirst place—clearlyhas the most beneficial impact on the environment(DeYoung et al 1993).Educationaleffortshadleastimpactonpro-environmentalbehavior(Thompson& Stoutemyer 1991). Recycling knowledge predicted recycling behavior(Gamba& Oskamp1994,Granzin& Olsen1991,Vining & Ebreo1990),butusingapersondesignatedasaneighborhoodblock leaderwhocoordinatedandencouraged recycling improved recycling behavior over mereeducationalstrategies(Burn 1991, Hopper & Nielsen 1991). Individual personalbelief(Axelrod & Lehman1993)andcommitmentto recyclingpredictedlong-termrecyclingbehavior(Wang& Katzev1990),asdid perceivedpersonalbenefit(Oskampetal 1994).Individualandgroupnormscanreducelittering (Cialdinietal1990),ascanshameandembarrassment(Grasmicketal1991).Howenstine


(1993)found that failure to recyclewasassociatedwith indifference,locationissues,and householdnuisance.

Wayfinding

Recentresearchexamineddesignfeaturesthat facilitatecognitivemappingofenvironments,the role of cognitive maps in finding one’s way throughthem—wayfinding—and factors that influence wayfinding (Gärling 1989;Gopalet al 1989;Hirtle & Hudson1991;Holding 1992,1994;Kitchin 1994;Leiser& Zilbershatz 1989;O’Neill 1991a;Rovine& Weisman1989;Sadalla& Montello 1989;Wood & Beck 1989).Peponiset al (1990) introducedtheconceptof a searchstructure in which propertiesof layoutscombinewithnavigation rules to determineexploration patterns.O’Neill (1991c, 1992)foundlower complexity of layoutassociatedwith increasedarchitecturallegi-bility, which in turn correlatedwith improvedwayfinding. O’Neill (1991b)found that signageimproved wayfinding, especiallyin less complex floor-plans.Adults are clearly better than children at giving orienting directions,thoughchildren improve with age(Blades& Medlicott 1992,Rutlandet al1993). However,cognitivemapping and wayfinding posespecialproblems forthe elderly (Lipman 1991),with a notableexceptionfor elderly hunters(Hill1992).Among elderly adults,verbaldirectionsandstudying mapsimprovedwayfinding more thandid eitherwatchingvideotapesor receivingverbaldi-rectionswith instructions to form a mental imageof the setting (Kirasic &Mathes1990).Having to realigna mapmentally asopposedto aligning it inhandwith the floorplan makeswayfinding especiallydifficult for the elderly(Aubrey & Dobbs 1990,Warren& Scott 1993).

Environment and Crime

Researcherscontinuedto identify environmental contributorsto andbarriersagainstcrime.Onestudyexaminedenvironmentalfactorsin conveniencestorerobberies (D’Alessio & Stolzenberg1990). Another examined therole ofperceivedrisk of victimization(Brantingham& Brantingham1993). Brown&Harris(1989)testedpredictions relatedto territoriality andfoundthatthemoreseverethe territorial intrusion in a burglary,the moredifficult the long-termcoping by the victim. Brown & Bentley (1993)found that burglars wereespeciallywary of signsthat residentswould showterritorial concern.Canter& Larkin (1993)reportedthat87%of sexualoffendersoperatedcloseto theirhome base.Perkinset al (1992) found territorial functioning, architectural“defensiblespace”features,andsignsof socialandphysicaldisorderrelatedtocrime andfear of crime.Perkinset al (1993)reportedsimilar findings. Mac-Donald& Gifford (1989)reportedthatsignsof territorial defenseindicatedtoconvictedburglarsthat a residencecontainedthings worth stealing.Shaw&Gifford (1994)found residents’ andburglars’ assessmentsof vulnerability to

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burglaryinverselyrelatedto “surveilability” andpositively relatedto presenceof actualbarriers.Otherstudiesfound fearof crimegreatestin placesseenasproviding refugefor criminals or limiting escapeby potential victims (Day1994,Fisher &Nasar1992,Loewenet al 1993,Nasar &Fisher 1993).

Commuting Stress

Researchon commuting stress byNovaco et al (1990, 1991)found bothsubjectiveandobjectiveimpedanceto be significant predictorsof commuterstress,which manifestedin bothphysicalandpsychological healthoutcomes.Hansonet al (1994)found longercommutesamongwomenin two US coun-ties, who took jobs furtherfrom homethanmen(perhapsreflectingtheir lowerpower or status). Otherresearchfound symptoms of stressamong publictransitdrivers (Carrere et al1991,Evans &Carrere 1991).

Coping with Disaster

Naturalandhuman-causeddisastersmayhavemanyconsequences,includinglossof resources,impedanceof daily activities,disruptionto homeandneigh-borhood,andchangesin perceptionof risk (Hutchins& Norris 1989,Laska1990).In examiningadaptiveresponsesto disasters,Hobfoll’s (1991)conser-vation of resourcesstresstheory posits that the speedand extentof loss orpreservationof resources(possessions,loved ones,community services)pre-dictsadaptiveefficiencyin responseto disaster.Baumet al (1992)foundthatcomparedwith victims of a flood, victims of a toxic wastedumpweremoreanxious, depressed, andalienated and less ableto dochallenging tasks.Conse-quencesto their resourcescontinued into the future, while flood victims’consequencesweresoonerpast.Otherhuman-causedtechnological catastro-phesshoweda similar pattern,in which longer-lasting consequencesto vic-tims’ resourcescorrelatedwith more adverseaftereffects(Baum & Fleming1993,Green et al 1990).

Museums

Researchon theway peopleexploremuseums, in combination with principlesof environmentalpsychology, hasguidedthedesignof museumsandmodifi-cations intendedto changethe experienceof the museumvisitor (Loomis1987). Bitgood & Loomis (1993) summarizedcurrentapplications.Studiesfound the museumexperienceinfluencedby the type andsizeof labels(Bit-good & Patterson1993), availability of comfortableplaces (Hood1993),front-endevaluationof exhibit designs(Miles & Clarke1993,Screven1990),and maps.Recentevidencesuggests thatmuseums can relieve stressandattentionalfatigue (Kaplanet al 1993).


NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS

Naturalsettings havebeenthe focusof muchresearchin environmentalpsy-chology.Severalrecentstudiessuggestedthat preferencesfor naturalsceneswith greeneryand water may be universal(Herzog1989, 1992; Herzog&Bosley 1992; Hull & Revell 1989; Schroeder1991; Yang & Brown 1992;Zube 1991).Sebba(1991) suggested that mostadults identify the mostsignifi-cantplacesin childhoodasbeingoutdoors.Adding vegetationto built envi-ronments enhanced aesthetic valuein some but not all settings(Hull & Harvey1989,Joardar1989,Orland et al 1992,Sheets& Manzer1991).One studyfoundthatjoint experiencesin naturalsettingsbenefitedhumangroups(Ewert& Heywood1991).

Why arenaturalenvironments so highly valued?Recentresearchsuggeststhat viewing naturalscenerystimulatesthe parasympatheticnervoussystemandhasa calmingeffecton peopleunderstress(Hartig et al 1991,Ulrich et al1991).Ulrich (1993)theorizedthat sucheffectsmayevenhaveanevolution-ary basisin that naturalselectionmay havefavoredthosewho canrelax in anaturalsetting—thebiophilia hypothesis.Kaplanet al (1993)notedthat a visitto a museumor similar settingcan also haverestorativeeffectson stressedindividuals. Kaplan& Kaplan(1989)proposedthat prolongedattention to atask leadsto directedattention fatigue,which is relievedin naturalenviron-ments.

CONCLUSIONS

Advances

Environmental psychology advancedin manyareasfrom 1989through1994.We identifiedsix themes:

1. Multiple theories. Environmental psychology’s theories expanded, ad-dressed more contextual factors, andincreasingly spannedindividual, inter-personal,organizational,community, and cultural levels of analysis.Re-searchwasguidedby theorieson arousal,stress,privacyregulation, behav-ior settings, andthetransactionalapproach.Environmentalpsychologyhasyet to embrace a unifiedtheory.

2. Field research.Naturalsettings predominatedin empiricalresearch,whichusedmethodsrangingfrom systematicobservationandinterviewsto designinterventions and detailedcasestudies.Laboratoryexperimentsappearedlesscommonthan inthe past.

3. Cumulativeknowledge.Thoughsomestudiesrepresentedone-timeefforts,othersbuilt on previouswork. Examplesof cumulative researchincluded

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studiesof vulnerability to residentialburglariesandresponsesto environ-mentaldisaster.

4. Applied orientation.Environmentalpsychology kept a focuson designingsettings that promoteoccupants’ goals,often in environmentaldesignre-search.

5. Interdisciplinary collaboration. The field maintained its multidisciplinaryroots.Perhapsonly half of thestudiesin this reviewcamefrom university-basedresearchersin traditionaldepartmentsof psychology.

6. Cross-cultural focus. Environmental psychology maintained an interna-tional characterthrough data from a variety of culturesand a focus ofresearch on cross-culturaldifferences andcommonalties.

Future DirectionsIn theAnnualReviewof Psychologychapteron environmentalpsychologyin2002we expectto readthat trendsof 1989to 1994continued:Risingvolumeof researchin natural settings,integrationof researchand practice,greaterdiversity of researchersand settings. We hopeto readof advancesin threespecific areas:

1. Strongertheory.In the pastsix yearstheoriesbecamemoredifferentiatedand integrative,perhapsforming the basisfor a more unified theoreticalapproachto guide future researchand practice.Current theoriessuggestpotential elementsof a unified theory: systems principles; integration ofpsychological processeslike arousalandstresswith social-psychological,social,andculturalprocesses; ecologicalanalysis;and others.

2. Environmentaldesignresearch. Many classicstudiesof environmentalpsy-chology involved designexperiments,which we hopewill becomemorecommon. Suchprojectscould increasinglyserveboth the appliedandthescientific goals ofenvironmentalpsychology.

3. Casestudies.As the literatureof casestudiesanddesignexperimentsex-pands,the field needsmethodological conventions,a sharedvocabulary,andaccepted modelsfor reportingcasestudies. Wehope tosee progress onthesein the 2002review.

Any Annual Reviewchapter, aswell asany arti clecited in an Annual Reviewchapter,may bepurchased fromthe Annual ReviewsPreprints and Reprints service.

1-800-347-8007; 415-259-5017; email: [email protected]

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